Electromagnetic Waves 1

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Dr. rer. nat. Mohamed Mokhtar Faculty of Engineering and Technology

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Faraday Experiment

He started with a pair of metal spheres of different sizes;

the larger one consisted of two hemispheres that could be
assembled around the smaller sphere

+Q

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 Faraday Apparatus, Before Grounding

• The inner charge, Q, induces an equal and opposite

+Q
charge, -Q, on the inside surface of the outer sphere, by
attracting free electrons in the outer material toward the
positive charge.

• This means that before the outer sphere is grounded,

charge +Q resides on the outside surface of the outer
conductor.

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Faraday Apparatus, After Grounding

Attaching the ground connects the outer surface to an q=0

unlimited supply of free electrons, which then

neutralize the positive charge layer. The net charge
on the outer sphere is then the charge on the inner
layer, or -Q.
ground
attached

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 q=0
• Faraday concluded that there occurred a charge
“displacement” from the inner sphere to the outer
sphere.

• Displacement involves a flow or flux,  existing within

the dielectric, and whose magnitude is equivalent to the
amount of “displaced” charge.

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Electric flux density “D”: It is a vector field and it is measured in coulombs per
square meter (sometimes described as “lines per square meter,”

• The direction of D at a point is the direction of the flux

lines at that point, and the magnitude is given by the
number of flux lines crossing a surface normal to the q=0

lines divided by the surface area.

• A vector field is established which points in the

direction of the “flow” or displacement. In this case,
the direction is the outward radial direction in spherical
coordinates. At each surface, we would have:

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Point Charge Fields
If we now let the inner sphere radius reduce to a point, while maintaining the same charge, and let the
outer sphere radius approach infinity, we have a point charge. The electric flux density is unchanged,
but is defined over all space:

C/m2 (0 < r <∞ )

We compare this to the electric field intensity in free space:

V/m (0 < r <∞ )

..and we see that:

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FIELD OF A LINE CHARGE

Line charge of constant density L Coul/m lies along the entire z axis.

At point P, the electric field arising from

charge dQ on the z axis is:

where

and

so that

Therefore
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Gauss’ Law
“The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total
charge enclosed by that surface.”

We define the differential

surface area (a vector) as

where n is the unit outward

normal vector to the surface,
and where dS is the area of the
differential spot on the surface

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Mathematical Statement of Gauss’ Law

in which the charge can exist in the form of point charges:

or a continuous charge distribution:

Line charge:

Surface charge:

Volume charge:

For a volume charge, we would have:

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Applications of Gauss’s law:

❖The solution is easy if we are able to choose a closed surface which satisfies two
conditions:
1. DS is everywhere either normal or tangential to the closed surface, so that
DS · dS becomes either DS dS or zero, respectively.
2. On that portion of the closed surface for which DS · dS is not zero, DS =
constant.

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The integral now simplifies:

So that:

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Example 1 (Point Charge Field)

• We have a point charge Q at the origin of a spherical

coordinate system.

• Begin with the radial flux density:

• At the surface of the sphere:

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𝑄 = ∮s 𝐷𝑠 . dS = ∮ 𝐷𝑠 dS
s

= 𝐷𝑠 ∮s dS

𝜑=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋 2
= 𝐷𝑠 ‫=𝜑׬‬0 ‫=𝜃׬‬0 𝑟 sin 𝜃 d𝜃 𝑑𝜑

= 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐷𝑠 The surfaces have areas of r dr dθ, r sin θ

dr dφ, and r 2 sin θ dθ dφ, and the volume
is r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ
𝑄
and hence 𝐷𝑠 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
We had it before from faraday experiment !!!

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Example 2 (Line Charge Field)

• Consider a line charge of uniform charge density L on the z

axis that extends over the range −  z   

• We need to choose an appropriate Gaussian surface, being mindful of these

considerations:

1- With which coordinates does the field vary (or of what variables is D a
function)?
2- Which components of D are present?

We know from symmetry that the field will be radially-directed

(normal to the z axis) in cylindrical coordinates:

∴ 𝐷 = 𝐷𝜌 𝑎𝜌

So we choose a cylindrical surface of radius , and of length L.

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 By applying Gauss’s law

Then we can get:

Giving: So that
finally: Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew Sadiku

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Divergence and Maxwell’s First
Equation

Mathematically, this is:

Applying our previous result, we have:

div A =
Maxwell’s first equation
and when the vector field is the electric flux density:

= div D

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Divergence Expressions in the Three Coordinate
Systems

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Example 3.4

Find div D at the origin if D = e−x sin y ax − e−x cos y ay + 2zaz .

Answer:

𝜕𝐷𝑥 𝜕𝐷𝑦 𝜕𝐷𝑧

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐷 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

= − 𝑒 −𝑥 sin y + 𝑒 −𝑥 sin y + 2 = 2

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The Del Operator

The del operator is a vector differential operator, and is defined as:

Note that:

= = div D

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Divergence Theorem
We now have Maxwell’s first equation (or the point form of Gauss’ Law) which states:

and Gauss’s Law in large-scale form reads:

leading to the Divergence Theorem:

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Statement of the Divergence Theorem

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Thank you

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