Mr.

403

1. What is computer network? Write the history of the computer network.

A computer network is a group of computers that use a set of common communication
protocols over digital interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on or
provided by the network nodes.
The idea of ARPANET, one of the earliest computer networks, was proposed by Leonard
Kleinrock in 1961, in his paper titled "Information Flow in Large Communication Nets."
ARPANET was one of the first computer networks to use packet switching. Development
of ARPANET started in 1966, and the first two nodes, UCLA and SRI (Standford Research
Institute), were connected, officially started ARPANET in 1969. In 1969, the first four
nodes of the ARPANET were connected using 50k bit/s circuits between the University of
California at Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Institute, the University of California at
Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah. In the 1970s, Leonard Kleinrock carried out
mathematical work to model the performance of packet-switched networks, which
underpinned the development of the ARPANET. His theoretical work on hierarchical
routing in the late 1970s with student Farouk Kamoun remains critical to the operation of
the Internet today.

2. Define computer network. Explain different types of network topologies.

OR,
What is network topology? Explain different types of network topology.
A computer network is a group of computers that use a set of common communication
protocols over digital interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on or
provided by the network nodes.
The layout pattern of the interconnections between computers in a network is called
network topology. It is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting
various nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection. Different types of network
topologies are:
i. Bus Topology
Bus topology uses a single cable which connects all the included nodes. The main cable
acts as a spine for the entire network. One of the computer in the network acts as the
computer server. When it has two endpoints, it is known as a linear bus topology.

ii. Ring Topology

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In a ring topology, every device has exactly two neighboring devices for
communication purpose. It is called a ring topology as its formation is like a ring. In this
topology, every computer is connected to another computer. Here, the last node is
combined with a first one. This topology uses token to pass the information from one
computer to another. In this topology, all the messages travel through a ring in the same
direction.

iii. Star Topology

In the star topology, all the computers connect with the help of a hub. This cable is
called a central node, and all other nodes are connected using this central node. It is
most popular on LAN networks as they are inexpensive and easy to install.

iv. Hybrid Topology

Hybrid topology combines two or more topologies. You can see in the above
architecture in such a manner that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the
standard topologies. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic
network topologies are connected.
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v. Mesh Topology

The mesh topology has a unique network design in which each computer on the
network connects to every other. It is develops a P2P (point-to-point) connection
between all the devices of the network. It offers a high level of redundancy, so even if
one network cable fails, still data has an alternative path to reach its destination.

3. What is transmission media? What are different types of media? Explain.

A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e it is
the channel through which data is sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is
broadly classified into two types:

i. Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media

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It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. They are the cables that
are tangible or have physical existence and are limited by the physical geography. There
are 3 major types of Guided Media:
a. Twisted Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are
the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types,
Unshielded Twisted Pair and Shielded Twisted Pair.
b. Coaxial Cable
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a
separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two
modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable
bandwidth is split into separate ranges).
c. Optical Fiber Cable
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the
cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
ii. Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. These media are
not bounded by physical geography and No physical medium is required for the
transmission of electromagnetic signals. There are 3 types of Signals transmitted
through unguided media:
a. Radiowaves
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range: 3KHz – 1GHz.
b. Microwaves
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range: 1GHz – 300GHz.
c. Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems.
Frequency Range: 300GHz – 400THz.

4. Differentiate between connection oriented and connectionless services in computer

network.

Connection Oriented Service Connectionless Service

Connection-oriented is related to the Connectionless service is related to the
telephone system. postal system.

Connection-oriented service is preferred by Connection-less Service is preferred by

long and steady communication. burst communication.

It is necessary. It is not compulsory.

It is feasible. It is not feasible.
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In connection-oriented service, congestion In connectionless service, congestion is

is not possible. possible.

It gives the guarantee of reliability. It does not give the guarantee of reliability.
Here, packets follow the same route. Here, packets do not follow the same route.
Connection-oriented Services requires a Connection-less Service requires a
bandwidth of high range. bandwidth of low range.

5. What is connection oriented service? Explain features of TCP with its header format.
A connection-oriented service is a technique used to transport data at the session layer.
Unlike its opposite, connnectionless service, connection-oriented service requires that a
session connection be established between the sender and receiver, analogous to a phone
call. A connection-oriented service can be a circuit-switched connection or a virtual circuit
connection in a packet-switched network.
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the main protocols of the Internet
protocol suite. It originated in the initial network implementation in which it complemented
the Internet Protocol (IP). Features of TCP are:
i. TCP is reliable protocol.
ii. TCP ensures that the data reaches intended destination in the same order it was sent.
iii. TCP is connection oriented.
iv. TCP provides error-checking and recovery mechanism.
v. TCP provides end-to-end communication.
vi. TCP provides flow control and quality of service.
vii. TCP operates in Client/Server point-to-point mode.

The length of TCP header is minimum 20 bytes long and maximum 60 bytes.

a. Source Port (16-bits): It identifies source port of the application process on the sending
device.
b. Destination Port (16-bits): It identifies destination port of the application process on the
receiving device.
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c. Sequence Number (32-bits): Sequence number of data bytes of a segment in a session.

d. Acknowledgement Number (32-bits): When ACK flag is set, this number contains the
next sequence number of the data byte expected and works as acknowledgement of the
previous data received.
e. Data Offset (4-bits): This field implies both, the size of TCP header (32-bit words) and
the offset of data in current packet in the whole TCP segment.
f. Reserved (3-bits): Reserved for future use and all are set zero by default.
g. Flags (1-bit each): Used to indicate a particular state of connection.
h. Windows Size: This field is used for flow control between two stations and indicates the
amount of buffer (in bytes) the receiver has allocated for a segment, i.e. how much data
is the receiver expecting.
i. Checksum: This field contains the checksum of Header, Data and Pseudo Headers.
j. Urgent Pointer: It points to the urgent data byte if URG flag is set to 1.
k. Options: It facilitates additional options which are not covered by the regular header.
Option field is always described in 32-bit words. If this field contains data less than 32-
bit, padding is used to cover the remaining bits to reach 32-bit boundary.
6. Why do we use CSMA-CA instead of CSMA-CD? Explain different channel allocation
method.
CSMA-CA is effective before a collision but CSMA-CD is effective after a collision. As,
CSMA-CA is generally used in wireless networks and it minimizes the risk of collision, so
we use it instead of CSMA-CD.

Channel Allocation means to allocate the available channels to the cells in a cellular
system. When a user wants to make a call request then by using channel allocation
strategies their requests are fulfilled. Channel Allocation Strategies are designed in such a
way that there is efficient use of frequencies, time slots and bandwidth. Different channel
allocation method are:

i. Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA)

Fixed Channel Allocation is a strategy in which fixed number of channels or voice
channels are allocated to the cells. Once the channels are allocated to the specific cells
then they cannot be changed. In FCA channels are allocated in a manner that
maximize Frequency reuse.

ii. Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA)

Dynamic Channel allocation is a strategy in which channels are not permanently
allocated to the cells. When a User makes a call request then Base Station (BS) send
that request to the Mobile Station Center (MSC) for the allocation of channels or
voice channels. This way the likelihood of blocking calls is reduced. As traffic
increases more channels are assigned and vice-versa.
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iii. Hybrid Channel Allocation (HCA):

Hybrid Channel Allocation is a combination of both Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA)
and Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA). The total number of channels or voice
channels are divided into fixed and dynamic set. When a user make a call then first
fixed set of channels are utilized but if all the fixed sets are busy then dynamic sets are
used. The main purpose of HCA is to work efficiently under heavy traffic and to
maintain a minimum S/I.

7. Describe how CSMA-CD works.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA-CD) is a media access
control method used most notably in early Ethernet technology for local area networking. It
senses or listens whether the shared channel for transmission is busy or not, and defers
transmissions until the channel is free.

The algorithm of CSMA-CD is:

i. When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is idle or
busy.
ii. If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
iii. If the channel is idle, the station starts transmitting and continually monitors the channel
to detect collision.
iv. If a collision is detected, the station starts the collision resolution algorithm.
v. The station resets the retransmission counters and completes frame transmission.
8. Differentiate between CSMA-CA and CSMA-CD.

CSMA-CA CSMA-CD

CSMA/CA is effective before a CSMA/CD is effective after a

collision. collision.

CSMA/CA is generally used in CSMA/CD is generally used in wired

wireless networks. networks.

CSMA/CA minimizes the risk of CSMA/CD reduces recovery time.

collision.

CSMA/CA initially transmits the CSMA/CD resends the data frame in

intent to send the data, once an case a conflict occurs during
acknowledgment is received, the transmission.
sender sends the data.
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CSMA/CA is part of the IEEE 802.11 CSMA/CD is part of the IEEE 802.3
standard. standard.

CSMA/CA is similar in efficiency as CSMA/CD is more efficient than

CSMA. CSMA.

9. What is multiplexing? Describe time division and frequency division multiplexing

techniques.
Multiplexing is a method by which multiple analog or digital signals are combined into one
signal over a shared medium. It is used in cases where the signals of lower bandwidth and
the transmitting media is having higher bandwidth. There are two types of multiplexing:
Analog Multiplexing and Digital Multiplexing.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

In this, a number of signals are transmitted at the same time, and each source transfers its
signals in the allotted frequency range. There is a suitable frequency gap between the 2
adjacent signals to avoid over-lapping. Since the signals are transmitted in the allotted
frequencies so this decreases the probability of collision. The frequency spectrum is
divided into several logical channels, in which every user feels that they possess a
particular bandwidth. A number of signals are sent simultaneously at the same time
allocating separate frequency bands or channels to each signal. It is used in radio and TV
transmission. Therefore to avoid interference between two successive channels Guard
bands are used.

Time Division Multiplexing

This happens when data transmission rate of media is greater than that of the source, and
each signal is allotted a definite amount of time. These slots are so small that all
transmissions appear to be parallel. In frequency division multiplexing all the signals
operate at the same time with different frequencies, but in time division multiplexing all
the signals operate with same frequency at different times.

10. Explain about circuit switching and packet switching with a diagram.
OR,
Explain with illustration packet switching, circuit switching and virtual circuits.
Circuit switching is a switching method where an end-to-end path is created between two
stations within a network before starting the data transfer. Circuit switching method has a
fixed data rate and both the subscribers need to operate at this fixed rate. Circuit switching
is the simplest method of data communication where dedicated physical connections are
established between two individual senders and receiver. To create these dedicated
connections, a set of switches are connected by physical links. Circuit switching is
connection-oriented and has three phases: Circuit establishment, Transferring the data and
circuit disconnect.
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Packet switching is a connectionless network switching technique. Here, the message is

divided and grouped into a number of units called packets that are individually routed from
the source to the destination. There is no need to establish a dedicated circuit for
communication. In Packet switching, each data unit just know the final destination address
intermediate path is decided by the routers. In Packet switching, data is processed at all
intermediate node including source system.

Virtual Circuit is the computer network providing connection-oriented service. It is a

connection-oriented network. In virtual circuit resource are reserve for the time interval of
data transmission between two nodes. This network is a highly reliable medium of
transfer. Virtual circuits are costly to implement.
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11. Explain the merits of circuit switching over packet switching? Explain with example.
OR,
Differentiate between circuit switching and packet switching.

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

In circuit switching there are 3 phases: In Packet switching directly data transfer
i) Connection Establishment. takes place .
ii) Data Transfer.
iii) Connection Released.

In circuit switching, each data unit know In Packet switching, each data unit just
the entire path address which is provided know the final destination address
by the source. intermediate path is decided by the
routers.

In Circuit switching, data is processed at In Packet switching, data is processed at

source system only all intermediate node including source
system.

Delay between data units is uniform. Delay between data units is not uniform.

It is more reliable. It is less reliable.

It is not a store and forward technique. It is a store and forward technique.
Wastage of resources are more in Circuit Less wastage of resources as compared to
Switching Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is not convenient for Packet switching is suitable for handling
handling bilateral traffic. bilateral traffic.

12. What do you mean by framing? Describe various framing methods used in data link
layer.
Framing is a point-to-point connection between two computers or devices consists of a
wire in which data is transmitted as a stream of bits. A frame is a digital data
transmission unit in computer networking and telecommunication. A frame typically
includes frame synchronization features consisting of a sequence of bits or symbols that
indicate to the receiver the beginning and end of the payload data within the stream of
symbols or bits it receives.
Various framing methods used in data link layer are:
i. Fixed Size Framing
Here the size of the frame is fixed and so the frame length acts as delimiter of the frame.
Consequently, it does not require additional boundary bits to identify the start and end
of the frame. Example − ATM cells.
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ii. Variable Size Framing

Here, the size of each frame to be transmitted may be different. So additional
mechanisms are kept to mark the end of one frame and the beginning of the next frame.
It is used in local area networks. There are two ways to define frame delimiters in
variable sized framing are:
a. Length Field: Here, a length field is used that determines the size of the frame. It is
used in Ethernet (IEEE 802.3).
b. End Delimiter: Here, a pattern is used as a delimiter to determine the size of frame.
It is used in Token Rings. If the pattern occurs in the message, then two approaches
are used to avoid the situation.

13. What do you mean by error detection and correction? Explain with example how
checksum helps in error detection.
Error detection means detection or identification of errors. These errors may cause due to
noise or any other impairments during transmission from transmitter to the receiver, in
communication system. It is class of technique for detecting garbled i.e. unclear and
distorted data or message.
Error correction means correction or solving or fixing of errors. It simply means
reconstruction and rehabilitation of original data that is error-free. But error correction
method is very costly and is very hard.

For error detection by checksums, data is divided into fixed sized frames or segments.

i. Sender’s End

The sender adds the segments using 1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum. It then
complements the sum to get the checksum and sends it along with the data frames.

ii. Receiver’s End

The receiver adds the incoming segments along with the checksum using 1’s
complement arithmetic to get the sum and then complements it.

If the result is zero, the received frames are accepted; otherwise they are discarded.
Example: Suppose that the sender wants to send 4 frames each of 8 bits, where the frames
are 11001100, 10101010, 11110000 and 11000011.
The sender adds the bits using 1s complement arithmetic. While adding two numbers using
1s complement arithmetic, if there is a carry over, it is added to the sum.
After adding all the 4 frames, the sender complements the sum to get the checksum,
11010011, and sends it along with the data frames.
The receiver performs 1s complement arithmetic sum of all the frames including the
checksum. The result is complemented and found to be 0. Hence, the receiver assumes that
no error has occurred.
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14. What is error? Explain CRC with example.

Error is a situation when the sender's data does not match the data at the receiver's end.
When an error is detected then we need to retransmit the data.
CRC is a different approach to detect if the referred frame contains valid data or not. This
technique involves binary division of the date bits being sent. The divisor is generated using
polynomial. The sender performs a division operation on the bits being sent and calculates
the remainder. Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds the remainder at the end of
the actual bits. Actual bits plus the remainder which is called a codeword. The sender
transmits data bits as codeword.

15. What are the two most popular routing algorithms? Explain any one to calculate the
routing table.
Routing is a process which is performed by layer 3 (or network layer) devices in order to
deliver the packet by choosing an optimal path from one network to another. The two
most popular routing algorithms are:
i. Distance Vector Routing Algorithm
A distance-vector routing protocol in data networks is a dynamic algorithm which
determines the best route for data packets based on distance. Distance-vector routing
protocols measure the distance by the number of routers a packet has to pass, one router
counts as one hop. It uses UDP (User datagram protocol) for transportation.

ii. Link State Routing Algorithm

The Link state routing algorithm is also known as Dijkstra's algorithm which is used to
find the shortest path from one node to every other node in the network. While distance
vector routers use a distributed algorithm to compute their routing tables, link-state
routing uses link-state routers to exchange messages that allow each router to learn the
entire network topology.
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16. What is routing algorithm? Explain about distance vector routing algorithm.
A routing algorithm is a set of step-by-step operations used to direct Internet traffic
efficiently. When a packet of data leaves its source, there are many different paths it can
take to its destination. The routing algorithm is used to determine mathematically the best
path to take.
A distance-vector routing protocol in data networks is a dynamic algorithm which
determines the best route for data packets based on distance. Distance-vector routing
protocols measure the distance by the number of routers a packet has to pass, one router
counts as one hop. It uses UDP (User datagram protocol) for transportation. The three key
points to understand it are:
i. Share the gained knowledge about the entire network.
ii. Share information only to their neighbors.
iii.Share information in regular interval and when there is a change.

17. Explain link state routing algorithm.

A routing algorithm is a set of step-by-step operations used to direct Internet traffic
efficiently. When a packet of data leaves its source, there are many different paths it can
take to its destination. The routing algorithm is used to determine mathematically the best
path to take.
The Link state routing algorithm is also known as Dijkstra's algorithm which is used to find
the shortest path from one node to every other node in the network. While distance vector
routers use a distributed algorithm to compute their routing tables, link-state routing uses
link-state routers to exchange messages that allow each router to learn the entire network
topology. The main three key points for this algorithm are:
i. Share the knowledge of neighbors only.
ii. Share information to all routers present on the network.
iii. The information shares only when there is a change on the network.
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18. Differentiate between distance vector routing protocol and link state routing protocol.

Distance Vector Routing Protocol Link State Routing Protocol

Bellman-Ford algorithm is used for Dijsktra's algorithm is used for performing
performing distance vector routing the link state routing protocol.
protocol.
In distance vector routing the routers In link state routing the router receive
receive the topological information from complete information on the network
the neighbour point of view. topology.
It calculates the best route based on the It calculates the best route on the basis of
distance. least cost.
Distance vector routing updates full Link state routing updates only the link
routing table. state.
It update frequency periodically. It update frequency employs triggered
updates.

The utilization of CPU and memory is The utilization of CPU and memory is
lower. higher.

It is simple to implement and manage. It is complex and requires trained

network administrator.

The convergence time is slow, and it The convergence time is fast, and it is
usually suffers from count to infinity more reliable.
problem.
Distance vector doesn’t have hierarchical Link state routing can have a
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structure. hierarchical structure.

19. What is data communication? How does synchronous transmission differ from
asynchronous transmission? Explain.
Or,
Differentiate between synchronous transmission and asynchronous transmission.
Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more
computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that
allows computers to exchange data. The physical connection between networked computing
devices is established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-known
computer network is the Internet.
Synchronous transmission differ from asynchronous transmission by the following points:
i. In synchronous transmission, data is sent in form of blocks or frames but in
asynchronous transmission, data is sent in form of byte or character.
ii. Synchronous transmission is fast but asynchronous transmission is slow.
iii. Synchronous transmission is costly but asynchronous transmission is economical.
iv. In synchronous transmission, time interval of transmission is constant but in
asynchronous transmission, time interval of transmission is random.
v. In synchronous transmission, there is no gap present between data but in asynchronous
transmission, there is gap present between data.
vi. Efficient use of transmission line is done in synchronous transmission while in
asynchronous transmission, transmission line remains empty during gap in character
transmission.
vii. Synchronous transmission needs precisely synchronized clocks for the information of
new bytes but asynchronous transmission have no need of synchronized clocks as parity
bit is used in this transmission for information of new bytes.

OR,

Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

In synchronous transmission, data is sent In asynchronous transmission, data is sent
in form of blocks or frames. in form of byte or character.
It is fast and costly. It is slow and economical.
In synchronous transmission, time In asynchronous transmission, time
interval of transmission is constant. interval of transmission is random.
In synchronous transmission, there is no In asynchronous transmission, there is gap
gap present between data. present between data.

Efficient use of transmission line is done Transmission line remains empty

in synchronous transmission. during gap in character transmission
in asynchronous transmission.
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Synchronous transmission needs precisely Asynchronous transmission have no

synchronized clocks for the information need of synchronized clocks as parity
of new bytes. bit is used in this transmission for
information of new bytes.

20. Differentiate between TCP & UDP. Why UDP protocol is best suited for many
applications? List out the reasons.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. UDP is the Datagram oriented protocol.
TCP is reliable as it guarantees delivery of The delivery of data to the destination
data to the destination router. cannot be guaranteed in UDP.
TCP provides extensive error checking UDP has only the basic error checking
mechanisms. mechanism using checksums.
Sequencing of data is a feature of There is no sequencing of data in UDP.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

TCP is comparatively slower than UDP. UDP is faster, simpler and more efficient
than TCP.

Retransmission of lost packets is possible There is no retransmission of lost packets

in TCP, but not in UDP. in User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

TCP has a (20-80) bytes variable length UDP has a 8 bytes fixed length header.
header.
TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.
TCP doesn’t supports Broadcasting. UDP supports Broadcasting.
TCP is used by HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, UDP is used by DNS, DHCP, TFTP,
SMTP and Telnet. SNMP, RIP, and VoIP.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a communications protocol that is primarily used for
establishing low-latency and loss-tolerating connections between applications on the
internet. It speeds up transmissions by enabling the transfer of data before an agreement is
provided by the receiving party.

i. It allows packets to be dropped and received in a different order than they were
transmitted, making it suitable for real-time applications where latency might be a
concern.
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ii. It can be used for transaction-based protocols, such as DNS or Network Time Protocol
(NTP).

iii. It can be used where a large number of clients are connected and where real-time error
correction isn't necessary, such as gaming, voice or video conferencing, and streaming
media.

21. What is sliding window and error control in data link layer? Explain the techniques to
control the errors by ARQ.
A sliding window protocol is a feature of packet-based data transmission protocols. Sliding
window protocols are used where reliable in-order delivery of packets is required, such as
in the data link layer (OSI layer 2) as well as in the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

Error Control in the data link layer is a process of detecting and retransmitting the data
which has been lost or corrupted during the transmission of data. Any reliable system
must have a mechanism for detecting and correcting such errors. Error detection and
correction occur at both the transport layer and the data link layer.

The techniques to control the errors by ARQ are:

i. Stop and Wait ARQ

Stop and Wait ARQ mainly implements Sliding Window Protocol concept with
Window Size 1. It offers error and flow control. It is used in Connection-oriented
communication in Data Link and Transport Layers.

ii. Go-Back-N ARQ

In this protocol, if any frame is lost or corrupted then all the frames since the last
frame that was acknowledged are sent once again. The sender's window size is N but
the receivers window size is only one.

iii. Selective Repeat ARQ

In this ARQ, if any frame is lost or corrupted then only that frame is sent again which
has a negative acknowledgement. The sender’s window size and the receiver’s
window size is the same here.

22. What are the design issues for layers? Explain OSI reference model with diagram.
How different layers are interrelated to each other.

The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly
across multiple networks. The following are the design issues for the layers:
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i. Reliability
ii. Addressing
iii. Error Control
iv. Flow Control
v. Multiplexing and De-multiplexing
vi. Scalability
vii. Routing
viii. Confidentiality and Integrity

The open system interconnection (OSI) reference model is used for communication
between two or more heterogeneous computer system and makes a common general system
for all networking system at that time. It is just a framework designed for the computer
communication with 7 layers of operations, each have services, protocols and interface. The
first four layers are for the Kernel implementation and other three layers are for Application
implementation. The OSI is not popular due to the bad technology (extra layers) and bad
politics.

Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification. Each layer
communicates some information with the same layer's software or hardware on other
computers. In some cases, the other computer is connected to the same media; in other
cases, the other computer is on the other end of the network. When sending data, the
higher layers expect the lower layers to help deliver the data.

i. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node)
to the next. The physical layer transmits bits over medium; provides mechanical and
electrical specifications. Other responsibilities are:
a. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
b. Representation of bits
c. Define data rate or transmission rate
d. Synchronization of bits
e. Line configuration
f. Define the physical topology
g. Transmission mode

ii. Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible to organize bits into frames and moving these frames
from one hop (node) to the next over link, called node to node delivery or hop to hop
delivery. Other responsibilities are:
a. Framing
b. Physical addressing
c. Flow control
d. Error control
e. Access control

iii. Network Layer

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The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets or datagram from
the source host (physical device) to the destination host (physical device), called host to
host delivery. Other responsibilities are:
a. Logical addressing (IP)
b. Routing

iv. Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible to provide process-to-process message delivery and
error recovery. Other responsibilities are:
a. Service-point addressing (Port addressing)
b. Segmentation and reassembly
c. Connection control
d. Flow control
e. Error control

v. Session Layer
The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, manage, and terminate
sessions among communicating systems. Other responsibilities are:
a. Dialog control
b. Synchronization

vi. Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems. Other responsibilities are:
a. Translation
b. Encryption
c. Compression

vii. Application Layer

The application layer is responsible for providing services and allows network resources
to the user. It enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
Other responsibilities are:
a. Network virtual terminal
b. File transfer, access and management
c. Mail services
d. Directory services
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23. What is symmetric key cryptography? Explain with example.

Cryptography is technique of securing information and communications through use of
codes so that only those person for whom the information is intended can understand it
and process it.
Symmetric key cryptography is any cryptographic algorithm that is based on a shared key
that is used to encrypt or decrypt text/cipher text, in contract to asymmetric key
cryptography, where the encryption and decryption keys are different.

Some examples of symmetric encryption algorithms include:

i. AES (Advanced Encryption Standard)

ii. DES (Data Encryption Standard)

iii. IDEA (International Data Encryption Algorithm)

iv. Blowfish (Drop-in replacement for DES or IDEA)

v. RC4 (Rivest Cipher 4)

vi. RC5 (Rivest Cipher 5)

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vii. RC6 (Rivest Cipher 6)

AES, DES, IDEA, Blowfish, RC5 and RC6 are block ciphers. RC4 is stream cipher.

DES
In “modern” computing, DES was the first standardized cipher for securing electronic
communications, and is used in variations (e.g. 2-key or 3-key 3DES). The original DES is
not used anymore as it is considered too “weak”, due to the processing power of modern
computers.

AES
The most commonly used symmetric algorithm is the Advanced Encryption Standard
(AES), which was originally known as Rijndael. This is the standard set by the U.S.
National Institute of Standards and Technology in 2001 for the encryption of electronic data
announced in U.S. FIPS PUB 197.

24. What is network security? Differentiate between private key cryptography and public
key cryptography.
Network security is any activity designed to protect the usability and integrity of
your network and data. It includes both hardware and software technologies. It targets a
variety of threats. It stops them from entering or spreading on your network. Network
security consists of the policies, processes and practices adopted to prevent, detect and
monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of a computer network and
network-accessible resources.[1] Network security involves the authorization of access to
data in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator.

Private Key Cryptography Public Key Cryptography

It is faster than public key. It is slower than private key.
In this, same key and algorithm is used to In this, two keys are used, one key is used
encrypt and decrypt the message. for encryption and while the other is used
for decryption.

The key is kept as a secret. One of the two keys is kept as a secret.
It is symmetrical because there is only one It is asymmetrical because there are two
key that is called secret key. types of keys: Private and public key.

Here, sender and receiver need to share the Here, sender and receiver does not need to
same key. share the same key.
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25. What do you mean by network security? What are the different types of firewall used
in networks?
Network security is any activity designed to protect the usability and integrity of
your network and data. It includes both hardware and software technologies. It targets a
variety of threats. It stops them from entering or spreading on your network.
A firewall is a type of cyber security tool that is used to filter traffic on a network. Firewalls
can be used to separate network nodes from external traffic sources, internal traffic sources,
or even specific applications. Firewalls can be software, hardware, or cloud-based, with
each type of firewall having its own unique pros and cons. Different types of firewall used
in networks are:
i. Packet-filtering Firewalls
A packet-filtering firewall is a fast solution that doesn’t require a lot of resources.
However, it isn’t the safest.

ii. Circuit-Level Gateways

Circuit-level gateways are a type of firewall that work at the session layer of the OSI
model, observing TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) connections and sessions.

iii. Stateful Inspection Firewalls

A stateful inspection firewall keeps track of the state of a connection by monitoring the
TCP 3-way handshake.

iv. Proxy Firewalls

A proxy firewall serves as an intermediate device between internal and external systems
communicating over the Internet.

v. Next-Generation Firewalls
The next-generation firewall is a security device that combines a number of functions of
other firewalls.

vi. Software Firewalls

Software firewalls include any type of firewall that is installed on a local device rather
than a separate piece of hardware (or a cloud server).

vii. Hardware Firewalls

Hardware firewalls use a physical appliance that acts in a manner similar to a traffic
router to intercept data packets and traffic requests before they're connected to the
network's servers.

viii. Cloud Firewalls

A cloud firewall is a cloud solution for network protection.

26. What is physical and port addressing? Explain elements of transport layer.
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Physical addressing is used at Data Link Layer. A physical address refers to either a
memory location, identified in the form of a binary number, or a media access control
(MAC) address. It is also known as a binary address or a real address.
There are many application running on the computer. Each application run with a port
number (logically) on the computer. This port number for application is decided by the
kernel of the operating system. This port number is called port addressing.
The transport layer is responsible to provide process-to-process message delivery and error
recovery. Other responsibilities are:
i. Service-point addressing (Port addressing)
From one process or running program to another.

ii. Segmentation and reassembly

A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment containing a
sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to indentify and replace
packets that were lost in transmission.

iii. Connection control

Connectionless (store and forward concept like postal system) or connection-
oriented (direct connection established, uses the connection and release the
connection like the telephone system).

iv. Flow control

It performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.

v. Error control
It performed process-to-process rather than across a single link.

27. Explain HUB, switch, bridge and router.

A hub is a physical layer networking device which is used to connect multiple devices in a
network. They are generally used to connect computers in a LAN. A hub has many ports in
it. A computer which intends to be connected to the network is plugged in to one of these
ports. When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to every other port, without
considering whether it is destined for a particular destination or not.
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A switch is a data link layer networking device which connects devices in a network and uses
packet switching to send and receive data over the network. Like a hub, a switch also has
many ports, to which computers are plugged in. However, when a data frame arrives at any
port of a network switch, it examines the destination address and sends the frame to the
corresponding device(s). Thus, it supports both unicast and multicast communications.

A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of
filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It is also used
for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and
single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
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A router is hardware device designed to receive, analyze and move incoming packets to
another network. It may also be used to convert the packets to another network
interface, drop them, and perform other actions relating to a network.

28. What is protocol? Explain LAN, MAN and WAN in detail.

A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is transmitted
between different devices in the same network. Essentially, it allows connected devices to
communicate with each other, regardless of any differences in their internal processes,
structure or design.

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal
computer and workstations can share data, tools and programs. The group of computers
and devices are connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private
addressing scheme as defined by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in
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relation to other computers on the local network. Routers are found at the boundary of a
LAN, connecting them to the larger WAN.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN or Metropolitan Area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller
area as compared to WAN. It connects two or more computers that are apart but resides
in the same or different cities. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an
ISP (Internet Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need a high-speed
connectivity. Speeds of MAN ranges in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a
Metropolitan Area Network.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large
geographical area, although
ugh it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. A WAN could be a
connection of LAN connecting to other LAN’s via telephone lines and radio waves and
may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the
public. The technology is high speed and relatively expensive.

29. Explain guided and unguided media and their types.

OR,
Differentiate between guided and unguided media.

Guided Media Unguided Media

Guided media uses a physical path or Unguided media broadcast the signals
conductor to transmit the signals. through air.

In guided media, transmitted data travels In unguided media, transmitted data travels
through cabling system that has a fixed through free space in form of
path. electromagnetic signal.

It is also called wired communication or It is also called unwired communication or

bounded transmission media. unbounded transmission media.
It provide direction to the signal. It does not direct the signal.
Discrete network topologies are formed by Continuous network topologies are formed
the guided media. by the unguided media.
By adding more wires, the transmission It is not possible to obtain additional
capacity can be increased in guided media. capacity in unguided media.
Examples of guided media are twisted pair Examples of unguided media are
wires, coaxial cables, optical fiber cables. microwave or radio links and infrared
light.
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30. What is NAT? Explain how does DNS work?

OR,
What is DNS? Why it is needed? Explain how does it work?

Network Address Translation (NAT) is a method of remapping an IP address space into

another by modifying network address information in the IP header of packets while they
are in transit across a traffic routing device. The technique was originally used to avoid the
need to assign a new address to every host when a network was moved, or when the
upstream Internet Service Provider was replaced, but could not route the networks address
space. It has become a popular and essential tool in conserving global address space in the
face of IPv4 address exhaustion. One Internet-routable IP address of a NAT gateway can be
used for an entire private network.
DNS is a host name to IP address translation service. DNS is a distributed database
implemented in a hierarchy of name servers. It is an application layer protocol for
message exchange between clients and servers. The Domain Name System resolves the
names of internet sites with their underlying IP addresses adding efficiency and even
security in the process. At its most basic, DNS is a directory of names that match with
numbers. The numbers, in this case are IP addresses, which computers use to communicate
with each other. The working of DNS:

i. DNS is a client/server network communication protocol. DNS clients send requests to

the. server while DNS servers send responses to the client.

ii. Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP address known as a forward
DNS lookups while requests containing an IP address which is converted into a name
known as reverse DNS lookups.

iii. DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all the hosts available on the
internet.

iv. If a client like a web browser sends a request containing a hostname, then a piece of
software such as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS server to obtain the IP address
of a hostname. If DNS server does not contain the IP address associated with a hostname,
then it forwards the request to another DNS server. If IP address has arrived at the
resolver, which in turn completes the request over the internet protocol.

31. What is PPP? List features with frame format.

Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) is a communication protocol of the data link layer that is
used to transmit multiprotocol data between two directly connected (point-to-point)
computers. It is a byte - oriented protocol that is widely used in broadband communications
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having heavy loads and high speeds. Since it is a data link layer protocol, data is transmitted
in frames. It is also known as RFC 1661.
PPP is a byte - oriented protocol where each field of the frame is composed of one or more
bytes. The fields of a PPP frame are:

i. Flag: 1 byte that marks the beginning and the end of the frame. The bit pattern of the flag
is 01111110.
ii. Address: 1 byte which is set to 11111111 in case of broadcast.
iii. Control: 1 byte set to a constant value of 11000000.
iv. Protocol: 1 or 2 bytes that define the type of data contained in the payload field.
v. Payload: This carries the data from the network layer. The maximum length of the
payload field is 1500 bytes. However, this may be negotiated between the endpoints of
communication.
vi. FCS: It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection. The standard code
used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)

32. What do you mean by congestion in network? How congestion occurs in network?
Network congestion in data networking is the reduced quality of service that occurs when
a network node or link is carrying more data than it can handle. Congestion control refers to
the mechanisms and techniques to control the congestion and keep the load below the
capacity.
Congestion in a network may occur if the load on the network-the number of packets sent to
the network-is greater than the capacity of the network-the number of packets a network
can handle. Congestion can occur due to the following causes:

i. Outdated or non-compatible hardware

Every so often, your network team will have to upgrade network capacity and speeds in
order to match your enterprise’s demands. If your team doesn’t upgrade its hardware
along with it, you could be opening the door to bottlenecks. Whenever possible, your
team should upgrade your switches, servers, routers, etc. to have the most optimal
hardware layout.

ii. Too many devices

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Every network has a specific level of capacity that it’s able to handle. This capacity puts
a limit on how much bandwidth and traffic your network can deal with before it begins
to affect performance.

iii. Bandwidth hogs

A bandwidth hog is a device or user that, either accidentally or on purpose, consumes
much more data than other devices. Depending on the device/user, the difference
between average data usage and the hog’s usage can be minor or significant.

iv. Poor network design and subnets

Sometimes, the congestion is the fault of how your network is designed. Your network
layout needs to be optimized to ensure every part of your network is connected, but also
to maximize performance across every area of coverage. When you divide your network
into subnets, it should be done to accommodate for the devices you know will be on the
network.

33. Describe Leaky Bucket and Token Bucket used in congestion control.
A state occurring in network layer when the message traffic is so heavy that it slows down
network response time. There are two congestion control algorithm as:

The Leaky Bucket Algorithm

If a bucket has a small hole at the bottom, the water leaks from the bucket at a constant rate
as long as there is water in the bucket. The rate at which the water leaks does not depend on
the rate at which the water is input to the bucket unless the bucket is empty. The input rate
can vary, but the output rate remains constant. Similarly, in networking, a technique called
leaky bucket can smooth out bursty traffic. Bursty chunks are stored in the bucket and sent
out at an average rate. It is implemented as a single-serve queue with constant service time.
If the bucket (buffer) overflows then packets are discarded.

Token Bucket Algorithm

The token bucket algorithm allows idle hosts to accumulate credit for the future in the form
of tokens. The token bucket can easily be implemented with a counter. the token is
initialized to zero. Each time a token is added, the counter is incremented by 1. each time a
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unit of data is sent, the counter is decremented by 1. When the counter is zero, the host
cannot send data.

34. Explain bandwidth? Why higher bandwidth cause faster network connection. Explain
with example.
In computing, bandwidth is the maximum rate of data transfer across a given path.
Bandwidth is often mistaken for internet speed when it's actually the volume of information
that can be sent over a connection in a measured amount of time, calculated in megabits per
second (Mbps).

The more bandwidth a computer has, the faster it can send and receive information.
Bandwidth is a measure of how much data can be transferred from one point in a network
to another within a specific amount of time. Your actual bandwidth will often be less than
your maximum bandwidth because of network congestion and other external factors.
Having a higher bandwidth means you will be able to achieve a higher data transfer rate
which in turn leads to shorter download times. This is especially significant when
downloading large files. Here's a look at how long it takes to download the 383 MB
Maple Story game client.

Broadband Service Estimated Download Time

56 kbps dial-up 900 mins

512kbps 100 mins

30 Mbps (30,000 kbps) 2 mins

35. Why MAC address is necessary? Differentiate it with IP address.

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A media access control address (MAC address) is a unique identifier assigned to a network
interface controller (NIC) for use as a network address in communications within a network
segment.
MAC address is necessary because network cards each have a unique MAC address.
Packets that are sent on the ethernet are always coming from a MAC address and sent to a
MAC address. If a network adapter is receiving a packet, it is comparing the packet’s
destination MAC address to the adapter’s own MAC address. If the addresses match, the
packet is processed, otherwise it is discarded.

MAC Address IP Address

MAC Address stands for Media Access IP Address stands for Internet Protocol
Control Address. Address.
MAC Address is of six byte hexadecimal IP Address is of 4 bytes (IPv4) or of 16
address. bytes (IPv6).
MAC Address can be retrieved using ARP IP Address can be retrieved using RARP
protocol. protocol.
Chip maker manufacturer provides the Internet Service Provider, ISP provides the
MAC Address IP Address.
MAC Address ensure that physical address IP Address is a logical address of the
of the computer is unique. computer.
MAC Address operates in the data link IP Address operates in the network layer.
layer.
MAC Address helps in simply IP Address identifies the connection of the
indentifying the device. device on the network.

36. Explain the process of configuring computers in LAN. Define DHCP.

A local area network (LAN) is a collection of devices connected together in one physical
location, such as a building, office, or home. The process of configuring computers in LAN
are:
i. Identify the local services that you want available on the network.
ii. Identify how many devices will have to connect to the network.
iii. Run cables to workstations where possible.
iv. Select and purchase a switch or cable router.
v. Configure the WAN port of the cable router.
vi. Configure the LAN ports of your cable router.
vii. Connect the wires for the network.
viii. Test the services and Internet connectivity.

The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network management protocol used
on Internet Protocol (IP) local area networks. A DHCP server must be present on the
network. A device connected to the network requests an IP address from the DHCP server
using the DHCP protocol.
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An IP address can be defined as a unique numeric identifier (address) that is assigned to

each computer operating in a TCP/IP based network. Manually configuring thousands of
workstations with unique IP addresses would be a time consuming and cumbersome
experience. The DHCP is a service that assigns the IP address to different machines.

37. What is analog and digital transmission? Explain its importance in communication.
An analog or analogue transmission is also referred as analog signal. It is a continuous
signal in which one time-varying quantity represents another time-based variable. These
kind of signals works with physical values and natural phenomena such as earthquake,
frequency, volcano, speed of wind, weight, lighting, etc. Its importance in communication
are:

i. These type of electronic signals are time-varying

ii. Minimum and maximum values which is either positive or negative.
iii. It can be either periodic or non-periodic.
iv. Analog Signal works on continuous data.
v. The accuracy of the analog signal is not high when compared to the digital signal.
vi. It helps you to measure natural or physical values.
vii. Analog signal output form is like Curve, Line, or Graph, so it may not be meaningful to
all.

A digital signal is a signal that is used to represent data as a sequence of separate values at
any point in time. It can only take on one of a fixed number of values. This type of signal
represents a real number within a constant range of values. Its importance in communication
are:

i. Digital signal are continuous signals

ii. This type of electronic l signals can be processed and transmitted better compared to
analog signal.
iii. Digital signals are versatile, so it is widely used.
iv. The accuracy of the digital signal is better than that of the analog signal.

38. List out the advantages of digital transmission over analog transmission.

Advantages of digital transmission over analog transmission are:

i. The primary advantage of digital transmission over analog transmission is noise

immunity.
ii. Digital circuits are more reliable.
iii. Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
iv. The hardware implementation in digital circuits, is more flexible than analog.
v. The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.
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vi. The signal is un-altered as the pulse needs a high disturbance to alter its properties,
which is very difficult.
vii. Signal processing functions such as encryption and compression are employed in digital
circuits to maintain the secrecy of the information.
viii. The probability of error occurrence is reduced by employing error detecting and error
correcting codes.

39. How encrypted connection works? Difference HTTPS with HTTP.

Encryption is a process that encodes a message or file so that it can be only be read by
certain people. Encryption uses an algorithm to scramble, or encrypt, data and then uses a
key for the receiving party to unscramble, or decrypt, the information. The message
contained in an encrypted message is referred to as plaintext. In its encrypted, unreadable
form it is referred to as ciphertext.

HTTPS HTTP
It is hypertext transfer protocol with secure. It is hypertext transfer protocol.
It is designed to prevent hackers from It is less secure as the data can be
accessing critical information. It is secure vulnerable to hackers.
against such attacks.

It uses port 443 by default. It uses port 80 by default.

HTTPs URLs begin with https:// HTTP URLs begin with http://
If the website needs to collect the private It's a good fit for websites designed for
information such as credit card number, information consumption like blogs.
then it is a more secure protocol.

HTTPS scrambles the data before HTTP does not scramble the data to be
transmission. transmitted.
It operates using HTTP but uses encrypted It operates at TCP/IP level.
TLS/SSL connection.
HTTPS website requires SSL certificate HTTP website do not need SSL and also
and use data encryption. doesn't use data encryption.
HTTPS helps to improve search ranking. HTTP does not improve search rankings.

40. What is Subnetting and Supernetting?

Sub netting is the practice of dividing a network into two or more smaller networks. It
increases routing efficiency, enhances the security of the network and reduces the size of
the broadcast domain.
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Supernetting is opposite of subnetting. In Supernetting, multiple networks are combined

into a bigger network termed as a Supernetwork or Supernet. Supernetting is mainly used
in Route Summarization, where routes to multiple networks with similar network
prefixes are combined into a single routing entry, with the routing entry pointing to a
Super network, encompassing all the networks.