Managing Human Resource Development A Strategic Learning Approac - Nodrm

MANAGING HUMAN RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
A STRATEGIC LEARNING APPROACH
Fifth Edition
MANAGING HUMAN RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
A STRATEGIC LEARNING APPROACH
Fifth Edition
Editor
Marius Meyer
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First Edition 1999
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Fifth Edition 2016
ISBN 978 0 409 12568 9
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Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that the information published in this work is accurate, the editors,
publishers and printers take no responsibility for any loss or damage suffered by any person as a result of the reliance
upon the information contained therein.
ABOUT THE EDITOR
Marius Meyer is CEO of the HR professional and quality assurance body, the SA Board
for People Practices (SABPP). He has a master’s degree in human resource management
and is a registered master human resource professional and mentor with the SABPP.
Marius facilitates training and organisation development interventions in the areas of
global and strategic HR/HRD, leadership development, mentoring, corporate governance,
ethics and quality improvement and is a regular speaker at corporate meetings and local
and international conferences. Before accepting a lecturing position, Marius was em-
ployed as a training practitioner. He has lectured at the University of South Africa and
University of Johannesburg and lectures at several other universities such as North-West
University. Marius developed the first bachelor’s and master’s degrees in human resource
development offered at a university of technology in South Africa. He is also a member
of the Talent Advisory Board of the University of South Africa, as well as Partners for
Possibility, an initiative to improve education in underperforming schools.
Marius has written numerous articles in the field of human resource management and
development and is author or co-author of the following books:
• Organisation Development and Transformation in South Africa
• ETD Practices in South Africa
• Occupationally-directed Education Training and Development Practices
• All About Human Capital Management
• Measuring Return on Investment in Training
• Effective Facilitation: Guidelines for Managers, Trainers and Consultants
• Organisation Development Nuts and Bolts Series
• Introduction to Human Resource Management
• Mentoring and Coaching: Tools and Techniques for Implementation
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vi Managing Human Resource Development
• Measuring the ROI in Mentoring and Coaching Programmes

• Integrating Training Needs Analysis, Assessment and Evaluation
Marius has a passion for people development, change management, mentoring, business
ethics and world-class management and has facilitated interventions for more than a hun-
dred companies. He is also a managing member of ROI Online, the first South African
specialist company to measure the financial impact of HRD interventions, and Lemar
Consulting specialising in mentoring programmes.
Under his leadership, SABPP developed the first set of National HR Standards in the
world, as well as an audit framework to audit organisations against these standards.
Moreover, the Minister of Justice approved SABPP registered HR professionals as Ex-
Officio Commissioners of Oaths in 2015.
In addition, Marius is an advisory editor of two HR magazines, HR Voice as well as
South Africa’s first Talent Management publication, Talent Talks.
He is happily married to his lovely wife, Hanlie, and has one daughter, Nadia.
THE AUTHORS
Melanie Bushney Associate Professor in Human Resource Development, University of

South Africa
Moira Katz Managing Director, Kavan Africa Consultants
Georg Knoke Education and Communications Expert
John Ludike Independent Talent Management Specialist
Marius Meyer Chief Executive Officer, SA Board for People Practices
Marjon Meyer Managing Director, Marjon Meyer & Associates
Belia Nel Managing Director, ImprovID
Heinz Schenk Associate Professor: Human Resource Management, University of South
Africa
Stan Smith Human Resource Manager, Transnet
Robyn Wolfson People Development Consultant, This Way Up
vii
FOREWORD
In this day and age, in a world where chaos and uncertainty reign, the ability to learn from
experienced human resource and business experts has never been more prevalent. People
that have attempted to work it out in the midst of constant change and in a workplace that
demands critical thinking skills at its best, is certainly the order of the day. Therefore the
sharing of people’s experiences, through journeys of both success and challenges, is why
this book is so appropriate for human resource experts that need to function in a 21st
century workplace.
The authors of Managing Human Resource Development have attempted to scan the
horizon of international best practices in the field of human resource development.
Many of the concepts emanate from work initiated through research by the leading
international institution in the field of workplace learning, the Association for Talent
Development (ATD) and, in the local context, the African Society for Talent Devel-
opment (ASTD). Now with the fifth edition, the content of the book has already been
tested as relevant to the training industry in subsequent annual ASTD State of the
South African Training Industry Benchmarking Reports. The authors have attempted
to portray new scenarios and applications of these international best practices for
forward-looking local companies aspiring to become global players.
These scenarios deal with coping mechanisms pertaining to employment equity,
transparency, intellectual capital, electronic learning, mentoring and coaching and a
diversity of elements, which exceed challenges that no other country on the globe
could envisage. Even our education paradigms are switching from knowledge-based
to outcomes-based learning, which is a more focused and pragmatic solution for
education, training and development today. The authors have identified international
best practices and integrated them into the principles of the National Qualifications
Framework and South African Qualifications Authority requirements, and also
aligned with the National Skills Development Strategy. Furthermore, the incorpora-
tion of HR and learning and development standards have been included in this edition
of the book; the first HR standards in the world, adding significantly to the quality
and cadre of this learning resource.
Managing Human Resource Development proves that the phenomenal growth in the
science and practice of talent management has opened new opportunities for the
authors in providing a unique African perspective to talent development – uniqueness
coupled with a complexity like no other, infused with lessons that all organisations
around the globe can learn from.
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In conclusion, this book is a definite enabler and a practical tool that will aid any per-
son dealing with people in a modern working environment. The specific nuances that talk
to a South African context are very relevant and fit for purpose, with the book enlighten-
ing one through the case studies, reflective questions, useful websites and suggested
reading resources. This is proof that we all need to be continuous learners in this modern
day with vibrant learning resources such as this, enabling and developing any audience.
I love the African proverb that says: “If a child washes his hands, he can eat with
kings”. If we all do our part, we can make a significant difference to this country and the
continent at large. Yes, South Africa can be a great nation because we have the greatest
people!
URSULA FEAR
Director: Talent Talks
PREFACE
It is widely acknowledged that human resource development in South Africa has been
seriously neglected. However, legislation aimed at human resource development, such as
the Skills Development Act, Employment Equity Act, Broad-Based Black Economic Em-
powerment Act and the National Qualifications Framework Act will ensure that profound
changes take place.
The education, training and development system in South Africa embraces a national
skills development approach to human resource development. When new strategic learn-
ing approaches and the NQF were introduced across all industries, an attempt was made
to address the need for practical guidelines to assist human resource development profes-
sionals in adapting to this new education and training paradigm.
Equally focused on the learner and training professional, Managing Human Resource
Development examines the essential aspects of the theory and practice of managing
human resource development from a strategic learning approach. This means that the
reader will be able to implement certain human resource development interventions after
each chapter. In the light of the fast-changing business environment, a comprehensive list
of internet and other sources is provided, to assist readers in accessing a particular area of
interest to them.
Everyone responsible for the development of people needs to acquire a far higher level
of analytical, problem-solving and creative skills – precisely the skills that this book seeks
to stimulate and develop. Human resource development practitioners should first become
learners before they can begin the important process of developing the nation’s human
resources.
To enhance competence in the field of human resource development, international best
practices have been identified, primarily by considering the international trends identified
by the Association for Talent Development (ATD) in the USA and the Chartered Institute
of Personnel and Development in the UK. These trends have been integrated with the local
requirements of the NQF from a strategic learning perspective.
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xii Managing Human Resource Development
I thank all those companies and managers who were willing to share their experiences
with us and allowed us to include this information in the book. Thank you, too, to all the
HRD academics, consultants and practitioners for their wonderful support, ideas and
encouragement. You have clearly shown your commitment to the development of the
people of South Africa. In particular, I would like to acknowledge the following individu-
als for their support:
• Amanda Werner, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
• Andrew Zondi, Training Force
• Angela Donnelly, RMB Private Bank
• Annette Bredenkamp, Compliance Institute
• Anthea Saffy, Anglo Platinum
• Anton Pelser, Central University of Technology, Free State
• Barney Erasmus, University of South Africa
• Braam Rust, Cape Peninsula University of Technology
• Buyani Zwane, Talent Talks
• Charlotte Mokoena, Tongaat Hulett
• Chris Andrews, Bond University (Australia)
• Chris Botha, Tshwane University of Technology
• Christopher Tshilongamulenzhe, University of South Africa
• Christine Fritz, BANKSETA
• Dean Retief, Nedbank
• Diederick Stoel, Profitwise, The Netherlands
• Dirk Lotriet, Haldron Marketing
• Elizabeth Dhlamini-Kumalo, HR Governance Working Group
• Esther Palmer, Central University of Technology, Free State
• Fathima Mahomed, Vaal University of Technology
• Firoza Patel, University of South Africa
• Fortunate Seketso, Institute of People Management (Zimbabwe)
• Gert Kriel, First National Bank
• Guy Blackbeard, Emergence Growth
• Hanneli Diedericks, University of South Africa
• Heinz Schenk, University of South Africa
• Irene James, Dionysus Skills Development Initiative
• Jan Nel, University of Free State
• Jean Grundling, University of the Free State
• Johan Möller, University of South Africa
• Karel Stanz, University of Pretoria
• Karin Jonck, Cape Peninsula University of Technology
• Kate Tucker, Syngenta
• Lathasha Subban, SA Board for People Practices
• Lazarus Nenungwi, University of South Africa
• Leon Fourie, South African Navy
Preface xiii
• Leonie van der Vaart, North-West University

• Liiza Gie, Cape Peninsula University of Technology
• Lyal Markham, University of Free State
• Lydia Cilliers-Schmidt, Talent Hub
• Lynette Naidoo, University of South Africa
• Marica Richter, Braxton Group
• Marius Stander, Northwest University
• Mark Orpen, Institute of People Development
• Melanie Bushney, University of South Africa
• Michael Glensor, Liviero Civils
• Michelle Ally, University of Johannesburg
• Michelle Mey, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
• Miemsie de Jager, Sereni-T
• Mike Stuart, The Skills Handbook
• Naren Vassan, SA Board for People Practices
• Nico Schutte, North-West University
• Nicolene Barkhuizen, North-West University
• Paul Poisat, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
• Penny Abbott, SA Board for People Practices
• Peter Cheese, Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (UK)
• Petrus Nel, University of Free State
• Philip Marsh, Mentoring4Success
• Pierre Joubert, Vaal University of Technology
• Renjini Joseph, University of Johannesburg
• Rina Opperman, ROI Online
• Roy Braxton, Braxton Group
• Sakkie van Greunen, University of Pretoria
• Sam Setati, University of Venda
• Shamila Singh, SA Board for People Practices
• Shirley Zinn, Woolworths
• Siegie Brownlee, Regenesys Business School
• Sindiswa Majova, Walter Sisulu University
• Siphiwe Moyo, SA Board for People Practices
• Spuds Horne, Walter Sisulu University
• Stan Smith, Transnet
• Sue de Waal, Talent Talks
• Suzanne Hattingh, Learning for Performance
• Terry Meyer, Leadership SA
• Theo Veldsman, University of Johannesburg
• Tobie Engelbrecht, independent ETD consultant
• Ursula Fear, Talent Talks
• Yvonne Poolman, Cape Peninsula University of Technology
xiv Managing Human Resource Development
• Wilhelm Crous, Knowledge Resources

• Wilson Wong, Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (UK)
• Xolani Mawande, SA Board for People Practices
The fifth edition of Managing Human Resource Development represents an update on
NQF and QCTO developments according to the latest international trends and HRD
developments. An exciting development since the publication of the fourth edition of this
book is SAQA’s registration of professional bodies and professional designations in
accordance with the NQF Act. In practice this means that all qualifying professional
readers and students of this book may be formally registered as HR professionals accord-
ing to the NQF Act and thus be uploaded by SABPP on the National Learners’ Records
Database at SAQA. Furthermore, now that HR professionals registered with SABPP has
been approved as Ex-officio Commissioners of Oaths by the Minister of Justice, the
significance of HR work has been accepted by another government department and
further paves the way for the statutory recognition of HR as a profession. Moreover, since
the previous edition of this book, South Africa became the first country in the world with
National HR standards. These HR standards, and the learning and development standards
in particular, are now covered in this new edition to ensure that HR students and practi-
tioners are updated with the context and application of the HR standards. I want to thank
the more than 500 HR Managers who contributed to the development of these standards.
Their input have now been incorporated into this book which, in essence, means that this
edition has more than 500 authors! As world leaders in HR standards development, we
now need to build on this great achievement by improving our professional practice by
eliminating the biggest gap in both the private and public sectors, that is to say the strategy-
execution gap.
I wish to thank my co-authors for their excellent contributions. The staff of LexisNexis
also deserve a special word of thanks for their diligent assistance, support and service.
I hope that you find this book useful and that you also experience a sense of achieve-
ment when you are contributing to the growth and development of people. We have to
accelerate the process of learning and human resource development if we, as South Afri-
cans, Namibians, Zimbabweans and citizens of other developing nations, want to improve
our competitiveness in the global business environment.
I invite readers to send me their comments about the book, case studies and suggestions
for improvement for the sixth edition in 2020 by e-mail at [email protected] or by
connecting with me on Twitter, @MariusSABPP or @SABPP1 or Instagram on
@sabpp_1. In this way you are not only passive readers or students of the field of HRD,
you are extending your learning network and impact by being connected on a daily basis
via our smart phones. I look forward to be engaged and connected with you as we practice
our HRD work with the highest level of professionalism as life-long HRD students and
practitioners.
MARIUS MEYER
CEO: SA Board for People Practices (SABPP)
CONTENTS
Page
About the editor ........................................................................................................... v
The authors ................................................................................................................... vii
Foreword ...................................................................................................................... ix
Preface .......................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN RESOURCE

DEVELOPMENT.................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1
1.2 International trends in HRD .............................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Globalisation ...................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Strategic HRD and talent management .............................................. 3
1.2.3 Electronic, mobile and social learning ............................................... 3
1.2.4 Management and leadership development ......................................... 3
1.2.5 Performance consulting ..................................................................... 4
1.2.6 Career and performance management ............................................... 4
1.2.7 Proactive needs identification ............................................................ 4
1.2.8 Training design .................................................................................. 4
1.2.9 Evaluation of training ........................................................................ 5
1.2.10 Employment equity and diversity training......................................... 5
1.2.11 Learning organisation ........................................................................ 5
1.3 Local trends in HRD ......................................................................................... 5
1.3.1 Training legislation ............................................................................ 6
1.3.2 ETD practices..................................................................................... 6
1.3.3 HR and L&D standards...................................................................... 8
1.4 Integrating ETD, L&D and HRD...................................................................... 8
1.5 Principles underlying the development of L&D practitioners .......................... 10
1.6 Outcomes-based education (OBE) .................................................................... 11
1.7 Company example ............................................................................................. 13
1.8 An integrated framework for HRD ................................................................... 19
1.9 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 20
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1.10 Case study ......................................................................................................... 20
1.11 Self-assessment questions ................................................................................. 21
1.12 References ......................................................................................................... 22
1.13 Suggested reading ............................................................................................. 22
1.14 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 23
1.15 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................... 23
Chapter 2 HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT LEGISLATION ............ 25

2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 25
2.2 Origin of the Skills Development Strategy and the NQF ................................. 26
2.3 The strategic intent of the Skills Development Strategy .................................. 26
2.4 Relationship to other skills and labour policy initiatives .................................. 27
2.5 The National Qualifications Framework Act (2008) ........................................ 27
2.5.1 The strategy underpinning the NQF .................................................. 28
2.5.2 Intended transformation through the NQF ........................................ 29
2.6 Establishment and composition of the SAQA .................................................. 29
2.7 SAQA’s functions in terms of the NQF Act ..................................................... 29
2.7.1 Quality councils ................................................................................. 30
2.7.2 Professional bodies ............................................................................ 30
2.8 Principles of the NQF ....................................................................................... 30
2.9 The NQF as a transformation mechanism......................................................... 31
2.10 The description of “competence” ...................................................................... 31
2.10.1 Expanding descriptions of competence ............................................. 31
2.10.2 Different kinds of competence ........................................................... 32
2.10.3 Competence ........................................................................................ 33
2.11 Standardising concepts and terms ..................................................................... 33
2.11.1 A standard format for describing competence ................................... 33
2.11.2 Generic abilities (“critical cross-field outcomes”) ............................ 33
2.11.3 Credits assigned to unit standards...................................................... 34
2.11.4 Standardised levels............................................................................. 34
2.11.5 Level descriptors ................................................................................ 35
2.12 The relationship between standards and qualifications .................................... 38
2.13 Rules of combination ........................................................................................ 38
2.14 Qualifications .................................................................................................... 39
2.15 NQF Implementation Framework ..................................................................... 40
2.15.1 Priority 1: Completion of the Transition from the SAQA Act to
the NQF Act ....................................................................................... 40
2.15.2 Priority 2: Development of a system of collaboration between
SAQA and the QCs ............................................................................ 40
2.15.3 Priority 3: Co-ordination of the three sub-frameworks of
the NQF .............................................................................................. 40
2.15.4 Priority 4: Establishment of standard-setting and quality-assurance
mechanisms within each of the three sub-frameworks ...................... 41
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2.15.5 Priority 5: Completion and operationalisation of the progression
and articulation apparatus of the NQF ............................................... 41
2.15.6 Priority 6: Further development and improvement of the
information apparatus of the NQF ..................................................... 41
2.15.7 Role of the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) ... 41
2.16 Vision and strategic approach of the Skills Development Act ......................... 43
2.16.1 Principles underpinning the proposed new system............................ 43
2.16.2 Purposes of the Skills Development Act ........................................... 44
2.17 Core components of the Skills Development Strategy ..................................... 44
2.17.1 National co-ordination ....................................................................... 45
2.17.1.1 Functions .......................................................................... 45
2.17.1.2 Composition...................................................................... 46
2.17.2 Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) ........................ 46
2.17.2.1 Criteria for establishment ................................................. 46
2.17.2.2 Functions .......................................................................... 47
2.17.2.3 Composition...................................................................... 48
2.17.2.4 Chambers .......................................................................... 48
2.17.2.5 Financing SETAs and their chambers .............................. 49
2.17.3 Learnership system and skills programmes ....................................... 49
2.17.4 Funding of skills development ........................................................... 51
2.17.4.1 Skills development levies ................................................. 52
2.17.4.2 Collection of the levy ....................................................... 53
2.17.4.3 National Skills Fund ......................................................... 53
2.18 Grants and tax deductions available to employers and providers..................... 54
2.19 Sector skills plans .............................................................................................. 54
2.20 National Skills Development Strategy .............................................................. 54
2.21 Case studies: Sector and workplace skills plans and learnership
implementation .................................................................................................. 55
2.21.1 Transport Education and Training Authority .................................... 55
2.21.2 Transnet Rail Engineering ................................................................. 55
2.22 Practical implications for HRD practitioners .................................................... 56
2.23 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 56
2.25 References ......................................................................................................... 57
2.27 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 60
2.28 Acknowledgement............................................................................................. 60
Chapter 3 STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT ................. 61

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 62
3.2 The emergence of a new competitive landscape ............................................... 62
3.3 Reconceptualising and repositioning HRD as a strategic partner .................... 64
3.4 Strategy formulation versus implementation .................................................... 65
3.5 Strategy options and choice .............................................................................. 67
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3.6 Implementation design criteria .......................................................................... 70
3.6.1 Alignment........................................................................................... 71
3.6.2 Implementability ................................................................................ 71
3.6.3 Coherence and governance ................................................................ 71
3.7 Company example: Managing the Wesbank Way ............................................ 72
3.8 Outsourcing as a strategic HRD implementation option .................................. 74
3.8.1 Planning outsourcing strategy and selecting an appropriate vendor
or training partner .............................................................................. 75
3.8.2 Managing the risks and pitfalls of outsourcing ................................. 76
3.9 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 76
3.10 Case study: The Key Talent Programme of Syngenta ...................................... 76
3.12 References ......................................................................................................... 86
3.14 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 89
Chapter 4 THE LEARNING ORGANISATION ................................................. 91

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 91
4.2 Workplace learning to support a learning culture standard (SABPP) .............. 92
4.3 Problems with training programmes ................................................................. 94
4.3.1 Training does not meet business needs .............................................. 94
4.3.2 In training, one size does not fit all .................................................... 94
4.3.3 Managers do not support training ...................................................... 94
4.3.4 Employee workload ........................................................................... 94
4.3.5 A lack of measurement ...................................................................... 94
4.3.6 Incorrect time allocation .................................................................... 94
4.4 The shift to the learning organisation ............................................................... 95
4.5 Types of learning............................................................................................... 97
4.5.1 New learning ...................................................................................... 97
4.5.2 Incremental learning .......................................................................... 97
4.5.3 Unlearning.......................................................................................... 98
4.5.4 Transformational learning.................................................................. 98
4.6 Types of learner................................................................................................. 98
4.6.1 Reluctant learners............................................................................... 98
4.6.2 Leisurely learners ............................................................................... 98
4.6.3 Life-long learners ............................................................................... 99
4.7 Characteristics of learning organisations .......................................................... 99
4.7.1 Flat organisational structure............................................................... 99
4.7.2 Open communication ......................................................................... 99
4.7.3 Teamwork .......................................................................................... 99
4.7.4 Empowerment .................................................................................... 100
4.7.5 Inspired leadership ............................................................................. 100
4.7.6 Innovation and change ....................................................................... 100
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4.7.7 Shared vision of quality ..................................................................... 100
4.7.8 Systems approach............................................................................... 100
4.7.9 Job satisfaction and commitment ....................................................... 100
4.7.10 People-orientated and talent focus ..................................................... 100
4.7.11 External focus .................................................................................... 101
4.7.12 Technology-driven ............................................................................. 101
4.7.13 Learning opportunities ....................................................................... 102
4.7.14 Action and results focus ..................................................................... 102
4.7.15 Customer-orientated ........................................................................... 102
4.8 Barriers to organisational learning .................................................................... 102
4.9 Learning organisation implementation plan ..................................................... 103
4.9.1 Assess learning culture ...................................................................... 104
4.9.2 Analyse results ................................................................................... 106
4.9.3 Communicate and disseminate results ............................................... 106
4.9.4 Present results to top management..................................................... 107
4.9.5 Create a knowledge management system .......................................... 107
4.9.6 Develop learning strategies ................................................................ 108
4.9.7 Market and communicate learning..................................................... 108
4.9.8 Implementation .................................................................................. 109
4.9.9 Evaluation .......................................................................................... 109
4.10 Company examples ........................................................................................... 109
4.11 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 112
4.12 Case study ......................................................................................................... 113
4.14 References ......................................................................................................... 114
4.16 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 116
Chapter 5 PERFORMANCE CONSULTING ..................................................... 117

5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 117
5.2 The contextualisation of performance consulting ............................................. 119
5.2.1 The need to partner with management ............................................... 119
5.2.2 The link with business needs ............................................................. 119
5.2.3 The link with Human Resource Development (HRD) ...................... 120
5.2.4 The link with Organisation Development (OD) ................................ 120
5.2.5 The link with the NQF critical outcomes........................................... 121
5.3 Emerging roles and competencies within the HRD framework ....................... 122
5.4 Performance consultant framework .................................................................. 124
5.4.1 The researcher role............................................................................. 125
5.4.2 The professional role ......................................................................... 125
5.4.3 The change facilitator role ................................................................. 126
5.4.4 The communicator role ...................................................................... 126
5.5 Additional competencies for performance consultants ..................................... 127
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5.6 Performance consulting approach and process ................................................. 128
5.7 The performance consulting approach .............................................................. 130
5.8 Facilitation and the performance improvement consultant ............................... 132
5.9 Networking and communication and the performance improvement
consultant .......................................................................................................... 134
5.10 International standards for performance consultants ........................................ 135
5.10.1 Focus on outcomes ............................................................................. 135
5.10.2 Take a systemic view ......................................................................... 136
5.10.3 Add value ........................................................................................... 136
5.10.4 Work in partnership with clients and other specialists ...................... 136
5.10.5 Determine need or opportunity .......................................................... 136
5.10.6 Determine cause ................................................................................. 136
5.10.7 Design solutions, including implementation and evaluation ............. 136
5.10.8 Ensure solutions’ conformity and feasibility ..................................... 136
5.10.9 Implement solutions ........................................................................... 137
5.10.10 Evaluate results and impact ............................................................... 137
5.11 Introducing a performance improvement strategy ............................................ 137
5.12 Assessment of performance consultant competencies ...................................... 139
5.13 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 143
5.14 Case study ......................................................................................................... 143
5.16 References ......................................................................................................... 152
5.18 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 154
Chapter 6 LEARNING NEEDS ANALYSIS ........................................................ 155

6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 155
6.2 Terminology definition ..................................................................................... 157
6.3 Rationale for learning needs analysis ............................................................... 158
6.4 National standard on learning needs analysis (SABPP) ................................... 161
6.5 The stakeholders in learning needs analysis ..................................................... 162
6.6 The learning needs analysis phases................................................................... 165
6.6.1 Collect information on an ongoing basis to identify potential
issues or problems .............................................................................. 165
6.6.2 If an issue or performance problem is identified, consult with
management ....................................................................................... 166
6.6.3 If training-related, identify relevant criteria ...................................... 166
6.6.4 Select a data-collection method and procedures appropriate to
the problem being analysed ............................................................... 167
6.6.4.1 Written surveys or questionnaires .................................... 167
6.6.4.2 Diagnostic instruments ..................................................... 168
6.6.4.3 Interviews ......................................................................... 168
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6.6.4.4 Focus groups ..................................................................... 168
6.6.4.5 Training committees ......................................................... 169
6.6.4.6 Observation....................................................................... 169
6.6.4.7 Examining work samples ................................................. 169
6.6.4.8 Critical incident analysis .................................................. 169
6.6.4.9 Assessment centres ........................................................... 170
6.6.4.10 Performance appraisals ..................................................... 170
6.6.4.11 Exit interviews .................................................................. 171
6.6.4.12 Comparing the needs analysis methods............................ 171
6.6.5 Collect data and analyse results; compare information with
relevant criteria to determine gaps; draw conclusions....................... 171
6.6.6 Report results and recommendations to client ................................... 172
6.7 Other types of analyses ..................................................................................... 172
6.7.1 Organisation or situation analysis ...................................................... 173
6.7.2 Target population analysis ................................................................. 174
6.7.3 Task analysis ...................................................................................... 175
6.7.4 Skills and competency analysis ......................................................... 175
6.7.5 Attitude analysis................................................................................. 176
6.8 Skills audits ....................................................................................................... 177
6.8.1 What is a skills audit? ........................................................................ 177
6.8.2 The skills audit process ...................................................................... 177
6.8.3 Skills audit application....................................................................... 179
6.9 Company example ............................................................................................. 180
6.10 Key learning points ........................................................................................... 182
6.11 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 182
6.12 Case studies ....................................................................................................... 183
Appendix 6.1 Training-needs analysis questionnaire for first line supervisors ........ 188
Appendix 6.2 Management style diagnostic instrument............................................ 189
6.14 References ......................................................................................................... 191
6.16 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 192
Chapter 7 DESIGNING HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

INTERVENTIONS ............................................................................... 193
7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 194
7.2 National Learning Design Standard (SABPP) .................................................. 194
7.3 Selection of HRD interventions ........................................................................ 197
7.4 Implementation of interventions ....................................................................... 198
7.5 HRD interventions ............................................................................................ 198
7.5.1 Conferences........................................................................................ 199
7.5.2 On-the-job training ............................................................................ 200
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7.5.3 Industrial theatre sessions .................................................................. 202
7.5.3.1 Applications and usage of industrial theatre sessions ..... 203
7.5.3.2 Company examples........................................................... 204
7.5.3.3 Ambush training ............................................................... 207
7.5.4 Action learning................................................................................... 207
7.5.5 Adventure learning ............................................................................ 209
7.5.6 Team-building .................................................................................... 209
7.5.7 Learning programmes ........................................................................ 211
7.5.7.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 211
7.5.7.2 Planning of learning programmes .................................... 212
7.5.7.3 Programme strategy .......................................................... 212
7.5.7.4 Curriculum development in terms of the QCTO .............. 213
7.5.7.5 Checklist ........................................................................... 214
7.5.7.6 Learning aids .................................................................... 216
7.5.8 Games and simulations ...................................................................... 216
7.5.9 Design thinking .................................................................................. 218
7.6 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 218
7.7 Case study ......................................................................................................... 219
7.9 References ......................................................................................................... 220
7.11 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 221
Chapter 8 PLANNING AND ORGANISING TRAINING ................................. 223

8.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 223
8.2 Compiling a training plan.................................................................................. 224
8.2.1 Alignment with NQF and QC requirements ...................................... 226
8.2.2 Consultation with stakeholders .......................................................... 226
8.2.3 Planning the method of training and development ............................ 228
8.2.4 Managing ETD staff .......................................................................... 230
8.2.5 Budgets .............................................................................................. 230
8.2.6 Marketing and selling training ........................................................... 232
8.2.6.1 Selling to management ..................................................... 233
8.2.6.2 Motivating learners ........................................................... 233
8.2.6.3 Steps in marketing ............................................................ 234
8.2.7 Training aids ...................................................................................... 234
8.2.8 Planning the venue ............................................................................. 236
8.2.8.1 Selecting the right venue .................................................. 237
8.2.8.2 Venue checklist ................................................................ 238
8.2.8.3 Doing homework about the chosen venue ....................... 239
8.2.9 Administration ................................................................................... 240
8.2.9.1 Pre-course administration ................................................. 240
8.2.9.2 Post-course administration ............................................... 242
8.2.10 Planning for training evaluation ........................................................ 243
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8.3 A project management approach....................................................................... 243
8.3.1 Handling a successful project ............................................................ 244
8.3.2 Key principles for training project management success .................. 246
8.4 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 248
8.5 Case study ......................................................................................................... 248
8.6 Learning points.................................................................................................. 249
8.8 References ......................................................................................................... 249
8.10 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 250
Chapter 9 MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT ............. 253

9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 254
9.2 Changing role of management .......................................................................... 256
9.3 International best practices................................................................................ 258
9.4 Learning opportunities for management development ..................................... 261
9.5 Management concerns ....................................................................................... 263
9.6 Managerial learning .......................................................................................... 264
9.7 Leadership development standard for South Africa (SABPP) ......................... 265
9.8 Managing resources .......................................................................................... 266
9.9 Transfer partnerships......................................................................................... 266
9.10 South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) requirements ....................... 269
9.11 Performance management ................................................................................. 269
9.12 A process approach to management development ............................................ 270
9.12.1 Why some management development programmes fail .................... 270
9.12.2 A process for individual management development ......................... 271
9.12.3 When does the need for individual development arise? .................... 271
9.13 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 272
9.14 Company example: Telkom .............................................................................. 272
9.15 Case studies ....................................................................................................... 281
9.17 References ......................................................................................................... 283
9.19 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 285
Chapter 10 MENTORING AND COACHING ..................................................... 287

10.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 287
10.2 Benefits of mentoring and coaching ................................................................. 290
10.3 Pitfalls of mentoring and coaching ................................................................... 290
10.4 Types of mentoring and coaching interventions ............................................... 292
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10.5 Role of HRD ..................................................................................................... 293
10.6 The coaching and mentoring standard (SABPP) .............................................. 294
10.7 The mentoring and coaching implementation process...................................... 296
10.7.1 Introducing the intervention .............................................................. 296
10.7.2 Training of steering committee .......................................................... 297
10.7.3 Identifying mentors/coaches and mentees/coachees ......................... 297
10.7.4 Capacity-building for all role-players ................................................ 298
10.7.5 Matching of mentors/coaches and mentees/coachees........................ 298
10.7.6 Relationship goal-setting ................................................................... 298
10.7.7 Implementation .................................................................................. 298
10.7.8 Evaluation .......................................................................................... 299
10.7.9 Improvement ...................................................................................... 300
10.8 Guidelines for effective mentoring and coaching ............................................. 300
10.9.1 Study Sample and Data Collection and Analysis Method ................. 301
10.9.2 Methodology and Approach .............................................................. 302
10.9.3 Findings.............................................................................................. 303
10.10 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 305
10.11 Case study ......................................................................................................... 305
10.14 References ......................................................................................................... 307
10.16 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 308
Chapter 11 ELECTRONIC, MOBILE AND SOCIAL LEARNING .................. 309

11.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 309
11.3 Benefits of e-learning ........................................................................................ 315
11.3.1 Course administration ........................................................................ 315
11.3.2 Financial management ....................................................................... 315
11.3.3 Management reports........................................................................... 315
11.3.4 Resource management ....................................................................... 316
11.3.5 Cost savings ....................................................................................... 316
11.3.6 Learner needs ..................................................................................... 316
11.3.7 Effective learning ............................................................................... 317
11.3.8 Evaluation .......................................................................................... 317
11.4 Disadvantages of e-learning .............................................................................. 319
11.5 Different types of e-learning methodologies .................................................... 319
11.6 E-learning implementation ................................................................................ 320
11.6.1 Training-needs analysis ..................................................................... 320
11.6.2 E-learning platform and design.......................................................... 321
11.6.3 Implementation of e-learning delivery .............................................. 323
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11.6.4 Evaluation .......................................................................................... 324
11.6.5 E-learning improvements ................................................................... 325
11.7 Electronic performance support systems (EPSS) ............................................. 325
11.8 Company example: ABSA ................................................................................ 326
11.9 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 327
11.10 Case study ......................................................................................................... 327
11.13 References ......................................................................................................... 329
11.15 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 331
Chapter 12 EMPLOYEE ORIENTATION ........................................................... 333

12.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 333
12.2 Objectives of a formal orientation process ....................................................... 335
12.3 National standard on on-boarding (SABPP)..................................................... 336
12.4 Phases of planning orientation .......................................................................... 337
12.4.1 Interview phase .................................................................................. 337
12.4.2 Pre-employment ................................................................................. 337
12.4.3 The first day ....................................................................................... 338
12.4.4 The first month and beyond ............................................................... 338
12.4.5 Monitoring of process ........................................................................ 339
12.4.6 Exit interviews ................................................................................... 339
12.5 Elements of successful orientation programmes ............................................... 339
12.5.1 Give new employees what they need................................................. 339
12.5.2 Allow enough time for orientation..................................................... 339
12.5.3 Provide a bonding experience ............................................................ 340
12.5.4 Make orientation universal ................................................................ 340
12.5.5 Immediate implementation................................................................. 340
12.5.6 Announcing the appointment ............................................................. 340
12.5.7 Simplicity ........................................................................................... 340
12.5.8 Emotional element ............................................................................. 340
12.5.9 Management involvement .................................................................. 340
12.5.10 Human resource involvement ............................................................ 341
12.6 Pitfalls in orientation programmes .................................................................... 341
12.7 The ABSA case study ....................................................................................... 341
12.7.1 Background ........................................................................................ 341
12.7.2 Orientation within ABSA .................................................................. 342
12.7.3 Further details pertaining to phases one to four ................................ 343
12.7.3.1 Pre-employment activities ................................................ 343
12.7.3.2 Functional and role orientation......................................... 344
12.7.3.3 Monitoring, evaluation and refinement ............................ 344
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12.7.3.4 Checklist ........................................................................... 344
12.7.3.5 Accountability for orientation .......................................... 345
12.8 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 346
12.9 Case study ......................................................................................................... 346
12.11 References ......................................................................................................... 347
12.13 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 348
Chapter 13 EMPLOYMENT EQUITY AND DIVERSITY TRAINING ........... 349

13.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 349
13.2 Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment Act ........................................... 352
13.3 Employment Equity Act .................................................................................... 353
13.4 Implications of employment equity and diversity for HRD ............................. 355
13.5 Employment equity training .............................................................................. 355
13.6 Diversity training .............................................................................................. 357
13.6.1 Pitfalls of diversity training ............................................................... 357
13.6.1.1 Lack of management commitment ................................... 358
13.6.1.2 Improper needs identification ........................................... 358
13.6.1.3 Political orientation .......................................................... 358
13.6.1.4 Reactive approach ............................................................ 358
13.6.1.5 Unbalanced content .......................................................... 359
13.6.1.6 Facilitators’ profile ........................................................... 359
13.6.1.7 Participant profile ............................................................. 359
13.6.1.8 Project approach ............................................................... 359
13.6.1.9 Inadequate transfer of learning ......................................... 359
13.6.1.10 Superficial evaluation ....................................................... 360
13.6.1.11 Lack of change management ............................................ 360
13.6.1.12 Consultant liabilities ......................................................... 360
13.6.2 Guidelines for effective diversity training ......................................... 360
13.6.2.1 Obtain visible management support ................................. 360
13.6.2.2 Diversity-needs identification .......................................... 360
13.6.2.3 Integrate into business strategy ........................................ 361
13.6.2.4 Balanced and objective approach ..................................... 361
13.6.2.5 Diverse facilitators............................................................ 361
13.6.2.6 Diverse participants .......................................................... 361
13.6.2.7 Change management......................................................... 361
13.6.2.8 Consultant co-ordination .................................................. 361
13.6.2.9 Compile action plans ........................................................ 362
13.6.2.10 Provide support structures ................................................ 362
13.6.2.11 Monitoring and evaluation ............................................... 362
13.6.3 Diversity training process .................................................................. 362
13.6.3.1 Diversity-needs assessment .............................................. 362
13.6.3.2 Diversity training design .................................................. 364
13.6.3.3 Facilitation ........................................................................ 367
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13.6.3.4 Support and reinforcement ............................................... 368
13.6.3.5 Programme evaluation ...................................................... 368
13.7 Company example ............................................................................................. 369
13.8 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 370
13.9 Case study ......................................................................................................... 370
13.11 References ......................................................................................................... 372
13.13 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 373
Chapter 14 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT STANDARDS ............................ 375

14.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 375
14.2 Benefits of HR Standards .................................................................................. 376
14.3 L&D within the National HR Standards Model ............................................... 377
14.4 The L&D Application Standard ........................................................................ 379
14.5 Company example ............................................................................................. 382
14.6 L&D standard implementation plan .................................................................. 384
14.7 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 384
14.8 Case study ......................................................................................................... 385
14.11 References ......................................................................................................... 387
14.13 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 387
Chapter 15 MULTISKILLING ............................................................................... 389

15.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 389
15.2 Concept and nature of multiskilling .................................................................. 390
15.3 Factors that support multiskilling ..................................................................... 391
15.3.1 Factors that support multiskilling from the organisation’s
perspective ......................................................................................... 391
15.3.2 Factors that support multiskilling from the learner’s
perspective ......................................................................................... 392
15.4 Value of multiskilling ....................................................................................... 392
15.5 Generic skills of a multiskilling programme..................................................... 393
15.6 Strategies to promote multiskilling ................................................................... 394
15.6.1 Job design........................................................................................... 394
15.6.2 Job rotation......................................................................................... 394
15.6.3 Job enlargement ................................................................................. 395
15.6.4 Job enrichment ................................................................................... 395
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15.6.5 Alternative work arrangements .......................................................... 395
15.6.6 Career development ........................................................................... 396
15.7 Practical implementation of multiskilling ......................................................... 396
15.7.1 Strategy .............................................................................................. 397
15.7.2 Consulted process .............................................................................. 397
15.7.3 Skills audit ......................................................................................... 397
15.7.4 Implementation .................................................................................. 398
15.7.5 Monitoring the process ...................................................................... 398
15.8 Factors to consider during implementation....................................................... 398
15.9 Limitations of multiskilling............................................................................... 399
15.10 Developing a competency model ...................................................................... 399
15.10.1 Consider the organisational context................................................... 399
15.10.2 Link the model to organisational goals and objectives...................... 399
15.10.3 Use job-analysis methods to develop competencies .......................... 399
15.10.4 Consider what is to be achieved through multiskilling ..................... 400
15.10.5 Define the anatomy of a competency................................................. 400
15.10.6 Include generic and job-specific competencies ................................. 400
15.10.7 Example of a competency model ....................................................... 400
15.11 Developing a structured learning programme................................................... 401
15.12 Documentation of a multiskilling programme .................................................. 403
15.13 Maintaining skill levels ..................................................................................... 403
15.14 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 403
15.15 Case study ......................................................................................................... 404
15.17 References ......................................................................................................... 405
15.18 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 406
Chapter 16 CAREER MANAGEMENT AND PERFORMANCE ..................... 407

16.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 408
16.2 Career development in a changing world of work ............................................ 410
16.2.1 The meaning of work and the new psychological contract ............... 410
16.2.2 Defining the “new” career ................................................................. 413
16.2.3 Talent management: the strategic context for career development ... 414
16.2.4 The new meaning of career development .......................................... 416
16.2.5 Responsibilities in career development ............................................. 418
16.3 Career stages ..................................................................................................... 419
16.4 Linking career stages to development interventions......................................... 421
16.5 Organisation entry ............................................................................................. 423
16.5.1 Career choice ..................................................................................... 423
16.5.2 Organisational socialisation ............................................................... 424
16.6 Development or mastery ................................................................................... 425
16.6.1 Performance management and 360-degree feedback ........................ 425
16.6.2 Mentoring and coaching .................................................................... 426
16.6.3 Succession planning ........................................................................... 427
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16.6.4 Career-planning workshops ............................................................... 428
16.6.5 Interventions dealing with plateauing and stress ............................... 428
16.7 Organisation exit ............................................................................................... 428
16.8 Dealing with flexible work practices ................................................................ 429
16.9 Designing and aligning a comprehensive career development system............. 431
16.11 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 433
16.12 Case study ......................................................................................................... 434
16.13 Learning points.................................................................................................. 435
16.15 References ......................................................................................................... 436
16.17 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 439
Chapter 17 HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUALITY
MANAGEMENT ................................................................................... 441
17.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 441
17.2 Principles of quality management ..................................................................... 442
17.3 Implementation strategy .................................................................................... 444
17.3.1 Phase one: management meeting ....................................................... 446
17.3.2 Phase two: management training ....................................................... 446
17.3.3 Phase three: strategic planning .......................................................... 447
17.3.4 Phase four: form quality council ........................................................ 448
17.3.5 Phase five: culture assessment ........................................................... 449
17.3.6 Phase six: communications strategy .................................................. 449
17.3.7 Phase seven: organisation-wide training ........................................... 450
17.3.8 Phase eight: form quality teams ......................................................... 452
17.3.9 Phase nine: training of teams ............................................................. 453
17.3.10 Phase ten: problem identification and improvement techniques ....... 453
17.3.11 Phase eleven: change management .................................................... 455
17.3.12 Phase twelve: audit and reviews ........................................................ 455
17.4 Aligning HRD with quality management ......................................................... 455
17.4.1 Customer focus .................................................................................. 456
17.4.2 Problem-solving and quality techniques ............................................ 457
17.4.3 Process improvement ......................................................................... 457
17.4.4 Benchmarking .................................................................................... 458
17.4.5 Quality management system .............................................................. 458
17.5 Quality assurance in terms of the QCTO .......................................................... 460
17.5.1 Functions of an assessment quality partner ....................................... 460
17.5.2 Criteria for the approval of an assessment quality partner ................ 461
17.5.3 The QCTO’s obligations in respect of assessment quality
partners ............................................................................................... 462
17.5.4 Practical guidelines for HRD practitioners ........................................ 462
17.6 Company example ............................................................................................. 463
17.7 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 463
17.8 Case study ......................................................................................................... 464
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17.11 References ......................................................................................................... 465
17.13 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 466
Chapter 18 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION ................................................ 469

18.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 470
18.2.1 Definitions.......................................................................................... 471
18.2.2 Formative and summative evaluation and assessment ...................... 472
18.3 Why is evaluation necessary? ........................................................................... 473
18.3.1 Rationale for the evaluation of training in organisations ................ 473
18.3.2 Why people do not evaluate ............................................................ 474
18.3.3 Consequences of not evaluating or assessing .................................. 475
18.4 Why people should evaluate ............................................................................. 475
18.4.1 Focus on inputs ................................................................................ 476
18.4.2 Focus on outputs .............................................................................. 476
18.4.3 Focus on managing what is measured ............................................. 476
18.4.4 Focus on strategy ............................................................................. 477
18.4.5 Applications ..................................................................................... 477
18.5 Results-based HRD ........................................................................................... 477
18.5.1 What is results-based HRD? ............................................................ 477
18.5.2 Activity-based HRD ........................................................................ 478
18.6 The role of evaluation in South Africa ............................................................. 479
18.7 Evaluation and the individual ........................................................................... 479
18.8 Key role-players in evaluation .......................................................................... 480
18.9 Models of evaluation ......................................................................................... 481
18.9.1 Kirkpatrick ....................................................................................... 481
18.9.2 Warr, Bird and Rackham ................................................................. 483
18.9.3 Phillips’s five-level ROI framework ............................................... 484
18.9.4 South African ROI model ................................................................ 486
18.9.5 Learning evaluation standard model (SABPP)................................ 490
18.10 Methods of evaluation ....................................................................................... 492
18.10.1 Questionnaires ................................................................................. 494
18.10.2 Reactionnaires.................................................................................. 494
18.10.3 Interviews......................................................................................... 495
18.10.4 Critical incident review.................................................................... 495
18.10.5 Written and computer-based tests.................................................... 495
18.10.6 Practical tests ................................................................................... 496
18.10.7 Focus groups .................................................................................... 496
18.10.8 Action planning ............................................................................... 496
18.10.9 Behavioural analysis ........................................................................ 497
18.10.10 Cost-benefit analysis and ROI ......................................................... 498
18.11 Competence-based assessment according to QCTO requirements................... 499
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18.12 Methods of assessment ...................................................................................... 504
18.12.1 Oral assessments .............................................................................. 504
18.12.2 Case studies...................................................................................... 504
18.12.3 Examinations and written tests ........................................................ 504
18.12.4 Portfolios .......................................................................................... 504
18.12.5 Role plays ........................................................................................ 504
18.12.6 Simulations ...................................................................................... 504
18.13 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 505
18.15 Case study ......................................................................................................... 506
18.16 References ......................................................................................................... 507
18.18 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 508
Chapter 19 INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT ..... 511

19.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 511
19.2 Globalisation and HRD ..................................................................................... 512
19.2.1 International HRD practices .............................................................. 514
19.2.2 Global competencies .......................................................................... 514
19.3 Regional and country diversity ......................................................................... 516
19.3.1 Asia .................................................................................................... 517
19.3.2 Middle East ........................................................................................ 517
19.3.3 South America ................................................................................... 518
19.3.4 United States ...................................................................................... 518
19.4 Problems experienced by expatriate employees ............................................... 518
19.5 Guidelines for international HRD ..................................................................... 519
19.6 International HRD strategy ............................................................................... 519
19.6.1 Review globalisation strategy ............................................................ 520
19.6.2 Develop HRD strategy ....................................................................... 520
19.6.3 Expatriate training .............................................................................. 520
19.6.4 Repatriate training .............................................................................. 521
19.6.5 HRD global alignment ....................................................................... 521
19.7 Company example: IBM ................................................................................... 521
19.8 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 521
19.9 Case study ......................................................................................................... 522
19.11 References ......................................................................................................... 523
19.13 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 525
Chapter 20 CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ..................... 527

20.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 528
20.2 Historic development of CPD ........................................................................... 528
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20.3 What is CPD? .................................................................................................... 529
20.4 What is CPD not? .............................................................................................. 530
20.5 Why CPD? ........................................................................................................ 530
20.6 Comparability with other countries................................................................... 532
20.6.1 AHRI (Australia) ............................................................................... 532
20.6.2 CIPD (UK) ......................................................................................... 533
20.7 What counts as CPD? ........................................................................................ 535
20.8 Who does CPD affect? ...................................................................................... 535
20.9 The variety of approaches to CPD .................................................................... 536
20.9.1 Formal courses ................................................................................... 536
20.9.2 Workshops and seminars ................................................................... 536
20.9.3 Conferences........................................................................................ 536
20.9.4 Tutorials ............................................................................................. 536
20.9.5 Independent study and reading .......................................................... 537
20.9.6 Presentations and publishing ............................................................. 537
20.9.7 Mentoring and coaching .................................................................... 537
20.10 Learning options for CPD ................................................................................. 537
20.10.1 Structured ........................................................................................... 537
20.10.2 Semi-structured .................................................................................. 537
20.10.3 Unstructured ....................................................................................... 537
20.11 Core competencies of the thinking performer................................................... 537
20.12 Personal development plans .............................................................................. 541
20.13 Complete the necessary CPD work ................................................................... 541
20.14 Building an organisational CPD strategy .......................................................... 542
20.15 Practical guidelines for CPD ............................................................................. 543
20.16 CPD example: SA Board for People Practices (SABPP) ................................. 544
20.17 Case study: Help! I’m stuck in the mud! .......................................................... 546
20.19 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 547
20.21 References ......................................................................................................... 549
20.23 Internet sites ...................................................................................................... 550
Assignment, portfolio and examination questions ....................................................... 551

Glossary ....................................................................................................................... 567
HRD Internet index ...................................................................................................... 575
Index............................................................................................................................. 579
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN
RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
Marius Meyer
People want skills and knowledge. Learning is the ticket to lifetime employability.
(Kathryn Heath)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Identify international trends in human resource development and indicate their relevance to the
South African situation
• Provide a critical analysis of the readiness of South African organisations to adapt to inter-
national trends in HRD
• Identify local trends in HRD with specific reference to ETD practices and legislation
• Design a learning programme to help HRD managers apply the principles underlying the develop-
ment of ETD practitioners
• Formulate an implementation strategy to conform to national ETD standards and practices
• Integrate ETD within the broader framework of HRD
1.1 Introduction
People play a crucial role in a company’s ability to produce products and services and,
moreover, in a country’s ability to improve productivity and economic growth. The role
of human resource development is therefore essential, especially in a country like South
Africa in which its human resources are underdeveloped and the potential of its people is
not fully realised. Subsequent World Competitiveness Reports have identified the lack of
people development as one of the major stumbling blocks in regard to the South African
1
2 Managing Human Resource Development
economy’s ability to compete in the global marketplace. No country can sustain economic
development and international competitiveness if its human resources are not developed
to contribute significantly to the economy. Likewise, while the highest level of future
economic growth is expected from African countries, these initial anticipated high levels
of economic growth (albeit from a low base) may not be sustainable. The need for strong
national systems of human capital development can therefore not be over-emphasised.
The field of human resource development (HRD) in South Africa and abroad has evolved
so rapidly over the past ten years that traditional training is under threat. Traditionally,
training has been seen as a tool to give employees knowledge and skills to perform their
work more effectively. Today this view is changing. An increasing number of companies
view HRD as an important business imperative to enhance competitiveness and overall
business performance. South African companies that use HRD as a strategic business
strategy are likely to outperform their competitors who fail to do so.
HRD can be defined as all the processes, systems, methods, procedures and programmes
an organisation employs to develop its human resources in order to equip its employees to
be able to contribute to organisational performance. From this definition it is evident that
HRD encompasses both training and non-training interventions. People must be continu-
ously developed, whether this process occurs as part of a training intervention or as a
component of people development that occurs on a daily basis.
The role of HRD has broadened beyond training programme design. Effective instruc-
tional design remains important, but HRD practitioners are increasingly asked to create
innovative systems and mechanisms to ensure performance improvement in the workplace.
Moreover, the speed of technolocial and other changes, both in the workplace and the
broader business and social envrionment, requires more dynamic and flexible appraoches
to learning. The HRD practitioner is no longer only a trainer, but becomes a consultant to
the rest of the organisation in providing the support that enables the achievement of
business objectives.
From a South African perspective, HRD is increasingly influenced by the new skills de-
velopment system based on skills development within occupations, which is to be driven
by the quality councils and in particular the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations
(QCTO). In this new paradigm, the emphasis is on what the learner must be able to apply
in the workplace as a result of learning. HRD practitioners should align their HRD pro-
grammes and systems to support the implementation of a QCTO system. HRD is also a
key element of the National Skills Development Strategy and other supporting government
initiatives aimed at alleviating poverty and inequality, and improving our competitiveness
as a nation.
1.2 International trends in HRD

A global revolution is taking place in the field of workplace learning. It is driven by the
requirements of the information explosion, increased globalisation, the changing nature of
work and business, as well as changing learner needs and aspirations. The following inter-
national trends and developments in the field of HRD have evolved from the international
conferences hosted by the world’s largest training and development institutions: the
Association for Talent Development (www.atd.org) in the USA and the Chartered
Institute of Personnel and Development in the UK (www.cipd.co.uk). These trends should
be internalised by South African organisations if they want to become competitive in the
global world.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Human Resource Development 3
1.2.1 Globalisation
In the modern business environment, companies are forced to approach the way they con-
duct business activities with a more external focus. Not only are business partnerships ex-
tending across regional, national and continental borders, but international standards are
also increasingly becoming the norm. While production and other business standards have
been the norm for decades, in recent times the International Standards Organization (ISO)
has started to develop international Human Resource (HR) standards. This new trend has
major implications for HRD in the workplace. Human resources need to be developed to
acquire knowledge and skills to function effectively in a global business environment.
Thus, today a focus on global HR is key to business success (Haynes, 2016).
1.2.2 Strategic HRD and talent management

The importance of managing HRD from a strategic point of view has evolved very rapidly
over the past five years. However, it is now more difficult than ever to strategically plan
HRD over the long term. The changes in the business environment are so rapid and
unpredictable that strategic HRD must be aligned on a more regular basis, with the typical
time span of a strategic plan being reducced from 10 years to three years. This means that
strategic HRD plans must be flexible enough to accommodate changes in the en-
vironment. In addition, major strategic decisions, such as whether to outsource the organ-
isation’s training activities wholly or partially, have to take costs savings and business
improvements into consideration. Moreover, the worldwide skills gaps have forced com-
panies to institute aggressive talent management strategies to attract, develop and opti-
mise the available talent in both the broader marketplace and specific industries.
1.2.3 Electronic, mobile and social learning

An increasing number of organisations worldwide are making use of electronic learning
(e-learning) to facilitate the learning process. The latest technology, such as multi-media,
computer-based training, virtual classrooms, Internet training and video-conferencing, is
being used. In fact, the rapid advancement in technology has resulted in e-learning being
transferred from computers to laptops to smaller devices, such as ipads and smart phones.
The explosion of social media platforms has now precipitated the emergence of a new
mobile form of social learning – essentially, the availability of learning at any time and
anywhere the learner finds themself.
1.2.4 Management and leadership development

It is evident that the role of managers and leaders is changing dramatically. Managers
were previously expected to plan, direct, staff and control. Now, however, they must learn
to govern, coach, empower and lead. This necessary paradigm shift requires new skills and
behaviours on the part of management. If managers are not trained and developed to em-
brace and internalise the new managerial requirements, they will find it difficult to adapt
in a fast-changing business environment. World-class companies need highly talented
leaders and managers. It is therefore not surprising that the emerging field of mentoring
and coaching is popular among leading companies worldwide.
While the 1990’s were dominated by management development, the early 2000s were
charactertised by the shift to leadership development. Now, moving towards the 2020
workplace, management and leadership development are converging. This has resulted
in the need for both dynamic and innovative leaders driving change and business
transformation, while simultaneously creating systems, governance mechanisms,

processes and controls to maintain some order amidst the chaotic change, uncertainty and
complexity around us. Thus, the elusive paradigm is still to create the optimum balance
between management and leadership. Signficant investment in management and
leadership development will be required in the years to come.
1.2.5 Performance consulting

The ongoing shift from traditional training to workplace performance is another inter-
national trend. Key features are: linking organisational culture and bottom-line business
results, benchmarking performance, as well as satisfying client needs. The HRD profes-
sional is no longer a trainer, but becomes a performance consultant by virtue of their new
role of assisting the rest of the organisation in improving their performance. Developing
people at the centre of efforts to improve performance remains an ongoing challengee, in
particular getting people to perform better in a fast-changing envrionment.
1.2.6 Career and performance management

The traditional system of career management is no longer applicable in the modern busi-
ness environment. The time has gone when an individual would join a company and work
for that organisation for more than ten years. Rather, moving from one organisation to
another more frequently, is becoming the norm rather than the exception. In addition, an
individual is also more likely to move into different positions that are not necessarily
related to one another. Flexible work practices are also contributing to the erosion of full-
time employment. More part-time staff are being employed, which will have a significant
effect on HRD. Different skills will be needed such as flexibility, versatility, information
technology and processing skills.
A significant trend in the area of performance management has been the shift from trad-
itional single-rater performance appraisal to 360-degree or multi-rater feedback systems
as the modern approach to performance management. Multi-rater performance feedback is
used when a person receives performance ratings from a range of parties, such as super-
visors, peers and subordinates and, in some cases, even customers, using some type of
standardised instrument which is computerised in many companies. All the Fortune 500
companies use 360-degree performance systems.
1.2.7 Proactive needs identification

The demands of the modern business environment, globalisation and the speed of change
require a different approach to the assessment of training needs. Organisations will no
longer be in a position to sit back and wait for problems to occur before training interven-
tions are decided upon. Rather, a more futuristic approach is needed, one that anticipates
future problems and takes proactive action by means of training and development interven-
tions. For example, it is more appropriate to provide safety training to prevent accidents,
than to present the training after a number of accidents have already occurred. Hence,
business drivers will play a key role in driving a more proactive approach to learning
needs analysis.
1.2.8 Training design

As a result of new developments such as electronic learning, the design of training will
focus increasingly on the human-computer interface. Classroom training is still a popular
training method but is more frequently supplemented with new training techniques such
as industrial theatre and outdoor training, self-directed learning and electronic learning.
Many companies outsource design completely.
1.2.9 Evaluation of training

Although organisations worldwide neglect the measurement of their education and train-
ing efforts, there is an increasing awareness of the importance of evaluating training pro-
grammes. Particular emphasis is placed on feasibility analysis, cost and benefit analysis of
training, as well as evaluating the return on investment from training. HRD practitioners
are increasingly being called upon to make sure that training will have an impact on per-
formance in the workplace and produce the required return on the training investment.
Companies are focusing more on performance and business problems when imple-
menting training interventions. In addition, training managers must devote considerable
resources and effort to indicate how an intervention contributes to the bottom-line.
Measurement and evaluation form an integral part of all training interventions.
1.2.10 Employment equity and diversity training

With the increasing importance of aligning training to international business practices
comes the realisation that training across cultures has some potential pitfalls. If training is
conducted without prior consideration to cultural differences, the outcomes can be dis-
astrous. Various organisations in the United States of America, United Kingdom, China,
Singapore and South Africa have embarked on major diversity management initiatives in
order to address these issues. A holistic approach to diversity management is advocated,
one that recognises a diversity initiative as a process of organisational change that is
associated with the acknowledgement of diversity as an important business strategy. The
importance of diversity training as an important tool in supporting a diversity initiative
and the ultimate goal of employment equity is increasingly emphasised.
1.2.11 Learning organisation

A major shift in the area of HRD is the creation of the learning organisation as an alterna-
tive to traditional classroom training. Traditional training is based on the notion that train-
ing occurs in a classroom or instructor-controlled setting. A reactive model is followed,
which is based on a training needs analysis prior to the design and presentation of training
programmes. Whilst this approach has reaped multiple benefits for organisations world-
wide, the complexity, speed and reality of change and development in the business en-
vironment necessitates a more proactive and dynamic approach to training. The latter
approach requires a fundamental shift from training to organisational learning in order to
improve productivity. The most important challenge is to create a learning organisation,
i.e. a learning culture enabling learning to take place quicker and continuously (with or
without formalised learning interventions).
1.3 Local trends in HRD

Local trends in HRD are driven by skills development legislation and national HRD
needs. For the first time in history we have a national HRD strategy driven by the
government. Although South African organisations should implement the international
HRD trends as discussed above, the underdeveloped nature of our human resources
requires additional interventions. Most of these interventions, such as the Skills

Development Act, necessitate a broader approach to HRD. From an HRD perspective,
three important phases have emerged. First, the current training legislation; second, the
outcome of the Education, Training and Development (ETD) Practices Project, namely
the ETD unit standards; and third, the development of National HR standards, including
Learning and Development (L&D) standards providing a clear framework for sound HRD
practice.
1.3.1 Training legislation

Training legislation in South Africa regulates the training that takes place in organisations.
The three main laws are the National Qualifications Authority Act 67 of 2008, which
regulates the National Qualifications Framework (NQF), the Skills Development Act 97
of 1998 and the Skills Development Levies Act 9 of 1999 (see chapter 2). Companies and
providers can no longer do what they want to do. They have to be involved in the process
of NQF alignment if they want their learning programmes to be recognised by the QCTO.
1.3.2 ETD practices

The education, training and development (ETD) system in South Africa seeks to achieve a
better integration between these three concepts. It is essential to describe these three
concepts as they have a major impact on human resource development in organisations.
Development
Education HRD Training
Education
Erasmus and Van Dyk (1999:2) define education as the activities directed at providing the
knowledge, skills, moral values and understanding required in the normal course of life.
Education therefore encompasses a wide range of activities rather than merely equipping
an individual with specific skills to perform a particular job or function. In most cases
education is long-term orientated in the sense that an individual is prepared for life. This
process starts in childhood when parents and teachers educate a child for the future. The
education system in South Africa seeks to achieve exactly this goal in the sense that learn-
ers are prepared for the challenges that lie ahead in adulthood.
Education is, however, not restricted to learning that takes place at school. It can also
take place in the work situation, when a company provides education opportunities to its
employees to prepare them for the challenges of life as manifest in the work situation, for
example, educating employees on the implications of AIDS in the workplace or making
employees aware of the changing customer and market profile by means of diversity edu-
cation sessions.
Training
The second component of the new ETD system in South Africa is training. Although there
is a direct relationship between education and training, the latter is narrower in its focus.
Training entails the transfer of specific skills to an employee so that they can perform a
very specific job or task. Training is therefore more task orientated in the sense that it is
concerned with skills acquisition and work performance. Training is conducted when a
particular training need has been identified such as a gap in performance or the introduc-
tion of new technology which requires new skills. If we take the example of AIDS again,
training would mean providing an employee or manager with specific skills to deal with
an AIDS employee in their department. Other types of training interventions include
technical training and computer training.
Development
The third component of ETD is development. Erasmus and Van Dyk (1999:3) context-
ualise development in a broader perspective in which emphasis is placed on employee
development rather than the development of a particular individual. Development occurs
when ongoing learning opportunities are created so that employees can improve and main-
tain high levels of performance. Examples of development interventions are mentorship
programmes, career development and ongoing seminars in which employees are given
opportunities to keep abreast of changes and trends in the business environment or in a
particular field. The end result is a better developed workforce, which contributes directly
to the achievement of business goals.
The mandate of the Education, Training and Development Practices Project was to
develop a model of the progression paths, standards and qualifications in the field of
ETD. “ETD” is the term used to describe the practices which directly or indirectly pro-
mote or support learning. Presenting training, designing learning materials and managing
training programmes are all examples of such practices (ETD Practices Project, 1998).
The ETD Practices Project aimed to establish national standards for ETD practitioners
in South Africa in order to professionalise ETD. In organisations in which ETD takes
place, ETD supports the main activity or purpose of the organisation. For example, the
purpose of a company may be to produce products for customers, and ETD is undertaken
in this context for the purpose of supporting this broad goal. The company may decide to
introduce courses on customer satisfaction in order to ensure that employees are equipped
with the necessary knowledge, skills and values to provide products that meet the needs of
its customers. Several unit standards in the field of ETD have subsequently been regis-
tered, but further qualification development will occur under the banner of the QCTO.
A central issue in the transformation of ETD is to improve the quality of ETD practices
in organisations. This means that ETD practitioners must have competence in promoting
quality in all aspects of the ETD process. In addition, environmental and technological
changes are likely to require new competencies on the part of ETD practitioners. They will
be required to adapt to the external environment in an appropriate manner according to
the needs of the situation. They should therefore be equipped with the competence to solve
problems and find solutions in a fast-changing world.
ETD practitioners should not only involve themselves in projects like these, but should
continuously study the latest developments in their field by making use of networking and
development opportunities. An ETD practitioner must be able to generate options and
possibilities for skills and personal development strategies at enterprise and sector level
(see chapter 20 for some options on continuous professional development).
1.3.3 HR and L&D standards

One of the most exciting milestones in the HR and HRD field has been the development
in 2013 of National HR standards for South Africa by the HR professional and quality
assurance body of South Africa, namely, the SA Board for People Practices (SABPP).
The purpose of the National HR standards initiative was to create a coherent framework
for HR practice in driving a consistent standard and reducing inconsistencies in HR
practice. This was the first set of national HR standards developed in the world. The first
part of the project consisted of developing a set of 13 national HR standards aimed at
ensuring the effective implementation of an HR system standard within an organisation.
L&D is one of these 13 standard elements, comprising the overarching HR system
standard. The second part of the initiative was the expansion of the HR system standard
by developing specific HR professional practice standards. The aim hereof was
strengthening the overal system by guiding HR practitioners in the daily application of
standards, such as learning needs analysis, on-boarding of staff and learning evaluation.
These L&D standards will be covered in different chapters in this book where they are
relevant, but a full chapter (chapter 14) is dedicated to explaining the overall L&D system
standard elements as well as the link to the different L&D professional practice standards.
1.4 Integrating ETD, L&D and HRD

The question now arises: what is the difference between ETD, L&D and HRD? ETD
forms part of the broader strategy of HRD. ETD provides short and medium-term
interventions in order to ensure that the long-term goals of HRD are achieved. HRD is
therefore broader than the ETD process which entails the phases of needs analysis, design,
delivery and the evaluation of ETD. The HRD function manages the total system and
environment in which ETD takes place. In HRD the emphasis is on the continuous
management of the learning environment and the support of the necessary transfer and
follow-up strategies to make ETD work. Unfortunately, many South African organi-
sations have not reached the stage where training programmes are integrated in an ETD
system, let alone incorporating them in a well-managed HRD system.
While many governments prefer the term ETD to refer to their HRD practitioners,
consistent with international trends, the South African private sector has embraced the
term L&D to denote the work of their training staff. In some companies this has become
so successful that the highest level of employment in the L&D field is referred to as a
Chief Learning Officer (CLO). This is a fully-fledged executive position operating at a
comparable level of seniority to a Chief HR Officer (CHRO) or Chief Financial Officer
(CFO). Typically, the CLO runs all the learning academies of the organisation and is
responsible for executive decisions pertaining to L&D. However, the CLO role is rather
the exception than the norm and a lot still needs to happen before this trend becomes the
norm. Having said that, most companies have started making the paradigm shift to L&D
by renaming their training managers or ETD managers – the new common job title today
is L&D Manager. Large companies typically have a Group L&D Manager at its head
office and several L&D managers in regions or provinces, or functional L&D managers
heading up specific areas of expertise, such as leadership development and technical
training.
In its broadest sense, all ETD, L&D and HRD work should align to the overall HRD
strategy of the country, which is why the government created the Human Resource
Development (HRD) Council to oversee HRD nationally. There are simply too many
different components of HRD not working in a coherent manner that need to be aligned
and integrated to ensure that the country’s overal HRD framework is optimised. Current
weaknesses in the system, such as an inadequate primary and secondary education
system, poor tehnical and vocational training, and an ineffective and fragmented skills
development system driven by Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) need
to be reviewed and improved for greater relevance and impact.
Notwitstanding the specific focus areas of HRD, it is evident that L&D practitioners
require a wide range of skills in order to play a proactive role in HRD. While the roles of
L&D practitioners were developed by the National Training Board several years ago, they
are still very relevant as we consider the development of L&D practice towards the 2020
workplace. They are summarised in Table 1.1 below.
Table 1.1 Roles in an L&D model
Roles Description
Administrator Providing support and logistical backup for the enablement of
training
Assessor Assessing the competency status of individuals against agreed quality
standards, using outputs and outcomes as the basis for evidence
Evaluator Evaluating the impact of L&D on the effectiveness of individuals or
organisations
Group learning facilitator Guiding interventions that enable individuals or groups to learn in a
group context
Individual learning Guiding interventions that enable individual learning needs to be
facilitator satisfied
Learning experience Designing interventions in terms of outputs and outcomes, learning
designer opportunities and delivery to enable learning
Learning materials Developing learning materials that will assist practitioners and
developer learners in achieving learning objectives
Manager Ensuring that the structured learning process is effective through
co-ordination of L&D-related activities
Needs analyst Identifying L&D needs of both individuals and groups or
organisations
Strategist Formulating plans for training and development, organisation,
policies and practices to accommodate their vision and mission
Source: Adapted from National Training Board (1994).
If one considers the roles of the L&D practitioners, it appears that most L&D practitioners
fulfil a combination of these roles, depending on their level of responsibility and the size
of the organisation. These roles are therefore interrelated and interdependent in order to
constitute effective L&D practices. Also, while certain aspects of L&D are outsourced,
the L&D practitioner still needs to play a key role in managing all relevant L&D
processes, practices and methodologies relevant to the different L&D interventions. Thus,
the different L&D roles outlined in Table 1.1 are directly aligned to the L&D professional
practice standards developed by the SABPP (see chapter 14).
According to Van Dyk et al (1997:544) the L&D roles should be expressed through
outcomes, quality standards and competence. Each role should be described in terms of
required outcomes. Each outcome, in turn, is based on quality standards that indicate com-
petence and provide a framework for assessment. Competencies are the skills, attitudes
and knowledge L&D practitioners require in order to produce the expected outcomes.
1.5 Principles underlying the development of L&D practitioners

The development of L&D practitioners cannot take place in a vacuum. It is therefore
essential that the managers of L&D systems ensure that the development of L&D
practitioners is guided by a set of principles. These 10 principles have been developed for
ETD practitioners by Van Dyk et al (1997:540–542) and are repositioned below from an
L&D perspective.
The development task of the L&D practitioner from an overall reference framework
All L&D interventions, like on-the-job training, are part of the larger L&D function and
HRD system of the organisation, its sector and the country. In this context, HRD is
integrated into the overall business plans. This brings about a change in the nature of
L&D, away from the traditional courseware orientation to a broader approach in which
HRD interventions are implemented to support organisational strategies. Therefore, L&D
interventions should also be supported and enabled by fit-for-purpose HRD interventions,
such as mentoring and coaching, career management and leadership development.
Approach development requirements proactively

Learners in an HRD system should be prepared to handle the HRD challenges of the
future. L&D practitioners should therefore develop L&D interventions that take
cognisance of the changes taking place in a fast-changing world. A more proactive
approach is therefore needed, one in which L&D practitioners identify learning
interventions that are of strategic importance to the organisation. During this process,
L&D will support HRD interventions by preparing learners for the demands made on
them by the environment.
Co-ownership for all concerned

The learner and the supervisor must be involved in the development of L&D interventions.
This will not only ensure buy-in, but will also contribute to the transfer of knowledge,
skills and values to the workplace. The ultimate goal is to create an environment in which
the learner accepts responsibility for their own learning and development.
The development model is also a role model for L&D practitioners

In L&D, learners can adapt the L&D model to their own learning behaviour. They will
then be better at developing people in the workplace when it is their turn to facilitate L&D
programmes.
Training of L&D practitioners is a development process

HRD interventions are often long-term orientated because of the development process
which forms part of career planning. The development of L&D learners should thus be
spread over a relatively long period so that new abilities can be fully internalised and
integrated into the learner’s frame of reference in order to broaden their perspective.
The L&D practitioner focuses on both the task and process behaviour of a group
L&D practitioners should focus on the outcomes that should be achieved as a result of a
learning intervention. This will ensure that learning remains relevant. Similarly, the L&D
practitioner should manage group processes which take place when L&D programmes are
presented. The integration of task and process behaviour is thus very important.
Incorporating the transfer of learning into the development model

Opportunities should be created for L&D learners to transfer their knowledge and skills to
the workplace. This will include the integration of the HRD system in other business sys-
tems in which provision is made for practice in a work situation.
Constant adaptation and innovation

An HRD system should be needs-driven in order to keep abreast of changes in a con-
stantly changing world. This means that the L&D system must be continuously updated
by incorporating the latest trends and developments.
Socialisation
The largest part of the L&D practitioner’s work takes place in a group setting, where they
are constantly being exposed to group dynamics and human behaviour. This ensures a
high level of socialisation for the L&D practitioner. With the growth in e-learning and
social learning by means of social media, the socialisation of L&D will be accelerated
(see chapter 11). L&D practitioners who do not use social media to interact with learners
will become irrelavant over the short term, and obsolete over the medium term.
Application of adult learning principles
The L&D model focuses mostly on the creation and maintenance of an environment in
which adults can learn effectively. The approach to learning is therefore very problem-
orientated and adults are stimulated to use their knowledge and life experience to solve
real problems.
1.6 Outcomes-based education (OBE)

The NQF makes provision for an OBE system. One of the main objectives of the NQF is
to create an integrated framework for learning achievements and to facilitate access and
progression in HRD. It must enhance quality and accelerate redress of inequalities. It is
imperative that the system contributes to the personal development of learners,
irrespective of the place or level of learning. The NQF is based on the notion of OBE. In
essence, OBE focuses on what the learner is able to do – in other words, each learning
programme must have a particular outcome in terms of what the learner can do in the
workplace (Olivier, 1998; Van der Horst and McDonald, 1997). OBE is very different
from content-based education, in terms of which learning is dominated by theory. Hence,
the new occupational learning system driven by the QCTO makes provision for achieving
the correct balance between theory, application and practice in ensuring that learners
achieve competence in their occupational field of learning.
The important question to consider is: to what extent are HRD or L&D practitioners
ready to pursue an OBE system? An overview of the differences between content-based
education and OBE will clarify this issue:
Table 1.2 Differences between content-based education and OBE
Education
Content-based education OBE
dimension
Needs • Very few parties are consulted • All six stakeholders are consulted
analysis before the trainer develops the prior to curriculum development:
course him or herself. employers, employees, govern-
• Trainers decide how needs are ment, special interest groups,
determined and expressed. providers and learners.
• The end product of needs analysis
is reflected as unit standards.
Course • Instructional designers develop • Learning programmes are designed

design courses around the content. according to the needs of the above
• The outcomes of a course are six stakeholders.
written as objectives. • Outcomes clearly indicate what the
learner must be able to do.
Learning • The learning material is called • Learning material is called learning

material study manuals or textbooks and is guides and is outcomes-driven.
content-driven. • The content is determined by the
• The instructor determines the inputs of various role-players.
content.
Presentation • The instructor presents a • A facilitator presents a lesson based

predetermined lesson. on the unit standard in a flexible
• The instructor is in control of the manner.
learning event. • The facilitator guides learners to
achieve outcomes.
Assessment • Learners do assignments and write • A variety of assessment techniques

tests and examinations in order to are used, for example simulations,
indicate their level of competence. portfolios, self-assessment and
• Assessment criteria are non- workplace assessment.
existent or vague. • Assessment criteria are clearly
defined and indicated as part of the
unit standard.
From Table 1.2 it is clear that HRD practitioners involved in L&D practices in the OBE
framework will have to undergo a paradigm shift in order to adapt to the new education
system. A significant degree of learning and unlearning will be required to bridge the gap
between traditional content-driven training and outcomes-based learning. Thus, the ETDP
SETA plays a critical role in skills development in the education and training sector
(ETDP SETA, 2015).
1.7 Company example

Learnership to Address Business Needs – An Exemplar From SAB
Ltd.
The South African Breweries Corporate Development Practitioner
Programme (CDPP) – NQF level 6 – 169 credits, incorporating the
Occupationally Directed Education and Training Development Prac-
tices learnership at NQF level 5 has been implemented successfully to
address Business Needs over the last few years.
Irene James, Dionysus Skills Development Initiative Pty Ltd
Siegie Brownlee, Regenesys Business School (ex-SAB employee)
The Human Resource profession is still relatively young, but is growing at a remarkable rate. The
implementation of the South African Qualification Authority’s (SAQA’s) national standards, with
both knowledge and outcomes assessments, coupled with renewal activities is ensuring that the HR
profession achieves the same level of respect as other benchmark professions in South Africa.
Within South African Breweries Ltd, the learning and development specialists (L&Ds) are acutely
aware of the fact that they operate within one of the most crucial departments if they are to continu-
ally increase the competitive advantage and value of the business. The organisation has gone
beyond mere competence of its employees and is ensuring that their employees are equipped to per-
form and deliver results that exceed their customers’ expectations. They do this by focusing, not just
on productivity, but also on efficiency. This approach won the SAB Ltd an ATD BEST Award and
placed them 8th in the world with the Association of Talent Development in 2006. The ATD BEST
Awards recognise organisations that demonstrate enterprise-wide success through employee learn-
ing and development. According to Tony Bingham, ATD’s president and CEO, “The winners set
the standard of excellence for exceptional learning practices, and demonstrate that a skilled work-
force is vital to achieving results.” Bingham continues, “The 2006 ASTD BEST Award winners use
learning as a strategic tool and have the support of senior leaders who champion a learning culture.”
Apart from recently taking the decision to implement e-learning as one of the blended learning
approach solutions, SAB Ltd has acknowledged the fact that their drivers of learning and develop-
ments rests with their Learning and Development Specialists (L&Ds). In order for them to efficiently
perform this role, the L&Ds need to be performance consultants – able to diagnose the cause of a
problem, explore who has ownership and be capable of facilitating a solution. This includes under-
standing the business strategy fully, as well as the HRD strategy to match the Vision, Mission and
Values, and the necessity to get buy-in from senior personnel and line managers to implement the
learning solution. Therefore, in order to ensure a “pipeline” of readily available well-trained person-
nel for the business, the L&D Specialists operate as business consultants, who understand key pro-
cesses, metrics and business drivers. Their key focus areas are knowledge management, perform-
ance management and behavioural change. They recognise the extreme importance of maintaining
and fostering a learning culture in the organisation, implementing real learning solutions (not just
training for the sake of it), and measuring the learning results. This means that their reporting in-
cludes reporting to operational management and being accountable for developing solutions and
creating measured improvement.
Their endeavours are moving increasingly towards being measured in terms of Return on Invest-
ment (ROI), performance gaps and added value created. They have to think outside the traditional
box of providing training merely to address gaps.
In addition, the SAB Ltd learning and development specialists are responsible for:
• monitoring and reporting on the results of organisational learning, development and training
activities in terms of their effect on organisational performance
continued
• identifying, evaluating, and implementing measurement systems for current and future job/team
performance
• ensuring performance feedback is an integral part of the organisation’s learning, development
and training information system
• providing development information, support activities and procedures for learners, supervisors,
and managers to assist in achieving performance improvement, (for example training, coaching,
feedback and techniques for setting objectives)
• developing, implementing and monitoring the success of performance feedback and coaching
• designing development programmes, consistent with organisational performance requirements at
varying stages of the employment cycle
• establishing measurement tools and processes to evaluate development programmes for effect-
iveness relative to the needs of the organisation
• helping supervisors/managers to identify career options for employees, which are consistent with
the organisational needs and strategy
• ensuring performance management information is an integral component of employee development
• assisting employees in identifying career paths, establishing learning plans and activities required
for achieving personal success.
In order to fulfil all these roles, the typical L&D Specialist has to exhibit a sound reasoning and
applicable knowledge of international, national and local trends in people development, have an
excellent understanding of SAB’s business acumen, be innovative thinkers with the ability to find
solutions to business challenges, and have a special willingness to take responsibility for the devel-
opment of others in the business, as well as ensure ongoing personal development. It was with these
factors in mind, that SAB decided to embark on a learnership for their L&D Specialists – one that
would address all the above, and more, where necessary.
In SAB, learning solutions/programmes are aligned with business and individual development re-
quirements. Learning solutions are developed or sourced to address emerging/identified skills gaps
across the organisation, informed by macro business requirements, the company strategy, function-
al/departmental goals and individual requirements.
According to SAB’s Skills Development Facilitator, the following concepts define best practice
learning systems within SAB Ltd:
• Flexibility – promoting life-long learning with minimum clutter
• Utilising technology as widely as possible
• Orientating and up-skilling employees as quickly as possible
• Have assessments that simulate real-life situations
• Linking learning, assessment and performance closely
• Linking assessments to job outputs (such as hardwired)
• Providing learning plans for the learner to take responsibility for learning
• Using certification and linkages to the NQF where appropriate.
In 2005, SAB approached private training company, Dionysus SDI Pty Ltd to source or create, if
necessary, an ideal learnership that would address the development needs of their Learning and
Development Specialists as well as prepare them for the business needs. In addition to the regular
institutional component of the programme, workplace assignments were researched and compiled.
Parallel to the learnership process was the continued implementation of Individual Development
Plans (IDPs) in order to indicate to what extent the development and training requirements for indi-
vidual employees were being met, as well as fostering the concept of life-long learning for individu-
als. In keeping with the concept of workplace support, mentoring and coaching that is so essential to
a learnership, whilst the individual is responsible for his or her own development, the manager and
other specialists play a supportive, coaching, guiding and assessment role.
continued
A search of the SAQA website revealed that the closest match to their needs at the time was the
Occupationally Directed: Education Training Development Practitioners’ learnership. Although it was
not perfect, it formed a good match against the base competencies required for the L&D Specialists.
The unit standards’ specific outcomes, assessment criteria and essential embedded knowledge were
matched to the L&D Specialists’ internal (SAB) competency guide, and where a gap existed, an
additional unit standard was sourced to close the gap. This exercise resulted in the development of a
special programme (with the majority of its unit standards at NQF level 6) for SAB.
Titled the “SAB CORPORATE DEVELOPMENT PRACTITIONER PROGRAMME (CDPP)”,
the programme focuses on the training and development aspects of the profession, and addresses the
professional capabilities and indicators based on international trends for the individual involved in
Organisational Learning, Development and Training. It is a credit-bearing unit standard based pro-
gramme that is not only aligned to the current SAB Ltd Training and Development Specialist’s
internal competency guide, but also incorporates the SAQA registered OD ETDP certificate (level
5) and a selection of registered SAQA unit standards, including the professionally developed (SA
Board for People Practices – SABPP) unit standards for Skills Development Facilitators.
With all these factors in mind, the methodology used for the learnership had to match business
practice.
The following model was used to design, develop and implement the programme:
Underpinning Support and Tolerance
It was essential to consider the existing learning methodology within SAB Ltd, in order to deter-
mine the value of a development programme for the L&Ds. Within SAB, the learning methodology
is known as Competency Acquisition Process (CAP). CAP was introduced into SAB in 1994 based
on the UK/Australian Model and in anticipation of the SAQA and Skills Development Act require-
ments. The model was designed to ensure that integrated learning processes embed learning.
continued
CAP is an outcomes-based learning framework used to define and develop competence within the
organisation; therefore the results of learning are measurable. Its objective is to provide an easily
accessible, simple-to-use learning platform aimed at defining specific role competencies and en-
couraging individual ownership for learning and the achievement of competence. It involves speci-
fying the competence for a job and then aligning learning to meet the competence required for that
job. CAP gives every employee an opportunity to access learning solutions and develop competence
in line with organisational needs and their own capability and aspirations.
Owing to the fact that competencies are aligned with business strategies and goals, CAP is viewed
as a key strategic tool and an important competitive advantage. Numerous internal studies have
reflected a proven direct correlation between competence, performance and business results.
Because of its design, CAP is well suited to an outcomes-based approach to learning and develop-
ment based on the following key elements:
• Learning must be defined by outcomes, be learner-centred and not content or syllabus driven
• People learn differently
• Competence assessment and evaluation of training is crucial
• Performance and learning outcomes must be integrated
• Programmes must help learners achieve success
• Learners must be measured against what needs to be learnt
• Learners must be involved in real life situations.
SAB’s previous SDF, Siegie Brownlee, further goes on to state that “the CAP process focuses on
acquiring competence. Competence refers to the knowledge, skill and psychomotor capability (af-
fective, cognitive or integrative) to perform a job to standard.” Competence is, however, only one
factor in overall performance. Individual attributes for example behaviour, experience, values, moti-
vation and personality mindsets that drive behaviour; also influence performance.
A comparison between the OD ETDP certificate and L&D Specialist’s Competency guide was
made to determine the extent of the match. A close match was established (with two small areas of
exception).
The match between the SAB L&D internal competency requirements and the SAQA qualification
and unit standards was as follows:
L&D’s SAB competency requirements and CDPP correlation

SAB Competency CDPP Theory and
Workplace Evidence for CAP
Requirement Practical Evidence
Initiate the Develop- • Understanding current skills • Regional Training and Development
ment Process development legislation and Strategy is developed as per skills
1. Integrate National global and national trends in development requirements, based on
Strategy training and development Business Plan, Central Office HRD
• Understanding SDF Role and Plan and National Development
2. Conduct Training
Business needs Strategy
Needs Analysis
• Understanding NSDS • Workplace Skills Planning process
3. Co-ordinate the
is implemented linked to TNA,
Design and • Understanding Learnerships
Training Plan, Training Budget,
Development of skills programmes, etc
WSP (show link)
Learning • Promoting a learning culture
Solutions • Training committee consultation
in an organisation
taken place
• Research methodology and
• Understand the dynamics of the
basic questionnaire design
L&D’s role in regard to SDF Unit
Standard
continued
SAB Competency CDPP Theory and Workplace Evidence

Requirement Practical Evidence for CAP
4. Contribute to • Conducting a Training Needs • Full Skills Levy rebates received
Organisational Analysis and compiling a • Proof that training needs are
Change Training Plan identified through needs analysis
• Compiling an Annual Train- at strategic, operational and
ing Report and Workplace individual level
Skills Plan for submission to • Proof that needs are agreed with the
SETA line manager and learner, and
• Knowledge of theories of performance versus training gap
Mager and Pipe, differentiated
Romiszowski • Proof that departmental training and
• Administrative requirements individual development plans are
for skills development agreed and link to Individual
• Knowledge of QM systems Development Plans
and contribution towards • TNA, Training Plan and Training
establishing a QMS for T&D Budget exist linked to business strat-
• Complete and submit a egies and goals, National HRD strat-
Portfolio of Evidence (POE) egies and company HRD strategy.
against the National SDF Evidence of meeting systemic oper-
Unit Standards ational requirements. Proof of effect-
iveness in regard to business results
• Outcomes Based Education
• Provide evidence of a Training
• Knowledge of Diagnostic Budget developed and provide a brief
Models such as Mager and explanation of the Budget, Budget
Romiszowski Splits and Ratios
• General Androgogy • Establish the appropriate learning
• Spady, Wiggens approach to solutions required to achieve the
learning objectives and the requirements of
• Competency Models the Training Plan
• Learning Styles (Kolb, • Training solution that is designed
VARK, Honey and appropriately based on theory learnt
Mumford) in CDPP. Must be checked against
checklist in HRD Handbook
• Complete and submit a
Portfolio of Evidence (POE) • Training solution meets learning
to show evidence of methodology requirements outlined
programme and material in the HRD policies and procedures
design and facilitation viz Outcomes Based Learning Prin-
ciples and Human Performance
• ETQA Assessor Certification
Improvement precepts
Standards are met
• A pilot programme for the evaluation
• Complete and submit a
of newly designed training materials
Portfolio of Evidence (POE)
is arranged and evaluated
against the National Assessor
and Moderator Unit standards • Show evidence of role regarding
assessments for example coaching,
• Complete and submit a Port-
conducting assessment, etc
folio of Evidence (POE) to
show evidence of a mentor- • Evidence of a change management
ing intervention – real or programme that has been
hypothetical implemented (linked to OD
workshop)
continued
SAB Competency CDPP Theory and Practical

Workplace Evidence for CAP
Requirement Evidence
Implement the • Current SAQA Guidelines on • Training reports are compiled and
Learning Process Learnerships issued according to Regional and
5. Record and • SAB Ltd Policies and Company requirements
Analyse Training Procedures on Trainee and • An administration system is
Data Learnership Programmes maintained that is both effective and
6. Manage Trainees • Facilitation Techniques efficient
and Learnerships • Guidance and Mentoring of • Training spend is effectively
7. Effect Quality Trainees controlled and records maintained,
Assurance of analysed and reported on
• The concept of Recognition
HRD Efforts of Prior learning (RPL) • Provide examples of data on training
spend that has been recorded and
• Policies and Procedures on analysed
the company Quality
Management System • Show implementation of all steps of
learnerships (from linking and pipe-
• Literature on Quality line requirements to managing and
Management Systems completion)
• Curriculum Cycle • 100% completion rate where pass
• All required details are on SAPHR
• Show evidence of accreditation and
evidence of QMS implementation
throughout entire curriculum/training
cycle
Evaluate • Understanding of Integrated • Show evidence of where an Assess-
Effectiveness of Assessment ment developed is integrated into a
Training • Moderation theory and learning programme by linking
8. Design Integrated registration assessment activities meaningfully to
Assessment for a learning activities and through
• Systematic Evaluation
Learning Pro- formative assessment
Models including
gramme Kirkpatrick, Brinkerhoff and • Provide examples of integrated
9. Implement Phillips assessment activities and instruments
Summative • Techniques and models on • Show implementation and manage-
Assessment Return on Investment (ROI) ment of summative assessments and
10. Apply Recog- how the predictive moderation
nised Evaluation process is applied to the broader
Processes Assessment process
• Show evidence of Steps 1–6 of
Brinkerhoff applied to a learning
solution
The programme was modularised into the following modules, totalling 163 credits:
Title Credits
Module 1 Skills Development Facilitation 37
Module 2 Assessment 20
Module 3 Instructional Design and Research 18
continued
Title Credits
Module 4 Moderation 10
Module 7 Quality Management and Programme Evaluation 36
Module 5 Guidance and Counselling 14
Module 6 Learning Material Design and Facilitation 28
Formal contact time for each module was scheduled over a period of ten months, with two
months for close out time, and approximately six weekly periods were allowed back in the
workplace for assignments to address the workplace (CAP) requirements to be completed.
On 20 March 2007, 30 graduates on the programme were capped.
The programme’s success can be attributed to the following factors:
• Internal alignment to CAP requirements
• An internal person (the SAB Ltd SDF) who took ownership of the programme and
drove it from within, encouraging all participants throughout the process
• Customisation of the programme content for SAB Ltd
• Moderation of the programme throughout the Curriculum Process
• Continual review of the appropriateness of the programme and inclusion of the latest
global and NQF trends and developments
• The candidates’ opportunity to start working on their Portfolios of Evidence (POE)
during the formal contact period because of the customisation of activities to address
the outcomes of each unit standard
• Successful group work and sharing of information and experiences
• An endorsement of the SAQA and NQF principles and support for Outcomes Based
Education and Learnership Methodology from top management within SAB Ltd
• Support from the FoodBev SETA.
1.8 An integrated framework for HRD

HRD practitioners are continuously challenged to integrate international trends in the field
of HRD and the local requirements of the NQF and skills development systems. Not only
does this require an in-depth understanding of international best practices in the field of
HRD, but it also necessitates knowledge and skills to integrate these best practices with
the imperatives of the NQF, QCTO and SAQA requirements. In order to assist HRD prac-
titioners in this process, the rest of this book is organised around the achievement of inter-
national and local best practices in the field of HRD:
Chapter 2: HRD legislation
Chapter 3: Strategic Human Resource Development
Chapter 4: The learning organisation
Chapter 5: Performance consulting
Chapter 6: Learning needs analysis
Chapter 7: Designing Human Resource Development interventions
Chapter 8: Planning and organising training
Chapter 9: Management and leadership development
Chapter 10: Mentoring and coaching

Chapter 11: Electronic, mobile and social learning
Chapter 12: Employee orientation
Chapter 13: Employment equity and diversity training
Chapter 14: Learning and development standards
Chapter 15: Multiskilling
Chapter 16: Career management and performance
Chapter 17: HRD quality management
Chapter 18: Assessment and evaluation
Chapter 19: International Human Resource Development
Chapter 20: Continuing professional development.
1.9 Conclusion
HRD forms an integral part of business improvement in South African organisations and
indeed in companies all over the world. This chapter discusses the international and local
trends in HRD. It is evident that there are new and increasingly complex challenges for the
HRD manager who wants to make a significant contribution to organisational perform-
ance in an increasing complex and fast-changing business and social environment. A
strategic learning approach is needed to optimise HRD.
The impact of worldwide trends and developments in a competitive business environ-
ment will constantly change the role of the HRD function. Companies are beginning to
recognise the need for L&D and HRD professionals in their organisations to keep their
human resources at the cutting edge. Moreover, it appears that the information age
requires a different kind of learner, one who can learn very fast, one more highly skilled
than in the past. The same principle applies to L&D managers as professionals. HRD
managers will no longer simply be managers of training departments. Theirs is a
complicated job that requires competency in more than just human resource or training
management.
The HRD manager’s new role constitutes a synergistic combination of various fields of
knowledge. Particular emphasis has been placed on the L&D standards and the role of the
L&D practitioner in the strategic learning context. The rest of this book provides details
of the HRD professional’s wide-ranging, complex and challenging role, with specific
reference to the South African situation from a strategic learning perspective.
1.10 Case study

New Life Insurance Company has a staff complement of 793, of which 234 are frontline people
responsible for the call centre in sales, client care and claims.
New Life Insurance Company was formed as a result of the realisation that most clients have a
problem with insurers, as insurers have with clients. Insurers believe that clients are loading their
claims while clients believe that short-term insurance is a rip-off.
In an industry better known for its small print than for innovation, New Life is gaining a reputa-
tion based on its vigorous operating style, its ability to analyse data and react swiftly, and its focus
continued
on retaining customers through service. The management team’s goal is to build a company that is
recognised as world class.
One of the keys to the company’s ability to deliver quality service is the emphasis on training.
Staff are intensively trained not just in systems, procedures and products but also in values and,
above all, customer service excellence. Although the company does invest considerable funds in
training, this training is not aligned with the NQF. The company’s trainers have also not been
exposed to the new QCTO system. The training manager, however, addressed this need by recruit-
ing two L&D practitioners to assist her in this task. The L&D practitioners will need to ensure
alignment to the SABPP National HR Standards and in particular the L&D Standards. This will
ensure that New Life applies best practice as agreed by the HR and L&D professional community at
a national level.
One thing that had to be decided on was what kind of culture management wanted and needed
within the new company. They decided that it had to be a value-driven company, not a rules-driven
company. Certain core values were agreed upon and everybody in the company is expected to be a
custodian of these values. There are six core values which guide the behaviour of staff: profession-
alism, profitability, integrity, transparency, passion and innovation.
The managing director spends half a day with every new staff intake to familiarise them with the
vision and values of New Life. The company tries in an unforced way to break down the traditional
barrier between management and employees.
Questions
1 Which international trends in HRD are applicable in New Life?
2 How can the company assist its trainers in implementing strategic learning?
3 Identify the ETD roles required of the New Life’s training staff members.
4 How can ETD contribute to HRD at New Life?
5 Develop an HRD plan that will help the company to internalise its values in the company’s cul-
ture.
6 Indicate how the principles underlying the development of L&D practitioners can be applied at
New Life.
7 Which SETA will New Life be registered with?
8 Explain how alignment to the National L&D standards can benefit L&D practice at New Life.
1.11 Self-assessment questions

1 Provide a critical analysis of the readiness of South African organisations to adapt to
the international trends and developments in the field of HRD.
2 Explain the ETD practices model and indicate how training managers in South Africa
should change in order to conform to ETD practices.
3 Describe the notion of OBE.
4 How can ETD be integrated within the framework of HRD?
5 Develop a plan to assist ETD practitioners in changing from traditional training to
OBE.
6 Indicate the principles underlying the development of L&D practitioners.
7 Critically evaluate the following statement: “If an HRD practitioner can master the 20
chapters of this book, s/he will be able to become a world-class HRD practitioner.”
8 Evaluate the extent to which the National HR and L&D Standards can promote
consistency and professionalism in L&D practice.
1.12 References
Heath K, 1999, “Training’s impact, value, and ROI at First Union”, ASTD International
Conference: Atlanta.
ETDP SETA, 2015, Education, Training and Development Practices Sector Education
and Training Authority Annual Report 2015, Johannesburg: ETDP SETA.
Haynes R, 2016, “Professional People Products, Top Employers 2017 Advertising Sup-
plement”, Mail & Guardian, October 14–20.
IMD, 2016, World Competiveness Report 2016, Lusanne: IMD.
Nadler L and Wiggs GD, 1986, Managing Human Resource Development, San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
National Training Board and German Technical Co-operation, 1998, “Education, training
and development practices project”.
Olivier C, 1998, How to Educate and Train Outcomes-Based, Pretoria: JL van Schaik.
QCTO, 2011, QCTO Curriculum and Assessment Policy, Pretoria: Quality Council for
Trades & Occupations.
QCTO, 2011, OCTO Policy on Delegation to DQPs and AQPs, Pretoria: Quality Council
for Trades & Occupations.
SABPP, 2014, National HR Standards for South Africa, Johannesburg, SABPP.
SABPP, 2015, National HR Professional Practice Standards for South Africa,
Johannesburg, SABPP.
Smith N, 2016, “The human factor”, Financial Mail, 1–7 September.
Van Dyk PS, Nel PS, Loedolff P van Z and Haasbroek GD, 1997, Training Management:
A Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Resource Development in Southern Africa, 2nd
edn, Halfway House: International Thomson.
1.13 Suggested reading

Barker F, 2006, The South African Labour Market: Theory and Practice, 5th edn, Pretoria:
Van Schaik.
Blanchard PN and Thacker JW, 2007, Effective Training: Systems, Strategies, and Prac-
tices, 3rd edn, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Buckley R and Caple J, 2004, The theory and practice of training, 5th edn, London: Kogan
Page.
Coetzee M and Schreuder D, 2016, Personnel Psychology: An Applied Perspective, 2nd
edn, Cape Town: Oxford.
Department of Higher Education and Training, 2011, National Skills Development Strategy
III, Pretoria: Department of Higher Education and Training.
Gold J, Holden R, Iles P, Stewart J and Beardwell J, 2012, Human Resource Development:
Theory & Practice, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
Mankin D, 2009, Human Resource Development, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Meyer M and Orpen M, 2012, Occupationally-Directed Education Training and Develop-
ment Practices, 2nd edn, Durban: LexisNexis.
Meyer T, 1996, Creating Competitiveness through Competencies: Currency for the 21st
Century, Randburg: Knowledge Resources.
Nel JP, 2010, Establishing a Positive Quality Culture in Education, Training and Develop-
ment, Pretoria: Mentornet.
Noe RA, 1999, Employee Training and Development, Boston: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
Philips B, 1997, Getting to Grips with the National Qualifications Framework, Johannes-
burg: Sigma.
Rigg C, Stewart J and Trehan K (ed), 2007, Critical Human Resource Development:
Beyond Orthodoxy, Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall/Pearson Education.
Pietersen W, 2010, Strategic Learning: How to be Smarter than the Competition and Turn
Key Insights into Competitive Advantage, New Jersey: John Wiley.
SAQA, 2010, Towards a Map of NQF-related Research, Pretoria: SAQA.
SAQA, 2011, National RPL Conference: Bridging and Expanding Existing Islands of
Excellent Practice, Pretoria: SAQA.
Smith A and Hayton G, 1999, “What drives enterprise training? Evidence from Australia”,
The International Journal of Human Resource Management 10(2): 251–272.
1.14 Internet sites

Academy of Human Resource Development: http://www.ahrd.org
Achiever Online: http://www.achieveronline.co.za
Association for Talent Development (ATD): http://www.astd.org
Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development: http://www.cipd.co.uk
Department of Higher Education and Training: http://www.dhet.gov.za
ETDP SETA: http://www.etdpseta.org.za
HRD Press: http://www.hrdpress.com
HRDQ: http://www.hrdq.com
Institute of People Development: http://www.peopledev.co.za
International Society for Performance Improvement: http://www.ispi.org
Quality Council for Trades and Occupations: http://www.qcto.org.za
Skills Portal: http://www.skillsportal.co.za
SA Board for People Practices: http://www.sabpp.co.za
South African Qualifications Authority: http://www.saqa.org.za
Talent Talks: http://www.talenttalks.net
1.15 Acknowledgements
The contribution of Irene James of Dionysus Skills Development Initiative and Siegie
Brownlee of Regenesys Business School to provide a company example is ackowledged.
CHAPTER
2
HUMAN RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT LEGISLATION
Marius Meyer
Skills development has to be at the core of this country’s strategy to shift
from an isolated past into a new competitive and global economy.
(Christoph Vorwerk)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain the rationale of the Skills Development Act and the Skills Development Levies Act to
your work colleagues
• Relate the Skills Development Act to other skills and labour policy initiatives
• Explain to your work colleagues the transformational purpose and underpinning principles of the
National Qualifications Framework (NQF) as embodied in the NQF Act
• Discuss how evolving views of competence are related to the format for describing competence
that was adopted by SAQA and the QCTO
• Explain the implementation structures and processes to establish and utilise the NQF to your
work colleagues
• Relate the Skills Development Act to the NQF
• Explain to your work colleagues the purpose and functions of each of the core components of the
Skills Development Act
• Indicate the implications of the provisions of the Skills Development Act and the Skills Develop-
ment Levies Act for your organisation’s strategic human resources planning
• Design HRD strategies and plans to implement the NQF and Skills Development Act in terms of
a workplace skills plan for your organisation
25
2.1 Introduction
The Skills Development Act 97 of 1998, promulgated in 1999, makes provision for a “new
approach to skills development that compliments [sic] the formal education. It links skill
formation to the requirements of a growing economy and extends education and training
to people both within and outside formal employment” (RSA, 1997:1). In tandem with the
Skills Development Levies Act 9 of 1999 (RSA, 1999a), the Skills Development Act
places a legal obligation on all employers to improve the competency levels of their work-
force. The Skills Development Levies Act 9 of 1999 (RSA, 1999a) imposes a skills de-
velopment levy on most employers, and obliges government departments to allocate a
percentage of their budget to skills development.
The Skills Development Strategy is based on the National Qualifications Framework
Act 67 of 2008, which makes provision for the National Qualifications Framework (NQF)
established by the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA).
This body of skills development legislation has fundamentally changed the face of edu-
cation and training in South Africa. The implications of these Acts for human resource
development (HRD) are discussed in this chapter in order to provide guidelines for design-
ing and implementing relevant organisational strategies.
In this chapter we will look at:
• the origin and strategic intent of the National Skills Development Strategy
• how the National Skills Development Strategy relates to other policy initiatives
• the principles and structure of the NQF as the basis of the National Skills Development
Strategy
• the institutional structures and processes through which the NQF is being established
and implemented
• the core components of the National Skills Development Strategy
• what the implications of the National Skills Development Strategy and the NQF for
strategic human resource development in a typical company in South Africa are, and
• a few examples of how organisations have implemented the legislation reviewed in this
chapter.
2.2 Origin of the Skills Development Strategy and the NQF

The Skills Development Strategy is based on the outcomes of two processes:
• four skills development strategy workshops convened between November 1995 and
September 1996 by the Chief Directorate: Human Resources Development and Careers
Services, which included industrial training boards, government departments and non-
governmental organisations involved in HRD
• a concurrent investigation by a Counterpart Group under the National Economic Devel-
opment and Labour Council, following the recommendations of the NTSI concerning
the funding and governing structures of skills development in South Africa.
2.3 The strategic intent of the Skills Development Strategy

To plan and implement a HRD strategy in accordance with the Skills Development Strat-
egy requires a sound understanding of the intended outcomes of the latter.
Chapter 2: Human Resource Development legislation 27
The research done prior to the design of the Skills Development Strategy indicated a
need to develop an integrated skills development system for South Africa. South Africa
has been rated as having one of the poorest human resource development records in com-
parison with other countries at equivalent stages of development (IMD, 2012). Problems in
the schooling and university systems inherited from the past have contributed to this poor
record. In addition, there has been a serious failure to address middle-level competency
requirements as evidenced by the decline of the apprenticeship system and the failure to
put anything in its place. Skills shortages at these and higher levels lead to organisations
operating inefficiently. Such training programmes as there have been have been poorly
aligned with social and economic strategies. South Africa’s poor record in mathematics
and science and the repeated failure of technical college graduates and of those com-
pleting unemployment training programmes to find employment are illustrative of this.
In the Skills Development Strategy Green Paper (RSA, 1997) a new conceptual approach
to skills development was proposed to address these problems. The strategy is also a re-
sponse to the huge challenges facing South Africa of employment growth and service
delivery. Since the Green Paper was published three five-year and updated national skills
development strategies have been conceptualised.
2.4 Relationship to other skills and labour policy initiatives

The Skills Development Strategy was developed as one of five major policy initiatives of
the government:
• promulgation of the NQF Act in 2008
• the Employment Equity Act in 1998
• Green Paper on Post-School Education in 2011
• transfer of the skills development system from the Department of Labour to the Depart-
ment of Higher Education and Training (DHET)
• establishment of the HRD Council reporting to the Deputy President.
2.5 The National Qualifications Framework Act (2008)

This section introduces the key concepts contained in the legislation that governs the de-
velopment of the National Qualification Framework (NQF) and the South African Qualifi-
cations Authority (SAQA). We will review the purpose, principles and processes involved
in the establishment of the NQF and the structures required for this.
It is the SAQA’s responsibility to determine the implementation details of the NQF, but
it has to consult stakeholders in doing so. From time to time, SAQA publishes regulations
and guidelines in the Government Gazette as well as the SAQA Internet home page
(http://www.saqa.org.za). Regulations and guidelines that have already appeared, are listed
under the references at the end of the chapter.
The NQF Act 67 of 2008 was promulgated to provide for the further development,
organisation and governance of the NQF. It replaces the SAQA Act of 1995. The NQF
Act applies to qualifications offered by educational institutions and skills development pro-
viders as well as to professional designations (RSA, 2008).
The NQF is a comprehensive system approved by the Minister of Higher Education and
Training for the classification, registration, publication and articulation of quality-assured
national qualifications (RSA, 2008). It is a single integrated system comprising three
co-ordinated qualifications sub-frameworks, i.e. General and Further Eucation and

Training, Higher Education, and Trades and Occupations. The objectives of the NQF
outlined in the Act (RSA, 2008: section 5(1)) are as follows:
(a) create a single integrated national framework for learning achievements;
(b) facilitate access to, and mobility and progression within, education, training and career
paths;
(c) enhance the quality of education and training;
(d) accelerate the redress of past unfair discrimination in education, training and employ-
ment opportunities.
The objectives of the NQF are designed to contribute to the full personal development of
each learner and to the social and economic development of the nation at large.
In terms of section 5(3) of the Act SAQA and the QCs must seek to achieve the object-
ives of the NQF by:
(a) developing, fostering and maintaining an integrated and transparent national framework
for the recognition of learning achievements;
(b) ensuring that South African qualifications meet appropriate national criteria . . . that
are internationally comparable; and
(c) ensuring that South African qualifications are of an acceptable quality.
2.5.1 The strategy underpinning the NQF

A number of other countries have introduced qualification frameworks to transform edu-
cation and training; notably the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand. The broad
strategy in each case has been to use the qualification frameworks to centralise control of
the right and requirements to accredit learners with national qualifications, while deregu-
lating how education and training should be provided.
The strategy can be characterised as “loose on inputs, but tight on outputs”: a central
authority decides on detailed criteria that any learner should meet before being issued with
a qualification. These are registered as national “standards”. Standards include a descrip-
tion of the competencies (in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes) that a “qualified”
learner should be able to demonstrate at the end of the learning process. The emphasis is
on acquired competencies as the outcomes of the learning process, and not on the learning
process itself. This means that the standards are based on an analysis of what a person,
who is qualified in any particular area, needs to know and be able to do now and in the
future, rather than what educationists and trainers think they should impart to trainees. To
put a qualification framework to use, statutory mechanisms have to be put in place to en-
sure that only learners who meet the prescribed standards are issued with a qualification.
Once the standards have been set, education and training providers have to ensure that
their learning programmes enable learners to acquire the abilities described in the stand-
ards. Because the standards are oriented toward the future, providers have to continuously
review their learning programmes. National education and training standards do not in
themselves constitute a curriculum, so that a provider can obtain a competitive edge by
finding the most creative and efficient way of helping learners earn qualifications. Learn-
ers, who have informally acquired the competencies required by a particular qualification,
may even hold that qualification without having attended a formal learning programme.
2.5.2 Intended transformation through the NQF

According to the Final Report of the Education, Training and Development (ETD) Prac-
tices Project (National Training Board, 1998:13–19), the NQF is intended to transform:
• who controls education and training and the ways in which this is done
• the purposes which education and training serve in South African society and economy
• the systems, institutions and practices through which education and training are pro-
vided
• what learning is achieved.
2.6 Establishment and composition of the SAQA

The South African Qualifications Authority was established on 31 May 1996 in terms of
the SAQA Act. The composition, goals, principles and work of the SAQA as defined in the
Act, echo the principles of the Reconstruction and Development Programme as well as
many of the transformation themes discussed above.
After calling for nominations from national stakeholder bodies and organisations and
consulting the Minister of Labour, the Minister of Education appointed a chairperson and
24 members. Of the latter 20 were nominated by stakeholder groupings as stipulated in
the SAQA Act and four are discretionary appointments by the Minister (the Act allows a
maximum of six discretionary appointments).
The 20 nominated members represent the six “social partners” in South Africa: govern-
ment, business, trade union, education and training providers, critical interest groups (such
as the disabled, women, youth and other groups whose presence is believed to be import-
ant) and community groups (who may represent learners).
2.7 SAQA’s functions in terms of the NQF Act

SAQA has formulated its mission on its Internet web page as being “To ensure the de-
velopment and implementation of a National Qualifications Framework (NQF) which
contributes to the full development of each learner and to the social and economic devel-
opment of the nation at large”. In terms of the NQF Act (RSA, 2008) SAQA must:
• oversee the implementation of the NQF and ensure the achievement of its objectives
• develop a system of collaboration to guide the mutual relations of SAQA and the QCs
• develop level descriptors for the different NQF levels
• register qualifications that are recommended by QCs and that meet the relevant criteria
• recognise professional bodies and register professional designations
• conduct research on the NQF
• create and maintain the National Learners’ Records Database with learner records and
professional designations
• evaluate foreign qualifications.
Moving forward from the previous focus of the SAQA Act, the NQF Act has two new
chapters that will play a major role in the development of the NQF from 2013 onwards,
namely those regarding quality councils and professional bodies respectively.
2.7.1 Quality councils

The three quality councils will be responsible for:
• developing and managing their sub-frameworks
• considering and agreeing to level descriptors
• developing and implementing policy and criteria regarding the development, assess-
ment and quality assurance of qualifications
• conducting research on its sub-framework.
2.7.2 Professional bodies

An exciting new development is SAQA’s recognition of professional bodies as outlined in
chapter 6 of the NQF Act. A professional body must co-operate with the relevant QCs in
respect of qualifications and quality assurance in its occupational field (RSA, 2008). It
must apply to SAQA to register a professional designation on the NQF. Many
professional bodies have been formally recognised by SAQA, including the SA Board for
People Practices (SABPP). This means that all readers of this book are elligible to apply
for professional registration as HR professionals with SABPP (see www.sabpp.co.za).
Their professional designations such as HRP or CHRP will then be uploaded on the
National Learners’ Records Database.
2.8 Principles of the NQF

The SAQA goals listed above reflect a structured set of principles regarding the intended
outcomes of the NQF (Human Sciences Research Council, 1995:11):
Principle Definition
Integration form part of a system of human resources development which provides for the
establishment of a unifying approach to education and training
Relevance be and remain responsive to national development needs
Credibility have national and international value and acceptance
Coherence work within a consistent framework of principles and certification
Flexibility allow for multiple pathways to the same learning ends
Standards be expressed in terms of a nationally agreed framework and internationally

acceptable outcomes
Legitimacy provide for the participation of all national stakeholders in the planning and
co-ordination of standards and qualifications
Access provide ease of entry to appropriate levels of education and training for all
prospective learners in a manner which facilitates progression
Articulation provide for learners, on successful completion of accredited pre-requisites, to
move between the components of the delivery system
Progression ensure that the framework of qualifications permits individuals to move through
the levels of national qualifications via different appropriate combinations of the
components of the delivery system
continued
Principle Definition
Portability enable learners to transfer their credits or qualifications from one learning
institution and/or employer to another
Recognition of through assessment, give credit to learning which has already been acquired in
prior learning different ways, for example through life experience
Guidance of provide for the counselling of learners by specially trained individuals who meet
learners nationally recognised standards for educators and trainers
From a quality assurance perspective, this list of objectives, and the principles embedded
in them, present a vision of quality education and training that the adoption of the NQF as
a transformation mechanism has to achieve.
2.9 The NQF as a transformation mechanism

There is a worldwide debate in which many different interpretations and definitions of
outcomes-based education and training (OBET) concepts are in use. Here we will only
outline in broad brushstrokes the perspectives and concerns that HRD practitioners in
South Africa should be aware of when interpreting the NQF in the workplace.
2.10 The description of “competence”

The concept “competence” was initially used to describe what a worker needed to be able
to do within a job. A clear enough description would enable employers to assess whether
particular workers were able to do particular jobs and it would enable them to plan how
different jobs related to other jobs in the overall organisation of work.
The competence required in any kind of job was usually analysed to determine what the
“elements” of competence were. These elements were written down as “unit standards”,
and sets of unit standards were combined to form qualifications.
Unit standards were intended to describe:
• what the employee is expected to do (“outcomes”)
• how well the employee is expected to perform (“standards”) and
• how to tell when the employee is at the expected level of performance (“assessment
criteria”).
In the South African context the concept of competence itself and the concepts and terms
used to describe it have changed for the following reasons:
• Descriptions of competence are used for more purposes
• The kinds of competence people are aiming to promote have changed
• A better understanding of how complex competence is, has developed and
• The way in which competence has been described is not always yielding the hoped-for
results.
2.10.1 Expanding descriptions of competence

The descriptions of competence used for job descriptions did not include a stipulation of
the knowledge required to effectively undertake the outlined tasks. This is required to pro-
vide the education and training of learners. Standards increasingly began to include
descriptions of the “underlying knowledge” and “range statements”, which indicate the
range of contexts within which it is expected the person being assessed should be able to
demonstrate the intended learning outcomes.
As one aim of education and training is to prepare people for work, employers wanted
education and training providers to base their curriculum development on standards. For
this purpose standards have to shift their focus as follows:
• Outcomes have to describe the learning to be achieved and/or what somebody should
be able to do as a result of learning
• Assessment criteria have to describe what would count as evidence that learning has in
fact been achieved as a result of education and training provision.
For basic levels of training, such as that described in the above example, this was not
found to be too problematic. For higher levels of training, however, in which the nature of
work is more complex, such descriptions were often found to be inadequate. They were
also inadequate in education, which makes a much less direct contribution to how com-
petent somebody is and which seldom prepares learners for specific jobs but rather for life
(including the possibility of unemployment).
As the standards were used in a wider range of purposes and in a wider set of contexts,
so people began to rethink how these standards could be expressed in a way that would
serve all these purposes better.
2.10.2 Different kinds of competence

There is another reason why descriptions of the knowledge underpinning the ability to
work effectively became more important: as the nature and organisation of work began to
change, employers required workers to change the kinds of competence that they brought
to the workplace.
Broadly, the changing nature of work and work organisations now requires much more
sophisticated thinking skills, self-management skills, life-long learning abilities, inter-
personal skills and technological understanding than the old assembly lines required. It
requires an integration of mental and manual labour (thinking and doing); therefore stand-
ards need to describe both the thinking and the doing.
The “doing” was described under the outcomes – so people writing standards began to
graft a category called “underlying knowledge” or “knowledge required” onto the out-
comes. The details of the knowledge required, however, could often not be specified in
the same kind of detail as is possible for what somebody should be able to do.
As work and workplace organisations changed, employers began to focus more on the
knowledge and skills which equipped workers to undertake both routine and unpredict-
able tasks successfully. This was the important shift in outcomes-based thinking: from a
focus on performance to a focus on the competence underpinning performance. It was
increasingly seen as important that standards should describe competence.
As competence can only be assessed through looking at someone demonstrating the
required abilities, descriptions of performance remained an important part of standards.
However, performance was increasingly described less in terms of specific activities, but
more as a listing of the range of activities which a competent leaner should be able to
undertake successfully.
2.10.3 Competence
The third factor that led people to think differently about competence resulted in more
detailed descriptions of the underlying knowledge. In the new occupational qualifications
system competence requires knowledge, skills and workplace application.
2.11 Standardising concepts and terms

As South Africa begins to adopt an outcomes-based framework to transform education and
training, the SAQA needs to ensure that the concepts and terms used to build our NQF
help to achieve our intended transformation and to avoid the problems other countries
have experienced.
2.11.1 A standard format for describing competence

To steer the development of all education and training standards in South Africa, the
SAQA prescribed a format for “unit standards” as a template with a uniform set of con-
cepts and terms (RSA, 1998a: Regulation 7).
The unit standard format decided on by the SAQA has led to controversy and has been
criticised along the following lines:
• a format that has been adapted from attempts to describe performance is not well suited
to describing competence
• the format is more suitable at further education than at higher education levels
• the format is more suited to training than to education or development.
Hence, under the new QCTO system three types of unit standards are envisaged, namely
knowledge unit standards, practice unit standards and workplace unit standards, to cater
for all three domains of learning and occupational functioning.
2.11.2 Generic abilities (“critical cross-field outcomes”)

The SAQA requires that critical cross-field outcomes “shall be embedded within” stand-
ards. Critical cross-field outcomes “include but are not limited to”:
• working effectively with others as a member of a team, group, organisation or commu-
nity
• communicating effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in the
modes of oral and/or written persuasion
• organising and managing oneself and one’s activities responsibly and effectively
• collecting, analysing, organising and critically evaluating information
• identifying and solving problems in a way that shows that responsible decisions have
been made using critical and creative thinking
• demonstrating an understanding of the world as a set of inter-related systems by recog-
nising that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation
• using science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards
the environment and health of others and
• contributing to the full personal development of each learner and the social and eco-
nomic development of society at large, by making it the underlying intention of any
learning programme to make an individual aware of the importance of:
– reflecting on and exploring a variety of strategies to learn more effectively
– participating as responsible citizens in the life of local, national and global commu-
nities
– being culturally and aesthetically sensitive across a range of social contexts
– exploring education and career opportunities and
– developing entrepreneurial opportunities.
Critical cross-field outcomes emerged from the debates preceding the promulgation of the
SAQA Act. One of the lessons to be learned from other countries, however, is that they
have to be integrated in order to be achieved.
2.11.3 Credits assigned to unit standards

Unit standards have different weights assigned to them. These are referred to as the
“credit value” of a unit standard. The weighting given to a unit standard is determined by
the average time it should take learners to acquire the competence associated with the unit
standard.
Different unit standards describe different competencies that need different learning
times to be acquired. To indicate the difference, the SAQA has adopted the concept of
“notional hours of learning”. This is the average number of hours learners take to acquire
the competence described in the unit standard, including self-study, contact hours and
learning at the workplace.
The SAQA has decided that 1 credit should be equivalent to 10 notional hours of learn-
ing. For example, a credit value of 5 is assigned to a unit standard describing a com-
petency that takes the average learner about 50 hours to acquire.
2.11.4 Standardised levels

In order that their purpose be reflected, qualifications and unit standards are registered at
one of ten levels on the NQF referred to as NQF levels. The levels are clustered into three
bands as indicated in Table 2.1. (See www.saqa.org.za for the latest version.) The place-
ment of qualifications and unit standards on the NQF has to take certain dimensions into
account: the education and training band (general, further, occupational or higher), the
type of qualification and learning towards the qualifications and unit standards that is to
take place.
Table 2.1 The National Qualifications Framework
NQF Type of Qualifications Locations of Learning for Units

Band
Level and Certificates and Qualifications
10 Higher Doctoral degree Higher education/Research
Education
9 or Master’s degree Higher education/Research
Occupational Honours degree Tertiary/Research/Professional institutions
8 Band
continued
NQF Type of Qualifications Locations of Learning for Units

Band
Level and Certificates and Qualifications
7 First degree Tertiary/Research/Professional institutions
National diploma Universities/Colleges/Private/
6
Professional institutions/Institutions
Diploma/ Universities/Colleges/Private/
5
Occupational certificate Professional institutions/Workplace, etc
Further Education and Training Certificate
School/College/ Formal Technical/ RDP and Labour
Trade certificates high Community/ market schemes/
4
“Baskets” of unit schools/ Police/Nursing/ Industry training
standards Private/ Private colleges boards/Union/
Further State Workplace, etc
School/College/ schools
Education
Trade certificates
3 and
“Baskets” of unit
Training
standards
Band
School/College/
Trade certificates
2
“Baskets” of unit
standards
General Education and Training Certificate
Grade 9 ABET Formal Occupation/ NGOs/
(10 years) Level 4 Schools Work-based Churches/
(Urban/ training/RDP/ Night schools/
Rural/ Labour market ABET
Farm/ schemes/ programmes/
Special) Upliftment or Private
community providers/
programmes Industry
General Training
Education Boards/Unions/
1 and Workplace, etc
Training Grade 7 ABET
Band (8 years) Level 3
Grade 5 ABET
(6 years) Level 2
Grade 3 ABET
(4 years) Level 1
1 year
Reception
2.11.5 Level descriptors

Each of the ten NQF levels has to be distinguished by a set of level “descriptors”. These
descriptors are statements describing learning achievement at a particular level of the NQF
that provide a broad indication of the types of learning outcomes and assessment citeria
that are appropriate to a qualification at that level (SAQA, 2012). The purpose of level
descriptors is to “ensure coherence in learning achievement in the allocation of qualifica-
tions and part qualifications to particular levels, and to facilitate the assesment of the
national and international comparability of qualifications and part qualifications” (SAQA,
2012). The philosophical underpinning of the NQF and the level descriptors is applied
competence which includes foundational competence, practical competence and reflexive
competence (SAQA, 2012).
The following principles underpin the application of the level descriptors across the
three sub-frameworks of the NQF (SAQA, 2012):
• one common set of level descriptors for the NQF applies in different contexts
• level descriptors incorporate ten competencies
• level descriptors are designed to meet the needs of academic and occupational qualifi-
cations
• there must be correlation between qualification levels and occupational levels in the
world of work
• the critical cross-field outcomes of SAQA are embedded in the level descriptors
• level descriptors are cumulative, i.e. there is progression in the competencies from level
one the next level
• level descriptors are applicable to RPL
• level descriptors are descriptors and not prescriptive
• nomenclature for qualifications is dealt with in the sub-frameworks of the NQF.
Ten categories are used in the level descriptors to describe applied competencies across
each of the ten levels of the NQF. Broadly these competencies are:
• scope of knowledge
• knowledge literacy
• method and procedure
• problem-solving
• ethics and professional practice
• accessing, processing and managing information
• producing and communicating information
• context and systems
• management of learning
• accountability.
In Table 2.2 is a brief outline of the ten SAQA level descriptors in terms of the first com-
petency, scope of knowledge.
Table 2.2 Learning descriptors in terms of scope of knowledge
NQF
Scope of knowledge
level
1 A learner is able to demonstrate a general knowledge of one or more areas or fields of
study, in addition to the fundamental areas of study.
2 A learner is able to demonstrate a basic operational knowledge of one or more areas or
fields of study, in addition to the fundamental areas of study.
3 A learner is able to demonstrate a basic understanding of the key concepts and knowledge
of one or more fields or disciplines, in addition to the fundamental areas of study.
4 A learner is able to demonstrate a fundamental knowledge base of the most important areas
of one or more fields or disciplines, in addition to the fundamental areas of study and a fun-
damental undertanding of the key terms, rules, concepts, established principles and theories
in one or more fields or disciplines.
5 A learner is able to demonstrate an informed understanding of the core areas of one or more
fields, disciplines or practices, and an informed understanding of the key terms, concepts,
facts, general principles, rules and theories of that field, discipline or practice.
6 A learner is able to demonstrate: detailed knowledge of the main areas of one or more
fields, disciplines or practices, including an understanding of and an ability to apply the key
terms, concepts, facts, principles, rules and theories of that field, discipline or practice to
unfamiliar but relevant contexts; and knowledge of an area or areas of specialisation and
how that knowledge relates to other fields, disciplines or practices.
7 A learner is able to demonstrate integrated knowledge of the central areas of one or more
fields, disciplines or practices, including an understanding of and an ability to apply and
evaluate the key terms, concepts, facts, principles, rules and theories of that field, discipline
or practice; and detailed knowledge of an area or areas of specailisation and how that
knowledge relates to other fields, disciplines or practices.
8 A learner is able to demonstrate: knowledge of and engagement in an area at the forefront
of a field, discipline or practice; an understanding of the theories, research methodologies,
methods and techniques relevant to the field, discipline or practice; and an understanding of
how to apply such knowlegde in a particular context.
9 A learner is able to demonstrate: specialist knowledge to enable engagement with and cri-
tique of current research or practices; and an advanced scholarship or research in a particu-
lar field, discipline or practice.
10 A learner is able to demonstrate: expertise and critical knowledge in an area at the forefront
of the field, discipline or practice; and the ability to conceptualise new research initiatives,
and create new knowlegde or practice.
The level desriptors will be reviewed at least every five years by SAQA in consultation
with the three quality councils (SAQA, 2012). HRD professionals can use the level de-
scriptors to write learning outcomes and associated assessment criteria for qualifications
and part-qualifications. It will also help to position a qualification at the appropriate level
on the NQF together with purpose statements, outcomes and assessment criteria. HRD pro-
fessionals should help learners gain admission through RPL at an appropriate level on the
NQF. The level descriptors will also be very useful in making comparisons across qualifi-
cations in a variety of fields and disciplines pegged at the same level of the NQF. More-
over, the level descriptors, purpose statements, outcomes and assessment criteria will also
be useful guides to supporting quality management of learning.
2.12 The relationship between standards and qualifications

Having focused on standards as the description of competence, we now look at the rela-
tionship between standards and qualifications.
The way existing qualifications are structured does not enable one to easily identify
overlaps between different qualifications. For example, although a teaching diploma and a
teaching degree may deal with similar areas, there is no way of telling what is similar or
dissimilar in the competence of those who have degrees and diplomas.
By breaking down whole qualifications into the sets of standards of which they are com-
posed they can be recombined more flexibly to make up new qualifications. This allows
learners to move more freely between learning and career paths while being recognised for
the competences they already have. The “mix and match” logic of standards is intended to
achieve the integration, articulation, portability, flexibility, progression, access and recog-
nition of prior learning envisaged in the NQF without losing the overall coherence of edu-
cation and training.
2.13 Rules of combination

The National Standards Bodies Regulations, 2005, prescribe a framework for deciding how
many components are required to make up different qualification at different NQF levels,
and what credit values are required for different qualification types.
Each qualification has to contain three different categories of standards.
• The “fundamental” category should contain the standards that describe the competence
required at a particular level to meet the learning demands of the particular qualification
as a whole and form the basis for learning generally. For example, learners usually need
to have literacy or numeracy skills at a certain level to study toward particular qualifi-
cations or to be competent in the area in which they will be qualified.
• The “core” category should contain compulsory standards which describe the com-
petence that is “contextually relevant” to the qualification.
• The “elective” category should contain options “from which a choice may be made to
ensure that the purpose of the qualification is achieved”.
The distinction between core and elective therefore allows some freedom of choice in put-
ting together qualifications.
Bellis (1999) represented the different categories with examples as follows:
Typically this learning could Typically this learning would Here the idea of specialisation
be: relate to outcomes and com- can also be brought in:
• communication and language petencies that reflect: • outcomes/competencies that
outcomes/competencies • all the relevant “theoretical” relate to specialised areas
• use of mathematical, tech- knowledge related to the that may or may not be at a
nological and life-science- field of the qualification at more complex level
related outcomes/ the appropriate level • outcomes/competencies that
competencies • aspects of the context of the broaden the core in that they
• use of “critical outcome” qualification, for example: provide for other career/
abilities – the economy occupational directions
• use of what some refer to as – the structures of work
“life skills” for example, – “environmental” issues
ability to learn and
• use of generic cognitive and – the relevant practice
affective capabilities
• theory in the academic, pro-
fessional or occupational
field
2.14 Qualifications
SAQA has assigned each qualification a credit value:
• “National Certificates” will be required to contain standards with a credit value total-
ling 120 (= 1 200 notional learning hours).
• “National Diplomas” will be required to contain standards with a credit value totalling
240 (= 2 400 notional learning hours).
• “National First Degrees” will be required to contain standards with a credit value total-
ling 360 (= 3 600 notional learning hours).
Not all the standards in each qualification need to be at the same level, but in each case
the majority should be at or above the level of the qualification.
2.15 NQF Implementation Framework

The Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), SAQA and the three quality
councils (QCs), namely the Council on Higher Education (CHE), the Council for Quality
Assurance in General and Further Education and Training (Umalusi) and the Quality
Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO), are working together to ensure that the work
of each organisation supports the objectives and values of the NQF (SAQA, 2011). The
intent of the collaboration of these organisations is to ensure that all three sub-frameworks
of the NQF function in an integrated and co-ordinated manner, with each organ in the sys-
tem supporting the others. Consequently, an NQF implementation framework was pub-
lished to guide all relevant stakeholders in implementing the NQF. The aim is to ensure a
quality NQF system that allows learners and workers to flourish (SAQA, 2011).
SAQA (2011) identified the following six priorities for the period from 2011 to 2015.
2.15.1 Priority 1: Completion of the Transition from the SAQA Act to the
NQF Act
The transition from the SAQA Act (1995) to the NQF Act (2008) requires a co-ordinated
effort from all NQF implementation partners. The NQF Forum and CEO Committee play
an important role in this regard and SAQA provides secretariat support. Any further and
necessary amendments to NQF-related legislation is prioritised when necessary. These
changes can be followed on the DHET website (www.dhet.gov.za). The Occupational
Qualifications Framework (OQF) must be finalised and an implementation strategy
designed by the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO). Finalisation of the
implementation strategy must take into account the concurrent review of the HEQF and
development of the GFETQF.
2.15.2 Priority 2: Development of a system of collaboration between SAQA

and the QCs
The system of collaboration developed by SAQA in consultation with the QCs must guide
relations between SAQA and the QCs in such a manner as to avoid or prevent conflict and
resolve disputes. The system of collaboration must include details on the functioning of the
NQF Forum, CEO Committee, engagements between SAQA and the QCs, and engage-
ments between QCs, and on the conciliation process overseen by SAQA and the DHET.
2.15.3 Priority 3: Co-ordination of the three sub-frameworks of the NQF

SAQA will oversee the further development and implementation of the NQF and ensure the
achievement of its objectives. Therefore, SAQA must ensure that all three sub-frameworks
of the NQF are developed in a co-ordinated manner, which includes facilitating ongoing
engagement between the three QCs. Key sub-priorities here are the development of the
following outputs:
• level descriptors for the NQF
• registration of qualifications and part-qualifications
• assessment, RPL and credit accumulation and transfer
• recognition of professional bodies and registration of professional designations on the
NQF.
2.15.4 Priority 4: Establishment of standard-setting and quality-assurance

mechanisms within each of the three sub-frameworks
The standard-setting and quality-assurance apparatus of the three sub-frameworks will be
completed with clear procedures for collaboration in place for interdependent and comple-
mentary qualifications and part-qualifications. Each QC will have its own sub-framework
policies on the development, registration and publication of qualifications; assessment,
RPL and credit accumulation and transfer; and quality assurance. Furthermore, delegations
and/or memoranda of understanding by QCs to competent standard-setting and quality-
assurance bodies will be developed and implemented.
2.15.5 Priority 5: Completion and operationalisation of the progression and

articulation apparatus of the NQF
The new progression apparatus of the NQF must be implemented and reported on. The
apparatus must include mechanisms for ensuring that learners are able to progress within
the learning system and along their chosen career paths. To support these efforts, a na-
tional career advisory service has been implemented. Professional bodies are recognised
by SAQA and their designations registered on the NQF.
2.15.6 Priority 6: Further development and improvement of the information

apparatus of the NQF
The National Learners’ Records Database (NLRD) must be further developed and its func-
tionality improved to accommodate national data on professions, including data on pro-
fessional bodies, professional designations and holders of professional designations. The
NLRD must make accurate information available to stakeholders and the public regularly,
at least once per year.
The databases of QCs must also be further developed and their functionality improved to
accommodate sector-specific changes by 2014. Their compatibility with the NLRD must
be ensured.
2.15.7 Role of the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO)
To ensure that the standards transform education and training provision, the QCTO has
accredited quality councils (QCs) to undertake quality assurance for qualifications or part-
qualifications.
Every standard and qualification registered on the NQF has to be evaluated against the
objectives and principles outlined earlier to ensure that they meet the criteria for an inte-
grated life-long learning system. In the same way, the provision of education, training and
assessment services also has to be evaluated according to these objectives and principles.
Only evidence that the implementation of the NQF system achieves its objectives and
adheres to its principles will instil national and international confidence in the registered
standards and qualifications and the learning programmes leading to their achievement.
Quality assurance in education and training provision is thus the process of establishing
confidence that the quality of standards set by the three QCs in respect of the level, scope
and nature of competencies described in the relevant unit standards or qualifications is
achieved in practice. The quality system introduced by the QCTO and the qualifications
registered at SAQA are aimed at ensuring that the institutions responsible for deciding
whether learners (or others) meet the requirements for qualification have adequate capacity
to do so.
According to the QCTO (2011a) the functions of the QCTO are to
• advise the Minister on all matters of policy concerning occupational standards and
qualifications in accordance with the objectives of the Skills Development Act and
NQF Act
• establish and maintain occupational standards and qualifications
• conduct quality assurance of occupational standards and qualifications and learning in
and for the workplace
• design and develop occupational standards and qualifications and submit them to SAQA
for registration on the NQF
• ensure the quality of occupational standards and qualifications and learning in and for
the workplace
• promote the objectives of the NQF
• liaise with the National Skills Authority regarding the suitability and adequacy of occu-
pational qualifications standards and qualifications and the quality of learning in and
for the workplace
• liaise with SAQA, QCs and professional bodies responsible for establishing standards
and quality assurance of standards and qualifications.
The DQPs will play a critical role in developing occupational qualifications and the AQPs
will be responsible for assessment and quality assurance. For more information about the
specific role of the DQPs see chapter 7, and for the role of the AQPs see chapter 18.
HRD practitioners should ensure that they have detailed knowledge of the new policies
and requirements pertaining to the QCTO as far as occupational qualifications are con-
cerned. HRD practitioners involved or affected by Technical and Vocational Education and
Training (TVET) colleges or higher education should ensure that they keep up to date with
the developments in the TVET and higher-education sectors and should therefore keep an
eye on information coming from Umalusi and the Council for Higher Education (CHE).
The TVET colleges are prioritised by government as practical education institutions prov-
iding vocational or occcupational education with a view towards specific jobs,
employment or entrepreneurial opportunities.
The QCTO plays a critical role in the quality assurance of occupational qualifications.
The Occupational Qualifications Sub-Framework is built on occupations as defined in the
Organising Framework of Occupations (OFO). The QCTO (2011b) defines an occupation
as a cluster or group of similar jobs that share many common occupational tasks of similar
complexity and require similar performance across different processes and industries.
For example, a marketing specialist will perform more or less the same tasks, irrespec-
tive of whether they work in a bank, factory or shop.
The occupational profile is developed by expert practitioners, i.e. practitioners in the
occupation, and includes a statement of the purpose and tasks to be performed by an
individual (QCTO, 2011b). The performance of occupational tasks is underpinned by
knowledge and skills (QCTO, 2011b).
Three components are involved in occupations:
• knowledge, acquired through through a set of organised learning activities offered by a
skills development provider
• practical skills, acquired when knowledge is applied, very often in a simulated environ-
ment
• work experience, acquired when the learner integrates knowledge and skills in concrete
situations in the workplace.
A combination of these three components is necessary for competence in an occupational
qualification. An occupational qualification is “a qualification associated with a trade,
occupation or profession, resulting from work-based learning and consisting of knowledge
unit standards, practical unit standards and work experience unit standards” (QCTO,
2011b). On completion of these unit standards and after a successful summative assess-
ment for an occupational qualification an occupational qualification will be awarded. For-
mal recognition of competence is recognised by certification.
2.16 Vision and strategic approach of the Skills Development Act

The vision of the Skills Development Act is “an integrated skills development system
which promotes economic and employment growth and social development through a
focus on education, training and employment services” (RSA, 1997:1).
The core strategy is to create an enabling environment for expanded strategic invest-
ment in skills development. The strategy intends to place skills development within the
broader policy context, including:
• macro-economic
• industrial
• labour market
• education and
• science and technology policy.
It contains implementation proposals for the national co-ordination of support for com-
pany or industry-level training. Training for specified target groups through intermediary
institutions at sectoral levels is also proposed.
2.16.1 Principles underpinning the proposed new system

The proposed new system is underpinned by the following principles:
• It is intended to be flexible and decentralised
• It is intended to be demand-led (in other words, the provision of education and training
must be prioritised according to the demand for skills in the market) and
• It is based on partnerships between the public and private sectors.
2.16.2 Purposes of the Skills Development Act

The purposes of this Act are:
• to develop the skills of the South African workforce in order to:
– improve workers’ quality of life, their prospects of work and labour mobility
– improve productivity in the workplace and the competitiveness of employers
– promote self-employment and
– improve the delivery of social services
• to increase the levels of investment in education and training in the labour market and
to improve the return on that investment
• to encourage employers to:
– use the workplace as an active learning environment
– provide employees with the opportunities to acquire new skills
– provide opportunities for new entrants to the labour market to gain work experience
and
– employ persons who find it difficult to be employed
• to encourage workers to participate in learnership and other training programmes
• to improve the employment prospects of persons who were previously disadvantaged
by unfair discrimination and to redress those disadvantages through training and edu-
cation
• to ensure the quality of education and training in and for the workplace
• to assist:
– workseekers in finding work
– retrenched workers in re-entering the labour market and
– employers in finding qualified employees and
• to provide and regulate employment services.
2.17 Core components of the Skills Development Strategy

To achieve the objectives of the Skills Development Strategy, the Skills Development Act
makes provision for five inter-dependent components. These components are briefly
introduced below, before discussing each in more detail in separate sections.
National co-ordination
National co-ordination of the overall skills development policy and strategy is to be
effected by the Minister of Higher Education and Training on the advice of the National
Skills Authority (replacing the former National Training Board).
Sector Education and Training Authorities

The Skills Development Act makes provision for the establishment of Sector Education
and Training Authorities (SETAs) to assist communities, organisations, industries and
individuals in formulating and implementing training plans linked to strategic objectives.
Learnerships and skills programmes

The key component of the strategy is the establishment of a system of learnerships and
skills programmes leading to occupationally based qualifications registered on the NQF,
or to credits towards such qualifications.
Funding of skills development

The funds to implement the Skills Development Strategy are to come mainly from three
sources:
• a levy-financing system that applies to all employers and employees outside national
and provincial government departments
• a portion of the payroll budgets of all national and provincial government departments
and
• individual learners and their families.
In the following sections, each of these five strategy components are discussed in more
detail, with indications of the implications that each component has on HRD practices
within organisations.
2.17.1 National co-ordination

With the promulgation of the Skills Development Act the former National Training Board
has been restructured into the National Skills Authority (NSA). The NSA does not have
the same measure of independence as the SAQA, but has to exercise its functions to im-
plement the Skills Development Strategy through advice to the Minister.
2.17.1.1 Functions
The National Skills Authority has to perform the following functions:
• advise the Minister on:
– a national skills development policy
– a national skills development strategy
– guidelines on the implementation of the national skills development strategy
– the allocation of subsidies from the National Skills Fund
– any regulations to be made
• liaise with SETAs on:
– the national skills development policy
– the national skills development strategy
• report to the Minister in the prescribed manner on the progress made in the implemen-
tation of the national skills development strategy
• conduct investigations on any matter arising out of the application of this Act
• exercise any other powers and perform any other duties conferred or imposed on it by
this Act.
To conduct its investigations, the Act gives the NSA the prescribed powers of entry and
of questioning and inspection.
2.17.1.2 Composition
The Council is to be composed of a total of 25 voting and 4 non-voting members appointed
by the Minister. Various categories of stakeholders are represented such as employers,
labour, government, the community, learning providers and the SAQA. The represen-
tatives of the community and development organisations have to include a woman,
somebody representing the youth and a disabled person.
2.17.2 Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs)

The SETAs are key implementation agencies established by the Act. However, various
public consultations are under way to review the role and impact of SETAs.
2.17.2.1 Criteria for establishment

The Minister of Higher Education and Training has identified various national economic
sectors and established a SETA for each of them. In determining the demarcations between
economic sectors, the Minister has to take a number of criteria into account:
• the education and training needs of employers and employees who use similar materials
and processes, make similar products and render similar services
• the potential of the proposed sector for coherent occupational structures and career-
pathing
• the scope of any national strategies for economic growth and development
• the organisational structures of trade unions, employer organisations and the govern-
ment in closely related sectors
• any consensus that may exist among organised labour, organised employers and rele-
vant government departments as to the definition of a sector
• the financial and organisational ability of the proposed sector to support a SETA.
Table 2.3 lists the 21 established SETAs.
Table 2.3 SETAs established by the Minister
SETA Full Name Website URL

AgriSETA Agriculture Sector Education and Training Authority www.agriseta.co.za
BANKSETA Banking Sector Education and Training Authority www.bankseta.org.za
CATHSSETA Culture, Arts, Tourism, Hospitality, Sport SETA www.cathsseta.org.za
CETA Construction Education and Training Authority www.ceta.org.za
CHIETA Chemical and Related Industry www.chieta.org.za
ETDPSETA Education Training Development Sector Education and www.etdpseta.org.za
Training Authority
EWSETA Energy and Water Sector Education and Training www.eseta.org.za
Authority
FASSET Finance, Accounting, Management Consulting and Other www.fasset.org.za
Financial Services
FoodbevSETA Food and Beverages Education and Training Authority www.foodbev.co.za
continued
SETA Full Name Website URL

FP&M SETA Fibre Processing and Manufacturing SETA www.fpmseta.org.za
HWSETA Health and Welfare Sector Education and Training www.hwseta.org.za
Authority
INSETA Insurance Sector Education and Training Authority www.inseta.org.za
LGSETA Local Government Sector Education & Training www.lgseta.co.za
Authority
MERSETA Manufacturing, Engineering and Related Services Sector www.merseta.org.za
Education and Training Authority
MICT SETA Media, Advertising, Information and Communication www.isett.org.za
Technologies Sector Education and Training Authority
MQA Mining Qualifications Authority www.mqa.org.za
PSETA Public Services SETA www.pseta.org.za
SASSETA Safety and Security SETA www.sasseta.org.za
Services SETA Services SETA www.serviceseta.org.za
TETA Transport Education and Training Authority www.teta.org.za
W&RSETA Wholesale and Retail SETA www.wrseta.org.za
2.17.2.2 Functions
SETAs are responsible for:
• strategic functions related to developing sector skills plans through labour market
research and training needs assessments
• implementation functions related to collation and analysis of workplace skills plans,
registration of learnerships and disbursement of grants for learnership and skills pro-
gramme implementation
• communication and reporting functions related to the promotion of skills development
strategies within and on behalf of the sector concerned and related to liaison with em-
ployment services and the NSA
• quality assurance functions as accredited ETQAs in terms of the SAQA Act (accredit-
ation of providers, registration of assessors, certification of learners, etc) until the
ETQAs are fully replaced by the AQPs.
Functions of SETA
A SETA must –
(a) develop a sector skills plan within the framework of the national skills development strategy;
(b) implement its sector skills plan by –
(i) establishing learnerships;
(ii) approving workplace skills plans;
(iii) allocating grants in the prescribed manner to employers, education and training providers
and workers; and
(iv) monitoring education and training in the sector;
continued
(c) promote learnerships by –

(i) identifying workplaces for practical work experience;
(ii) supporting the development of learning materials;
(iii) improving the facilitation of learning; and
(iv) assisting in the conclusion of learnership agreements;
(d) register learnership agreements;
(e) within a week from its establishment, apply to the South African Qualifications Authority for
accreditation as a body contemplated in section 5(1)(a)(ii)(bb) and must, within 18 months from
the date of that application, be so accredited;
(f) collect and disburse the skills development levies in its sector;
(g) liaise with the National Skills Authority on –
(i) the national skills development policy;
(ii) the national skills development strategy; and
(iii) its sector skills plan;
(h) report to the Director-General on –
(i) its income and expenditure; and
(ii) the implementation of its sector skills plan;
(i) liaise with the employment services of the Department and any education body established
under any law regulating education in the Republic to improve information –
(i) about employment opportunities; and
(ii) between education and training providers and the labour market;
(j) appoint staff necessary for the performance of its functions; and
(k) perform any other duties imposed by this Act or consistent with the purposes of this Act.
Source: RSA 1998c, Regulation 10.
2.17.2.3 Composition
A SETA may only consist of members representing:
• organised labour
• organised employers, including small business
• relevant government departments and
• if the Minister (after consultation with the SETA) considers it appropriate for the sec-
tor, any interested professional body or any bargaining council with jurisdiction in the
sector.
2.17.2.4 Chambers
A SETA may establish chambers and delegate some of the functions within its jurisdiction
to the relevant chamber. Like SETAs themselves, chambers also must have an equal num-
ber of members representing employers and employees, and may include such additional
members as the SETA may determine.
A list of the current registered chambers and sector industry coverage per SETA, with
their respective Standard Industry Classification (SIC) codes, is available on the Depart-
ment of Higher Education and Training website (listed at the end of this chapter).
2.17.2.5 Financing SETAs and their chambers

A SETA is to be financed from:
• the skills development levy, interest and penalties collected in respect of that sector
• moneys awarded to it by the National Skills Fund
• grants, donations and bequests made to it
• income earned through interest on surplus money deposited or invested, and earned on
services rendered in the prescribed manner
• money received from any other source.
Chambers are entitled to a percentage of the levies collected within their sub-sector.
The Minister determines the percentage after consulting the SETA.
SETAs and chambers may use their funds in only a prescribed manner to:
• meet their obligations under the Act to contribute to the National Training Fund
• perform their functions (for instance, to establish learnerships and allocate grants to
employers, education and training providers and employees)
• pay for their administration up to a prescribed limit.
In addition to indirect and direct contributions to the operational cost of the Skills Develop-
ment Strategy, organisations have to commit people and time resources to participate in the
establishment and running of the SETAs and the NSA. Individual organisations also have
to monitor the effectiveness of the contribution of their representatives on these bodies.
2.17.3 Learnership system and skills programmes

The establishment of the NQF has made more flexible learning arrangements possible. A
learnership is a mechanism to link structured learning with work experience, leading to a
qualification registered on the NQF as a reliable indicator of work readiness.
Through learnerships, structured learning programmes and work experience are inte-
grated and organised for accreditation on the NQF in a way that provides both vertical and
horizontal articulation within the qualification framework, and also produce meaningful
competencies for productive work. Traditional apprenticeship qualifications should be seen
as a sub-set of the learnership system.
The structured learning part of a learnership has to include the unit standard categories
required to make up a qualification (see section 2.13 above):
• Fundamental learning (for instance, mathematics and language)
• Core learning (for instance, scientific/social/entrepreneurial/industrial relations and so on)
• Specialisation (theoretical and structured practical training in the area of specialisation).
Work experience has to relate to the structured learning and prepare the learners for com-
petence assessment. It may take place in a single workplace or be spread across several
sites. The Green Paper on Post-School Education placed significant emphasis on work
integrated learning and on an overhaul of the FET system (DHET, 2011).
Figure 2.1 summarises the process proposed in a previous Green Paper (RSA, 1997:30)
for the development of a learnership system in a given industrial sector. The proposals
emphasise the link with the NQF and guidelines required to implement the learnership
system. Arrangements are proposed through which small and micro enterprises and entre-
preneurs may also gain access to learnership contracts for their employees.
Figure 2.1 Development cycle for a learnership system in a sector
The main advantage of the learnership system is that it extends the traditional apprentice-
ship focus on trades to address the needs of the full spectrum of employers (ranging from
micro to macro) in each economic sector (including, for instance, the service industries,
sports, arts, and so on).
In addition to learnerships, the Skills Development Act introduces skills programmes as
another learning intervention to achieve its objectives. It describes skills programmes as
unit standard-based programmes that are occupationally based and presented by an
accredited provider, and when completed, constitute a credit towards a qualification regis-
tered on the NQF (RSA, 1998c: section 20). A skills programme can further be described
as an education and training programme towards a meaningful cluster of unit standards
(BANKSETA http://www.bankseta.org.za).
Any employer may claim a grant towards the costs of providing skills programmes. It is
for each SETA to determine arrangements for the applications and the amounts for grants.
Any application for a grant must be submitted to the appropriate SETA, and approved by
it, before the skills programmes start.
It may be that a person completes a series of skills programmes that result in a full
learnership qualification. If the employer receives grants for the skills programmes, the
total of the grants that the employer receives must be no greater than the grants they
would have received had the employee undertaken a learnership programme resulting in
the same final qualification (RSA, 2001b: regulations 28 and 29).
Both public-service and private-sector employers are expected to provide opportunities
in learning programmes for participants to obtain on-the-job exposure at a specified rate
of remuneration.
2.17.4 Funding of skills development

Three sources of funds can be used in the implementation of any skills development strat-
egy (see Figure 2.2):
• the government, through general government revenues, tax incentives and the skills-
financing1 scheme
• the private sector and private individuals, through direct company expenditure, skills
levies, trainee wages, and user fees
• donations from local and overseas donors.
________________________
1 The Skills Development Act used the expression “levy-grant”, but the Skills Development Levies
Act has amended the former Act to substitute this with the expression “skills-financing”.
Figure 2.2 Funding for skills development

SOURCES OF FUNDS
PUBLIC • tax revenue • enterprise levies • tax incentives
SECTOR • tax incentives
DONORS • donations
PRIVATE • company • user fees • user fees
SECTOR investment • employee • employer & employee
contributions contributions
NATIONAL strategic SECTOR strategic ENTERPRISE

FUNDS needs FUNDS needs FUNDS
√ Employees in
sector
√ Not yet employed
√ ABET
√ Employees
√ Unemployed
√ Not yet employed
√ Special groups
√ Strategic needs
Training infrastructure APPLICATION
√
OF F UNDS
Whilst the two skills development Acts allow the other sources and means to make their
contributions they concentrate on a skills-financing system as a stimulus for the others.
In summary, all private-sector and local-government employers registered with the
South African Revenue Services (SARS) on the Pay as You Earn (PAYE) system are
liable to pay skills development levies as a specified percentage of their payroll, and pro-
vincial and national government departments have to budget a specified percentage of
their payroll for skills development purposes.
A skills development levy was introduced on 1 April 2000. This is a compulsory levy
scheme for the funding of education and training. SARS administers the collection of the
levy. The levy is payable by employers who are registered with SARS for the purposes of
employees’ tax. The rate was set at 1% of the payroll as of 1 April 2001. The levy is
deductible for income tax purposes and employers providing employees with training
receive grants in terms of this scheme. Significant changes are in the pipeline pertaining
to the levy system.
2.17.4.1 Skills development levies

The Skills Development Levies Act requires all employers who are not exempt in terms
of section 4 of that Act to pay a skills development levy each month. What follows is an
explanation in layman’s terms of how an employer must calculate the levy according to
the Act, but in real-life situations employers should not rely on the simplified explanation
given here. A tax expert should be consulted to ensure compliance with the Act.
The levy is calculated as a percentage of the total monthly payroll of the employer
(called the “leviable amount”) as defined in section 3(4) of the Act:
the total remuneration, paid or payable, or deemed to be paid or payable, by an employer to its
employees during any month, as determined in accordance with the provisions of the Fourth
Schedule to the Income Tax Act for the purpose of determining the employer’s liability for
any employees’ tax in terms of that Schedule, whether or not such employer is liable to deduct
or withhold such employees’ tax.
In other words, the levy is to be paid on all remuneration (salary, wages, overtime pay and
bonuses) in a given month, including remuneration for temporary workers and workers
who earn less than the tax threshold.
Section 3(5) stipulates that the following are not included in calculating the “leviable
amount”:
• remuneration of employees supplied by labour brokers who have a certificate of
exemption for this purpose
• amounts paid to any person by way of any pension, superannuation allowance or
retiring allowance
• amounts paid out to employees in the form of annuities, retrenchment or severance pay,
lump sum benefits from pension funds and gains from insurance policies determined
according the Sixth Schedule to the Income Tax Act
• remuneration to a learner in terms of a contract of employment in section 18(3) of the
Skills Development Act.
2.17.4.2 Collection of the levy

SARS collects the compulsory levy from employers through its PAYE system. The Act
provides that levies may be collected directly by a SETA itself in cases where the Minis-
ter has been convinced that such collection is necessary and viable. Whoever collects the
levy from an employer has to deposit 80% of it into the account of the SETA with which
the employer is registered for skills development and 20% into the National Skills Fund
(see section 2.17.5.4 below).
Employers liable to pay the skills levy have to apply to SARS to be registered with a
specific SETA. In selecting which SETA to register with, an employer has to take three
factors into account:
• the composition of its workforce in terms of the industry sectors to which their required
work competencies belong
• the amount of remuneration payable to the different categories of employees
• the training needs of the different categories of employees.
The employer’s selection of SETA is binding on it, unless SARS directs otherwise on the
basis of the three factors listed above.
2.17.4.3 National Skills Fund

The Skills Development Act established the National Skills Fund. The fund is financed
from:
• 20% of the skills development levies
• the skills development levies collected in respect of those sectors in which there are no
SETAs
• money appropriated by parliament for the fund
• interest earned on investments
• donations to the fund
• money received from any other source.
Any unexpended balance in the fund at the end of the financial year must be carried for-
ward to the next financial year as a credit to the fund.
The money in the fund may be used only for the projects identified in the national skills
development strategy as national priorities or for such other projects related to the achieve-
ment of the purposes of this Act as the Director-General determines.
The funding framework enables employers and learners meeting prescribed criteria to
claim training grants and subsidies from either SETA funds or the National Training Fund
for approved training. It also enables small and micro enterprises to obtain government
funds for training.
The funding framework imposes two costs on employers:
• the cost of training its own employees
• the payment of the skills levy to fund industry training.
2.18 Grants and tax deductions available to employers and

providers
The Skills Development Levies Act makes provision for various types of grants that em-
ployers and providers may claim for planning and implementing skills development initia-
tives for employees in their economic sector from the SETA with which they are registered
(RSA, 1999a). The amounts and conditions for the various grant claims are prescribed in
regulations issued from time to time in terms of this Act and may vary from year to year.
In addition to sector grants, employers and providers may also plan and implement skills
initiatives that meet the criteria for claiming grants from the National Skills Fund. The
total grants received by such employers may exceed their levy payments.
The workplace skills plan required for both mandatory and discretionary grants pro-
vides the basis for identifying and planning skills development interventions required to
achieve an organisation’s strategic objectives and to serve individual development needs.
The workplace skills plan has to fit into the priority areas identified in the sector skills plan
of the relevant SETA.
2.19 Sector skills plans

A key function of SETAs is to design a 5-year skills plan for its sector that will provide
the basis for determining scarce skills in the sector and prioritising the allocation of dis-
cretionary grants. A sector skills plan should be based on a sound labour market study of
the sector. Sector skills plans have to be updated annually.
2.20 National Skills Development Strategy

It has become a trend over the last two decades for the Minister to published subsequent
versions of a National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS) as developed by the Depart-
ment of Higher Education and Training. The HRD Council of South Africa plays a key
role in this regard.
The key difference between the first and second versions of the national skills develop-
ment strategy is a marked shift in focus from input and process indicators to result indi-
cators as the measures of success in achieving skills development objectives. This shift
can be viewed as indicating that the quality management system for human resources
development is maturing. In the early stages of the establishment of any system, the sys-
tem’s regulators can only measure input and process indicators to assure the quality of the
results, but ultimately input and process effectiveness can only be appropriately evaluated
against a measurement of the quality of the results.
The key driving force of a NSDS is improving the effectiveness and efficiency of the
skills development system. The NSDS focuses on socio-economic imperatives, such as
improved placement of both students and graduates, especially from TVET colleges and
universities of technology. Organisations should align their HRD strategies to the NSDS
where relevant.
2.21 Case studies: Sector and workplace skills plans and

learnership implementation
2.21.1 Transport Education and Training Authority
The Transport Education and Training Authority (TETA) plays a central role in ensuring
the transport sector has the right skills by accelarating the funding of training when it
comes to scarce, critical and priority skills in all sub-sectors. The transport sector has been
demarcated into eight sub-sectors and includes the areospace, forwarding and clearing,
freight-handling, maritime, rail, road freight, road passenger and taxi industries. TETA’s
primary functions are to develop a sector skills plan, to facilitate the development, regis-
tration and implementation of learnerships, skills programmes and strategic initiatives, to
approve workplace skills plans, disburse grants to stakeholders and conduct quality assur-
ance of education and training within the transport sector.
Highlights from the Freight Handling Chamber include the training of 14 650 employ-
ees during 2011. The Chamber approved discretionary grants to train 1 535 learners in
critical and scarce skills and set funding aside to train 20 unemployed learners with dis-
abilities in business administration. The Rail Chamber has ensured the training of 27 410
employees since 2010 and funded 50 bursaries to unemployed individuals for engineering
degrees and 300 engineering technicians for training in chemical, mechanical, industrial,
civil and electrical disciplines. Other major milestones for the Rail Chamber are the train-
ing of 400 artisans for all phases in rail-designated trades and the rolling out of 100 dis-
cretionary grant projects (TETA, 2012).
2.21.2 Transnet Rail Engineering

Transnet Rail Engineering (TRE) is a good example of a company committed to sustain-
able skills development. The School of Engineering at TRE aims to provide all Transnet
Operating Divisions with the right people with the relevant competencies to enable them
to perform their functions at the appropriate organisational level. TRE has identified a need
for the development of a sustainable and critical skills base in these areas: engineering,
maintenance, artisan, technical skills, and leadership.
Through its School of Engineering, TRE aims to develop an outcomes-based curriculum
that is task-oriented and competency-driven. TRE spends around R180 million annually
on skills development. This is 5,6% of its labour costs, exluding levy payments, whereas
the market norm is 3%. TRE’s goal is to contribute to a skilled, flexible, productive, cost-
effective, safe and customer-conscious workforce by encouraging learning to be aligned
with business needs. All workplace skills plans and annual training reports have been
submitted for 2011/12 and TRE staff members are active in the Chamber Management
Committee (Transet Rail Engineering, 2012).
2.22 Practical implications for HRD practitioners

In the light of the above discussion, it is clear that HRD practitioners must ensure that
their organisations develop appropriate HRD strategies in order to comply with the neces-
sary legislative requirements. The following practical steps should be applied in the work-
place to ensure that HRD strategies are aligned with the skills development legislation:
• appoint a skills development facilitator for the organisation
• form a training committee representative of all relevant stakeholders
• pay the necessary levies to SARS
• conduct a skills gap analysis to determine skills development priorities to align your
organisation’s skills profile with its strategic objectives
• develop a workplace skills plan to address the skills gaps
• present outcomes-based learning programmes to promote skills development
• liaise with SETAs to determine sector skills priorities
• develop quality assurance systems for SETA and QCTO requirements
• ensure that learning programmes are aligned with available unit standards
• initiate or participate in learnerships and/or skills programmes to accelerate skills de-
velopment
• develop and participate in recognition-of-prior-learning (RPL) projects to accelerate
skills development
• check that all professionals in the organisation (engineers, accountants, HR profession-
als, etc) are registered with a professional body so that their designations can be up-
loaded on the NLRD at SAQA
• meet QCTO requirements regarding learning provision, including, for instance, require-
ments relating to registration of assessors, learner support and so on
• keep abreast of all SAQA, NQF, QCTO and SETA developments
• evaluate the impact of the workplace skills plan and realign it with the business plan.
2.23 Conclusion
This chapter explored the Skills Development Strategy overseen by the Department of
Higher Education and Training as a necessary component for economic development and
growth in South Africa, as well as the NQF and QCTO established by the NQF Act as the
basic mechanism for achieving the goals of the Skills Development Act. The implemen-
tation of this strategy has picked up steam in the last six years, with the establishment of
QCTO, and will intensify as QCTO structures are established and develop into fully
fledged quality assurance governance bodies.
However, given the comtinuous prevalence of serious skills gaps in the country on the
back of a poor education system, dysfunctional SETAs and other skills development
mechanisms, the whole skills development and higher education system is under review.
The turmoil in the higher education sector precipitated by the #FeesMustFall campaign by
university students in 2015 and 2016 further exemplified the need to redesign the
education and skills development system. Readers are therefore encouraged to keep
abreast of announcements or new documentation published by government, SAQA and
the QCTO, as a new skills development system is expected to be implemented from 2017.
In the meantime, despite these limitations, skills development acccording to business
needs must continue in the workplace and other centres of learning. After completing the
assignments below, you should be able to participate in the alignment of your organi-
sation’s HRD policy and practices with current HRD legislation.

1 Prepare a slide presentation to identify and propose solutions to skills development
problems that apply to your workplace or industry.
2 Prepare a slide presentation for a business strategy meeting to explain to your col-
leagues how the Skills Development Strategy relates to your overall business strategy.
3 Determine the NQF levels and bands of the competencies required of staff in a work
unit in your organisation.
4 Write a unit standard for one of the competencies required in your work unit.
5 Identify the critical cross-field outcomes that are supported by the unit standard that
you have written in question 4 above, and explain how you will assess whether the
identified outcomes have been achieved.
6 After you have worked through this chapter, identify where and how the principles
underpinning the Skills Development Act have been used in the core components of
the Skills Development Strategy.
(Example: The demand-led principle is underpinning the proposal that each SETA
must conduct a skills needs analysis to prioritise skill shortages as a basis for estab-
lishing learnership programmes in its sector)
7 Explain why it is imperative for HR and HRD practitioners to register as profes-
sionals in terms of the NQF Act.
8 If your company wishes to nominate someone as a representative to a SETA or the
NSA, what skills should such a person have in each case?
9 If you were your organisation’s skills development facilitator, identify the steps in a
project plan to develop a workplace skills plan that would comply with the require-
ments of the Skills Development Act and its regulations and those set by your organ-
isation’s SETA.
10 Analyse your organisation’s business objectives and skills profile to identify strategic
priorities for education and training.
11 Explain the NQF Act to the CEO of your organisation and indicate the major impli-
cations, especially of the QCTO and professional designations, for your company.
12 Describe the relevance of the NQF Implementation Framework for your role as an
HR practitioner.
2.25 References
BANKSETA, 2005, “Banking Sector Learnership Impact Study”, [http://www.bankseta
.org.za/research/default.asp].
Bellis I, 1999, “Qualifications in the Business, Commerce and Management Field: NSB
03” National Standards Body 03 [http://www.saqa.org.za/nsb/bcms/default.htm].
Department of Higher Education and Training, 2011, National Skills Development Strat-
egy III, Pretoria: Department of Higher Education and Training.
Human Sciences Research Council, 1995, Ways of Seeing the National Qualifications
Framework, Pretoria: HSRC.
IMD, 2012, World Competitiveness Yearbook 2012, Lausanne: IMD.
Lategan AH, 1997, “A Proposed Skills Development Strategy for Economic and Employ-
ment Growth in South Africa”, in Smit E (ed), 1997, Strategic Human Resource Man-
agement, 2nd edn, Pretoria: Kagiso.
Lategan AH, 1998, “Describing National Qualifications Framework Levels”, Cutting
Edge 1(5): 10–20 Johannesburg: Cutting Edge.
Lategan AH, 2005, “Report on Return on Investment in Education and Training Interven-
tions April 2004 to March 2005”.
QCTO, 2011, QCTO Curriculum and Assessment Policy, Pretoria: Quality Council for
Trades & Occupations.
QCTO, 2011, QCTO Policy on Delegation to DQPs and AQPs, Pretoria: Quality Council
for Trades & Occupations.
RSA, 1995, South African Qualifications Authority Act (Act No. 58 of 1995), Govern-
ment Notice No. 1521, Government Gazette 364 (16725), Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 1996, Green Paper, Policy Proposals for a New Employment and Occupational
Equity Statute, Government Notice 804 of 1996 [http://www.gov.za/greenpaper/1996/
equity.htm].
RSA, 1997, Green Paper; Skills Development Strategy for Economic and Employment
Growth in South Africa, Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 1998a, Regulations under the South African Qualifications Authority Act (Act
No. 58 of 1995) (short title: National Standards Bodies Regulations, 1998) Regulation
No. R. 452, Government Gazette 393 (18787), Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 1998b, Regulations under the South African Qualifications Authority Act (Act
No. 58 of 1995) (short title: Education and Training Quality Assurance Bodies
Regulations, 1998) Regulation No. R1127, Government Gazette 399 (19231), Pretoria:
Government Printer.
RSA, 1998c, Skills Development Act (Act No. 97 of 1998), Government Gazette 401
(19420), Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 1999a, Skills Development Levies Act (Act No. 9 of 1999), Government Gazette
406 (19984), Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 1999b, Commencement of the Skills Development Act (Act No. 97 of 1998),
Government Gazette 411 (20422): 2, Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 1999c, Regulations regarding the Establishment of Sector Education and Training
Authorities (SETAs), Government Gazette 411 (20422): 4–7, Pretoria: Government
Printer.
RSA, 1999d, List and scope of coverage of Sector Education and Training Authorities,
Government Gazette 417 (20422): 12–24 Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 2000, Notice of amendment of a list and scope of coverage of Sector Education and
Training Authorities, Government Gazette 417 (21012), Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 2001a, Regulations concerning the registration of learnerships and learnership
agreements, Government Gazette 430 (22197), Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 2001b, Skills Development Regulations, Government Gazette 432 (22398) Pretoria:
Government Printer.
RSA, 2002, Taxation Laws Amendment (Act No 30 of 2002), Government Gazette
Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 2005a, Amalgamation of Sector Education and Training Authorities established
under Section 9 of the Skills Development Act, 1998, Government Gazette 477 (27445),
Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 2005b, Establishment of Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs), Gov-
ernment Gazette 477 (27445), Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 2005c, Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs): Grant Regulations re-
garding monies recceived and by a SETA and related matters (short title: SETAS Grant
Regulations, 2005), Government Gazette 481 (27801), Pretoria: Government Printer,
Government Gazette 477 (27445), Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 2005d, Proposed SETA Grants and Service Level Agreement Regulations, Govern-
ment Gazette 481 (27801), Pretoria: Government Printer, Government Gazette 477
(27445) Pretoria: Government Printer.
RSA, 2008, National Qualifications Framework Act, Act 67 of 2008, Government Gazette
524 (31909), Pretoria: Government Printer.
SETA Handbook and Directory, 4th Quarter 2011, Johannesburg: Swartz Manufacturing
Marketing.
SAQA, 1998, “Criteria for the Generation and Evaluation of Standards and Qualifications
on the National Qualifications Framework”, SAQA Bulletin 2(1).
SAQA, 1999, “Draft 5 Criteria and Guidelines for ETQAs”, Pretoria: SAQA.
SAQA, 2011, NQF Implementation Framework 2011–2015, Pretoria: SAQA.
SAQA, 2012, Level Descriptors for the South African National Qualifications Frame-
work, Pretoria: SAQA.
Smit E (ed), 1997, Strategic Human Resource Management, 2nd edn, Pretoria: Kagiso.
Standing G, Fender J and Weeks J, 1996, Restructuring the Labour Market: The South
African Challenge: An ILO Country Review, Geneva: International Labour Organisation.
TETA, 2012, “TETA: In it for the long haul”, Achiever, June, 41, 92–95.
Transnet, 2012, “Transnet Rail Engineering: Schooled for excellence in engineering”,
Achiever, June, 52–53.
Van Rooyen M, 1997, “The National Qualifications Framework and the South African
Qualifications Authority” in Smit E (ed) Strategic Human Resource Management, 2nd
edn, Pretoria: Kagiso.
Vorwerk C, 1998, “New Concepts in Education and Training” Cutting Edge 1(7): 1–8.
Wilson R, Woolard I and Lee B, 2004, Developing a National Skills Forecasting Tool for
South Africa, Pretoria: Human Science Research Council.

Department of Education, 1995, Lifelong Learning through a National Qualifications
Framework, Pretoria: Department of Education.
HSRC, 1995, Ways of seeing the NQF, Pretoria: Human Science Research Council.
Meyer T, 1996, Creating Competitiveness through Competencies, Randburg: Knowledge
Resources.
SAQA, 2012, “Key readings: The South African NQF 1995–2011”, SAQA Bulletin, 12(2),
February, Pretoria: South African Qualifications Authority.
SAQA, 2012, SAQA Update, 14(1), Pretoria: SAQA.
2.27 Internet sites

Achiever Online: http://www.achieveronline.co.za
Australian Qualifications Framework: http://www.aqf.edu.au
Council for Higher Education: http://www.che.ac.za
National Occupational Pathway Framework: http://www.nopf.co.za
New Zealand Qualifications Authority: http://www.nzqa.govt.nz
Scottish Qualification Authority: http://www.sqa.org.uk
Skills Summit: http://www.skillssumit.co.za
Skills Universe: http://www.skills-universe.com
2.28 Acknowledgement
The original author of this chapter in the first three editions of the book, the late Dr
Andries Lategan, is hereby acknowledged.
CHAPTER
3
STRATEGIC HUMAN
Johan Ludike
There is no question that all HRD managers and their units
can benefit from strategic planning.
(Leonard Nadler and Garland Wiggs)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Identify the new competitive realities contained within the knowledge economy and recognise
their influence on strategic HRD
• Comprehend and describe the new repositioned strategic context, role and responsibilities of HRD
• Develop a strategic HRD plan for a company
• Distinguish between strategic human resource planning and strategic implementation
• Differentiate between varying organisational strategic contexts, their response strategies and their
underlying rationale
• Conceptualise appropriate and relevant HRD strategies, architecture, interventions and deliver-
ables
• Apply criteria of alignment, fit and coherence in the design and development of the HRD imple-
mentation strategy
• Establish linkages and integration between initiatives and the organisational strategic context,
objectives, mission and values
• Assess and evaluate strategic outsourcing as an implementation option
• Develop and cultivate strategic partnerships with key implementation stakeholders
• Formulate and align a comprehensive range of measures to evaluate implementation of the HRD
strategy and measure effectiveness of architecture
61
3.1 Introduction
The globalisation of virtually every major industry has dramatically altered the rules of
competition. South African companies today not only face increased local competition but,
having been propelled into the realities of the knowledge and information world economy,
but also have to live up to the challenge of dealing with foreign multi-national companies
in their own markets. South Africa’s human resource competitiveness is inadequate for
this daunting task, however (IMD, 2015; Nel, 1997:21; World Economic Forum, 2016)
and for the changing people-management context (Khoza, 2011; Ludike, 2011; Veldsman,
1996:14).
Organisations need to learn to compete from the inside out by increasing their capacity
for change. In order to ensure their survival, organisations need, according to Pedler,
Burgoyne and Boydell (1992:46), Smith (2011) and Ulrich (1997:67), to create a strategic
architecture, support processes and learning mechanisms that facilitate continued learning
and strategic renewal. Studies by numerous authors, researchers and futurists, such as
Tapscott (1998:60), Davis and Meyer (1998:24) and Hamel and Prahalad (1994:177),
contend that, given the nature of discontinuous change, knowledge-based strategic think-
ing, innovative strategy development and effective strategic implementation are an organ-
isation’s most powerful means of creating its destiny.
Against the background of accelerated skills obsolescence and the shortened shelf-life
of knowledge, it is becoming abundantly clear that professional HRD practitioners cannot
afford to be perceived as passive bystanders. HRD practitioners will have to participate
proactively in their respective organisations’ competitive efforts to create the future, failing
which they risk themselves becoming obsolete and their deliverables being outsourced.
The purpose and objective of this chapter is to describe briefly the emerging new com-
petitive realities which organisational strategy has to address as well as reflect on the need
for HRD to renew its paradigm and reposition itself as a strategic partner. A conceptual
distinction between HRD strategy development and its implementation will then be made
before a comprehensive overview of the various organisational strategies, their rationale
and possible implications for HRD is provided.
The commensurate, responsive, effective implementation through the appropriate cre-
ation of deliverables, interventions and the need for the deployment and leveraging of
strategic partnerships based on specific criteria will then be explored. This will be followed
by the provision of an illustrative case study aimed at demonstrating the integrated nature
of HRD strategy implementation. Brief consideration of strategic outsourcing as an imple-
mentation option will then be discussed. Lastly, a case study will be provided as a means
through which self-assessment can be done. First, however, the enormous range of changes
impacting on organisations needs to be explored.
3.2 The emergence of a new competitive landscape

In an increasingly turbulent environment, organisations are becoming engrossed in finding
new ways of gaining and sustaining a competitive advantage. Organisations and scholars
across the world view strategy as a continuous process which is foremost preoccupied
with the interpretation (anticipation) of the competitive environment and the creation of a
sustainable competitive advantage (Porter, 1996:61). Earlier predictions by Drucker
(1993:26), Handy (1990:14) and Birchall and Lyons (1995:2) foretold a changing work-
force, a changing workplace and a changing, more competitive, global and predominantly
Chapter 3: Strategic Human Resource Development 63
knowledge-driven as well as increasingly borderless economy. Both those tasked with for-
mulating organisational strategies as well as HRD professionals were faced with questions
such as:
• What do these changes in the future world of work look like?
• How does the increasing detachment from time and space as a result of greater technol-
ogy utilisation (office automation) impact on organisational structure?
• How will organisational culture and strategic architecture (mission, vision and values)
have to be reconceptualised in order for the twenty-first century organisation to con-
tinually experiment with reconfiguring itself in a search for more responsive, innova-
tive and entrepreneurial solutions?
Tapscott (1998:24), Downes and Mui (1998:46) and Moss Kanter (1997:117) have con-
tinued this reflection on what was classically yet aptly described by Anshoff (1988:12) as
discontinuous change, further emphasising and advocating that:
• strategy requires a new mindset, one that leans towards experimentation and creativity
rather than merely a rigid planning and budgeting process
• a methodology referred to as “digital strategy” must be adopted
• knowledge now permeates throughout the new economy and innovation and human
imagination are the main source of shareholder value creation
• time frames are immediate, with planning and high performance results being measured
in months rather than years
• globalisation implies that knowledge knows no boundaries. The world, with the advent
of the Internet, needs to be thought of as merely a very large network. Local businesses
become global overnight and many a commentator refers to a post CNN world. The
new competitive landscape is faced with the rapid spread of news via advanced tele-
communications satellite technology. Further, given that knowledge is the primary per-
formance driver as regards value creation, there is only a world economy
• the forces of digitisation, deregulation and aforementioned globalisation are rapidly
transforming companies, markets and complete industries from physical to electronic
commerce with an increasing virtual character
• digitisation of everyday life implies that, given that both communication and computing
power become cheaper and even disposable on a daily basis, a large number and range
of activities are migrating from the physical and tangible to the virtual and the intangible
• concepts, competence and connective partnerships and alliances are increasingly being
accepted as the prerequisite main intangible assets of world-class organisations. This
leads to the need for the sources of competitive advantage as well as their sustainability
to be constantly rethought
• these dynamics within the global marketplace are radically altering the structure, bound-
aries, nature and even definition of entire industries.
How do organisational strategists and HRD professionals need to respond to these new
competitive realities which drive, force and compel change? Initially, one could make the
mistake of believing that these were mostly “foreign concepts and ideas” which had little
impact and/or relevance to South Africa; that is, until one considers the local presence of
well-known global brand names such as Intel, Microsoft, MacDonald’s, Nokia, Coca-Cola,
Johnson and Johnson, Nike and Levi’s. Research by Bassi and Van Buren (1997:33) into
these revered, high performance global companies has proven continually that they have
mastered the art of leveraging their HRD strategies and system of practices to the opti-
mum. Principally, this is achieved through the understanding of their ever changing com-
petitive landscape (drivers and forces of change) and reinventing the manner in which
HRD provides value, commencing with the adoption of a radically new paradigm.
3.3 Reconceptualising and repositioning HRD as a strategic

partner
The word “paradigm” originates from the Greek paradeigma and means pattern, model or
example. By implication the paradigm therefore defines the rules and boundaries within
which, in an emerging new world order, high performing organisations have to excel in
order to survive. The increased complexities emerging within a global competitive land-
scape compel HRD practitioners to adopt a completely new paradigm as to how they con-
ceptualise their roles and responsibilities and how they execute the provision of their
range of deliverables.
The objective and outcome of reconceptualisation needs to result in a considerable im-
provement in the image and credibility of HRD. Gilley and Maycunich (1998:3) argue
that HRD needs to be viewed not only from a reactive provision of training perspective,
but also to be perceptually repositioned within the organisation. This repositioning should
result in HRD being considered a strategic partner who is entrusted with the joint respon-
sibility of improving organisational performance as well as organisational effectiveness.
This would result in HRD extending and having a broader influence as well as a renewed
sense of purpose. This leaves one with the question of what strategic partnering entails?
What are its logic, processes and best practices?
In order for HRD and its practitioners to be both successful as well as effective in
making the transition to being a strategic partner, HRD needs to:
• interpret and understand the trends and commensurate practices in corporate strategy
formulation
• align and link HRD processes and practices to the external, competitive marketplace,
ensuring the creation of short and long-term competitive value
• adopt a high value-added agenda, which creates and ensures a competitive customer
focused culture
• design and develop a range of deliverables which contribute to improving the organisa-
tion’s capability not to just respond to discontinuous change but to innovate strategically
• focus on organisational performance issues (see chapter 5)
• strategically integrate HRD through ensuring that both strategies and interventions are
designed to fit internally with the organisation’s mission, vision, values, structures, pro-
cedures and management systems as well as leadership policies and practices
• develop the commensurate individual level competencies within the organisation’s staff
which will ensure that the staff are not only equipped to perform but to excel, providing
a rich source of competitive advantage (intellectual capital)
• define and create learning systems which encourage and sustain change, and which en-
hance personal as well as organisational learning and growth
• provide for the development, deployment and leveraging of business unit level capabil-
ities, enabling the business unit to distinguish itself within the marketplace
• contribute significantly towards the galvanisation of organisational culture in order to

provide legendary high performance.
Achieving all the aforementioned through a high degree of collaboration with all relevant
stakeholders will, according to Ulrich (1997:67), ensure that the HRD architecture is so
well established as to literally enable the organisation to execute and accomplish its strat-
egy.
Galagan (1994:22) and McLagan (1996:63), in anticipation of HRD being judged in the
future on whether it adds real measurable economic value, advocate the need for most of
these activities to be integrated into the roles, responsibilities and skills repertoires of the
professional HRD practitioner. The internalisation of these skills and their constant
revision and renewal will enable professional practitioners to execute their new strategic
partnering mandate.
Needless to say, the continuous demonstration of the causal relationships between the
various HRD interventions and their contribution towards improved shareholder value in a
disciplined monetary sense is at the heart of these newly formulated strategic partnerships.
The credibility and integrity of all stakeholders within this strategic partnership could be
greatly enhanced through the collaborative design as well as implementation of both the
organisational and the HRD strategy.
3.4 Strategy formulation versus implementation

Strategic HRD is generally defined by many authors, such as Rothwell and Kazanas
(1994), Garavan (1991) and Gilley and Maycunich (1998), as a combination of strategic
processes which, if correctly aligned and integrated, are directed at providing for the
learning of all relevant stakeholders which will equip stakeholders and their organisations
to cope with the challenge of creating the future. It is necessary at this stage to differenti-
ate between HRD strategy formulation or planning and the actual implementation thereof.
It is therefore not surprising that the new national HR Competency Model has positioned
strategy at the top of the list of competencies for HR professionals (Meyer, 2012).
Although traditionally a conceptual distinction has been made in terms of representing
strategic management as two distinguishable and separate phases, planning and implemen-
tation as per Table 3.1, these are increasingly being absorbed in the organisational value
chain (bearing in mind the seamless nature of the knowledge-based organisation). Effect-
ive strategic operationalisation and implementation are greatly influenced by the actual
process and content of strategy formulation and vice versa.
It is necessary to view the strategic management of HRD as critical to the overall attain-
ment of the organisation’s vision and mission, inclusive of the creation of improved share-
holder wealth and respecting its core values.
Table 3.1 Integrated strategic HRD strategy
Strategic planning and formulation Strategic implementation

Develop HRD vision/mission statement Break vision, mission and strategy down into
specific objectives
Scan the external environment focusing on Communicate, create understanding and assign
organisational strategy responsibilities
continued
Strategic planning and formulation Strategic implementation

Conduct internal self-analysis to determine Establish and create appropriate strategy-
capabilities and capacity to create future through supportive policies, processes and procedures
strategic partnership
Formulate future-focused HRD strategy and Link measurable accountabilities, rewards and
objectives incentives to achievement of key strategic
objectives
Evaluate according to criteria of alignment, fit Evaluate practical progress of strategy
and coherence (integration) with organisational implementation on a continuous basis and
strategy and execute HRD strategy assess impact of overall HRD strategy
The strategic HRD planning and formulation phase normally entails the development of
an HRD mission statement, the setting of objectives and the crafting or designing of a
comprehensive and integrated strategy which in itself, according to both Rothwell and
Kazanas (1994:19) as well as Gilley and Maycunich (1998:231), requires that one under-
takes and adopts both an external environmental scanning exercise as well as an internal
self-analysis.
When undertaking an external environmental analysis the majority of strategists observe,
examine and anticipate trends within and from a political economic, social and techno-
logical perspective. Issues emerging within these various sectors could influence how strat-
egy is formulated and implemented.
This will help both the organisation and HRD practitioner determine the extent to which
HRD has acquired not only the capability to distinguish between various organisation-
based strategic options, but to what extent it has internally developed the necessary level
and depth of strategic foresight. This will enable the HRD practitioner to participate mean-
ingfully in co-designing and developing a range of individual (competencies), team
(capabilities) and organisational (culture) deliverables which fit internally and are aligned
with specific strategic options that the organisation has elected to deploy.
The most important component of the strategic management process is, however,
according to Human (1998:160), the actual implementation, the success of which he states
is greatly influenced by whether the aforementioned strategic development is done
properly. Putting the strategy into practice requires one to concentrate on both the organ-
isational level strategy supportive policies, procedures and requirements as well as the
practical actions which need to be taken to move from ideas (planning and formulation) to
implementation (action, communication, clarification and measurement). When making
the strategy happen, the first step is normally to break down the strategic objectives, pro-
grammes and tasks and assign them to teams and/or individuals who have the resources
(capability and capacity) and commitment to execute them.
It is important to make the mission, priority issues and actions that need to be taken
relevant to and clearly understandable by those that have to execute them. Ensuring that
strategy supportive policies and requirements are in place normally entails ensuring that
all role-players have the commensurate authority (empowerment) and necessary resource
allocation (budgets, human resources and equipment) to execute their respective responsi-
bilities. These strategy supportive policies, procedures and processes also include indi-
viduals and/or teams being kept measurably accountable for the effective completion of
their strategic assignment(s) and/or task(s). In addition to comprehensive communication
processes, rewards and incentives, that is, gain sharing, could also be linked to the achieve-
ment of these strategic objectives.
Implementing the strategy is the tough part, the success of which is greatly influenced
by the HRD practitioner’s level of insight into the various organisational strategies and
their underlying rationale.
3.5 Strategy options and choice

According to Pearce and Robinson (1985:16) strategic decision-making is not only future-
orientated but also affects the long-term financial prosperity of the organisation.
By understanding the broader organisational strategies and their underlying rationale
the HRD practitioner can, through the strategic integration of deliverables, significantly
contribute towards reducing the cycle time of actual strategy implementation resulting in
improved financial performance for the organisation.
The increasingly complex external global marketplace provides organisations with a
wide range of strategies to choose from, each one having different implications for HRD.
It is important to note that a wide range of external environmental factors ranging from
macro socio-political factors to micro factors such as customer demand and competitors’
pricing policies as well as internal leadership and structure influences, normally direct this
dynamic strategic decision-making. The ultimate objective is for strategically focused pro-
fessional HRD practitioners to develop the necessary strategic foresight and proactively
participate in this process. In order to facilitate this discussion the various strategies, their
rationale and possible implications for both HRD strategy formulation and strategy facili-
tation or implementation purposes will be discussed as per Table 3.2.
It is important to note at this stage that in order to achieve both strategic integration (fit
and alignment) and be considered a strategic partner, it is necessary to anticipate and for-
mulate the possible implications for HRD at the individual (competency), team (capabil-
ity) and organisational (culture) level.
Table 3.2 Organisational strategies and their possible HRD implications
Circumstances and rationale Strategic implication for HRD

Organisation strategy 1: Increasing market share
• Organisation wants to concentrate and focus • Service and quality at both the point of sale or
on current well-known market and/or product production could be enhanced via quality
utilising its current competencies, resources management (process and measurement)
and technology
• Customers must therefore be won over from • Frontline customer interaction and improve-
the competitors through better quality of ment and refinement of selling skills and/or
service and product cross-selling
• Organisation could also elect to concentrate • Leadership and management could also
on reducing operating costs or maintaining its benefit from interventions that facilitate
market share in its particular market niche quality, sales and service performance
management
• Culture needs to measure, incentivise and
reward team, service, quality and
continued

Organisation strategy 1: Increasing market share
interpersonal skills as well as technical
competencies
• Outsourcing range interventions could
accelerate competency and capability
development processes within organisation to
enable sales and service orientation particu-
larly if current culture is lacking in this regard
Organisation strategy 2: Reducing operating costs to become a low-cost producer within the industry
• Organisation wants to create and sustain as • Productivity could be improved via multi-
well as take advantage of lower costs skilling (see chapter 15)
• It could improve market share as a result of • Assisting in technology integration and
lower prices utilisation
• Represents a continuous search for cost • Cross-boundary or functional team learning
reduction without sacrificing quality exercises
• Overall objective is to manage costs down, • Team problem-solving to reduce error rate
year after year • Develop company-wide financial manage-
• Particularly effective in a market where ment capability and awareness of budgeting,
consumers are price sensitive and price costing, prices, etc
competition thrives • Identification and management of cost drivers
• Re-engineering (process) skills could help to
enable redesign and development of customer
value chain
• Develop quality management culture (chapter
17)
• Benchmark and teach cost management best
practices
• Process-orientated interventions could be
outsourced or in-sourced to, for example, IT
department if they have software toolkit
which facilitates the effective completion of
intervention
Organisation strategy 3: Market development
• Organisation emphasising the marketing of • Marketing and sales staff need to be able to
existing products to customers in related sell, service and communicate value to
markets via new, changed distribution customers
channels • Foreign offshore or global expansion requires
• Normally associated with new promotional staff to have technical competence, inter-
and advertising campaigns personal skills, diversity management skills,
• New markets could be local or offshore career development and life skills
• Foreign language and cultural awareness
• Reorientation when foreign assignee returns
could also be considered
continued

Organisation strategy 4: Product development
• The emphasis is on extending organisation’s • Organisational culture needs to support and
product line through modifying existing value change
products • Creative thinking abilities of staff to be
• Entails the extension of product life cycle developed
• Foster employee involvement and suggestion
schemes
• Participative management and democratic
leadership skills to be developed
• Technical and product knowledge of staff
always to be renewed
Organisation strategy 5: Innovation
• Although it appears similar to product • Develop strategic and innovative thinking
development the emphasis of this strategy is capabilities of staff
on new and/or different products • Entrepreneurial orientation of both teams and
• Requires organisation to be highly individuals important
explorative and sensitive to environmental, • Business case and proposal preparation or
market and competitive trends presentation skills valuable to obtain
sponsorship
• Culture to encourage risk taking and embed
entrepreneurial climate
Organisation strategy 6: External growth and/or acquisition
• Objective of company is to integrate • External growth strategies normally result
resources or diversify its holdings in either restructuring and/or layoffs, which
• Integration can occur in a number of ways, require staff to be re-skilled
such as, horizontal integration which occurs • Skills-based outplacement programmes might
when organisation acquires another business also be necessary
which is in the same production or marketing • Cultural disparity as a result of the merging
chain of different organisations will need to be
• This enables organisation to gain access to addressed via focusing on the creation of a
new markets, eliminates the competition as unified culture
well as provides organisation with more • Mission, values, behavioural norms and belief
sources of profit systems will need to be revisited
• Vertical integration provides the acquiring
business with the advantage of cost control • Both competency audits and culture, climate
assessments, which are action learning
as it normally acquires the business which
orientated, could be considered
previously supplied it with materials, etc
• Conglomerate integration is directed at the • Complete range of individual and team
acquisition of businesses that do not have learning interventions contained in
much in common with the dominant curriculum need to be re-customised to fit
acquiring company. The objective is merely new organisation and its culture
to expand potential profit base
continued

Organisation strategy 6: External growth and/or acquisition
• Various external growth approaches require • Cross-selling and marketing comes from
that cross-functional or divisional perspect- rapid dissemination of capabilities and the
ives are developed by the integrated manage- real profit growth originates from uniform
ment teams transfer of best practices across the
• Profit growth originates from improved organisation
co-ordination and transfer of products,
services and know-how across the newly
merged corporation
• A high premium is placed on all measures
of success and effectiveness, such as, ROI,
income to staff ratio, cost to income ratios
and assets per staff number, etc
Organisation strategy 7: Co-operative alliances
• Strategic alliances are co-operative agree- • Successful collaboration requires the
ments between companies that extend beyond development of new skills, mindsets and
company to company dealings but which do corporate architectures
not represent a partnership or full and/or part • A view of partnership as opportunity needs to
co-ownership agreement be introduced into culture
• Many reasons for co-operation exist, for • Cross-boundary and team learning skills are
example providing parties with the advantage important to develop cross-functional or
of collaborating and sharing research and divisional perspectives
development (joint expertise) and production
and technology facilities • Communication and conflict resolution skills
need to be refined to develop trust and respect
• Economies of scale in both production and
marketing result from co-operation; greater • Joint and participative problem-solving,
access to markets is obtained decision-making, system design, planning and
budgeting techniques essential to partnering
• Allies learn from each other and could share skill set
distribution facilities and dealer networks
• Internal customer value chain perspective and
• Could over time evolve into joint venture process perspective also important
where collaborative parties pursue expansion
opportunities
It further needs to be borne in mind that the particular stage in the organisation’s life cycle
(introduction, growth, maturity and decline), which is to a large extent continuously being
influenced and determined by the competitive landscape, in turn shapes the aforementioned
organisational strategies. In order to effectively implement a range of matching HRD strat-
egies, it is necessary to consider a few prerequisite implementation criteria.
3.6 Implementation design criteria

In the same manner that considerable attention had to be paid to the organisational strategy
planning formulation, the design of the actual implementation of the HRD strategy is vital
to its effective execution. The execution of the strategy needs to adhere to as many of the
following criteria as possible because they represent, according to Ulrich (1997:69), the
pillars or architecture which greatly determine the actual translation of strategy into action.
3.6.1 Alignment
Alignment is the extent to which the various HRD initiatives at individual competency,
team capability and organisational culture level align with overall organisational strategy
externally and its vision, mission and values internally. Another way of addressing this
question is to ask to what extent the actual HRD interventions will accomplish (enable)
organisational strategy and enable the organisation to achieve its mission while adhering
to a set of values to which all its stakeholders subscribe?
3.6.2 Implementability
To what extent are the various HRD interventions practical, easily understood by all role-
players and to what extent are resources available to accomplish the objectives in a reason-
able time frame? All possible barriers and inhibitors to strategy implementation need to be
correctly identified, defined and addressed via high involvement and participative man-
agement practices and processes, (sensitising) making the transfer climate conducive to
learning implementation.
3.6.3 Coherence and governance

Creating coherence during implementation of the HRD strategy has to do with the various
linkages that need to be established between management work processes, leadership struc-
tures, governance systems and the company’s core competencies, ideologies and values.
These linkages are all designed to achieve specific outcomes so that both management and
staff participate in the creation of an agreement on measures of individual and business
unit performance with the purpose of establishing the link between specific performance
drivers and the organisation’s achievement of its strategic intent. Coherence acts as a bind-
ing force to establish a sense of direction and purpose for effectively executing the HRD
strategy.
Proper HRD governance includes the following key elements:
• a robust strategic HRD framework aligned with business strategy
• a clear HRD governance framework specifying roles and responsibilities
• a learning council and other governance structures to govern learning
• a learning charter with explicit principles and guidelines
• HRD risk management plans to mitigate any risks faced by the learning function
• proper learning policies, processes and procedures
• mechanisms such as service-level agreements to govern outsourcing
• compliance with all requirements such as SETA and QCTO rules
• monitoring and control systems to report back to the learning council and management
about the success of learning.
Giving consideration to these criteria when developing HRD implementation strategy will
contribute to the HRD strategy’s being strategically integrated as reflected in the Managing
the Wesbank Way illustrative case study.
3.7 Company example: Managing the Wesbank Way

Wesbank is a division of First National Bank which specialises in instalment finance and benefits
from both the strength and resources of this as well as the First Rand banking group. The extensive
branch and technological infrastructure of First National complements Wesbank’s countrywide rep-
resentation. Wesbank was the first bank and currently remains the only bank that committed itself
inextricably to the motor industry. All its resources and energies are directed towards this sector and
it focuses exclusively on providing asset-based financing at the point of sale.
Through this niche strategy it has positioned it as the dominant player and currently enjoys the
majority market share in instalment-based vehicle financing. This remains true to its mission as
defined during 1987 in which it stated:
“Wesbank is to be the acknowledged leader in instalment credit in our elected market in terms of
profitability and size.”
It was also during this period that the executive and staff of Wesbank jointly decided it was
necessary to articulate and define the following set of principled and deep-seated values, which
would guide all conduct:
We believe the customer comes first
We believe in our people as individuals
We believe in quality in all that we do
We believe in profitable growth
A range of individual, team and organisational performance standards linked to each value was also
jointly defined and agreed to by all stakeholders. The mission, values and standards have become
known as “The Wesbank Way”.
The HRD function and all its staff proactively participated in the creation of the above and formu-
lated the following HRD mission to align with the Wesbank Way:
“We are committed to the development of learning that is dynamic and which enables the Bank to
achieve its corporate objectives through staff who are equipped to excel.”
Given the high participative climate which was created during the collaborative creation of the
Wesbank Way and its stated value of “believing in people as individuals”, HRD with the senior
executive’s sponsorship, proceeded in generating interest from line management in participating and
serving on a training advisory forum. The objective was to have credible members of line manage-
ment contributing towards the creation of a future-orientated learning curriculum. This was achieved
via a future search type workshop during which line management (training advisory forum) articu-
lated and defined the individual competencies, team capabilities and organisational culture issues as
per Table 3.3. This was to further enable the bank to manage the Wesbank Way. The consolidation
of this collaborative effort resulted in and represented the integrated future focused and, most im-
portantly, measurable human resource development (HRD) strategy.
Wesbank, in keeping with Kaplan and Norton’s (1997:46) “balanced scorecard” approach,
designed an integrated strategy which does not just use measures based on past performance as
measured by traditional financial indicators but also takes future performance drivers such as the
perspective of both the customers and staff into consideration. The learning and growth that result
from continuous review and benchmarking of internal processes is also provided for. Utilising this
methodology does not just enable Wesbank to determine the causal linkages (coherence) between
performance drivers (activities, initiatives and processes) and outcome measures (customer and em-
ployee satisfaction indexes, profits and benchmarks) but also enables HRD to constantly rectify its
range of deliverables accordingly.
All employees understand what their individual as well as team contribution towards achieving
Wesbank’s mission and values are and, more specifically, what individual competencies, team
capabilities and organisational culture need to be developed or nurtured in order to be “the acknow-
ledged leader” in its marketplace. It serves the purpose of communicating to all members of staff
continued
what needs to be done exceptionally well in order to succeed in the future and what needs to be
learned to get there.
As can well be deduced from Table 3.3, the range of competencies and capabilities contained in
the various interventions at both management as well as non-managerial support staff level have
been customised to reflect Wesbank’s particular marketplace and strategic context, that is, motor
dealerships and the motor industry. Transformational leadership and change skills (cross-functional
learning and flexibility) which are embedded in the various management courses make Wesbank’s
organisational culture and leadership receptive and responsive to radical changes such as e-commerce
in its “emerging competitive landscape”. As such, it represents a highly resilient and change recep-
tive organisation, capable of strategically innovating itself into new market opportunities or beyond
the grasp of any real competitive threat.
Implementing HRD in this manner has enabled Wesbank’s HRD practitioners to prove their con-
tribution towards achieving the strategic organisational performance improvement objectives and
they are as a result considered true strategic partners. For example, actual real improvements in cus-
tomer satisfaction and loyalty, as measured by a comprehensive customer satisfaction index, have
been causally linked back to individual managers’ overall management proficiency or competencies
and the successful completion of, for example, the Wesbank MBA (Management Basics in Action)
extended competency based management development programme.
Given that these causal relationships between performance drivers and actual performance out-
come measures have been established over time it gives HRD and line management via the training
advisory forum the opportunity to constantly reflect on the range of deliverables contained in the
integrated HRD strategy. The role-players involved are committed to using this approach as a means
of renewing both the content and processes contained in the curriculum with “real world” practical
case studies, simulations and best practice solutions which further enhance the credibility and inte-
gration of the HRD strategy and its interventions. Needless to say in this manner a high perform-
ance and achievement-orientated culture has been created and line managers compete in order to
participate or act as facilitators on the various programmes.
The integrated alignment of strategies, values, interventions and performance measures, as dis-
played in Table 3.3, enables HRD to distinguish the exceptional individual performers from the
average or low performers and to make reasonably reliable predictions, based on the competency or
capability and performance mix or fit.
Again it needs to be kept in mind that these results have been achieved over a decade and required
a considerable investment in terms of resources. The results could not have been achieved without
high degrees of commitment from senior management and without line management involvement.
The integrated alignment of strategies, values, interventions and performance measures, as dis-
played in Table 3.3, enables HRD to distinguish the exceptional individual performers from the
average or low performers and to make reasonably reliable predictions, based on the competency or
capability and performance mix or fit.
Table 3.3 Competencies, capabilities and culture to manage the Wesbank Way
Front Management/ Customer Service Organisational

Line Supervisory Support Staff Culture
• Budgeting cost • My branch is my • Cross-functional • Enterprise wide
and income, that business team up and win performance
is, “finance for • Managing sales workshops management
non-financial” performance • Project manage- system
Profitable personnel
• Implementing ment • Balanced score
Growth
• Sales the balanced card
negotiations score card
• Professional
selling
• Managing front • Situational • People manage- • Measurement
line staff leadership man- ment and management
• Team building agement basics • Managing people of employee
development in action (MBA) diversity satisfaction
People As
integrated and index (ESI)
Individuals • Employee extended • Empower leader-
involvement ship • 360-degree man-
management agement satisfac-
• Multi-skilling development tion index (MSI)
programme
• Administrative • Managing • Statistical quality • Quality manage-
technical com- quality processes management ment indicator
Quality In petence and and systems techniques (QMI)
All That workflow,
We Do • Benchmarking • Benchmarking
process design and process best practices
redesign
• Customer inter- • Managing cus- • Customer inter- • Customer satis-
Customer action skills tomer service action skills faction index
Comes value chain (CSI)
First • Customer service • Tele-servicing
forums techniques
3.8 Outsourcing as a strategic HRD implementation option

There is a definite role for new and revised policies, procedures and processes in the strat-
egy implementation process. Effectively constructed policies and procedures help enforce
strategy implementation by directing actions, behaviours, decisions and practices towards
improved strategy execution.
One such revised policy might be to release line and support managers from spending
inordinate amounts of time, energy and resources wrestling with what could be considered
functional support activities. This can be achieved by reducing the number of internal staff
support activities and sourcing more of what is needed from outside vendors, an approach
commonly known as “outsourcing”.
Quinn and Hilmer (1994:46) argue that adopting a strategic approach to outsourcing,
ensures that the organisation’s own resources remain focused on generating value for its
customers, while those activities not considered critical to the achievement of its mission
are best performed outside.
Outsourcing of the range of deliverables traditionally provided by HRD is also on the

increase and HRD practitioners are more frequently being called upon to compare, evalu-
ate and justify their “value add” to the organisation. The development and leveraging of
the intellectual capital of an organisation might require a slightly different approach to,
for instance, outsourcing the office canteen and catering services, the argument being that
in the knowledge economy it is often the intellectual capital contained within the organ-
isation’s employees which determines its shareholder value. This is easily determined by
assessing and comparing a company’s asset value with its market value. The greater the
difference between these two figures the more susceptible the organisation is to the main-
tenance and development of its intellectual capital and, according to Sveiby (1997:47) and
Edvinson (1997:184), the intellectual capital needs to be continuously measured, mon-
itored and nurtured. It is therefore necessary to reflect not only on how to plan an out-
sourcing strategy but also how to manage an outsourcing initiative in such a manner as to
ensure that greater efficiencies in both costs and execution result from an outsourcing
strategy.
3.8.1 Planning outsourcing strategy and selecting an appropriate vendor or

training partner
The nature and extent of the need for outsourcing will determine whether the entire re-
sponsibility for HRD function is transferred to an outside supplier or merely a component
of the HRD intervention, that is, facilitation. This is also known as “out-tasking”.
Adopting a strategic in-sourcing approach through which HRD develops an alliance
and partnership with external providers, could represent a viable option as opposed to
totally outsourcing this vital competency and capability building function. This would
entail HRD and line management to reflect on whether the competencies and capabilities
which the business requires can be developed better, faster and cheaper by relying on the
company’s in-house resources or whether an in-source partner should be used. In-sourcing
could assist in complementing the actual implementation and delivery on a work-sharing
basis.
It is normally advisable to create a strategic outsourcing forum consisting of members
of the line, HRD and possible vendors to jointly explore cost and other efficiencies, that
is, cycle time, customisation and overall integration and alignment with the organisation’s
strategic intent and culture.
The criteria according to which external vendors’ proposals will be evaluated need to
be jointly articulated and defined with high degrees of line management involvement.
These specifications need to be clearly communicated to a wide range of suppliers when
requesting them to submit proposals.
This can be facilitated by means of designing a request for a proposal document (RFP)
which could be circulated to all possible vendors. The objective is to formulate a pro-
cedure with this document which clearly stipulates the performance specifications and
standards with which all proposals submitted by the supplier need to comply. Examples of
standards and/or specifications could include that all interventions should be customised
as well as competency and outcomes-based and further that they should comply with
current labour legislation.
The joint outsourcing forum could then select, analyse and evaluate vendors’ submis-
sions according to the criteria which align with their expectations, that is reduced costs,
improved quality, flexibility, expedient execution and improved competitiveness.
Other more general criteria which could be considered when selecting an outsourcing
vendor or partner (long-term) could include the supplier’s reputation and reliability in the
marketplace, that is, who currently uses their services and products and what tangible per-
formance improvement has resulted from it? It is advisable to obtain concrete evidence
from reputable references as to what period these performance improvements were sus-
tained over and what the extent of their investment was.
3.8.2 Managing the risks and pitfalls of outsourcing

Through outsourcing part or all of the HRD function, one can achieve cost savings, im-
prove quality and gain access to scarce resources. It also implies, however, that one loses
control over one or more of one’s processes. This could be considered good or bad de-
pending on the actual process being outsourced. If it is a process intervention which is
considered mission-critical to the organisation’s competitive edge, the risks could be enor-
mous. Outsourcing can entail significant upheaval, transfer of important assets, sharing of
intellectual capital, dislocation of people and long-term contractual obligations.
It is important therefore that the objectives, benefits and risks associated with formu-
lating and implementing an outsourcing strategy be clearly understood and managed. Many
of these pitfalls can be avoided through careful vendor selection and adherence to the re-
quest for a proposal process and guidelines. Negotiating and agreeing on a detailed service-
level agreement with the outsourcing organisation, which stipulates specific standards of
performance inclusive of dates and deadlines, could also further eliminate potential risk.
Developing competence in managing external consultants and vendors is also important
for the effective implementation of an outsourcing strategy. It is therefore necessary for
HRD practitioners to familiarise themselves with general consulting methodologies and
strategies, as one never knows when one can be called on to outsource and in-source one-
self.
3.9 Conclusion
Effective implementation of an integrated HRD strategy is vitally important to enabling
organisations to compete in a globally competitive marketplace. This implementation,
however, needs to be well planned and differentiated to ensure that full cognisance is taken
of both the organisation’s competitive landscape and the rationale for adopting its particu-
lar mission-critical strategy. The implementation of the various HRD interventions must
be strategically integrated to provide for coherence, fit and alignment with the organisa-
tion’s specific mission, values and strategic objectives as well as relevant performance
measures. In order to enhance the actual implementation of the HRD strategy, strategic in-
sourcing can be considered as an option.
3.10 Case study: The Key Talent Programme of Syngenta

Our purpose: Bringing plant potential to life
Syngenta is a world-leading agribusiness committed to sustainable agriculture through
innovative research and technology. The company is a leader in crop protection, and ranks
third in the high-value commercial seeds market. Sales in 2006 were approximately
$8.1 billion. Syngenta employs around 19 500 people in over 90 countries. Syngenta is
listed on the Swiss stock exchange (SYNN) and in New York (SYT). Further information
is available at www.syngenta.com.
Syngenta South Africa (Pty) Ltd is recognised as an employer of choice, was voted as
the Agricultural sector winner for the second successive year and achieved a top 20 over-
all position in the Deloitte “Best Company to Work For” 2006 Survey.
What is the Syngenta Key Talent Programme?

The Syngenta Key Talent Programme is a customised leadership development programme
run at country level where Syngenta has operations (as opposed to other leadership devel-
opment initiatives run by Syngenta Global Learning and Development on an international
basis). The programme is registered with CHIETA as a Certificate in Management, and is
partially funded by a Discretionary Grant from CHIETA. Its broad aims are to:
• grow the internal talent pool
• facilitate multi-disciplinary functioning across and within working teams
• develop the skills and competencies of a key group of employees to act as Syngenta
Ambassadors, both internally and externally
• through generalisation of the skills and competencies learned in the work environment
to their personal lives, facilitate a higher level of work-life integration
• pilot the concept of an enhanced development programme and generate key learnings
for future programmes.
Stakeholders
Stakeholders Their Interest In The Key Talent Programme
Key Talents Through active participation in the programme, the Key Talents
learn skills they can apply in the workplace and in their personal
lives. While no expectation of advancement was given, Key
Talents are better prepared to apply for more senior positions, as
and when these arise (locally and internationally)
South African Leadership By facilitating the development of a diverse group (ranging from
Team (SALT) middle management to technical specialists) of employees, the
SALT expects higher quality of behaviours and relationship skills
that will impact positively on the organisation at all levels. The
SALT can also expect to have a greater degree of honest feedback
from the Key Talents, challenging SALT members to raise the
level of their strategic focus and behaviour in terms of the Leader-
ship Model and Values
Colleagues in the programme Participants in the programme should acquire enhanced networking
skills and learn behaviours that will support responsive, agile
leadership behaviours and skills to facilitate multi-disciplinary
functioning in the world of work. Peer-to-peer coaching should be
enhanced
continued
Stakeholders Their Interest In The Key Talent Programme

Colleagues outside the Key Talents should demonstrate active mentorship and coaching
programme skills, thus taking a leadership role (in the sense of the servant
leader, not necessarily hierarchical) within their natural teams
Syngenta Talent Pool All Key Talents are entered into the global succession management
system and their profiles are visible to the wider organisation for
potential deployment in other geographic areas
Profile
Ten employees were selected from both the Crop Protection and Seeds businesses. There
was a representative mix of gender, ethnic group, role profile and functional position. Five
employees are defined as First Level Leaders, in that they have direct reports and report
themselves to a member of the SALT. Two employees report to First Level Leaders, while
the balance report directly to a SALT member, but have no direct reports. All the members
are graduates, of which one has a PhD, one an MBA and three have scientific Master’s
degrees. Syngenta’s business is very technical, and most employees have moved through
the organisation from a technical specialist background and role. All the Key Talents are
typical of this pattern, demonstrating excellence in the fields of expertise, but with clear
room for growth in leadership competencies and skills.
Selection criteria
The Key Talents were selected by members of the SALT, based on the following criteria:
• Ambassador
– Tells the story and lives the brand
– Ready, willing and able to share knowledge vertically and horizontally.
• Innovation
– Creative mindset: develops own innovative thinking and fosters it in others.
• Health
– Strong focus on liberating potential: own and others.
• Intensity
– Builds strong relationships and partnerships
– Is passionate about his/her role/task, but focused.
• Performance
– Functions naturally in a high performance culture and working in high performance
teams
– Quality and standards oriented: sets high standards and delivers on them.
• Mobility
– Starting point: at least Stage II in current role1
– Drives his/her own progress from one career stage to another
________________________
1 Novations Four Stage Career Model.

– Grandfather principle: must have the potential to enter Stage I2 in a position at least
two sizes bigger3 than current.
The Ambassador criterion is based on one of three growth challenges that Syngenta has
defined at a global level. The criteria of Innovation, Health, Intensity and Performance are
rooted in the Syngenta values of the same names.
Mobility, whether it is geographically, or in terms of career development is a key criter-
ion for any development programme, and is also related closely to the Ambassador role,
as Key Talents are expected to be active in telling their own stories, as well as inspiring
others to grow, develop and find their own voices.
Mini Focus: The Three Challenges
At a global level, Syngenta has defined three growth challenges, and three roles that will facili-
tate the meeting of these challenges. Each of these three roles is equally important, but the
Kay Talent Programme focuses on the Ambassador role. Ambassadors live the purpose4 and
values5 of the organisation in their daily working lives. In doing this, Ambassadors tell their
personal stories as well as the Syngenta story, acting as role models for the brand. The Syn-
genta brand is more than the usual concept understood by corporate image. It speaks to the
emotion and tone that Syngenta employees project to the world, as responsible, credible, con-
fident and caring individuals. It also addresses the benefits inherent in Syngenta’s world-class
technology, global reach and local focus. Finally, the Syngenta brand is rooted in the purpose
and values, as these underlie everything we do.
The Key Talent Programme

After selection of the ten Key Talents, each Department Head (a member of the SALT)
informed them of their selection, or briefed the relevant First Level Leader to do so. At this
stage, (and at any stage of the Programme), employees were given the freedom to choose
whether they wish to proceed. The learning experiences of the programme include:
• classroom learning
• assignments
• networking opportunities
• exposure to Leadership Team ways of working
• increased interaction with Leadership Team members
• engagement with strategy
• engagement with culture and values at an in-depth level
• the Ambassador role.
The programme followed several clear stages, which will be discussed below.
Stage I: Discovery
The Discovery Stage was a critical element in the programme, as it generated the needs
analysis that was used to inform the drawing up of the programme’s curriculum.
________________________
2 Novations Four Stage Career Model.

3 As defined by the Hay Job Evaluation System.
4 Our purpose: Bringing plant potential to life.
5 Intensity, Health, Innovation, Performance.
Discovery itself incorporated several steps:

Discovery Step Outcomes/Deliverables
Profiling exercise • Personal profile
• A “How to Manage” report – shared with relevant Line
Manager after consent was granted by the employees to do so
Debriefing on profiling 1:1 • Enhanced understanding of the personal profile
meeting (or series of meetings • Clarifying of areas of concern
with HR Manager)
• Noting areas of agreement
• Noting areas of difference
• Initiating discussion on individual development needs
Career Development Plan: • A clear career development plan, unique to each individual
Using the Syngenta South • Consolidated needs analysis for the group, that was used to
Africa Career Development develop the curriculum specifically to address the identified
Toolkit and a series of meet- gaps and to ensure alignment between the group needs and
ings with the HR Manager organisational requirements
Stage II: Foundation Learning

Once the key learning objectives have been defined and the appropriate curriculum has
been developed to meet these objectives, a foundation learning phase was necessary, to
give the Key Talents a platform from which to operate more effectively and efficiently.
Foundation Learning Step Outcomes/Deliverables
Effective Reading • A three-fold increase from each individual’s personal baseline
as measured at commencement of this step in reading effective-
ness index: speed and retention
• The ability to use mind-mapping techniques to enhance reading
and studying effectiveness
Effective Business Writing • An enhanced ability to use mind-mapping techniques to
enhance the organisation and preparation of business writing
• Clear, concise business document writing skills, including
business plans, proposals, letters, and reports
Stage III: Classroom Learning

Prior to the commencement of this stage, the HR Manager inducted the facilitator (who
also represented the Lead Training Provider) into the Syngenta culture. She was given in-
depth exposure to the organisation’s purpose, values, brand, and the leadership model. The
Lead Training Provider developed the learning modules in discussion with Syngenta’s HR
Manager to address organisational, group and individual needs. Working with the tools and
exposure provided at the induction session, all learning materials were then either struc-
tured around, or related to the Syngenta culture and ways of working.
Classroom learning commenced in April 2006 and consisted of full-day monthly inter-
ventions with all ten Key Talents and the facilitator present on site at the Midrand Head
Office. Each month a different learning topic was addressed, with a combination of ‘chalk-
and-talk’ and practical exercises. Plenty of time was given to discussions and to explore
the topic in detail from the multiple perspectives in the room. The Lead Training Provider
and Syngenta’s HR Manager provided pre and post-reading for each topic. The group was
divided into smaller teams, who also worked on group projects between each monthly
intervention. While we are not prepared to disclose the actual learning materials or mod-
ules, the topics covered a wide range including discussions around leadership versus man-
agement, performance management, responsibility and ownership, problem-solving and
conflict resolution, and innovation, creativity and flexibly in business.
Learning outcomes were defined for each module by the Lead Training Provider and
communicated to the group at the beginning of each module. A combination of peer re-
view, self-assessment and review by the facilitator was used to assess competence against
these outcomes, although a score was not allocated. That is, the outcome was either
achieved or not achieved. In all cases thus far all participants achieved the required level
of competency in all modules.
As part of one module, the HR Manager joined the group and presented a mini-topic
entitled “Able Leadership”, which focused, through storytelling, on the ability of leaders
to take responsibility and be accountable. This concluded with the group engaging in a
storytelling exercise of their own, called the Storytelling Game.
Mini Focus: The Storytelling Game
Storytelling is part of human nature, and is a crucial element in Ubuntu style leadership. We
celebrate our successes through stories, and find new, creative and innovative ways to solve
problems and resolve conflict through the power of stories. The storytelling game is a simple,
yet powerful way to quickly catalyse a group to tell a story, ensuring that each person has an
opportunity to make his or her voice heard. The process is very simple:
• The group should sit in a circle, preferably with no table in the centre.
• The leader opens the story with a short paragraph that sets the context and engages the
attention of those present. This will require preparation in advance.
• The leader briefs the group that when she stops speaking, she will pass the story to the
next individual in the circle, who should spontaneously add a sentence or paragraph to the
story, stopping at an interesting point, and passing the story to the next person in the circle.
• The process continues until each person has had an opportunity to add to the story.
• Depending on the dynamics of the group, the leader can decide whether to bring the story
to a conclusion, or whether to let the group do so.
Classroom learning was suspended for the summer season (a critical business time in our
sector) in October 2006, to resume in April 2007.
Stage IV: The Breakthrough Question

During September and early October, each Key Talent had a one-on-one meeting with the
Managing Director. In this meeting Key Talents were asked for feedback on the pro-
gramme thus far, reminded of the season break, and given encouragement to keep up the
momentum during this time. Most importantly, each was given a Breakthrough Question
to answer.
Mini Focus: Breakthrough Questions
Breakthrough questions are open questions that help create curiosity, energy and move people
into the unknown. They can address large or small issues, and are used to trigger and sustain
creative processes. Breakthrough questions should be phrased to trigger action and create
excitement. In an organisational context they should remind people of the strategy and pur-
pose of that organisation.
The Breakthrough Question asked by the Managing Director to each Key Talent was:
What is the most important and positive thing you can do to realise a lasting and sustainable
return on investment in your development and in the process become a true Ambassador for
the Key Talent Group and Syngenta South Africa?
The answers given to this question were initially presented to the Manager Director and
the HR Manager, and then later shared with the group at an Appreciative Inquiry Work-
shop held in mid-October 2006 as the final intervention before the season break.
Stage V: Learning to SOARR – An Appreciative Inquiry

In mid-October all the Key Talents and all the training providers (Lead and Foundation
Learning) participated in an Appreciative Inquiry6 facilitated by the HR Manager, who
holds an international certification in this methodology.
Mini Focus: SOARR Analysis
SOARR analysis is a tool often used by Appreciative Inquiry facilitators, to highlight positive
actions, forces and processes. It is useful in that most organisations are used to the conven-
tional SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats). People find the
transition from SWOT to SOARR refreshing and powerful, yet the process is familiar enough
to be reassuring. For this reason, it is useful as an introduction to Appreciative Inquiry Work-
shops. The design of a SOARR analysis can be modified to suit the circumstances or context
of the Appreciative Inquiry, and in the Key Talent Programme, the HR Manager used the fol-
lowing format:
• Stories of growth and development (Success Stories)
– What have we experienced that is transformative?
• Opportunities available to us
– Examine them, find more of them.
• Aspirations for the future
– What do we want to be in order to move from Good2Gr8?
• Results
– What will success look like when we achieve it?
– What are the desired results/targets/outcomes?
• Resources
– What do we need to turn our action plans into actions?
Appreciative Inquiry
Outputs/Outcomes/Deliverables
Workshop Component
SOARR Analysis • Positive learnings on the Key Talent Programme
• Inputs for 2007 curriculum
• Foundation for action plans for individual Key Talents
continued
________________________
6 See the Appreciative Inquiry Commons: http://appreciativeinquiry.case.edu. Appreciative Inquiry is

a methodology for organisational development and strategic inquiry that focuses on the positive and
affirmative forces and energies within all people and organisations. It has proven effective across a
wide range of applications and in many circumstances and has generated several doctoral theses.
Appreciative Inquiry
Outputs/Outcomes/Deliverables
Workshop Component
Feedback session • SALT heard and noted feedback on the programme
• Key Talents given an opportunity to tell their stories
Overall workshop • Foundation for networking and ways of working among the
Key Talents during the season break
• Co-creation of action plans for the group and individuals for
2007
• Decision to include one Key Talent per month on a rotational
basis at the monthly SALT meeting
Stage VI: Feedback and Review

After the Appreciative Inquiry Workshop, the Lead Training Provider delivered a written
report to the Managing Director and the HR Manager, followed up with discussion of the
report.
The Key Talents were also requested to participate in the review process, by submitting
the specific actions plans initiated at the workshop. Unfortunately, this process was not
very effective, as the participants had not taken the action planning to concrete levels.
What was submitted was an analysis of the answers to the Breakthrough Questions, which
while it did not meet the expectations of the SALT, did go some way towards indicating
the learning needs for 2007.
April and May 2007 featured a further round of Foundation Learning, as indicated by
the outcomes of the workshop and earlier inputs and feedback, specifically Time Manage-
ment and Assertiveness training. The training provider for these modules has been exposed
to an induction to the Syngenta culture, and will ensure that these two additional Founda-
tion Learning modules are consistent with this framework.
Throughout, the Skills Development Facilitator (an external resource, not on Syngenta’s
payroll) has been kept updated on progress against the facilitation plan and has been pro-
viding reports to CHIETA, in line with the Discretionary Grant contract. In addition to
regular meetings with the HR Manager, the Skills Development Facilitator has the power
of audit, and may interview any participant in the programme at any time. The Skills
Development Facilitator will arrange a final review of the programme prior to the planned
October graduation date.
Impact
The impact of the Key Talent Programme thus far has been quite wide-ranging, and we
mention a few instances below.
In terms of leadership development, all members of the programme have grown, some
to a greater degree than others, as could be expected in any diverse group of people. Key
Talents who previously refrained from taking the lead or giving critical feedback in their
normal working team meetings now speak more freely, and demonstrate more advanced
leadership capabilities. Others have internalised the learning, but are not yet taking a clear
leading role in their normal working teams.
Diversity and cross-functional working has been enhanced, between departments, across
hierarchical structures and between ethnic and gender divisions.
An important positive impact has been greater consultation and interaction between
Key Talents and members of the SALT. Key Talents have learned that asking for guid-
ance, mentorship, coaching or generally sharing problems and challenges with a SALT
member is desirable. Those who do make use of these opportunities on a regular basis
have found that the working relationship is enriched through consultation.
While all the Key Talents had a good understanding of their role in Syngenta’s business,
the programme, through enhanced multi-disciplinary, cross-functional co-operation, has
developed a deeper understanding of the business at a strategic level within the group.
The enhanced personal growth has had a positive impact on the Key Talents, in a wider
sphere than just their working lives. All the Key Talents have given feedback that they
have applied the skills and used the behaviours they have learned in their personal lives,
with positive effects.
Learnings
Several important learnings for Syngenta have arisen from the Key Talent Programme
thus far and we anticipate that there will be more for the SALT to take away and apply to
future initiatives. We have captured some key learnings in the table below using the fol-
lowing rubrics:
• what was good about the Key Talent Programme?
• what was difficult?
• what would we do differently next time?
Good Difficult Different
Enhanced leadership skills Time taken out of the normal The 2007/2008 programme will
and behaviours working lives of the Key not be on a selection basis: a call
Talents every month for submission of applications
has already been circulated to all
employees. The same criteria
still apply and applicants should
motivate, in an interview with
their Department Head and later
by written application, why they
should be considered for the
programme. The SALT will
make the final selections from
applications submitted
Enhanced personal growth Travel to attend modules for The 2007/2008 programme will
and personal behaviours those not based in Gauteng be designed on the same basis
as the Key Talent Programme,
but has been renamed as the
Enhanced Development
Programme
Increased consultation and Perception among some The Discovery Stage will be
interaction between the employees that the Key Talents shortened, with tighter deadlines
SALT and the Key Talents were the selected successors to for candidates to submit their
the SALT Career Development Plans
continued
Good Difficult Different

In some, internalising the Creation of a new silo – the Key There is potential for the
learnings completely into the Talents development of a ‘feeder’
everyday role – taking own- or bridging programme, or
ership of the process enhancements to other develop-
ment initiatives, to develop
employees who strive to partici-
pate in the Enhanced Develop-
ment Programme, but who do
not yet meet the criteria
Opportunities to learn from Lack of interaction over the
this pilot programme and add season break
value to the next programme,
including a name change and
using the volunteer process
Customised programme to In some cases, the SALT saw a
suit employee and employer lack of commitment to and/or
needs generated specific and personal ownership of the pro-
focused learning that can gramme and its learning oppor-
deliver value immediately tunities – the programme for a
small percentage of participants
was seen as not being part of the
way we do business, but as
something parallel to the regular
role profile
Customised programme
allows for the second phase
after the season break to meet
needs that have arisen or
become apparent during the
first phase
Enhanced awareness of the
Ambassador Role within
the Key Talent Group and
through cascading, also
within other employee
groups
Enhanced Ambassador
behaviours within the Key
Talent Group and through
cascading, also within other
employee groups
Questions
Having read this case study, you now need to relate the theory you have mastered thus far
to practice.
1. Using the format applied by the author of the case study, (what was good, what was
difficult, and what would you do differently) highlight your key learnings from the case
study in an essay of not more than 1 000 words. Be sure to relate the theory to practice
and not to repeat the author’s feedback.
2. Draw up a table that captures the learning interventions used in the case study and the
specific modules of the theoretical work that relate to these interventions (for example,
Classroom Learning relates to Facilitation). In a third column in the table, comment on
the degree of fit between theory and practice. You may also add free comments on the
specific stages of the programme.
3. Indicate the extent to which the talent management programme contributed to strategic
HRD at Syngenta.
“A successful company can only perform consistently at a high level with great people powered by
innovation” – Antonie Delport, MD, Syngenta South Africa

1 Identify the new competitive realities of the knowledge economy and indicate their
relevance for strategic HRD.
2 Evaluate the following statement: The role and responsibilities of HRD must be
repositioned in the strategic context.
3 What is the difference between strategic human resource planning and strategic im-
plementation?
4 Differentiate between varying organisational strategic contexts, their response strat-
egies and their underlying rationale.
5 Suppose you are appointed as group HRD manager at a manufacturing plant with
1 500 employees. Develop a strategic HRD plan for the company.
6 Indicate how HRD practitioners can apply relevant HRD strategies, architecture, inter-
ventions and deliverables.
7 How can you apply the criteria of alignment, implementability and coherence in the
design and development of an HRD implementation strategy?
8 How can HRD interventions contribute to the strategic objectives, mission and values
of a company?
9 Your management team decides that all customer service training will be outsourced.
Formulate a plan which you can implement to ensure that outsourcing is effectively
managed.
10 Develop a plan to measure the effectiveness of strategic HRD implementation.
11 Indicate the extent to which talent management is linked to strategic HRD.
12 What do you think the impact of the NQF on strategic HRD will be?
3.12 References
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McLagan P, 1996, “Great ideas revisited: Creating the future of HRD”, Training and
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Moss Kanter R, 1997, Frontiers of Management, Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Nadler L and Wiggs GD, 1986, Managing Human Resource Development, San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
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17–21.
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Approach, Massachusetts: HRD Press.
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based Assets, San Francisco: Berret-Koehler.
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World Economic Forum

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3.14 Internet sites

Association for Talent Development: http://www.atd.org
Futureworld: http://www.futureworld.co.za
Haines Center for Strategic Management: http://www.haines.com
Society for Human Resource Management: http://www.shrm.org
Strategy + Business: http://www.strategy-business.com
A special word of thanks to Kate Tucker, HR Manager at Syngenta, for the case study pro-
vided for the chapter.
CHAPTER
4
THE LEARNING
ORGANISATION
Marius Meyer
The information age necessitates a learning organization.
(Karen Watkins and Victoria Marsick)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Identify problems with training programmes
• Indicate the differences between traditional training and the learning organisation
• Describe the characteristics of learning organisations
• Identify the barriers to organisational learning and provide solutions
• Develop a plan to transform an organisation to a learning organisation
• Compile a questionnaire to assess an organisation’s learning culture
4.1 Introduction
The modern business environment is characterised by uncertainty, rapid change and the
continuous pursuit of competitiveness and excellence. In this environment organisations
that are at the forefront of institutionalising what they are learning from the environment
are the ones that will survive and prosper in these turbulent times. These organisations can
be described as learning organisations. Conversely, those organisations that are slow to
scan the environment and adapt to changes in technology, systems, trends and techniques
will not survive the disruptive nature of the information and knowledge era.
91
The learning organisation learns not only from the environment, but actively encourages
learning within the work environment. In fact, the learning environment encompasses the
culture of the organisation. Learning occurs in all activities of the members of the organ-
isation. From this perspective it is evident that the learning organisation represents major
challenges for HRD in organisations. It requires a major shift in the way training has been
conducted in the past. Moreover, it challenges most of the principles, structures and meth-
ods involved in the training process.
Traditional training is based on the notion that training occurs only in a classroom or
instructor-controlled setting. A reactive model is followed, which is solely based on a
training needs analysis prior to the design and presentation of training programmes. Whilst
this approach has in the past reaped multiple benefits for organisations world-wide, the
complexity, speed, disruption and reality of change and development in the modern
business, social and digital environment necessitates a more proactive and dynamic ap-
proach to education, training and development in the workplace. The latter approach
requires a fundamental shift from training to organisational learning.
The concept of the learning organisation constitutes a new approach to learning and
workplace performance that requires a more dynamic way of managing organisations. Not
only does it necessitate changes to education, training and development interventions, but
it also encompasses a totally new way of managing people, processes and systems in the
modern organisation and broader society. A change in organisational culture is therefore
needed in order to effect the change from a traditional organisation to a learning organisa-
tion.
What exactly is this phenomenon called “the learning organisation”? Senge (1990) de-
fines learning organisations as:
organisations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly
desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration
is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together.
From the definition it is evident that learning is no longer restricted to an individual ex-
perience. Learning becomes a team and organisational process which requires new and
innovative ways of learning and managing performance improvement. Learning becomes
part of a continuous process of sharing information with people and the environment. To
be of value to organisations, organisational learning must be encouraged, nurtured and
managed for the improvement of performance.
It is also important to realise that although the notion of the learning organisation has its
origins overseas it is very compatible with the principles and philosophy of the NQF. As
is the case with the NQF, the learning organisation also embodies the principle of life-
long learning. Learning is indeed a continuous, never-ending process. Whilst the NQF and
QCTO provide the structures and mechanisms for life-long learning, the learning organ-
isation provides a culture in which learning can be optimised.
4.2 Workplace learning to support a learning culture standard

(SABPP)
With the aim of supporting the creation and growth of the learning organisation concept,
in 2015 SABPP developed an HR professional practice standard dealing with workplace
learning. The standard, titled “Workplace learning to support a learning culture”, was
developed by a group of HRD practitioners under the leadership of Mike Stuart,
Chapter 4: The learning organisation 93
Chairperson of the SABPP L&D Committee. The standard defines workplace learning as
“learning which occurs while in the normal working situation, it is purposeful and enables
a person to develop as an individual, as a team member and as a person outside work”.
The workplace learning standard is illustrated in Figure 4.1:
Figure 4.1 Workplace learning to support a learning culture standard (SABPP)
LEARNING ECOSYSTEMS
Emergent Evolving Transcendent
Structured Clear development Use alternative

on-boarding pathway to talent feeder systems
Structured work practitioner level
Novices participate
experience Participation in in improvement
organisational projects and
processes interventions
Signal issues to a Integrate learning

performance help with business
centre processes and events Gap between
Participation in Participate in learning practitioners and
targeted learning circles experts small
events
Actively participate Build learning
Implement in team-based work processes into
continuous processes personal and
improvement business activities
Develop team members
processes
Integrate and
support novices in
work processes
Support learning Support the Influence profession,
of others development of learning industry and
Share how they networks regulatory
keep updated Participate in external environment
Participate in bodies and associations
Keep up to date
learning networks Refine organisational with profession
inside and outside practices or field of work
the organisation interest
Track Evaluate Improve Innovate
Source: SABPP (2015).

4.3 Problems with training programmes

If many large companies have well-staffed training departments, why do we need a learn-
ing organisation? Surely if the training department delivers training courses, is it not
responsible for organisational learning? Perhaps we should look at the track record of the
training function.
Training programmes face many problems in the corporate environment which limit the
impact of learning and performance. Wick and Leon (1993:30) identify the following six
reasons why traditional company training does not produce the desired results.
4.3.1 Training does not meet business needs

Training does not always tie in with the strategic business needs of a company. A multi-
tude of training programmes are used on a continuous basis, but these programmes do not
relate directly to strategic business needs. These programmes come and go, there is no con-
tinuity and there is a lack of follow-through which means that the application of knowledge
gained is not taken seriously. The impact of the training is therefore very limited.
4.3.2 In training, one size does not fit all

Many training programmes are not flexible enough to meet the unique needs of each indi-
vidual and organisation. Vast amounts of money, time and effort are spent and wasted in
teaching people what they do not really need to know. Too much generic training is given,
whether everyone needs it or not.
4.3.3 Managers do not support training

Employees are often “sent” on courses or “nominated” to attend courses because attend-
ance is a job or promotion requirement. Their supervisors see training as an expensive
waste of time which results in work backlogs. Not having management support, reinforce-
ment and a skills transfer strategy can completely negate the potentially positive effects of
learning.
4.3.4 Employee workload

When employees have been on a training course, they return to mountains of e-mail,
reports, meetings and the crisis of the moment. The implementation of knowledge and
skills that were learnt gets put aside in order to deal with immediate priorities. Although
the intentions may be good, follow-through does not always take place.
4.3.5 A lack of measurement

The weakest link in the training process is the implementation phase of training. People
go back to work, but they do not implement what they have learnt. The reason for this is
twofold. First, there is no accountability for what was learnt. Secondly, there is no meas-
urement system to measure the impact of the training. There is seldom a follow-up meas-
urement (three, six, or even twelve months after training) to ascertain the impact it has on
business (see chapter 18).
4.3.6 Incorrect time allocation

According to Wick and Leon (1993:32) a lack of time often means training is done in a
pressed fashion that precludes real learning. Owing to time constraints, a three-day
training course will often be compressed into a day or two. Its content finally becomes a
mini-lecture with handouts. The end-result is that very little learning takes place.
On the other hand, it also happens that a course that could have been conducted in two
days takes four days. A lot of unnecessary information is given to participants which frus-
trates them. This, in turn, decreases their commitment to future training efforts.
4.4 The shift to the learning organisation

The problems with traditional training and the shortcomings of a low performance organ-
isational culture has led to the realisation that a new approach to learning and training is
needed. This new approach transcends the scope and impact of the traditional training de-
partment. It encompasses organisational learning at all levels, in all departments, and by
all managers and employees. This realisation focuses on the need for improved business
performance in the fast-changing business environment. The differences between tradi-
tional training and the learning organisation are depicted in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Differences between traditional training and the learning organisation
Focus area Traditional training Learning organisation

Needs identification Reactive training needs identifica- Reactive and proactive training
tion, wait for problems to occur needs identification
Training design Design is done by instructional A project team is used consisting of
designers various role-players
Evaluation Trainers evaluate training The whole organisation evaluates
training with a focus on impact
Responsibility Training is the responsibility of the All employees and managers are
training manager and sometimes the responsible for learning and training
line manager
Technology Very little technology is used, mostly E-learning, and social and blended
classroom training learning are used to optimise tech-
nology and learning (see chapter 11)
Performance focus Giving skills to employees so that Improve performance by empower-
they will achieve a specified level of ing learners to learn continuously
competence
Location Separation between the learning Learning and work environments are
environment (class) and the work fully integrated
environment
Duration Training is an event (course) with a Learning is a continuous process
clear beginning and end
Access Learning is restricted to individuals All employees and managers have
and managers who require skills in equal access to a wide range of
a particular area learning opportunities
Learning culture Organisation teaches employees Employees teach the organisation
what they should know how to fit in about efficiency, innovation and
the organisation improvements
continued

People skills Interpersonal skills training is All employees get interpersonal
restricted to people in “soft” skills and emotional intelligence
positions such as HR, IR and PR training
Mistakes When mistakes are made, they are Mistakes are seen as learning
kept hidden to protect people opportunities and disseminated to
the whole company
Selection Managers select the courses they Employees are trusted to select the
think employees need courses or learning they need
Target populations Management and employees attend Managers and employees often
separate training courses attend courses together
Learning area Training focuses on job-specific Cross-functional training is encour-
aspects aged so that people learn about the
whole business, the sector and the
broader society and environment
Relationships Self-interest is the foundation of Collaboration is the foundation of
relationships relationships
Training investment Difficult to acquire the necessary There is a high investment in training
resources for training and resources for learning
Information Information is the prerogative of Employees have access to infor-
management mation
Decision-making Management makes decisions Employees are empowered to make
decisions
Communication Communication is only used as an Communication is used as a learning
information tool, to acquire infor- tool
mation and give feedback
Organisation struc- The hierarchy emphasises position Systems approach encourages inter-
ture and functionalism departmental co-operation
Control Managerial control is used Self-control is seen as the best form
of control
Learning units Focus on individualism, especially Teamwork and individual learning
for star performers are combined
Assessment Assess employee performance Assess employees’ learning progress
Approach Formal trainer-trainee approach Informal facilitator-learner relation-
ship where both parties learn from
each other
Rewards No rewards for increased employee Rewards for expanded knowledge
value and skills
Learning plans No written learning and action plans Written learning and action plans for
each employee
continued

Partnerships Very few partnerships Active partnerships between custom-
ers, suppliers, learning providers,
employees and management
External focus Do not study other companies; more Use excellent companies and learn-
internally focused ing networks as benchmarks to
improve performance; globalisation
From this table it is clear that most of the elements of the learning organisation transcend
the activities of a training function. Rather, the learning organisation embodies the culture
of the whole organisation. In fact, it is possible to have an excellent training function in
an organisation that is not a learning organisation. If this is the case, training will yield
minimum impact despite the dedicated efforts of training staff. It is therefore imperative
that fundamental transformation occurs when an organisation attempts to become a learn-
ing organisation.
4.5 Types of learning

In all organisations, throughout the life cycles of individuals, people have different oppor-
tunities to learn. As individuals or groups seek to improve learning opportunities, they
have to consider different types of learning which can occur, depending on the particular
circumstances. Braham (1995:60) identifies four types of learning that can be indicated as
follows in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 Types of learning
New learning
Transfor-
mational
Unlearning Incremental learning
4.5.1 New learning

New learning occurs when learners learn new skills they have not been exposed to before.
The learner enters the learning experience with an open mind with very few specific ex-
pectations or preconceived ideas. For example, sales managers attend a workshop on the
National Credit Act because they do not have the knowledge and skills to implement this
new legislation. All board members and senior managers attend training on the King IV
Report and Code on Corporate Governance to learn about new guidelines and require-
ments for sound corporate governance as outlined by the Institute of Directors (2016).
4.5.2 Incremental learning

This type of learning occurs when people want to build on existing knowledge and skills,
in other words, a particular skill is developed or refined. For example, a salesperson has
mastered selling skills, but is now required to develop more skills to integrate more
customer service after each sale or to use social media as new form of content marketing.
4.5.3 Unlearning
The rate of change in the business environment today necessitates that employees must
sometimes unlearn what they know. In unlearning, what you have known before becomes
obsolete and is discarded to make room for something new. For example, a new computer
package will require that employees unlearn certain techniques they used in the old package.
Despite good progress in transformation in certain sectors, the many examples of racism in
business and society decades into post-apartheid South Africa demonstrates the need for the
unlearning of prejudice, stereotyping, racism and sexism.
4.5.4 Transformational learning

The last type of learning is the most powerful type of learning. The new paradigm trans-
forms the learners’ worldview in a significant way. In practice it often means that the cul-
ture of the organisation will change. For example, following the adoption of a quality
management system, employees need to learn to see the customer instead of their super-
visor as the centre of the business. Transformational learning requires major shifts in
thinking from traditional ways of doing things to total shifts in thinking and practice, very
often from a traditional or local paradigm to doing business in a global market.
4.6 Types of learner

In strategic learning, the learner is at the centre of the learning process. Before the broader
structural aspects of organisational learning can be addressed, one should consider the
types of learner in organisations. Braham (1995:67) identifies three types.
4.6.1 Reluctant learners

These people show very little interest in learning. They resist anything new and feel that
they have acquired enough knowledge and skills to be effective in the workplace. They
will either be hesitant to utilise learning opportunities or they will be very passive during
the learning process. Countries with poor primary and secondary education systems such
as South Africa, have creating a breeding ground for reluctant learners. This typically
results in a large pool of unskilled or semi-skilled population who remain unemployed or
underemployed by organisations. Given their past negative experience with education and
opportunities for employment, these learners are likely to remain reluctant learners even
when they do get good learning opportunities. Van Rhyn (2016) refers to these learners as
“unemployable”, given the fact that they lack the basic skills needed to be utilised in a
productive knowledge economy.
4.6.2 Leisurely learners

These learners aim to learn the minimum expected in order to satisfy their supervisors.
They do not volunteer for new assignments or training opportunities, but over the long run
they will keep up with the required training to meet current minimum expectations. Fur-
thermore, they see teams as an opportunity to sit back and relax and distribute work to
lessen their workload.
4.6.3 Life-long learners

These individuals are active learners. They continuously seek opportunities to learn more
about new ideas, trends and developments in order to improve individual, group and organ-
isational performance. Life-long learners often volunteer to attend learning events and they
volunteer a lot with professionals inside and outside the organisation. They are future-
orientated and spend a lot of time reading relevant books and professional journals, and
attending seminars and other learning events. They also see networking and social learn-
ing as powerful mechanisms to continue learning on a daily basis. These learners are the
people who should be cultivated and nurtured in the modern business environment.
Reflecting on the different types of learner, what type of learner are you?
4.7 Characteristics of learning organisations

A learning organisation is totally different from the traditional organisation. The organisa-
tional culture is dynamic and requires that certain elements be entrenched in the culture.
These characteristics are as follows:
4.7.1 Flat organisational structure

Traditional organisations consist of a strong hierarchical structure which reflects the power
and positions of managers. Senge et al (1994:38) note that learning organisations are
attempting to reorganise more around horizontal processes that cut across traditional func-
tions. A greater level of interdependence is needed in which people are required to learn
together irrespective of the hierarchy. In learning organisations, bureaucratic structures
and systems are eroded to the benefit of customers and employees.
4.7.2 Open communication

In traditional organisations, a top-down communication style is used most of the time.
These organisations often pay lip service to their so-called “open door policies”, yet the
real organisational culture discourages open communication. In a learning organisation
there is open and honest communication. Individuals who speak out about things that are
not going right are recognised for their contributions.
4.7.3 Teamwork
In most organisations people work as individuals to fulfil specialised functions. Teams,
and the individuals participating individually and collectively as members, are the most
important units of the learning organisation. Real learning takes place in teams when team
members learn from each other, learn from their achievements and mistakes, and continu-
ously learn how they can optimise their contribution in achieving the goals of the business
at large. Wiest and Drury-Bogle (1999) support this notion when they argue that teams
need to work together to gain insights about complex issues, act in ways that complement
each other’s actions, and foster team learning throughout the organisation.
According to Senge et al (1994:18) there is a learning cycle involved in the process of
team development. First, team members develop new skills and capabilities which alter
what they can do and understand. Secondly, new awareness and sensibilities evolve.
Thirdly, as people start to see and experience the world differently, new beliefs and
assumptions begin to form, which enables further development of skills and capabilities.
4.7.4 Empowerment
For the greatest part of the development of management science it was believed that it
was the role of management to make decisions and of employees to execute these
decisions. The result is that a very small proportion of personnel would do the “thinking”
while the majority of the workforce would only be “doers”. In such an environment very
little learning takes place because there is no incentive for learning and performance. In
the learning organisation, all employees are empowered to make decisions and to learn
from the successes and failures of these decisions.
4.7.5 Inspired leadership

In traditional organisations there is a lack of leadership. A learning organisation cannot
exist without its senior managers’ commitment and leadership. Managers must set the
example by becoming learners themselves and inspiring others to learn. This requires a
major paradigm shift on the part of senior managers. Many of them think that they ceased
to be learners when they completed their BCom and MBA degrees. They must realise that
there is a strong relationship between their job’s strategic planning and the responsibility
of promoting organisational learning. Learning organisations keep developing their
leaders to become leaders who inspire employees, suppliers, customers and other key
stakeholders.
4.7.6 Innovation and change

Whilst many organisations find it difficult to change and improve, learning organisations
thrive on change. Learning organisations create an environment for learning from innova-
tion and change. They innovate because they learn, and they learn because they innovate.
It is a continuous cycle of change, innovation, learning and improvement. Therefore,
learning organisations are also more resilient and creative than traditional organisations.
4.7.7 Shared vision of quality

In business today, it is often asserted that management has “a vision for the future”. This
is indeed the case, management has a vision but this vision is often not shared by all the
members of the organisation. The end-result is very predictable: their vision, how well-
developed and defined it may be, never becomes a reality if it is not shared by all the em-
ployees of the company.
The learning organisation, however, has a collective sense of identity, a fundamental
purpose or vision which is shared by each and every employee of the company. If the CEO
has a vision for quality services, each member internalises this vision, irrespective of his
or her level or position. In this way, training becomes a powerful business partner if
proper strategic learning alignment is created (Smith, 2011). In other words, learning
organisations are purpose and quality driven in everything they do.
4.7.8 Systems approach

The whole South African society is based on a functional approach of doing things. At
school we are taught that we must take certain subjects in order to follow a particular
career. Some people study further and become “specialists” in their respective fields. They
subsequently join an organisation which consists of departments, functions and sections,
each one with its own area of specialisation and self-interest. The end-result is a situation
where a lot of people are performing excellent jobs in their own fields, very often at the
expense of others, and not even knowing what others are doing. This system of fragmen-
tation means that the collective intelligence that could have been used is largely eroded by
the organisation. Companies are therefore not performing at their optimum level. In the
learning organisation, articulating the total organisation from a systems approach rep-
resents an opportunity to break this vicious cycle.
4.7.9 Job satisfaction and commitment

In most South African companies there is a lack of job satisfaction which in turn results in
a low level of employee commitment to performance and the achievement of organisa-
tional goals. The symptoms of these problems are low productivity, high absenteeism,
labour unrest, industrial action and high labour turnover. The learning organisation has an
organisational culture where employee pride is nurtured by instituting formal and infor-
mal ways of improving employee engagement, job satisfaction and employee commit-
ment.
4.7.10 People-orientated and talent focus

Traditional organisations focus on achieving production targets, often at the expense of
the employee’s well-being and needs. The learning organisation seeks to integrate task
and people factors in order to optimise the talent of employees. These organisations are so
people-orientated that the needs of people are continuously identified and strategies
developed to integrate these needs with organisational goals and strategies. The managers
of learning organisations realise that employees as internal customers must first be satis-
fied before the needs of external customers can be addressed. These managers are even
assessed on their people management skills.
A recent trend in the field of workplace training is the emphasis being placed on emo-
tional intelligence (Goleman, 1999). Stock (1999) defines emotional intelligence as our
ability to acquire and apply knowledge from our emotions and the emotions of others in
order to solve problems and live a more successful and fulfilling life. People-orientated
companies will develop action plans to ensure that all managers and employees develop
their emotional intelligence in order to work together and serve the needs of their custom-
ers. Moreover, learning organisations have progressive talent management systems in place
to optimise the talents of its employees (Maritz, 2004).
4.7.11 External focus

Most South African companies are very internally focused. They only look at their own
problems and situations without considering the realities of the wider business and global
world. Learning organisations, however, are very externally focused. They continuously
study their competitors and other organisations, both locally and abroad in order to learn
from industry trends and developments. A more external focus is required, which in turn
requires benchmarking exercises, networking, collaboration and large scale knowledge-
sharing.
4.7.12 Technology-driven
Many companies find it difficult to adapt to technological innovations. In the learning
organisation, a concerted effort is made to use the most advanced technology to improve
business processes, products and services. Not only is investment in technology very
high, but employees are continuously trained to use the latest technology. Learning
organisations all have a formal strategy for running a digital business. They also have an
explicit social media strategy to engage with all stakeholders both inside and outside the
organisation.
4.7.13 Learning opportunities

In traditional organisations learning is restricted to training courses offered to some em-
ployees. The learning organisation encourages learning at all levels of the company. Appro-
priate learning opportunities are created to enhance corporate learning and employee
development. Braham (1995:63) posits that in the learning organisation, the training
department is not the primary source of learning opportunities. Instead, the whole system
of work, every project or process, every person in the organisation, all become potential
sources for learning. Even competitors, suppliers and customers can be resources for learn-
ing. The challenge is to identify, access and transfer these learning opportunities for
optimum learning and improved practice. Learning and trying new things, even if it
means making mistakes, becomes part of the culture of learning organisations (Haynes,
2016).
4.7.14 Action and results focus

In some companies learning constitutes a particular event like a training course with a
clear beginning and end. There is very little transfer of training and skills to the work-
place. In fact, Senge et al (1994:223) estimate that only 10% to 15% of all participants
who attend training programmes can consistently apply the insights and skills they have
learnt in the workplace. Learning organisations provide opportunities to employees to
apply skills immediately in order to achieve improvement in performance.
4.7.15 Customer-orientated
Whilst traditional organisations lack a customer focus, the learning organisation is pro-
active in ensuring that all employees are extremely customer-orientated. In fact, most of
the learning that takes place revolves around learning more about customer needs and im-
plementing systems and methods to improve customer satisfaction.
4.8 Barriers to organisational learning

Many companies have created barriers which block the ability to learn. The barriers to
organisational learning make it very difficult for these organisations to transform their
cultures into learning organisations. These barriers are:
• bureaucracy and hierarchical management structures
• rigid rules and procedures which govern who will “qualify” for training and who will
not
• limited resources due to ineffective prioritisation
• an organisational culture that does not value creativity and innovation
• managerial expectation that employees conform to the prevailing culture
• lip service to employee empowerment and teamwork
• limited inter-departmental co-operation
• lack of an external focus on learning, networking and collaboration
• management controls workers rather than supports them

• managerial sanctions which instil fear in workers should mistakes be made
• lack of support and encouragement for skills transfer and application.
Which of these barriers to organisational learning or

other barriers can you identify in your organisation?
No matter how hard a training manager tries to create a learning organisation, if these
barriers are not addressed the organisation will not be able to transform itself into a learn-
ing organisation. Furthermore, if governments and sector stakeholders create bureaucratic
learning systems and onerous procedures that have to be satisfied before learning can take
place, learning in sectors and workplaces may be detrimentally affected.
4.9 Learning organisation implementation plan

The learning organisation is an ideal organisation which means that no pure learning
organisation exists. However, if a company actively encourages the characteristics of the
learning organisation, such a company may be termed a learning organisation. There is no
universal blueprint in becoming a learning organisation. Companies must discover their
own situations and decide which strategies and plans can be used in becoming a learning
organisation. The generic model of the phases in creating a learning organisation depicted
in Figure 4.3 can be adapted by organisations.
Figure 4.3 Generic model of learning organisation implementation
Assess learning culture
Analyse results
Communicate and disseminate results
Present results to top management
Create a knowledge management system
Develop learning strategies
Market and communicate learning
Implementation
Evaluation
4.9.1 Assess learning culture

First of all the current learning culture of the organisation needs to be assessed. This is
done through a survey process, similar to needs assessments conducted by HRD practi-
tioners when they identify training needs. The only difference is that the learning culture
of the organisation will be assessed. This enables companies to assess themselves and to
determine to what extent they have the characteristics of a learning organisation. Such
assessments provide the basis for transforming the abstract notion of a learning organisa-
tion into specific initiatives and measuring the results of those initiatives over time.
To assess the learning culture, certain items must be identified which relate to the char-
acteristics of the learning organisation. A survey is then conducted to gather the necessary
information. Irrespective of the types of assessment instrument used, it is important that
the three levels of learning, namely the individual, team and organisation, are addressed.
First National Bank (FNB), a large retail banking group in South Africa, promotes a learning culture
through the use of a culture measurement survey. The survey provided by The Braxtongroup is con-
ducted bi-annually in May and November. The findings from the survey allows for analyses regard-
ing the extent to which a learning culture is prevalent within FNB.
The survey is made available electronically to all employees working for FNB. The high response
rate on the survey makes it representative of the opinions of the employees.
The aim of the survey is to:
• provide information regarding the thoughts, feelings and opinions of the people working for FNB
in order to make improvements throughout the organisation and promote an environment for con-
tinuous improvement
• compare the results of the survey with that of the previous survey to determine whether there was
an improvement in the culture and climate within the organisation.
The survey addresses the following values/practices:
• accountability
• optimal teamwork
• a caring organisation
• managing performance
• learning and development
• recruitment and selection
• orientation and induction
• remuneration and rewards
• career and talent management
• overall satisfaction
• loyalty/commitment.
Reporting depth
Making use of an electronic platform, eSurvey allows for comprehensive reporting on various organ-
isational levels:
• detailed analysis of culture results achieved by the overall business, area, departments or teams
• highlighting strengths and focus areas
• indicating the overall score for business culture and climate.
Results are presented from different perspectives, which involve analysing satisfaction levels in
terms of race, gender, role profiles, job families and occupational bands.
continued
Surveys within surveys

Specialist surveys focus on specific themes and provide valuable information on themes such as the
learning culture within the organisation, orientation and induction, recruitment and selection, etc.
Specific indices make it possible to assess the extent to which FNB promotes a learning culture and
an environment for learning. Examples of questions from the survey include:
Our learning and development programmes lead to continuous learning and improvement
I have access to the learning and development system
The content of the learning and development programmes is relevant to my role
The survey also includes questions that serve as representative measures of how employees perceive
their leaders. The survey makes it possible to conduct impact assessments of culture on key business
drivers such as customer loyalty, market share and customer satisfaction.
An enabled environment is created for the improvement of culture in specified areas. Upon com-
pletion of the assessment of the readiness of leaders (LEI) for the management and improvement of
the culture, key interventions are identified on individual, team, inter-group and organisational level.
This allows for a focus on continuous improvement and learning. Learning and development is fur-
ther supported by an e-learning platform from where individuals can access the learning interven-
tions identified to address learning needs. The e-learning platform therefore further facilitates an
environment for life-long learning within FNB.
Overall benefits
FNB has been able to influence its learning culture and establish an environment for life-long learn-
ing since the implementation of the culture survey. The culture survey has made it possible to assess
the learning culture within the organisation and to propose and implement the required interventions
to address development areas.
Source: Compiled by Roy Braxton and Marica Richter.
4.9.2 Analyse results

The next phase is to analyse the results obtained from the learning culture assessment. The
results should indicate how prevalent the characteristics of the learning organisation are at
these three levels and where the major problem areas lie. For example, the results may in-
dicate that the area in which the organisation is most developed as a learning organisation
is managerial vision and strategy. However, it may indicate that the vision and strategy
are not shared by teams and individuals in their respective learning processes. The final
results of the survey must be integrated into a comprehensive report indicating the major
problem areas and recommendations for improvement.
4.9.3 Communicate and disseminate results

After the report has been compiled, it must be disseminated to the whole organisation. It
can be put on the intranet or sent to all employees. The HRD practitioner can also organ-
ise information-sharing sessions with employees in order to share the findings with them.
Research by Van Buren (1998) indicates that less than 10% of American companies
think that they have most of the characteristics of the learning organisation. If this is the
case in one of the most productive countries in the world, South African companies should
be very concerned!
4.9.4 Present results to top management

The HR director or HRD manager should then present the report to top management. A
formal presentation is required in which the HRD manager can highlight and explain the
elements of the report to senior management. It is essential to emphasise the consequences
of the findings on the organisation, for example, that a lack of learning focus could result
in the company losing its competitive edge. In order to get management commitment to
change, it is imperative to highlight the strategic importance of the learning organisation
and the change in corporate culture required in becoming a learning organisation.
4.9.5 Create a knowledge management system

The next phase of learning organisation implementation is to create and implement a
knowledge management system.
Lippincott (1999) defines knowledge management as “methods or solutions that enable an organiza-
tion to capture and distribute its knowledge assets in a way that is accessible and relevant to the in-
dividual performer”. According to Hyams (1999) knowledge management is the process of creating,
capturing and using information to improve organisational performance.
It is impossible to create a learning organisation if the knowledge inside and outside the
organisation is not systematically managed. Knowledge is the key feature of organisational
learning. Organisations have knowledge in the form of technology, databases, systems,
processes, procedures, documents, reports and people expertise. The problem is that this
knowledge is often difficult to be accessed by an individual who needs information at a
particular moment. Moreover, most employees are experiencing information overload in
the knowledge economy. They are drowning in information but starving for knowledge
that can be used. The challenge of knowledge management is to develop a system in which
people can make sense of information, sift out what is valuable knowledge and then share
it with the right people at the right time and place.
Most knowledge management systems are on the intranet so that information can be
easily accessed by an individual. Information managers should ensure that knowledge is
managed and disseminated in such a manner that all people can learn from this knowledge
in order to improve their performance. In fact, knowledge management can create optimal
knowledge usage and organisational learning opportunities in order to gain a competitive
edge.
Knowledge management consists of various processes that should be systematically
managed in order to ensure the effective sharing and use of knowledge in organisations.
Katz (1998:50) identifies the following knowledge management processes:
• generating new knowledge
• accessing knowledge from external sources
• representing knowledge in documents, databases and software
• embedding knowledge in processes, products and services
• transferring existing knowledge around the organisation
• using accessible knowledge in problem-solving and decision-making
• facilitating knowledge growth through culture and incentives
• measuring the value of knowledge assets and the impact of management.
The management of these processes is essential in ensuring that real organisational learn-
ing and performance improvement occurs at all levels of the organisation. Knowledge
management facilitates continuous and ongoing processes of learning, unlearning and re-
learning. Only when a well-developed knowledge management system is institutionalised
in an organisation can the process begin to develop an appropriate learning strategy.
4.9.6 Develop learning strategies

Once top management commitment has been obtained, the next crucial step is to start
developing a learning strategy towards becoming a learning organisation. This process will
evolve over time because a very comprehensive strategy must be developed. This strategy
should include mechanisms to ensure that the characteristics of the learning organisation
are embedded in the organisational culture. The strategy should address the three levels of
learning transformation as follows:
Figure 4.4 Levels of learning transformation
Organisa-
Individual tional Team
learning learning learning
• Individual learning plans are needed to ensure that each individual is skilled to contrib-
ute to developing the learning organisation. Individuals must be skilled, first, to con-
tribute to team learning and, ultimately, add value to organisational learning. This can
only be achieved if individuals develop the ability to learn effectively.
• Team learning plans ensure that teams epitomise the characteristics of the learning
organisation. Teams learn to optimise the contributions of individuals and by learning
together as a team and implementing organisational improvements, they accelerate
organisational learning. Marquardt (1999) proposes that small groups should work
together on real problems, taking action and learning while doing. This approach to
learning is called “action learning”.
• Organisational learning plans are needed to ensure that the whole organisation learns
to improve performance at all levels. This includes the establishment of benchmarking
networks to promote external learning and all the other aspects of a learning culture.
The formulation of skills development strategies in line with the Skills Development
Act and SAQA requirements also form part of organisational learning plans.
4.9.7 Market and communicate learning

According to Guns and Van der Linde (1999) far too many companies are neglecting to
inform their employees what their knowledge and organisational learning initiatives are
all about.
A comprehensive marketing and communication campaign must be launched in order
to ensure that all learning plans reach all employees of the organisation. All traditional
communication mechanisms can be used as well as modern methods, such as the intranet
and industrial theatre. The objective of this campaign is to disseminate the learning organ-
isation strategy to all the members of the organisation in order to create excitement, buy-in
and follow-through. The benefits of the learning organisation should be clearly communi-
cated. It should be emphasised that the creation of a learning organisation is a journey and
not a destination.
4.9.8 Implementation
This phase involves putting the learning organisation strategy into action. To be success-
ful, a learning organisation strategy has to be institutionalised in the organisational culture
and made a way of life in the company. The responsibilities of all employees and managers
should be specified. However, companies should realise that there is no quick-fix approach
in becoming a learning organisation. As there is no recipe for creating a learning organisa-
tion, a company should discover its own path to transforming into a learning organisation.
A trial and error approach is very appropriate in which failures and mistakes are seen as
part and parcel of the learning process. Successes should be celebrated and disseminated
throughout the company in order to maintain a high level of excitement about the learning
organisation. Similarly, failures are seen as learning points which must be shared, analysed,
corrected and improved.
4.9.9 Evaluation
To ensure effective implementation and follow-up, ongoing evaluation must be built into
the implementation, based on predetermined critical success criteria for each learning ini-
tiative. Frequent evaluations must be conducted in order to prevent stagnation and encour-
age ongoing organisational learning. The evaluation process should include opportunities
for revisiting the learning organisation strategy in order to effect amendments and im-
provements.
Ideally, a learning organisation evaluation should be linked to the measurement of over-
all business performance. According to Redding (1998) it is possible to establish baseline
measurements on the results from the initial administration of the learning culture assess-
ment. Using that baseline, specific goals can be set and progress can be measured in sub-
sequent assessments.
4.10 Company examples

A South African goldmine
The management team of a South African goldmine realised the need to become a learning organ-
isation in order to keep abreast of technological developments in the mining industry. Economic effi-
ciency is extremely important, especially in view of the low gold price. The development of people
and the application of modern management principles are critical in the technological age. Improve-
ment in performance is essential if one considers that improvement targets are achieved by fewer
employees than in the past. This fundamental reality requires a change in the approach to work. The
21st-century employee is in a completely new environment. The phasing out of different job levels
necessitated a greater level of multi-skilling than was the case in the past (see chapter 15 for more
information about multi-skilling). Even employees at the lower levels are expected to become multi-
skilled. For example, artisans without any engineering background can now become specialists, such
continued
as compressor technicians. In addition, ABET forms part of this overall learning and skills develop-
ment strategy at the mine.
As far as the training function is concerned, change is also the order of the day. Trainers no longer
simply train employees to do a particular job, they are now facilitators of learning which requires a
change in the training approach. However, these changes affect the culture of the organisation. The
strategy for becoming a learning organisation started when management contracted consultants from
Corporate Intervention Services to enable them to become coaches and mentors of their team mem-
bers. Managers have been trained in the principles of the learning organisation, such as mentorship
and people management. In addition, changes in the broader environment, in particular legislation
such as the Employment Equity Act, Skills Development Act and NQF Act, required that the mine
revisit its approach to learning and development.
The mine management realised that in the learning organisation it is important for employees to
understand how the business operates and what the repercussions of their work are for the whole com-
pany. People are allowed to make mistakes, but these errors are seen as learning opportunities to im-
prove performance in the future. The company’s leadership plays a very flexible and supportive role
in this regard. Empowerment strategies ensure that employees have a greater say in decision-making
in order to create ownership at all levels of the mine. Lower-level employees feel comfortable in com-
municating with management and a culture of trust and co-operation characterises this relationship.
The mine measures the success of the learning organisation by focusing on both tangible and in-
tangible ways. Positive relationships exist between management and employees and there are con-
tinuous ventures to increase the level of trust between management and employees. Training has
equipped middle management to constructively deal with labour issues, so much so that a dramatic
decrease in grievances has been recorded. Labour turnover is also very low. These improved meas-
ures have been obtained within the framework of the learning organisation. Learning opportunities
are created in a more proactive manner, for example, by providing stress management training for
employees at all levels, not only managers as was the case in the past. These learning opportunities
are created and if the expertise does not exist internally, it is outsourced to external consultants.
This gold mine has shown that it is indeed possible for a company to become a learning organisation
if continuous learning is actively encouraged and nurtured in a high performance business environment.
A Learning Journey through the Private Banking Value Chain
When the training team at RMB Private Bank was assigned the task of rolling out a comprehensive
training solution to the organisation – it was an exciting challenge that lay ahead. With a “clean can-
vas” to start with, one of the first tasks was to define the overall approach to delivering a solution
that would promote competence on various levels of understanding within the organisation and the
private banking industry as a whole.
The Approach
The Approach decided on was based
on a pyramid with core layers of learn-
ing defined on various levels.
The foundation layer of the pyramid
focuses on the functional aspects of
learning. These are the products, pro-
cesses and systems in use in the organ-
isation. In other words – ‘the way
things are done around here’. A new
employee coming from another organ-
isation, with experience in the role,
will still need a comprehensive under-
standing of the internal functional
areas of the organisation.
continued
The second layer is the enabling layer. This focuses on the learning and development to ensure
that the employee with all the functional knowledge can become more effective in their role. This
includes courses such as communication skills, presentation skills and time management to name a
few.
Working in the financial services industry, the compliance layer is very important. This covers all
required training around FICA (Financial Intelligence Centre Act), FAIS (Financial Advisory and
Intermediary Services), OHS (Occupational Health and Safety), COB (Code of Banking), NCA
(National Credit Act) and any other legislation that is introduced in the financial services arena.
The industry specific layer of the pyramid focuses on courses or learning interventions available
in the market and specific to the learner’s role. An example of this might be commercial property
training. Employees putting together deals of this type will be required to train on the internal pro-
cess and templates and deal requirements which form the functional layer. However, they might
also attend a commercial property course offered externally by one of the property training provid-
ers to enhance their knowledge in this specific area. This course would then form part of the indus-
try specific layer.
The top layer of the pyramid focuses on the individual. It is important that each employee in the
organisation has a defined learning and development path to support their career aspirations. Many
employees are studying various degrees and certifications through universities and other profession-
al bodies.
With the approach defined and a clear vision ahead, the training team began work on establishing
the functional layer (base of pyramid) within the organisation. The team started by considering the
competencies required for each role in the organisation.
Role-based Training
A role-based methodology was used to ensure that the required knowledge, skills and attitudes/
behaviours relating to all tasks in a role are identified and form a curriculum of learning for that
particular role. This process starts with interactive analysis sessions held with teams of employees
in the various roles to understand and interrogate the tasks and related learning required of the indi-
viduals in each role. These sessions also establish the important business buy-in to the learning pro-
cess and form a part of the change management function of rolling out a project of this nature.
With all the tasks identified and the related knowledge, skills and attitudes defined for these tasks
it is time to link the appropriate delivery method to these to ensure that the learning will be transfer-
red in the most appropriate format for learning. The team applied a blended learning method to
training delivery.
Blended Learning
In the early years of e-learning, perceptions were rife that e-learning would replace other forms of
corporate training. The panic around this perception continued until the term “blended learning”
became more widely used. Blended learning refers to learning programmes and/or curricula where a
variety of learning delivery methods is used. The needs of the audience determine the way that con-
tent will be delivered for each component of the learning programme. In most instances the learning
programme may include a technology-enabled component such as e-learning content or a simulation
and a facilitator-led component, such as a workshop. All of these components are “blended” for the
optimal learning experience.
The training team identified various delivery methods that would be suitable for their learning en-
vironment. These include facilitated sessions, business practicals, process workshops, online simula-
tions and various forms of support and reference material. Workshops with the analysis teams and the
instructional design teams were then held to link the appropriate delivery methods to the knowledge,
skills and attitudes identified to compile a list of all the learning objects to be developed.
continued
Design and Development of course material

Customised templates were designed for all learning documentation and online content to ensure
instructional design principles were applied to all learning material to be developed. The team of
developers worked closely with the business to ensure that all material developed was relevant and
comprehensive in delivering the fundamental content required for each learning object identified. At
the same time assessments, both practical and through online delivery, were designed and developed.
By the conclusion of this process each individual role was assigned a curriculum that would en-
sure all functional areas of competence required were addressed. This also included any courses that
formed the enabling layer of the pyramid, to ensure that competencies identified in the analysis
phase, not necessarily related to the functional areas, were included as part of the development of
individuals to ensure their effectiveness in each role. Additionally, any compliance requirements
were linked and industry specific courses were sourced to ensure a comprehensive curriculum was
in place. Any new employee joining the organisation in roles developed can review their curriculum
and immediately understand all the areas of learning and development required to perform their
specific role within the organisation and begin their learning journey.
E-learning environment
Additionally, to facilitate the hosting and delivery of all available material, curricula and online con-
tent the organisation introduced a learner management system (LMS). The LMS enables new employ-
ees to log on and see the curriculum assigned to their role in the organisation. They can immediately
begin to self-study using the online simulations developed as well as accessing all product, process
and systems support material provided. They can use the system to view what facilitated sessions are
offered and book onto these sessions. Throughout their career with RMB Private Bank, the learner
can assess their progress against the curriculum assigned and also take any additional courses made
available as they are developed and rolled out to the organisation.
One of the highlights of the new e-learning environment was an online module developed in part-
nership with a large software development company based in India. The key focus of the content is
to enable new employees to take an interactive multi-media tour through the organisation and ex-
perience the values and culture as well as be exposed to a simulation of the live environment. Photo-
graphs and storyboards were developed in South Africa and e-mailed to India for graphical render-
ing and content design and development. The final result won the team a place in the finals of the
FNB Innovators Awards – an annual competition to encourage innovation in the whole of FNB. It
was great to have a training initiative presented at the finals and a cherry on top for the team’s hard
work in implementing a training solution within the organisation.
Coaching and Mentoring
To round off the total solution the team will be focusing on the areas of coaching and mentoring. This
will underpin the formal learning material now in place and ensure close interaction with employees
on a more individual basis to ensure effective on-the-job implementation of the new knowledge and
skills gained and enable consistent assessment of the learning process in place.
4.11 Conclusion
HRD managers must realise that the role of the training function is moving from instruc-
tional technologist to facilitator of organisational learning and performance. The success
of the training function will depend on the ability of HRD practitioners to change the cul-
ture of the organisation in becoming a learning organisation. In order to achieve this
objective, they have to develop strategies to break down the barriers to organisational
learning. During this process, the HRD practitioner must assess the learning culture of the
organisation and analyse the root causes of performance problems, and subsequently design
interventions that will create a learning organisation. Ultimately, HRD managers will have
to make a conscious mind-set shift from being trainers to being agents and facilitators of
organisational learning and performance. In chapter 5, we will further explore this para-
digm shift when we address the role of the HRD practitioner as performance consultant.
4.12 Case study

Martex is an oil refinery with several plants throughout South Africa. The East London plant had
found a new way of processing waste material. This processing is more efficient than what other
refineries are using. Furthermore, the process meets all environmental regulations. The parent com-
pany situated in Richard’s Bay saw the obvious benefits of getting the other refineries in Cape
Town, Saldanha, Port Elizabeth, George and Durban to adopt this new process. If used in all its
refineries, it could save approximately R65 million a year.
The operations director, Zodwa Dlamini, gathered all the plant managers and chief engineers
together to share information about how the new process works. All members agreed that it was a
breakthrough, but only the Saldanha plant managed to follow the example set by the East London
refinery. This was due to regular contact between these two refineries on the implementation of the
new system.
After a year Zodwa realised that only two plants were productive as a result of implementing the
new system. After an investigation, she realised that most people had more disincentives than incen-
tives for adopting the new process. Each refinery had plenty of other things on its plate. This new
procedure required installing some new equipment, and it meant changing some things that had been
in place for a long time. Most supervisors and employees resisted any change to new procedures and
technology.
Questions
1 Which characteristics of the learning organisation are evident at the East London plant?
2 Which characteristics of the learning organisation are absent at Martex?
3 How can resistance to the new procedures and technology be broken down?
4 Develop a management plan to move Martex from a traditional organisation to a learning organ-
isation.
5 What role can knowledge management play in contributing to the establishment of a learning
organisation at Martex?

1 Explain the problems most organisations encounter with training programmes and in-
dicate how the learning organisation can contribute to resolving these problems.
2 Describe the differences between traditional training and the learning organisation and
decide at each difference where your organisation should be categorised.
3 Explain the characteristics of learning organisations.
4 Identify the barriers to organisational learning and indicate how these barriers can be
eliminated.
5 Develop a comprehensive strategy in transforming an organisation to a learning organ-
isation.
6 Compile a questionnaire that can be used to assess an organisation’s learning culture.
7 Critically evaluate the following statement: “Knowledge management can help an
organisation to foster learning, innovation and improvement.”
4.14 References
Braham BJ, 1995, Creating a Learning Organisation: Promoting Excellence Through
Education, California: Crisp.
Goleman D, 1999, “Guidelines for best practices for emotional intelligence training”,
ASTD International Conference: Atlanta.
Guns B and Van der Linde K, 1999, “Current state and future directions of knowledge
management”, ASTD International Conference: Atlanta.
Haynes R, 2016, “The growth mind-set, Top Employers 2017 Advertising Supplement”,
Mail & Guardian, October 14–20.
Hyams R, 1999, “Eliminating information overload and improving employee performance
in a knowledge managed organization”, ASTD International Conference: Atlanta.
Institute of Directors, 2016, King IV Code and Report on Corporate Governance for
South Africa, Johannesburg: Institute of Directors.
Katz M, 1998, “Knowledge management”, People Dynamics 17(6): 50.
Lippincott J, 1999, “Building a learning architecture: Combining training, performance
support and knowledge management”, ASTD International Conference: Atlanta.
Maritz D, 2004, “Talent management” in Meyer M and Botha E (eds) Organisation
Development and Transformation in South Africa, 2nd edn, Durban: LexisNexis Butter-
worths.
Marquardt MJ, 1999, “Action learning in action – The key to building learning organiza-
tions”, ASTD International Conference: Atlanta.
Redding J, 1998, in Van Buren M (ed), ASTD’s Guide to Learning Organization Assess-
ment Instruments, 2nd edn, Alexandra: ASTD.
Senge PM, 1990, The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization,
New York: Doubleday.
Senge PM, Roberts C, Ross RB, Smith BJ and Kleiner A, 1994, The Fifth Discipline Field-
book: Strategies and Tools for Building the Learning Organization, London: Nicholas
Brealey.
Smith, RM, 2011, Strategic Learning Alignment: Make Training a Powerful Business
Partner, Alexandria: ASTD.
Stock B, 1999, “Emotional intelligence: Getting to the heart of performance”, ASTD Inter-
national Conference: Atlanta.
Van Buren M (ed), 1998, ASTD’s Guide to Learning Organization Assessment Instru-
ments, 2nd edn, Alexandra: ASTD.
Van Rhyn L, 2016, Business in Education: The Partners for Possibility Approach to
Transforming Education. Paper presented at the Business in Education Networking
Session: Sandton.
Watkins KE and Marsick VJ, 1997, “Building the learning organization” in Russ-Eft D,
Preskill H and Sleezer C (eds), Human Resource Development Review: Research and
Implications, London: Sage.
Wick CW and Leon LS, 1993, The Learning Edge: How Smart Managers and Smart
Companies Stay Ahead, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Wiest D and Drury-Bogle K, 1999, “Building a learning organisation”, ASTD Inter-

national Conference: Atlanta.

Baumard P, 1999, Tacit Knowledge in Organizations, London: Sage.
Botkin JW, 1999, Smart Business: How Knowledge Communities can Revolutionize Your
Company, New York: Free Press.
Cope M, 1998, Leading the Organisation to Learn: The 10 Levers for Putting Knowledge
and Learning to Work, London: Pitman.
DiBella AJ and Nevis EC, 1997, Making Organisations Learn: An Integrated Strategy for
Building Learning Capability, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Dodd P, 1998, Pushing the Boundaries: Learning Organization Lessons from the Field,
Michigan: Kennedy Press.
Easterby-Smith M, Burgoyne J and Araujo L (eds), 1998, Organizational Learning and
the Learning Organization: Developments in Theory and Practice, London: Sage.
Fourie S, 2014, Learning Organisations in a South African Context. Randburg:
Knowledge Resources.
Gold J, Holden R, Iles P, Stewart J and Beardwell J, 2010, Human Resource Develop-
ment: Theory & Practice, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
Harvard Business Review, 2011, Inspiring & Executing Innovation, Boston: Harvard Busi-
ness Review.
Heroldt, J. (ed), 2012, Managing Change in Organisations: Articles from Human Capital
Review, Randburg: Knowledge Resources.
Huseman RC and Goodman JP, 1999, Leading with Knowledge: Winning in the Realm of
the Red Queen, London: Sage.
Khoza, RJ, 2011, Attuned Leadership: African Humanism as Compass, Johannesburg:
Penguin.
Kline P and Saunders B, 1993, Ten Steps to a Learning Organization, Virginia: Great
Ocean.
Meyer M, 1999, “The learning organisation: Multiplying the high flyers”, Management
Today 18–19.
Nel C and Beudeker N, 2009, Revolution: How to Create a High Performance Organisa-
tion, Cape Town: Village of Leaders.
Pedler M, Burgoyne J and Boydell T, 1997, The Learning Company: A Strategy for Sus-
tainable Development, 2nd edn, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Pietersen, W. 2010, Strategic Learning: How to be Smarter than your Competition and
Turn Key Insights into Competitive Advantage, New Jersey: John Wiley.
Senge P, Kleiner A, Robers C, Ross R, Roth G and Smith B, 1999, The Dance of Change:
The Challenges to Sustaining Momentum in Learning Organizations, New York:
Doubleday.
Smith PAC and Tosey P, 1999, “Assessing the learning organisation – Part 1: Theoretical
foundations”, The Learning Organisation 6(2): 70–75.
Sparrow J, 1998, Knowledge in Organizations: Access to Thinking at Work, London: Sage.
Swain P, 1999, “Organisational learning: Developing leaders to deal with continuous

change – a strategic human resource perspective”, The Learning Organisation 6(1): 30–37.
Tobin DR, 1998, The Knowledge-enabled Organisation: Moving from Training to Learn-
ing to Meet Business Goals, New York: Amacom.
Viljoen R, 2015, Organisational Change and Development, Randburg: Knowledge
Resources.
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Watkins KE and Marsick KJ, 1996, Creating the Learning Organization, Alexandra:
ASTD.
Zairi M, 1999, “The Learning Organisation: Results of a Benchmarking Study”, The
Learning Organisation 6(2): 76–81.
4.16 Internet sites

A Business Researcher’s Interests: http://www.brint.com/OrgLrng.htm
Center for Advanced Emotional Intelligence: http://www.advancedeq.com
Center for Creative Leadership: http://www.ccl.org
Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence: http://www.eiconsortium.org
Corporate University Xchange: http://www.corpu.com
De Paul University and Institute for Strategic Learning, Learning Organization Exchange:
http://www.depaul.edu/~learning
Emotional Intelligence Materials: http://www.6seconds.org
Emotional Intelligence University: http://www.emotionalintelligenceu.com
HR Future: http://www.hrfuture.net
International Institute of Knowledge Management: http://www.iikm.com
International Knowledge Management Network: http://kmn.cibit.nl/index.html
Knowledge Inc (Newsletter): http://www.knowledgeinc.com
Knowledge Management Server: http://www.bus.utexas.edu/kman
Learning Organisation List: http:world.std.com/~lo
MIT Organizational Learning Network: http:/learning.mit.edu
Strategic Knowledge Management: www.knowledge-media.com
Teleos Knowledge Management (Newsletter): http://www.knowledgebusiness.com
The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook: http://www.fieldbook.com
The Learning Organisation Journal: http://www.mcb.co.uk/tlo.htm
A special word of thanks to:
• Angela Donnelly of RMB Private Bank for the case study she provided for this chapter
• Chris Brits, a goldmine training manager, and Pieter van Oudtshoorn of Corporate Inter-
ventions Services for the mining case study they provided
• Roy Braxton and Marica Richter of Braxton Consulting and Gert Kriel of First National
Bank for the case study they provided.
CHAPTER
5
PERFORMANCE CONSULTING
Belia Nel
Rather than defining performance consulting by the interventions they use,

performance consultants take a comprehensive systems view of performance, examining
the alignment of the total performance system in every venue where they work.
(Roger Addison)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Identify performance gaps and requirements and introduce interventions to improve perfor-
mance in the workplace
• Contract with management to implement performance improvement interventions in the work-
place
• Move from training delivery to performance improvement activities with management and clients
• Form consultative partnerships to action strategic business alliances in the organisation
5.1 Introduction
The rationale behind this chapter is to make a transition from a focus on training to a
focus on performance improvement. The training profession is undergoing major changes
in several areas. One of these changes is the transition away from focusing on learning as
the output to focusing on performance improvement, the goal being to enhance human
performance in support of business goals. Performance consultants are the people who are
responsible for partnering with clients in order to achieve performance-improvement busi-
ness goals.
117
Performance consulting is a relatively new field within the human resources domain.
People often ask what performance consulting is. A brief description of the expression fol-
lows.
Definition
According to Addison, Haig and Kearny (2009), technology is a set of empirical and scien-
tific principles and their application. Human Performance Technology (HPT) is the tech-
nology that comprises all the variables that affect human performance. We use HPT in the
workplace to identify factors that enable workers to perform their jobs and to produce the
desired results. Performance technology provides tools and processes to identify opportu-
nities for improved performance, valued solutions and return on investment (ROI) as well
as the building blocks to construct new performance environments and systems.
HPT methodology (also known as PI methodology) helps all HRD and training or learn-
ing and development practitioners to identify and solve performance problems in organ-
isations. Sometimes we cannot answer questions that line managers ask about our work;
HPT helps us to answer these questions. They may ask:
• Do you know exactly where the performance gaps are? Are these gaps caused by the
people and processes, or by organisational factors? (The HPT methodology is a sys-
tematic means of identifying performance problems at all levels.)
• Do you know where to start fixing these performance problems? Can you accurately
state where these gaps are? (The HPT methodology will help you identify systematic-
ally where the problems are.)
• Can you measure the value of solutions you implemented to fix these performance prob-
lems? (If you have implemented solutions to these problems, the HPT methodology
makes it easier to measure what the impact and outcome of the solution was.)
• Are HRD practitioners or learning and development consultants skilled in providing a
PI consulting service to the business to give correct advice on performance problems?
(One of the ways of enhancing your credibility in identifying and solving performance
problems is to be professionally accredited with the International Society for Perform-
ance Improvement (ISPI). Performance consultants who have this accreditation are
known as certified performance technologists (CPTs).)
Reset Performance Results

Performance in any organisation is a complex issue that needs on-going attention if one is
to improve the results that employees achieve in their jobs. In most cases typical perfor-
mance challenges include the following:
• a high percentage of poor performers within the organisation;
• the poor alignment of business goals and objectives to individual goals translating to
excellent performance;
• line management’s lack of skill and objectivity to deal with poor performance and poor
performers;
• poor work and performance discipline;
• the perceived lack of fairness of the performance system in meaningfully differentiating
between top and poor performance as it relates to both monetary and non-monetary
indicators;
Chapter 5: Performance consulting 119
• out-dated performance management systems not catering for the post-technology

generation; and
• an inability or leniency of management to deal with poor performance, exacerbated by
poor internal brand entrenchment.
5.2 The contextualisation of performance consulting

The change to the training profession that is of greatest interest to us is the shift in focus
to performance improvement. We may ask whether this is just another fad or whether it is
a new direction.
Van Tiem, Moseley and Dessinger (2000) have the following to say about HPT:
Performance technology is the systematic process of linking business goals and strategies
with the workforce responsible for achieving the goals. HPT practitioners use a common
methodology to understand, inspire, and improve people; they study and redesign processes
leading to increased performance in the workplace.
The focus on performance is not new. What is new are the elements that are receiving en-
hanced emphasis because of current business requirements. Each of these elements is
dealt with in turn.
5.2.1 The need to partner with management

Training functions have traditionally operated parallel to management rather than in part-
nership with it. It is therefore important that the focus on performance improvement allo-
cate significant resources to forming and sustaining partnerships with management. The
individuals with whom these partnerships are formed are referred to as “clients”. There-
fore, the term “performance improvement consultant” was developed to distinguish the
role of the individual from the performance function.
Tip for performance consultants: Ask questions about products, services, results and
measures in the language that management will understand.
5.2.2 The link with business needs

The identification of human performance requirements begins with the clarification of the
current and future business goals of an organisation. Once the business goals are defined
the performance improvement process can be kick-started. “What must people do more,
better or differently if this business goal is to be achieved?” (Robinson and Robinson,
1998:5.)
Business needs will reflect the macro environment. The micro environment will be re-
flected by the organisational change needs. The core of performance improvement should
be that the learning and work environments have to be addressed.
Tip for performance consultants: Consult the business strategy and associated business
plans to enable you to strike a chord immediately with the client.
The typical needs that this partnership may be useful for are depicted in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1 Needs development
Organisational Culture
Business and Strategic Needs
Performance Needs
Learning and
Work Environment
Needs
Organisational Change Needs
Organisational Politics
Source: Adapted from Robinson D and Robinson C (2007).
5.2.3 The link with Human Resource Development (HRD)

With increasing pressure to do more with less at a lower cost, the Human Resource De-
velopment (HRD) profession is reinventing itself, as business needs and the international
marketplace dictate. Practitioners in the HRD business will need to assimilate some of the
newly emerging roles for the HRD practitioner. These emerging roles are those of:
• organisational performance analyst
• internal and external consultant
• organisational effectiveness evaluator
• partnership builder
• change agent.
HRD practitioners also need to discard their preconceived solutions to organisational prob-
lems. With this in mind it is important to look at the new roles and competencies of the
performance consultant within the HRD context.
Tip for performance consultants: Performance consulting does not mean you stop doing
your functional work; it merely suggests a mindset shift to doing things differently.
5.2.4 The link with Organisation Development (OD)

The trend for HRD as well as OD practitioners is a movement toward performance consult-
ing to identify organisational problems, manage change and to help the whole organisation
become more effective in achieving its strategic goals. Performance consulting borrows
from a variety of disciplines including performance technology and organisation develop-
ment (OD). Performance consulting blends these approaches with interpersonal skills, sys-
tems thinking and diagnostic skills. Performance consulting focuses on the entire system,
concerns itself with overall performance and involves the creation and reinforcement of
change. Change management skills form a foundation for any performance strategy (Craig,
1999:3).
Tip for performance consultants: You must work within organisational constraints. You
can work with the client to change some of the constraints, but not all of them.
5.2.5 The link with the NQF critical outcomes

While no unit standards have been developed for performance consulting, it is clear that
performance consulting relates to a number of the management-related functions. If one
considers the critical outcomes of the NQF, performance consulting corresponds very well
with the critical outcomes as indicated in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 The link between NQF critical outcomes and performance consulting
NQF critical outcomes Performance consulting

Identify and solve problems in which respons- The emphasis is on identifying the problems
es display that responsible decisions using surrounding performance, change manage-
critical and creative thinking have been made ment, creative solutions and decision-making
Work effectively with others as a member of a Performance consulting focuses on a partner-
team, group, organisation or community ship between management, employees and the
performance consultant. All relationships are
based on teamwork and co-operation
Organise and manage oneself and one’s The performance consultant has to practise
activities responsibly and effectively self-management in their relationships with
partners when planning particular
performance improvement interventions
Collect, analyse and critically evaluate The performance consultant analyses perform-
information ance gaps and identifies the root causes for
underperformance by using performance
analysis techniques
Communicate effectively using visual, Communication is one of the key skills of
mathematical and/or language skills in the the performance consultant. They have to
modes of oral and/or written persuasion facilitate performance improvement sessions
and write reports to management on perform-
ance problems and interventions
Use science and technology effectively and The performance consultant approaches
critically, showing responsibility towards the performance problems drawing on human
environment and health of others performance technology. Scientific perform-
ance improvement techniques are used
Demonstrate an understanding of the world as The whole philosophy behind performance
a set of inter-related systems by recognising consulting is to view performance problems
that problem-solving contexts do not exist in from a systems perspective and to break down
isolation the barriers between training departments and
the rest of the organisation
From Table 5.1 it is evident that the HRD practitioner will be challenged to develop a set
of more advanced skills in order to bridge the gap between the trainer and the perform-
ance consultant. Many HRD practitioners will have to be re-trained and redeveloped in
order to acquire competence in the field of performance consulting. Some consultants are
helping to train professionals to achieve this goal by providing training sessions on the
realignment of HRD to performance consulting.
Tip for performance consultants: As a performance consultant you are also required to
build a portfolio of evidence to show competence in the area of performance consulting.
This is a requirement if you want to be accredited as a Certified Performance Consultant
with ISPI (International Society for Performance Improvement. Visit www.certified.org).
According to Addison and Haig (2011):
Performance Architects are in the business of investigating human performance issues in the
workplace and determining how best to help their client organizations meet business goals.
That said, it is our experience that consultants of any stripe can fruitfully employ a few basic
architectural models and tools to provide significant added value to their clients.
5.3 Emerging roles and competencies within the HRD framework

For too long the HRD or training profession has focused on the activity of training. People
in the profession thought of themselves as specialists associated with some aspect of
learning, such as designing the courses, delivering the programmes or identifying training
needs. The shift from traditional training to performance-driven training for impact is vital
in meeting today’s business needs.
The training dilemma we are faced with is graphically portrayed in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 A training dilemma
Training for impact is moving in the direction of performance consulting as it contains or

suggests elements of change. To do training for impact suggests that a diagnosis and analy-
sis of performance problems should be conducted. Training for activity on the other hand
has to do with pushing through the required number of delegates on training programmes
without having conducted the appropriate performance analysis.
We must shift from focusing on what people need to learn (training) to what they must
be able to do (performance). We will further explore the roles and functions associated
with the performance improvement consultant. The new performance focus of HRD de-
partments can be summarised as follows:
Traditional Training Performance Consulting Impact
From To
• training delivery • performance improvement
• trainer • performance improvement consultant
• training objectives • learner outcomes
• training design • learning intervention design
• training for activity • training for impact
• training needs analysis • performance gap analysis
As a performance consultant what do you typically do? Are you a:

• HRD consultant
• trainer
• training specialist
• HRD specialist
• performance improvement consultant?
We should be seen as performance improvement consultants. We should have an in-depth
knowledge of business, HRD contextualisation, HPT, partnering skills and consulting
skills.
The work of performance consulting is rooted in a systematic approach that begins at the end rather
than the beginning by asking: What should the results be when the work is done? (Geary Rummler,
2004)
Characteristics of a performance consultant

If you are going to make the shift from a trainer or HR consultant to a performance con-
sultant, you should possess these key characteristics:
• You are committed to improving performance and results, and do not only implement
single solution activities like training, team building and HR support. You are basically
solution-neutral. You challenge all proposed solutions that are not in line with per-
formance as a total system.
• You apply a validated methodology for determining desired results and identifying the
barriers to required performance and evaluating the impact of the specified changes on
results.
• You are knowledgeable about a large range of improvement strategies enabling you to
make the necessary solutions which will address the performance gaps to bring about
the required results.
Performance improvement consultants are business people who should specialise in human
performance rather than finance, marketing or operations. Performance improvement con-
sultants should be doing the following regularly:
• reading the annual report of their organisation and understanding it
• discussing the ratios used to measure the operational health of the organisation in order
with managers and others to establish the gaps (including the impact of a risk analysis
report on the business and the role the performance improvement consultant can play)
• identifying the forces that will challenge the organisation’s ability to meet its business
goals
• discussing the strategies and actions of competitors and their implications for the organ-
isation
• using the business terminology of the organisation – the language should be no differ-
ent from that of those who work throughout the organisation (Robinson and Robinson,
1995:12–13)
• continuously scanning the business environment and conditions which will affect the
focus and impact of our work.
5.4 Performance consultant framework

In line with the new SABPP National HR Competency Model (Meyer, 2012), various
competencies, attributes and standards are necessary for all the roles in the human perfor-
mance improvement process. However, further definition of the roles, competencies and
functions of the performance improvement consultant is necessary. In our opinion the
performance improvement consultant should have four major roles within the context of
IQ (intelligence quotient), PQ (professional quotient), EQ (emotional quotient) and AQ
(adversity quotient). The IQ context is represented by the Researcher role, the PQ context
is represented by the Professional role, the EQ context is represented by the Communica-
tor role and the AQ context is represented by the Change Facilitator role. (See Figure 5.3.)
A performance improvement consultant framework will be governed by the business
and the HPT methodology context.
Figure 5.3 Performance consultant framework
As seen in Figure 5.3, there as four major roles, namely those of:
• researcher
• professional
• change facilitator
• communicator.
These roles each have their own sets of competencies, attributes and standards that give
them impetus and can be listed as follows:
5.4.1 The researcher role

Cultural alignment competence
The performance consultant should understand the importance of cultural alignment. This
alignment is represented at the work, worker and workplace levels.
HPT methodology competence

The performance consultant must display the ability to gather, analyse and interpret data
as well as design, implement and evaluate the appropriate intervention.
Systems thinking
To enable the performance consultant to introduce a performance improvement process it
is important that they should understand how different systems interrelate in the bigger
picture of the business and the organisation.
Financial competence
These skills are important in interpreting and analysing data, company results and measur-
ing the implemented intervention.
These competencies will fulfil the role of researcher within the context of IQ in that
they will provide the performance consultant with the necessary tools and techniques in
fact-finding, data gathering and all other activities needed in the HPT methodology appli-
cation.
5.4.2 The professional role

Business fundamentals and industry understanding
The performance consultant must be competent in basic business principles as well as
have a working understanding of the macro business environment. This will contribute to
meaningful consultations with management.
Technology awareness and application

The performance consultant must have an understanding of the latest technology and use
it as a vehicle to achieve the desired results.
Specialist knowledge
Specialist knowledge will include the entire spectrum of human resource strategies,
knowledge of business and industry and a sound knowledge of human behaviour as it
relates to adults in the workplace environment.
Benchmarking
Keeping abreast of the industry and business environment is very important. Benchmark-
ing as a process tool will assist the performance consultant in analysing the gap that exists
during the research and cause analysis phase. Benchmarking can be applied throughout
the process to provide best practice information.
Ethics and networking

In forming business relationships with management it is essential that the performance
consultant follows a business code of ethics and professionalism which will lead to accept-
ance and credibility. The ability to network with a variety of internal and external industry
leaders will strengthen professional and business relationships within the organisation.
The most important of these competencies is the ability to network. Networking will
provide continuity to the other competencies within this role. Networking will also pro-
vide the necessary dynamic movement within the professional role.
5.4.3 The change facilitator role

Conflict handling and transformation
As performance consulting necessitates change it is important that the performance con-
sultant should be able to cope with conflict that may arise from these change strategies
when implementing a change process. Any performance improvement process will bring
about transformation and change. The performance consultant should be competent in
managing the transformation and change process.
Project facilitation
The performance consulting process will result in change. To implement the change pro-
cess the performance consultant should have the ability to apply project facilitation skills
to monitor the process and progress of the change. The emphasis of facilitation is not get-
ting involved with the content but with the actual process of the performance improve-
ment intervention.
Intervention design and development

The performance consultant must be able to develop and design the appropriate interven-
tion to meet the performance gaps in the workplace. The design of the intervention can be
handled on a project basis if the performance consultant lacks the specific knowledge.
The competency highlighted here is that of facilitation. Although facilitation can be seen
as a function of project management it plays a major part in the competency framework
because facilitation should also be actioned as a required competency for the entire change
facilitator role.
5.4.4 The communicator role

Evaluation and feedback
During a performance improvement process it is important that the performance consult-
ant provides ongoing feedback as well as a thorough evaluation at the end of project.
Self-awareness and development

The performance consultant should continuously engage in self-development interven-
tions and knowledge acquisition. Self-awareness and insight will result in improved busi-
ness relationships.
Influencing and negotiating

The competencies of influencing and negotiating are equally important in the make-up of
the performance consultant. The ability to influence and negotiate the change process will
result in achieving the outcomes for the performance improvement process.
Interaction effectiveness and impact

Communication is a key competency in the overall competency bouquet. The success of
interaction effectiveness competence will be seen in the impact the performance consult-
ant has in the implementation process.
Marketing and promotion

The performance consultant needs to acquire marketing and promoting competencies
which will result in dynamic and ongoing workplace performance improvement.
The most important competency within the communicator role is not whether perform-
ance consultants can communicate, but whether they understand the effectiveness and im-
pact of their communication. As previously mentioned with the competency of facilitation,
communication as an overall competency is important; but we need to emphasise that it is
not communication per se but rather the awareness of whether the performance consultant
can influence and negotiate effectively.
Each role within its context has an important function in the overall effectiveness of the
performance consultant. These roles and competencies will be used interchangeably and
as required given the nature of the context of the environment.
These competencies will allow the performance consultant to be effective within the
entire performance improvement process, that is, from researching a potential problem
thoroughly and finally presenting and promoting various performance improvement out-
comes to the client. The performance consultant needs to acquire these competencies
within these roles systematically, in other words, the acquisition should be via planned
interventions that will enhance the development path of the performance consultant.
5.5 Additional competencies for performance consultants

As early as 1989 Pat McLagan (in Rothwell, 1996:22–25) indicated her 15 competencies
essential to all roles in the human performance improvement process. These are:
1 Industry awareness Understanding the vision, strategy, goals, and culture of an in-
dustry; linking human performance improvement interventions to organisational
goals.
2 Leadership skills Knowing how to lead or influence others positively to achieve the
desired work results.
3 Interpersonal relationship skills Working effectively with others to achieve common
goals and exercising effective interpersonal influence.
4 Technological awareness and understanding Using existing or new technology and

different types of software and hardware; understanding performance support sys-
tems and applying them as appropriate.
5 Problem-solving skills Detecting performance gaps and helping other people discover
ways to close the performance gaps in the present and future; closing performance
gaps between actual and ideal performance.
6 Systems thinking and understanding Identifying the inputs, throughputs, and outputs
of a sub-system or system and applying the information to improve human perform-
ance; realising the implication of interventions on many parts of an organisation, pro-
cess, or individual; taking steps to address any side-effects of human performance
improvement interventions.
7 Performance understanding Distinguishing between activities and results; recog-
nising implications, outcomes, and consequences.
8 Knowledge of interventions Demonstrating and understanding the many ways that
human performance can be improved in organisational settings; showing how to apply
specific human performance improvement interventions to close existing or antici-
pated performance gaps.
9 Business understanding Demonstrating awareness of the inner workings of business
functions and how business decisions affect financial or non-financial work results.
10 Organisational understanding Seeing organisations as dynamic, political, economic,
and social systems that have multiple goals; using this larger perspective as a frame-
work for understanding and influencing events and change.
11 Negotiating/contracting skills Organising, preparing, overseeing and evaluating work
performed by vendors, contingent workers or outsourcing agents.
12 Buy-in/advocacy skills Building ownership or support for change among affected in-
dividuals, groups and other stakeholders.
13 Coping skills Knowing how to deal with ambiguity and how to handle the stress
resulting from change and from multiple meanings or possibilities.
14 Ability to see the “big picture” Looking beyond details to see overarching goals and
results.
15 Consulting skills Understanding the results that stakeholders desire from a process
and providing insight into how those results can be achieved efficiently and effect-
ively.
5.6 Performance consulting approach and process

In order for a performance improvement process to be successful in an organisation the
performance consultant must decide on the appropriate approach. Typically questions to
ask should be: what are the business forces impacting on such a process and what are the
desired business results to be achieved?
Let us revisit the HPT model and review the major areas. As Figure 5.4 shows, the
model has six major areas for the performance consultant to consider:
• performance analysis
• cause analysis
• intervention selection and design
• implementation
• measurement and evaluation
• feedback.
Figure 5.4 The HPT model
Performance Improvement HPT Process

5.7 The performance consulting approach

The performance consultant should develop a specific consulting approach to follow when
addressing performance problems in the organisation. The following performance consult-
ing approach will provide a map for the performance consultant. A useful performance
consulting process approach has four stages:
Stage 1: Identify business and performance needs

• Identify internal clients or sponsors
• Identify business requirements
• Review business processes
• Review environment needs
• Specify current performance
• Identify performance gaps
Stage 2: Map out intervention strategies

• Design multiple interventions
• Establish priority of intervention strategies
• Identify resources for implementation
Stage 3: Implementation
• Establish the implementation and monitoring plan
• Implement interventions
Stage 4: Continual improvement

• System alignment
• Continual improvement and feedback
Before an appropriate process should be selected it is useful to pay attention to the knowl-
edge of the underlying anatomy of performance. The Anatomy of Performance (Rummler,
2004) is based on the following fundamentals:
• organisations are systems
• organisations are processing systems
• organisations are adaptive systems
• jobs or roles and functions exists to support the processes of the organisation
• all performers are part of a human performance system.
This is critical for arriving at an accurate diagnosis and eventually recommending the
appropriate solution that will address the performance gap. What does this mean? Accord-
ing to Rummler (2004), performance consulting is rooted in a systematic approach that
focuses on the results when the work is done rather than focusing on the beginning of a
client request.
How will this practically work?

The work of a performance consultant usually starts by identifying the value that will be
added for the client by clarifying the performance problem or business opportunity. Once
this has been done they focus on agreeing what the results should be and how the gaps will
be closed between existing and desired results. This is known as the performance assess-
ment or gap analysis. Once the consultant has enough information to build a compelling
case for change, the interventions will be designed, developed and implemented to close
the gap. The final stage is to measure and evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention as
it was determined by the client when identifying the proposed value that the process would
add. This process that the performance consultant can follow is illustrated in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5 The Results Improvement Process model
1. Desired results 2. Barriers 3. Changes 4. Results

determined determined designed, evaluated, and
and changes developed, and maintained or
Request specified implemented improved
for “help” Why the gap in
What and where is results and what How are we Did we close the
the gap in results? is required to closing the gap? gap in results?
close it?
Source: Rummler (2004).
The performance consulting process is useful in that it will keep the performance consult-
ant focused on the outcomes to be achieved. In Figure 5.5 the entire process is shown to
assist the performance consultant by keeping the following beliefs in mind.
Belief 1: Performance consulting is about improving results

Performance equals results. Performance consulting is about closing the gap between “is”
results (current situation) and “should” results (what the client desires). Every request
should be tied to a measurable gap in results.
Belief 2: Performance consulting follows a systematic process

In Figure 5.5 we have seen that a performance consultant should follow a systematic pro-
cess to uncover and address performance needs. This will keep the performance consult-
ant focused on the outcomes and results as specified by the client.
Belief 3: Performance analysis is the heart of performance consulting

Performance analysis involves determining the specific gaps that are to be closed in the
results, the precise barriers to desired results, and the specification of the exact changes
necessary to close the gap in results. Performance consulting involves much more than
performance analysis. However, the results of a performance improvement project are
only as good as the underlying performance analysis. Therefore, this process stage is key
critical to the success of the work of the performance consultant.
10 Questions the Performance Consultant should ask to keep the process focussed:
• Does my organisation truly live a courageous performance culture?
• Do we encourage innovative leadership and intrapreneurship or is it something on the
side, like an ideas or suggestion box?
• Does my organisation support big data and do we have the capability to interpret and
apply the data findings?
• Do we have leadership and management capability and competence to lead and manage
in turbulent, volatile times?
• Are we courageous enough to declare a “war on performance”?
• How ready are we to change our performance meme? Can we convince employees we
will create a new belief about performance?
• Do we practice holistic performance? Do we look at all the systems that positively and
negatively contribute to performance? Or are we stuck in a “one system” view, blaming
staff when performance drops?
• Does my organisation have a back-to-basics talent development programme?
• Do we have a customer-focused sustainability strategy and plan that is performance-
based?
• Does my organisation measure the right things?
The balance of this chapter will be devoted to highlighting the competencies of facilita-
tion, communication and networking.
5.8 Facilitation and the performance improvement consultant

Bentley (1994:27) says facilitation is a word which describes an activity. It is something
that someone does. It is a process. Yet it also includes non-action, silence and even the
facilitator’s absence. The right atmosphere has to be developed so that the facilitator can
concentrate on providing the resources and opportunities for learning to take place, rather
than “manage and control” learning.
Facilitation is the most important competency to emerge in the modern workplace. The
workplace is changing as never before, and mastering this competency will help managers
and performance improvement consultants respond successfully to these changes. Effect-
ive facilitators are able to help individuals, groups and entire organisations get their work
done in the face of such changes. Skilled facilitators help groups improve the quality and
quantity of their work by getting members to work together more effectively.
Today’s workplace is a place of change. Unprecedented global competition and the
rapid deployment of new technology are forcing organisations to reconfigure themselves
in order to remain vibrant and competitive. This places an important emphasis on the com-
petent performance improvement consultant (Weaver and Farrell, 1979:1).
Figure 5.6 illustrates the interaction between the various components of a facilitation
model.
Figure 5.6 Facilitation model
Source: Weaver and Farrell (1979).
Task is at the centre of the model because helping people to be clear about their task is the
single most important thing a facilitator does. Therefore, when the performance improve-
ment consultant plays the role of facilitator they should always help groups to be clear
about their tasks.
The most powerful and useful tool facilitators bring into a situation is themselves. For
this reason, self is one of the elements in the model. Facilitators must know themselves
and how they impact their groups. The self element is also important in understanding
how people are alike and how they are different. When performance improvement con-
sultants play the role of facilitator they will help group members consider their similarities
and differences as assets they can use to get their work done.
Group is another element of the facilitator model. Certain group dynamics are unique to
the group in which they occur, but much of what happens in groups is predictable. Under-
standing these group dynamics is essential to performance improvement consultants when
using the competency of facilitation.
The fourth and final element of the facilitation model is process. Facilitators use their
knowledge of task, self, and group to decide which facilitation process to use with a group.
Process is a set of actions or tools, or an intervention that helps groups progress towards
their goals (Weaver and Farrell, 1979:9–11).
Weaver and Farrell (1979:77–79) state that one of the patterns a facilitator will observe
is the common ways group members relate to each other. These relationship patterns may
range from adversarial to partnering. It is important that the performance improvement
consultant categorises these patterns to help understand the group better and decide what
action to take to help the group be more productive:
1 Coercion is all about the use of power to force a desired outcome. Coercion occurs
when two group members have different levels of power.
2 Confrontation occurs between people who exercise more equal power. Groups in which
confrontation is common tend to focus more on these interactions than on the work it-
self.
3 Coexistence may be equated to drawing a line in the sand, with parties agreeing not to
cross into each other’s territory. It is a clear statement that members are not interested
in working with each other.
4 Co-operation on this continuum continues to reflect a focus on individual tasks, but
there are times when one person will help another complete their tasks.
5 Collaboration exists when group members identify with the group and seriously con-
sider the group’s overall outcome. Members experience a proportion of the responsi-
bility for the success of the group.
6 Co-ownership reflects a shift in group members’ sense of responsibility. They now all
feel 100% responsible for the success of the group.
5.9 Networking and communication and the performance

improvement consultant
As discussed previously in the performance improvement consultant framework the com-
petency of networking within the professional role is very important. Networking will pro-
vide a context for all the activities performed by the performance improvement consultant.
Lambert (1993:64–67) states that there is probably no more irritating waste of time to the
dedicated performance improvement consultant than traditional networking as it is prac-
tised today. This, according to Lambert, is highlighted through a number of problems:
• professional greed
• client ignorance of what could be achieved
• mistrust
• the degree of marketable professional development.
The potential value of networking is immense. We need to look at equitable networking to
further our cause. For this discussion we will be referring to the performance improve-
ment consultant as an internal consultant within an organisation. Continuous networking
with colleagues, management and all other stakeholders will provide not only a continu-
ous source of information but also many opportunities for consulting within the organisa-
tion to further the performance improvement process.
Networking external to the organisation will keep you up-to-date professionally as well
as in your specialist field. By making continuous new contacts with a variety of people
you will build future networks and prove to be very valuable in the future. Networking is
a dynamic continuous process with no immediate dividends. However, it is not an activity
that can be embarked on frivolously. Networking is also an ethical activity; build net-
works with people you trust, admire and believe in.
As with networking the competency of communication is vitally important when pos-
sibly engaging a specific function or role within the performance improvement process.
Pinder and McAdam (1994:46) state that communication is the “core” competency in the
area of fact-finding and analysis. Within this competency the following skills are critical:
• establishing clearly agreed terms of reference and setting up projects
• defining the client and/or the sponsor
• interview skills in the performance consulting context
• developing and conducting effective surveys
• checking and analysing information.
The communicator role will also need influencing and negotiating competencies to fulfil
the desired outcome. The most important areas of the communicator role are interaction,
effectiveness and impact. The performance improvement consultant may possess all the
competencies outlined in the performance improvement consultant framework but may
not have impact with interpersonal communication. The competencies will be deemed to
be meaningless unless they value the importance of developing such communication
competence and effectiveness.
5.10 International standards for performance consultants

Recently the International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI) introduced a pro-
cess for the international certification of performance consultants as registered HPTs (i.e.
human performance technologists). This process adds international credibility to the work
of performance consultants. The Certified Performance Technologist (CPT) accreditation
is offered by ISPI through a competency process of workplace projects against the follow-
ing 10 international standards:
1 Focus on results or outcomes.
2 Take a systemic view.
3 Add value.
4 Work in partnership with clients and stakeholders.
5 Determine need or opportunity.
6 Determine cause.
7 Design solutions, including implementation and evaluation.
8 Ensure solutions’ conformity and feasibility.
9 Implement solutions.
10 Evaluate results and impact.
5.10.1 Focus on outcomes

Focusing on outcomes – that is, results – puts you in a position to question, confirm and
reconfirm that people share the same vision and goals, the job procedures support effi-
ciency, and that people have the skills and knowledge they require. You determine what
problem it is you are trying to solve. You measure the outcomes or results of an interven-
tion and assess whether performance has improved as a result of it. Sometimes it is neces-
sary to challenge the assumed answer to a problem or the expected event or activity of an
intervention, and to focus instead on the accomplishment or business need that is the
client’s true priority.
5.10.2 Take a systemic view

Competent practitioners take a systemic view of their work. This requires them to identify
the subsystems that make up the total organisation. They look for and recognise that a
change in one area will affect other areas. They consider how the dynamics affecting
society, the marketplace, the workplace, work, and workers impact the desired outcomes.
5.10.3 Add value

Did you add value in the way you worked with the client and in your suggested interven-
tion? This is an assessment your client will be asked to make. You can set the stage for this
by offering your clients a process that will help them fully understand the implications of
their choices, set appropriate measures, identify barriers and trade-offs, and take control.
5.10.4 Work in partnership with clients and other specialists

Work in partnership with clients and other specialists, that is, collaboratively. This means
that you involve all stakeholders in the decision-making around every phase of the pro-
cess and that you involve specialists in their areas of expertise. Working collaboratively
means that decisions about goals, next steps to take in the process, and implementation are
all shared responsibilities. Partnerships are created from listening closely to your client
and trusting and respecting each other’s knowledge and expertise, so you both can make
the best choices about accomplishments, priorities and solutions.
5.10.5 Determine need or opportunity

Being systematic is extremely complex since it touches the remaining six standards that
describe the human performance technology process. Each part relies on whether or not
you have processes in place. All performances may or may not be performed, and all parts
may or may not be completed in a specific order, based on the specific circumstances.
5.10.6 Determine cause

Cause analysis is about determining why a gap in performance or expectations exists.
Some causes are obvious, such as new employees lack the required skills to do the ex-
pected task and, therefore, the solution must eliminate that gap. The output is a statement
of why performance is not happening or will not happen without some intervention.
5.10.7 Design solutions, including implementation and evaluation

Design is about identifying the key attributes of a solution. The output is a communication
that describes the features, attributes and elements of a solution and the resources required
to actualise it. For the specialist, you identify and describe one or more solutions in detail,
what will be required to develop and implement them, which is preferred, and why.
5.10.8 Ensure solutions’ conformity and feasibility

Competent practitioners oversee the development of the solutions. They may develop
some or all of the solutions or be a member of the development team. Development is
about the creation of some or all of the elements of the solution. It can be done by an
individual or a team. The output is a product, process, system or technology. Examples
include training, performance support tools, a new or re-engineered process, the redesign
of a workspace, or a change in compensation or benefits.
5.10.9 Implement solutions

Competent practitioners develop strategies that allow clients to sustain change. The
outputs are changes in or adoption of the behaviours that are believed to produce the
anticipated results or benefits. This standard is about helping clients adopt new behaviours
or using new or different tools. You develop an implementation plan that includes how
you or the client will track change, identify and respond to problems, and communicate
the results.
5.10.10 Evaluate results and impact

Competent practitioners help clients measure the impact of the solutions. Evaluation is
about measuring the efficiency and effectiveness of what you did, how you did it, and the
degree to which the solution produced the desired results so that you can compare the cost
incurred to the benefits gained. This standard is about identifying and acting on opportu-
nities throughout the systematic process to identify measures and capture data that will
help identify needs, adoption and results.
Source: ISPI (2002).
5.11 Introducing a performance improvement strategy

Many organisations decide to change their HR or HRD departments to performance con-
sulting units without taking a strategic viewpoint regarding the entire organisation. It is
not advisable to call HR consultants performance consultants overnight and not expect
resistance from the organisations. Management needs to be sensitised to the process and
the roles, responsibilities and expectations should be clarified for all stakeholders in the
process.
The role of the training manager

The training manager is a very important link and catalyst in the chain of performance
improvement events. Trainers and HRD departments are transforming their roles and
functions to that of performance consultants and performance improvement departments.
Given this context the training manager must lead the performance improvement strategy
initiatives for the organisation.
The following guidelines will assist the training manager and the performance consult-
ant in introducing a performance improvement strategy in organisations. These guidelines
are:
1 Prepare the organisation for the performance improvement strategy:
• Conduct a culture audit
• Get buy-in and agreement from all role-players and stakeholders
• Determine the organisational readiness.
ORGANISA-
Performance
Organisational People
Improvement
Readiness Readiness
Goals
CULTURE
Performance improvement consulting is a process whereby implementers:

• Consult with clients to ascertain and define needs or problem areas
• Conduct an assessment to obtain information required to find a solution
• Analyse the information to determine possible solutions
• Advise clients on alternative methods of solving a problem or recommend a spe-
cific solution.
2 Develop a performance improvement strategy for the organisation:
• It should fit the existing or desired culture
• It should integrate with existing strategies, policies and systems.
External Environment
Culture
Policies and Systems

New
Performance
Improvement
Strategy
3 Sensitise all role-players and stakeholders to the performance improvement strategy:

• Clarify process
• Clarify expected outputs
• Clarify the expectation, roles and responsibilities of all role-players, stakeholders
and implementers.
Performance Consultants
Performance
Business = Congruency
Performance
Coaches
4 Develop a performance improvement process model for the organisation.

5 Develop a performance improvement communication strategy.
6 Develop a performance improvement implementation and management strategy.
7 Launch and communicate both strategies to all employees in the organisation.
8 Provide all performance improvement implementers with the necessary training and
development as well a performance consultant toolkit:
• Determine the performance consultants’ knowledge and skills gaps
• Develop and implement a performance consultant development strategy
• Design and develop a toolkit
• Provide the appropriate resources
• Negotiate and add new responsibilities to existing performance contracts.
9 Implement and communicate the performance improvement process model; line man-
agement and business unit managers need to be coached in the process steps.
10 Continuously evaluate the results and performance outcomes of the performance im-
provement strategy of the organisation:
• Give feedback to all employees and management
• Evaluate the impact of the strategy on the overall organisational effectiveness.
5.12 Assessment of performance consultant competencies

Given the discussion of the performance consultant framework, you can assess your cur-
rent and future status regarding these competencies. The following checklist will provide
the necessary information to formulate your development plan.
Instructions
1 Each role has a set of competencies. Simply tick each column under HIGH or LOW
for either competent or not yet competent.
2 Complete both the current status as well as the future status.

3 The current status will refer to your current level of competence and your future status
will refer to a desired competency level.
4 The highest totals for the current status will determine what action you should take/or
not take. For instance, the highest total for block number 3 will indicate an important
area for your development.
Interpretation of highest totals
1 = You are fully competent
2 = You are competent, but may need a new challenge or environment
3 = Acquire skills now and get ready for the future
4 = These competencies apparently do not reflect your current position
5 = You have already moved your competency levels into the future
6 = Don’t waste too much time on this
7 = Take action now
8 = Don’t spend too much energy worrying about this

Performance consultant competency checklist

Table A
Table B
5.13 Conclusion
The performance improvement process is dependent on the performance improvement con-
sultant being competent as per the competencies discussed in this chapter. Figure 5.7 illus-
trates the interaction that exists within the performance improvement process.
Figure 5.7 Performance improvement framework
The performance improvement consultant needs to understand the interplay between the
strategic imperative, the HRD contribution and the business goals. This interaction will
effectively determine the success of the performance improvement outcome. The compe-
tent performance improvement consultant will understand the impact of their actions in
the performance improvement process.
HRD practitioners will create value for the organisation when they understand and de-
liver on holistic performance, help the organisation identify risks and plan to meet busi-
ness-needs timeously.
In this chapter we emphasised the importance of a shift from training to performance
improvement. We are of the opinion that the training profession will undergo further major
changes relating to these areas, one being the context of the performance improvement
consultant as a function of the HRD arena.
5.14 Case study

What does a CPT do?
International capacity building:

Improving sales skills in a for-profit business in South Africa
How many times do clients ask: What is a CPT? What do CPTs do? Perhaps the best way to
answer these questions is to look at some of the case studies submitted by Certified Perfor-
mance Technologist [CPT] applicants as part of the CPT application process. The applicants
are asked to identify three projects they have done in the past 10 years that demonstrate pro-
ficiency in ISPI Standards 1 to 4 and at least three other Standards.
In this case, a successful CPT applicant describes one of his projects and aligned his role as
a performance improvement consultant with all 10 ISPI standards. Wessel van Reede van
Oudtshoorn [the author] describes how he focused on results, took a systemic viewpoint, added
value, used partnerships, and systematically assessed the need and opportunity.
Background
This project was conducted in a regional marketing office in the broker distribution division
of an insurance company that operates in the life insurance sector within South Africa. The
marketing of products in this sales channel is done through broker consultants and independ-
ent brokers (agents). This sales unit operates from a main office in Durban and four field of-
fices in other towns in the Kwazulu-Natal province ranging from 90 to 350 kilometres away
from the main office.
This office is managed by a regional manager, who had 10 broker consultants and a regional
administrator reporting to him at the time. Each broker consultant can service a broker panel of
agents of up to 40 brokers in a specific geographic area. When we started the project, there
were 177 brokers with contracts in the region (see Figure 5.8).
Figure 5.8 Insurance company organization chart
National Business
Development Manager
Regional Manager Regional Manager Regional Manager
Broker Consultant Broker Consultant Regional Administrator
Brokers
The national business development manager (hereafter called the national manager) ap-
proached me to discuss performance problems in one of his regional offices (also referred to as
the region here):
• Overall performance in the region was not up to standard. It was 7% behind its recurring
premium target (the monthly premium payable for a life insurance policy) for the year with
only 3 months to go before the end of the year.
• Motivation levels of the broker consultants were low.
• The regional manager, fairly new in the position (less than 3 years), was struggling some-
what.
After discussing our process and some options with him, the national business development
manager and I agreed that we would do a full performance assessment on the regional office
to establish the reasons for the disappointing performance. We would use this as a process
with the aim of developing a blueprint for the division whereby the best practices and tools or
process we developed could be implemented in the other regions in the division.
Having such a broad objective meant that I had to look at performance at all levels, includ-
ing the workplace factors such as office environment, tools, and communication. From a work
perspective, I had to look into the company’s operational and performance management
processes, along with issues related to the workers, such as their knowledge, skills and mo-
tives. This assessment would assist us in identifying barriers to excellent performance and put
plans in place to address performance gaps and remove the inhibitors that were causing the
deficit in reaching [sic] the sales productivity target.
Standard 1: Focus on results and outcomes

The project had the following desired outcomes:
• Increase the recurring premium production to reduce the gap between the target and actual
production to an acceptable level.
• Increase the motivational levels of the broker consultants, which are important to their
service levels to their brokers.
• Use this opportunity as a pilot project to develop a blueprint for the division that could be
used as best practices in other regions nationally. This would mean that we would have to
do assessments at the other regions as well. The national manager and I agreed that we
would manage that as separate projects subject to availability of resources.
The effectiveness of the solution was based on the following:
• The effectiveness of the solutions would be determined by the increase in productivity or
activity levels of staff that would result in increased production figures, which in turn
would contribute to reducing the deficit in recurring premium production. The same would
apply if there was an increase in the percentage of productive staff members, an internal
measure for consultants and brokers.
• An increase in the productivity of commission earning staff would also lead to more com-
missions, which should have a positive impact on their motivation. Other factors as well
might boost motivation, such as redesigning office space and supplying new tools.
• The cost-effectiveness of the solutions
The following measures would be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the solution:
• Use reports generated by SharpShift, an internal management information system, to track
data and provide reports as needed on a wide range of metrics defined by the business.
These reports would track production and productivity levels of output against the targets
set.
• Use 360 degree evaluation to track the change in staff motivation, the effectiveness of the
various process changes, and regular and purpose-driven communication in the region.
• Implement any solutions within budget and use internal cost reports to track and manage
expenses.
Standard 2: Take a systemic view
I had to consider a number of factors, which are listed below.
Workplace factors
• The office did not project a professional work environment and was not conducive to per-
formance. The company had recently given away half of its office space and then crammed
the staff into a poorly designed open-plan office space.
• The lack of proper office equipment in good working order had a huge impact on produc-
tivity, morale, and the experience brokers had when they visited the offices. Even the
company branding in field offices was out of date and the offices untidy.
• A positive factor is the national manager’s strong and dynamic leadership, which we could
leverage.
• The organization lacked an effective communication plan and approach.
• There was no consequence management at all levels, a stumbling block in ensuring the
existence of a strong performance culture in the organization and region.
Work factors
• Work processes and procedures were not documented.
• Performance management processes were not applied or used effectively.
Worker factors
• Most of the broker consultants have had years of experience in the insurance industry and
have been part of the region for many years. They had become content with their existing
work environment, which made it difficult for the regional manager to motivate them and
shift their paradigms.
• There was a misalignment between how the broker consultants saw their role and how
their role was defined according to the business model and the service expectations the
brokers had of them.
Additional factors
• The regional office is 1,200 kilometres from my base, so careful planning was needed to
optimize the time I spent in the region.
• I had to be cost-effective, taking the current economic climate into consideration, along
with the organization’s strong desire to hold costs down.
• It was essential not to keep the consultants and brokers out of the field for extended peri-
ods of time because this would interfere with their productivity and their remuneration.
Working with brokers as third parties required us to take their personal planning and
schedules into consideration when planning interventions such as focus group interviews
with them.
• The morale and motivational levels of the organization’s team were low. They had been
part of many projects of this nature in the past, and those experiences had not all been
particularly positive. Therefore, they did not expect this one to be any different.
• I had a good working relationship with the team and had worked with most of them in the
past. This experience was useful and helped them to open up with me and share important
information.
• From a political perspective, the eyes of the organization were on the performance improve-
ment team to prove our value. We had to make a visible impact and demonstrate that our
methodology and process work.
These factors contributed to our approach to the project:
• The remote location and cost implications meant we had to be creative and rely heavily on
the regional team; other partners such as the training consultants in the same area; and
other means of contact such as email, telephone, and teleconferences where applicable.
• We had to plan well and apply strict time management principles to maximize the time
spent in the field or working on the project tasks in the teams selected. Access to brokers
was through the broker consultants, which posed the potential problem that the broker con-
sultants would filter the messages we needed the brokers to hear in such a way that the
essence and value of the message got lost. We had to find a solution to prevent that from
happening.
• I had to make sure that we showed quick successes to win the confidence of the regional
team in the process.
• My relationship with the team could be leveraged to get to the real issues quicker.
• The fact that the eyes were on the performance improvement team created a strong bond
and team spirit among the team members, which made leading this project much easier.
• The lack of consequence management could have an impact on the outcome of this project.
We therefore had to establish the rules of engagement, roles and responsibilities, and con-
sequences from the start.
Standard 3: Add value
The solutions were selected on the basis of time to implement and the associated costs and
that they would deliver the results desired.
Once the assessment was completed and we gathered all the data, we brainstormed and
analysed the findings to identify causes and solutions. I summarized the findings and
recommendations and presented them to the national and regional managers. At that time,
we discussed and evaluated the solutions and various alternatives looking at what would
give short-term wins (in 1 to 3 months) and those to implement over a medium to longer
term (3 to 12 months).
These were the solutions we identified to implement immediately:
• Sorting out the office environment;
• Ordering or replacing the tools and equipment needed to deliver the results;
• Addressing the communication gaps by reviewing the structure and purpose of meetings;
and
• Drawing up a schedule for meetings with the brokers to share information and provide
training, which would help them become more effective in their interactions and improve
their morale and motivation.
Production and productivity would increase by making sure that all parties in the region (in-
cluding brokers) had a clear understanding of their performance expectations and knew which
activities they needed to focus on to deliver on their production targets. We would achieve
this by introducing the activity management system for planning and tracking their business
and reviewing the performance management process. We would address shortcomings in
communication behaviour by conducting a personnel relations and communications workshop
using the Johari Window tool and developing a communication strategy for the region. It
would also be useful for the pilot objective of the project and as a benchmark to roll out to
other regions.
Reviewing the business model and higher-level business planning process, along with the
role of broker consultants, would take place over the medium to longer term because of the
complexity of the issue and the involvement required from other areas (e.g., legal services,
remuneration department) that would not be available for this work in the next few months.
Criteria for judging worth or value
The following criteria were used to judge the worth or value of the solutions:
• The solutions must have a positive impact on staff morale and motivation. Both would be
positively influenced by addressing the workplace factors such as reorganizing the office
space, providing them with good tools and equipment, and building job enrichment activ-
ities into their development plans, such as rotating the chairperson role in meetings and
giving a broker consultant the opportunity to serve as a regional manager for a week while
being guided and coached by the regional manager. A new compensation package would
be introduced. And the training plan for the region would also improve motivational levels.
All of these changes should also improve service levels for brokers and clients.
• The cost of developing and implementing solutions must be as low as possible taking the
distances into consideration.
• The solutions requiring face-to-face interaction (e.g., the Johari Window workshop, the
activity management workshop, and other training interventions) must be carefully
planned
and spread over time so that they would not keep consultants and brokers out of the field
for lengthy periods.
• The solutions should improve the operational efficiency of the staff and be sustainable. We
therefore had to consider the extent of the human interaction and effort required to sustain
the proposed solution over the medium to long term.
Specific examples of value-added [sic]
My work on this project added the following value to the organisation:
• The project would serve as a pilot project within the broker division, and lessons learned
and tools and best practices developed could be applied in other regions.
• The report provided management with crucial information and insight into how to imple-
ment tighter controls and better practices and would form the basis for future performance
management discussions.
• Improvement in production and productivity levels would increase the region’s profitabil-
ity and viability.
• Demonstrating the value of the performance improvement team and processes built cred-
ibility within areas of the organization that were exposed to the process.
• The division gained from this project through the performance gaps identified because
they can be addressed in future training programs.
• The project highlighted shortcomings in other divisions in the organization that would
need to be addressed. This work has already begun.
Standard 4: Work in partnership with clients and other stakeholders
For the project to be effective, I had to involve a number of departments as partners (see
Table 5.2) . . .
It was important to ensure that the region saw this as its project and not my project that it
was merely a part of. To achieve this I developed a presentation to position the project and
shared it with all the parties as they became involved in the project. We interacted face-to-
face, by telephone, or by email depending on the situation. I used the four core principles or
standards (focus on the results or outcomes, take a systems view, add value, and work in part-
nership) to link or position the partners’ involvement and expertise to the project. As a team,
we had a number of brainstorming sessions where my performance improvement colleagues
gave valuable insight into what had worked for them in similar projects in the past.
Table 5.2 Partnerships and roles
Partnerships Roles
Performance improvement Our team consists of me and two other consultants, both CPTs.
team members They assisted me with the interviews, designing the questionnaires,
data extraction from the system, and logistical arrangements and
coordination activities during this project.
National business develop- The head of this division, who requested this project and was the
ment manager main sponsor. He would make the final decisions and provide his
support as needed.
Regional manager Key contact for all arrangements and the secondary client; manages
regional staff activities. Would have to drive implementation of
recommendations in the region.
continued
Partnerships Roles
Regional staff Provided the information regarding the work processes and their
experiences. Also provided services to the brokers and would have
to implement the solutions.
Brokers Provided the information regarding the work processes and their
experiences. They do the marketing to potential customers in the
sales process and rely on the service they receive from the region.
Retail finance and business Provide data from the management information system and other
intelligence models used to track and measure production, profits, and profit-
ability.
Marketing department Looks after image and branding issues, as well as office design
within the organization.
Business communications Advisor and developer when it comes to the communications plan
manager and strategy for the region.
Learning consultants Provide training and support to the region.
Customer services office Provides customer service to the region’s clients. Would provide
information on the processes, practices, and problems experienced
in the area.
Group human resources Provide personnel and remuneration data.
Organizational development Develops the performance standards and measures and does the
department task and process analysis in the organization. Would provide the
data for the roles and processes needed for the assessment.
Traveling agency Makes travel and accommodation arrangements.
Standard 5: Be systematic in assessing the need or opportunity

As the lead consultant and manager on this project, my role during the needs assessment
phase included the following:
• Decided which data collection methods we would use, developed the project plan, and
coordinated the assessment process.
• Conceptualized and designed a draft question matrix to map the interview questions
against the Gilbert model and the total performance system. This tool helped us to make
sure we would cover all the areas of the model and understood the rationale for each ques-
tion we asked during the interviews. I developed a color-coded rating system that gives a
single-page summary view of the status of a component, such as tools and resources. I
drew on the existing database of questions used during previous assessments and led dis-
cussions with the team to develop new questions where we had gaps in the matrix. My col-
league then developed the matrix in Excel for us to use during the process.
• Decided on the parameters for the interviews and briefed the consultant responsible for the
arrangements and liaison with the region.
• Facilitated a group session with the regional staff and presented the positioning of the
project, the process, benefits, and performance improvement model and addressed ques-
tions.
• Conducted my share of interviews and focus groups and visited the main office. The inter-
views, focus groups, and visits were divided among the three consultants.
• Liaised with partners to derive relevant data needed for the assessment.
Needs assessment process

After the initial briefing by the national manager, I summarized the discussion and next steps
for his approval. It was important to gather as much information from as many sources as
possible at the work, worker, and workplace levels during the performance assessment phase.
In the planning stage, I decided on a number of ways and tools to use to collect data:
• Individual interviews to get candid answers from the interviewees based on an interview
questionnaire we would develop;
• Questionnaires to gather certain quantitative data;
• Focus groups with brokers because there were too many of them and also to get a collec-
tive view from them based on the general service they experienced from the regional staff;
• Data from the management information system that measure a number of areas, such as
production and productivity, that we would measure in this project;
• Observations while at the region;
• Photos of the work environment, branding, and office layout; and
• Reviewing reports, the business plan, and other documentation available (e.g., operational
process manuals).
I also considered the sample size and decided to interview all of the regional staff and about
20% of the brokers. We would also visit all the field offices to get a complete picture of the
issues in the region. That meant that all three consultants would spend three days in the re-
gion, which would save some time.
I assigned tasks within the team, and we arranged meetings with the partners to start gath-
ering the information needed. For example, the retail finance and business intelligence depart-
ment provided performance data we needed from the management information systems used
in the organization, and marketing gave me base plans we could use to design the layout of
the offices. We looked at the metrics (e.g., actual production versus target) and developed a
hypothesis for why the gaps exist. I had to make sure that we developed the right questions to
test the hypothesis when we started the assessment interviews.
I used the updated behavioural engineering model, based on the work of Roger Chevalier
(2003), as the diagnostic tool for troubleshooting performance problems. We developed the
questionnaires and questions for the interviews and focus groups using the matrix I developed
and prepared for a three-day performance assessment I arranged at the region and field offices.
At that session, I opened with a presentation to the regional team to position the purpose of
the assessment and the processes we would follow and gave them some background on hu-
man performance technology (HPT) and how we look at performance. We then conducted the
interviews with the staff and focus groups with the brokers. We interviewed the customer
services manager and the forensics manager as well, and they gave us good information on
trends and perceptions of how the region is perceived from a support group perspective. We
used a questionnaire to collect quantitative data on other related aspects in addition to the
interviews. We took photos, visited all the offices, and observed behaviour and communica-
tion styles in the process.
Rationale behind the assessment plan
I decided to use a blended approach to get as broad a perspective as possible on the functioning
of the region. Doing quantitative (questionnaires, production data, and statistics) and quali-
tative (interviews) assessments ensured that a balanced mix of information was gathered that
facilitated an effective analysis process. The regional team was small enough to allow us time
for individual interviews with all the staff and some support services, and the focus groups
enabled us to get good feedback from the receivers of service in this system. The brokers are
also exposed to service from our competitors, and their perceptions and actual experiences
proved invaluable in the process.
Comparing the actual production data with the targets showed the performance gaps in the
key business drivers we should focus on. The interview questionnaire matrix ensured consist-
ency in the questions asked and areas covered, especially because three of us were doing the
interviews. The photos we took of the offices and environment gave visual context to the
written report where we referred to the office environment as not being conducive to produc-
tivity and professionalism.
Very few staff and decision-makers, other than those working in the regional offices in rural
areas, had ever visited the regions and seen the environment. Creating a visual experience was
important, especially when money had to be obtained from project or operational budgets
managed by head office executives. This approach had had a huge impact on previous pro-
jects we had done and worked well to get the message across as part of the feedback loop.
Source: Van Reede van Oudtshoorn W, 2012, “What does a CPT do?: International capacity building:
improving sales skills in a for-profit business in South Africa – Part 1”, Performance Improvement
51(1), reproduced with the kind permission of the International Society for Performance Improvement
and Wiley.
Questions
1 What were the compelling reasons for change, from a systems perspective?
2 What changes would you make to the performance analysis process?
3 What were the key drivers of success of this case study against your learning points from this
chapter?
4 Which performance consultant competencies do you believe to be key critical to the successful
process and outcome of this project?
5 What would you do differently in the performance consulting approach?
6 Design a performance consulting process checklist for this project.
7 Design a questionnaire to use at the first meeting with senior management to clarify the need and
scope of the project.
8 What additional recommendations do you have for the management team?

1 What did this systematic need and opportunity assessment uncover?
2 How did the CPT applicant systematically analyse the work, workers and work-
place?
3 How did the CPT applicant identify causes and design, develop, implement, and
evaluate the solutions?
4 Describe the competencies necessary to identify performance gaps within the per-
formance improvement process. Illustrate your answer with practical workplace ex-
amples.
5 Develop a performance improvement strategy to implement a performance im-
provement project in your organisation.
6 How does a performance improvement consultant move from training delivery to
performance improvement interventions in the workplace?
7 What competencies are needed to form consultative partnerships to action strategic
business alliances in the organisation?
8 What interventions have been introduced at your organisation during the past 12
months? Were they successful? Was an analysis conducted before the interventions
were selected? If your answer is no, why was an analysis not done?
9 Design a checklist for a performance improvement project.
10 What performance consulting competency gaps do you need to address? Discuss
these with your manager.
11 Design a development plan for yourself to address these gaps.
5.16 References
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Robinson DG and Robinson JC (eds), 1998, Moving from Training to Performance: A
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petencies and Outputs, USA: ASTD Publishers.
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5.18 Internet sites

Business Process Trends: http://www.businessprocesstrends.com
Carl Binder and Associates: http://www.binder-riha.com
Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies: http://www.behavior.org
Improvid Performance Consulting: http://www.improvid.co.za
Improvidblog.com http://improvidblog.com
Institute of Management Consultants of Southern Africa: http://www.imcsa.org.za
International Society for Performance Improvement SA Network:
http://www.ispi-sa.co.za
Organisational Performance Dimensions: http://www.opd.net
Performance Design Lab: http://www.performancedesignlab.com
A special word of acknowledgement and thanks to Wessel van Reede van Oudtshoorn,
the International Society for Performance Improvement and Wiley for the case study pro-
vided for this chapter.
CHAPTER
6
LEARNING NEEDS ANALYSIS
Robyn Wolfson
Needs assessment is a very important phase in the ETD process, since a
proper needs assessment forms the basis of an effective ETD intervention.
(Karen Jerling)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain the separate concepts of needs and analysis, integrate these concepts and propose a def-
inition of needs analysis
• Describe the national standard on learning needs analysis (SABPP)
• Justify the purpose and importance of needs analysis in the development of workplace skills
plans and in the design of training/learning programmes
• Distinguish between three levels of learning needs
• Indicate the key steps in a generic model of the needs analysis process
• Identify various methods of gathering data for the purpose of conducting a needs analysis and
compare the efficacy of both
• Identify key stakeholders who should be involved in learning needs analysis
• Critically evaluate which would be the most appropriate analysis technique in a variety of situ-
ations
• Develop and conduct a needs analysis in the work situation using one or more techniques
6.1 Introduction
The identification of learning needs in many organisations in South Africa has traditionally
been the preserve of the HR or training department. The departmental staff usually went
155
through the motions of consulting the potential learners and their managers or supervi-
sors, identifying learning needs and conducting training on a reactive basis to justify the
existence of the training department.
The implementation of the Skills Development Act of 1998 from 1 April 2000 requires
organisations (with some exceptions, including small and micro enterprises) to submit a
workplace skills plan to the relevant SETA for approval and for recovery of part of the levy.
This workplace skills plan is a comprehensive document which requires the employer to
give detailed information regarding:
• the current skills profile by number of employees in population groups and educational
levels
• the skills priorities and the number of beneficiaries in population, gender and occupa-
tional groups
• the process used to develop the workplace skills plan
• the steps used to consult employees about the plan, for instance, whether a training
committee has been established
• the plan’s relationship to the organisation’s employment equity plan.
A proper analysis of the organisation’s learning needs and skills requirements in the form
of a skills audit is therefore a vital step in the process of developing a workplace skills
plan.
The objectives of this chapter are to provide you with a sound theoretical framework, to
encourage you to contextualise the theory and practice in the reality of the present and
future South Africa and to create an awareness that, in the current South African context,
ETD practitioners are expected to contribute more to their function than simple technical
skills. For example, ETD practitioners must be acutely aware that learners have different
cultures, values and educational backgrounds, and not make general assumptions about the
learners.
The National Qualifications Framework Act (RSA, 2008) was promulgated to provide
for the National Qualifications Framework (NQF). It also provides for the South African
Qualifications Authority (SAQA) and for the quality councils responsible for overseeing
the new focus on occupational trades and councils managed by the Quality Council for
Trades and Occupations (QCTO). Under this new system, more emphasis will be placed
on a clear curriculum scope for development quality partners (DQPs) to develop qualifi-
cations. Thus, learning needs analysis will play a pivotal role in the new occupational train-
ing system. However, it will be essential to ensure that a proper needs analysis is done for
an occupation to prevent the development of unnecessary or inappropriate qualifications.
Be that as it may, employers can still create internal learning interventions according the
needs of their organisations.
In particular, this chapter is intended to reinforce the SAQA-critical outcome of collect-
ing, analysing, organising and critically evaluating information. Learners should always be
aware that the approaches, models and methods described in the literature are the opinions
and practices of academics and practitioners. They should not always be accepted uncrit-
ically, but should be pondered over, tested and, if necessary, adapted to your own environ-
ment and context before application.
This chapter is organised along the following lines: the concepts of “needs” and “analy-
sis” are examined and integrated; the importance of needs analysis in the development of
workplace skills plans and the design of training programmes and the various parties who
Chapter 6: Learning needs analysis 157
should be involved in the needs analysis process are discussed. Different types of analysis
and methods of gathering data are described and a number of techniques are introduced,
and examples of situations where the various techniques can be used are given.
6.2 Terminology definition

The terms “analysis” and “assessment” are often used interchangeably in the context of
determining learning needs. Other words used to describe the same concept are “diagno-
sis”, “identification”, “determination” or “front-end analysis”. This use of different ter-
minology can be problematic, therefore, for the purpose of this chapter, the term “needs
analysis” will be used.
What is needs analysis? According to Mills, Pace and Peterson (1988:5) “analysis” is
defined as the act and process of separating any material or abstract entity into its con-
stituent elements, which involves determining its essential features and their relationship
with one another.
In the context of HRD, a need is a performance gap separating what people know, do
or feel from what they should know, do or feel to perform competently (Rothwell and
Kazanas, 1992:45). A distinction should be made between needs and wants. A want is
something that is merely desirable rather than essential to competent performance. A need
refers to essential knowledge, skills and attitudes an individual must possess to perform
work competently and thereby accomplish the desired results.
A need can be viewed negatively as a deficiency, or positively as an opportunity. To
admit to a need, implies that the person concerned is not competent to perform a certain
task. This could impact negatively on the particular person’s self-esteem, causing him or
her to deny the need.
An autocratic manager of the “old school”, for example, would see nothing wrong in
his management style despite the fundamental changes that have occurred in South Africa.
He would therefore deny that he needs re-training in modern, more participative manage-
ment methods. For another person, a need could be viewed as an opportunity for self-
improvement and career development. In the current South African context, people who
were denied career opportunities in business and government in the past are generally
eager to admit to training and developmental needs.
Learning needs analysis has been defined as follows in the National Learning Needs
Analysis standard developed by SABPP:
Learning needs analysis is the systematic process through which the strategic intent and plans of
the organisation are translated into learning needs which describe the gap between present and
desired future skills/competency/behaviour. The same process is also used to identify learning needs
through the diagnosis of problems in the present functioning of the organisation. Learning and
development plans are based on learning needs analyses and put together by selecting appropriate
methods for achieving the required learning and development outcomes.
Source: SABPP (2015)

Learning needs analysis therefore deals with the systematic process of identifying an issue
or problem, collecting, analysing and interpreting data, and using the information ob-
tained to select or design an appropriate HRD intervention to address the issue or prob-
lem.
6.3 Rationale for learning needs analysis

ETD and HRD departments do not exist in isolation. Organisations today are expecting
added value from staff functions. To fulfil a strategic role, HRD practitioners must be
seen to be training for impact rather than for activity. They must develop a culture of on-
going analysis and learn to think and operate strategically and analytically in a rapidly
changing environment. There are different levels of needs, issues and developments which
must be taken into account in the design of training and development interventions.
Erasmus et al (2006) and Van Dyk et al (1997:253) classify learning needs in three
categories, namely macro level, meso level and micro level.
Table 6.1 Different categories of learning needs
Macro level needs Macro level needs are those found at national and international levels. For
example, at international level the current trend towards globalisation and
rapid technological development presents new training needs. At national
level, the move towards an occupational training system, embodied in the
NQF and QCTO structures, and the influence of the Skills Development Act
and NQF Act require a paradigm shift among education and training practi-
tioners and a vast amount of re-training of trainers.
Meso level needs Meso level needs are needs at organisational level, arising out of changes
in organisational structure, culture, objectives or access to resources. The
restructuring of many South African organisations in the past five years, for
example, Eskom and the SABC, has brought with it huge training needs.
Micro level needs Micro level needs refer to needs at the level of the individual, which are
determined by comparing the present performance of the individual job
incumbent with the standard or optimal performance expected. On a proactive
basis, the expected future performance should be determined and compared to
the current capability. This establishes the gap which can be improved by
training.
These three levels are all covered in sector skills planning. Organisations are encouraged
to complete needs analyses for workplace skills plans in accordance with current role/job-
based needs (micro level), future organisational or strategic needs (meso level needs) and
identified sectoral and/or South African skills needs (macro level).
It is important to note that needs analysis is conducted not only for the purposes of
determining training needs. In any organisation one will find learning or training needs
and non-learning needs and it is vital that the HRD practitioner be able to distinguish
clearly between the two. The general purpose of analysis in the field of human resource
education and training and organisational development is to identify and describe the
“gap” between current and optimal individual or organisational performance.
Mills et al (1988:9) identify three types of gaps:
• performance gaps in the way individuals work
• management gaps in the way people are managed
• organisational gaps in the manner in which organisations are designed.
There are different methods of analysing each of these types of gaps, and many analytical
models are available to assist the trainer or consultant. Whilst the primary focus of this
chapter is on training-needs analysis, it will also touch on other methods and purposes of
analysis to enable HRD practitioners to recognise when a performance problem should be

addressed with a training solution and when not.
For example, a manager may approach the training department with a request for time
management training for his staff. Eager to respond and justify the existence of the depart-
ment, the training manager will either design a time management training programme, or
identify an “off the shelf” product offered by one of the many providers, such as a training
consultant. Typically, after delivery of the programme, the manager will complain that the
training was ineffective and a waste of time and money because staff members have
shown no improvement. Had this training manager conducted a systematic and thorough
analysis, rather than relying on the manager’s perception of the performance gap, he could
possibly have identified causes other than a deficiency on the part of the employees.
Reasons for this deficiency could include:
• An employee may be reporting to more than one manager, with no clear agreement as
to which manager’s instructions have preference.
• The fault may lie with the manager’s own poor delegation skills.
• A lack of the correct tools to do the job may be the root cause.
• Poorly designed work-distribution or workflow, which could result in some employees
being overworked, while others wait for work to be allocated to them.
If present, these factors hardly justify a request for time management training.
In a similar vein to the types of gaps discussed above, there are three major causes of
performance deficiencies (Robinson and Robinson, 1989:110) namely, causes due to the
learner, causes due to the learner’s manager and causes due to the organisation. These
causes are explained in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Causes of performance deficiencies
The learner In the first category the sources of barriers to effective performance could
include: the learner’s lack of knowledge, skills or confidence; the learner’s
motivation or attitude; or the learner’s disagreement with the values or con-
cepts underpinning the training programme.
The manager The second category includes causes such as the need for the manager to be a
positive role model, demonstrating the same skills as those that are supposed
to be learnt in the training programme; the need for the manager to coach the
learner in transferring the newly learned skills to the job and supporting the
learners when they do so. Research quoted by Robinson and Robinson
(1989:111) indicates that up to 87% of newly learned skills can be lost if the
manager does not provide any coaching and support after the training. The
role of the manager is therefore crucial for the success of any training pro-
gramme and transfer of training to the workplace.
The organisation Examples are causes, such as organisational structure, systems, values and
norms, which make up organisational culture. Traditionally, it has been ac-
cepted that individual performance gaps and gaps in the way people are man-
aged (if this is due to a lack of management knowledge or skill on the part of
the manager or supervisor) should be addressed by training; whereas organi-
sational problems or deficiencies which inhibit optimal performance by both
the organisation and its individual members must be addressed using organ-
isational development methods, strategies and techniques. Progressive South
continued
African organisations are now realising that training and organisational devel-
opment should be integrated. Effective workplace training and development
cannot be conducted in a vacuum or a hostile or non-supportive organisational
environment, and there will be a future demand for suitably qualified and
experienced HR practitioners to manage both training and organisational
development interventions.
The above table illustrates why it is vital that the HRD practitioner is equipped to conduct
a broad spectrum of analyses, to ensure that the intervention is appropriate to the cause of
the problem.
Specific reasons for conducting a training-needs analysis in an organisation, according
to Rothwell and Sredl (1992b:90), are that it:
• helps HRD professionals design effective learning experiences;
• prepares plans to guide learning;
• promotes the usefulness of learning initiatives to others;
• helps HRD professionals keep their activities in step with current developments;
• collects information bearing on important issues facing the organisation;
• increases organisational effectiveness through planned learning;
• helps individuals realise their career aspirations and organisations realise their strategic
human resource plans;
• helps the HRD department accomplish its strategic purpose of improving individual,
group and organisational performance.
In the current South African context there are other important reasons, inter alia:
• supporting the RDP and broad transformation agenda;
• identifying and developing people’s potential and providing career opportunities to all;
• complying with legislative requirements such as employment equity and skills develop-
ment;
• opening up opportunities for the attainment of qualifications in terms of the NQF, focus-
ing particularly on occupational qualifications in accordance with the requirements of
the QCTO.
An important advantage, usually overlooked and unintended, of a properly conducted
learning needs analysis is that it provides an opportunity to start facilitating the transfer of
learning. By involving the prospective learners, their managers and other key stakeholders
in the analysis, as well as the design and evaluation, enthusiasm and commitment to the
outcome of training to meet identified needs can be built up prior to the start of the train-
ing. In order to identify needs at all levels on an ongoing, proactive basis, the HRD practi-
tioner must develop skills and strategies to interface with management. Activities to this
end could include:
• reading publications and Internet sources to keep up to date with international and
national developments in training;
• getting involved in developments in your organisation’s industry regarding issues
related to the NQF and other legislation to be able to interpret the implications to man-
agement;
• registering with a professional body such as the SA Board for People Practices (SABPP)
to connect with other practitioners and service providers and to ensure the recording of
professional designations on the National Learners’ Records Database maintained by
SAQA in accordance with the NQF Act.
It is evident that ongoing needs analysis is the most important pre-requisite in the design
of any training programme and is crucial to its success. If needs are incorrectly identified,
time and money will be wasted in designing and presenting inappropriate training pro-
grammes. This is particularly important in the South African context where resources are
limited.
6.4 National standard on learning needs analysis (SABPP)

In 2014, SABPP developed a national HR professional practice standard on learning
needs analysis. The purpose of the standard was to create clear and consistent guidelines
for learning needs analysis relevant to the South African workplace. The learning needs
analysis standard outlines the following fundamental requirements for good learning
needs analysis practices, as well as the process in Figure 6.1 below (SABPP, 2015):
• A partnership between the L&D specialist or HR practitioner, line management and
employees is essential to collect the right information on which to base the learning
needs analysis.
• Accurate and complete job profiling, competency modelling and skills matrices sup-
port efficient and effective learning needs analysis.
• Not all organisational lack of performance issues are due to learning deficiencies or
can be remedied by training and development, so the process must incorporate a diag-
nostic which eliminates non-training causes of the issues at hand.
• Learning needs can change as the organisation activities change, so the analysis should
be reviewed and updated regularly and the process of compiling an analysis should be
sufficiently flexible to accommodate unexpected changes.
• The analysis is conducted both upwards and downwards. The first starts with individ-
ual employees and is consolidated upwards so that common needs can be grouped to-
gether; and the second starts with macro changes in the organisation and is translated
downwards into individual learning needs. L&D plans at the micro, medium and macro
levels are then prepared.
• Information systems should be built to store and analyse data collected in the learning
needs analysis process as this is a data intensive exercise.
Figure 6.1 Learning needs analysis process according to the SABPP standard
INPUTS PROCESS OUTPUTS
Organisation Determine best

intent and method(s) to measure
business plans employees skills,
behaviours, attitudes
against future
requirements (skills
audit)
Individual
Conduct audits learning and
development
plans
Job profiles Establish gaps and
Competency eliminate non-training
models causes
Performance
standards
Translate gaps into Consolidated
(as should be) learning needs learning and
development
plans
Determine best methods
for meeting learning
needs
Performance
Productivity
Consult governance
measures
structures including
(as is) employee committees
(WSP, EE)
Prioritise learning needs

vs available resources
6.5 The stakeholders in learning needs analysis

Traditionally, the identification of learning needs in organisations was the prerogative of the
human resource or training department, sometimes in consultation with the managers. The
new dispensation in South Africa has redefined the role-players in a more participatory
society and organisations. This philosophy is fundamental to the new national education
and training strategy as embodied in the formation and structures of the skills develop-
ment system.
SAQA is an independent statutory body consisting of representatives from six role-
players: the government, business, trade unions, education and training providers, critical
interest groups and community groups. It makes sense that the same philosophy should
prevail in the identification of training needs in organisations. Likewise, the QCTO will
involve different stakeholders during the process of developing qualifications and assess-
ing individuals before they attain their qualifications.
To base the design and development of a training intervention on one source of infor-
mation could be highly problematical. The needs analyst, who is investigating the causes
of performance problems to separate learning from non-learning needs, must determine
how many points of view will provide the most accurate assessment of the situation.
Ideally, sources of information should come from different levels in (and from outside)
the organisation. The following table identifies various stakeholders who, in various com-
binations, could provide input into training-needs analysis.
Table 6.3 Stakeholder involvement in the learning needs analysis process
Stakeholders Reasons for inclusion in needs analysis

Learners or employees As learners are the centre of the skills development system, it is essen-
tial that they participate in the needs analysis. They will be more com-
mitted to the learning if they are consulted at this stage.
Supervisors and managers They have a major responsibility for educating, training and developing
their staff and improving the performance of their departments. They
are in an ideal position to identify performance gaps which could be
addressed by training. They should be involved in contributing to the
analysis process so that they share ownership in it and are committed to
the planned learning that follows. In addition, they are responsible for
providing opportunities for transfer of training back to the workplace.
Top management Top management has the final say in HRD policy development and
implementation (subject to compliance with legislation regarding skills
development and employment equity) and in providing the resources to
ensure effective ETD. Without the support and commitment of top
management, the HRD department could be eliminated or sidelined.
HRD staff members They have the qualifications and experience to drive and conduct train-
including the Skills ing interventions. They have knowledge of learners’ needs gained from
Development Facilitator their position in the organisation.
Customers and clients Customers can give feedback on the service received and identify
performance deficiencies which can be addressed by training.
Past participants Whether successful or unsuccessful performers after previous training
programmes, they can be a valuable source of information on specific
needs. They can evaluate previous training and confirm whether they
are able to apply the knowledge and skills acquired on the training
sessions.
Representatives of trade Trade union representatives are particularly important in South Africa
unions in that without their support any training initiative, however well inten-
tioned, will be a failure. Technological development leads to job-
obsolescence which makes re-training necessary. It can also cause job
losses as machines and computers replace people. Trade unions could
view training with suspicion because they may believe that the aim of
training is to increase productivity without pay increases and to retrench
low-skilled workers. Trade unions played a significant role in the
continued

development of the skills development system in South Africa and are
represented at SAQA and other skills development structures. They
are also represented in organisations’ training committees which are
required to sign off on workplace skills plans before they are submitted
to the relevant SETA (see below).
The training committee Some or all of the stakeholders mentioned above may be represented on
the organisation’s training committee which could typically include the
Skills Development Facilitator, the Training Manager, the Employment
Equity Manager, an employee representative from each occupational
field in the organisation and a representative of employees with special
needs (the disabled).
Government departments In some industries, government regulations or requirements may
and statutory authorities provide guidelines or a framework for needs analysis. For example, an
airline pilot must possess certain personal attributes and competencies
to qualify for a licence. These non-negotiable requirements virtually
prescribe the training needs and the objectives of a training programme.
Of particular importance in South Africa is the impact of SAQA, the
NQF and quality councils. Qualifications and standards registered by
SAQA and the QCTO can be used as points of reference for curriculum
development and for identifying educational and training needs in
various occupational and professional settings. Various government
departments such as the Department of Higher Education and Training
(DHET) and the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) have a direct
interest and role to play in the skills development system.
The sector education and The SETA is a representative body set up in terms of the Skills
training authorities Development Act and reports to the DHET. Its role is to create a sector
(SETAs) and quality skills plan for the particular industry sector it serves. It is responsible
councils (QCs) for implementing the sector skills plan by establishing learnerships,
approving individual organisations’ workplace skills plans and
allocating skills grants to organisations that qualify.
The quality councils (QCs), as their name implies, are the mechanism
that will monitor quality assurance as regards providers, assessment
and moderation. The three QCs are the QCTO (for trades and occu-
pations), Umalusi (for general and further education and training)
and the Centre for Higher Education (CHE). Regarding the QCTO,
development quality partners (DQPs) play a key role in the develop-
ment of qualifications.
Other ETD professionals They may have conducted similar needs analyses that can be
“borrowed” for ideas on implementation, thus saving time and money,
and building up a body of knowledge.
Academic experts and They can be consulted before or during the needs analysis for advice on
consultants research, data collection and analysis methods. They may be aware of
new, “cutting edge” methodology, and can help to save time and money
on “reinventing the wheel”.
Professional bodies Professional bodies such as the SA Board for People Practices (SABPP)
which award professional qualifications and professional designations.
continued

Community or society It is a SAQA requirement that all learning programmes address the
needs of the community. This is of particular importance in regard to
ABET and the development of rural communities.
Obviously, not all the above parties have to be consulted in all cases and there may be
other role-players in specific industries not included in Table 6.3 who could play a part in
the planning process.
6.6 The learning needs analysis phases

Van der Schyff (2001:77) points out that, for the purpose of compiling a workplace skills
plan, the training or skills needs of an enterprise may be analysed by obtaining data from
two sources. First, the business plan of the company, and the key strategies to achieve the
plan, will indicate broad competencies required. An analysis of the skills that an individual
employee has and assessing this against the skills needed to attain the required level of
competence, indicates the “gap”. By aggregating the “gaps”, that is the skills needs of all
employees, one can obtain a good picture of the organisation’s training needs.
A generic process approach to needs analysis can be used to ensure that needs are iden-
tified and correctly analysed. It consists of a series of key steps, as depicted in Figure 6.2,
each of which is discussed below.
6.6.1 Collect information on an ongoing basis to identify potential issues

or problems
The proactive HRD practitioner will always try to identify potential problems before they
occur. This can be done in various ways, for example:
• by adopting an ongoing analytical approach;
• by being aware of developments at the macro, meso and micro levels;
• by developing relationships with line managers and taking part in strategic planning
sessions to identify present and future needs.
In practice, however, most needs analyses are performed after the problem has become
apparent and the manager has brought it under the attention of the HR department with a
request for a solution. Whilst there is some place for the traditional, reactive approach, the
emphasis should be on a more futuristic, proactive approach which is seen to add value.
This could be vital for the survival of the HR department as many organisations are out-
sourcing this function.
Figure 6.2 Key steps in conducting learning needs analysis
Collect information on an ongoing basis to identify

potential issues or problems
If an issue or performance problem is identified, consult with

management to agree whether it is related to training
If it is training-related, identify relevant criteria (norms,

benchmarks, work standards and desired current or future
performance levels)
Select a data collection method and procedures appropriate

to the issue or problem being analysed
Collect data and analyse results; compare information with

relevant criteria to determine the gap; draw conclusions
Report results and recommendations to the client for

inclusion in the workplace skills plan if it is considered
a strategic priority
If the recommendations are accepted, use identified

needs for selecting or designing the intervention
6.6.2 If an issue or performance problem is identified, consult with

management
This step will help to analyse the perceived problem in more depth and to decide whether
the reported problem is perhaps a symptom of a deeper underlying problem.
The time management example quoted earlier illustrates this. If, as in this case, the real
problem is the lack of tools to do the job (for example a computer), the necessity of a
training-needs analysis could either fall away or point to another new need, for example,
to train the employee in computer skills when the employee is given the tools. This step
will also help in deciding on the data collection method. If it is agreed that the problem is
not directly training-related, decide who will be responsible for dealing with the problem.
6.6.3 If training-related, identify relevant criteria

In order to identify a need, it is first necessary to determine what the ideal current or future
conditions should be for comparison against existing conditions. This information can be
obtained from job descriptions, company procedure manuals, agreed work standards, pro-
duction quotas or from the informal opinions of managers, supervisors or colleagues.
Again, this step should consider the possibility of changes being planned by management.
For example, a need for training in telephone answering skills may be identified amongst
telesales staff, but management may have made a strategic decision to outsource this
function in the near future. This would obviously negate the need for training.
6.6.4 Select a data-collection method and procedures appropriate to the

problem being analysed
The HRD practitioner must decide the methods and procedures. Criteria determining the
choice of method include time, cost and the perceived severity or importance of the prob-
lem. If the problem is localised, affecting only a small number of employees, personal
interviews may be the most effective method. If the problem is organisation-wide, affect-
ing many employees, another method or combination of methods may be more effective.
There are many methods of gathering data, some simple and quick, others complex and
time-consuming. In reality, the simplest and most cost-effective method usually yields the
best results. This section briefly describes the most popular and effective methods. Bear in
mind that the gathering of data does not in itself constitute the needs analysis process –
the data still has to be analysed to produce information, which must be interpreted so that
conclusions can be drawn, on the strength of which, recommendations can be made.
6.6.4.1 Written surveys or questionnaires

Questionnaires can be developed using one or a combination of different types of ques-
tions:
Open-ended What do you think of . . . ?
Closed Does your manager . . . ? Yes or No
Scaled format A statement which the respondent must rate on a scale, for example strongly
agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree
Depending on circumstances, the response to the questionnaire may be anonymous, or

may require biographical details to form part of the data for analysis. The wording must
be clear and unambiguous, free of cultural bias and as short as possible. It should be
accompanied by a courteous letter, or include a short introductory paragraph, explaining
the reasons for the survey, giving instructions on how to respond and clarifying what will
happen with the results. It should be tested with a pilot on a random sample of the target
population to identify and eliminate any deficiencies.
Advantages of surveys are that many people can be reached, they ensure confidentiality
and they are relatively inexpensive. Given that needs analyses may have large numbers of
stakeholders, not all of whom are readily accessible when using more direct analysis
methods such as interviews or focus groups, questionnaires have the benefit of being a
flexible and multi-purpose tool. However, disadvantages are that the response rate could
be low if employees or other stakeholders see no benefit for themselves, and poorly
worded questions could provide false information, especially if aimed at second or third
language respondents. A sample questionnaire is provided as appendix 6.1.
In the context of a training-needs analysis, questionnaires could, for example, be de-
veloped with a view to obtaining input from large numbers of stakeholders in order to
identify broad areas of concern regarding poor performance and areas of potential organ-
isational/divisional or team improvement. In such cases, questionnaires would in all like-
lihood be designed to contain larger numbers of open-ended questions. Responses to such
questionnaires are however traditionally lower than the other formats since they are more
time consuming to complete than closed or scaled questionnaires and require a high level
of participant interest. Alternatively, questionnaires could be used to refine existing infor-
mation regarding an area of poor performance, to both determine whether or not the need
can be rectified through training and if so, what type of training is required. For example,
in the time management problem identified earlier in this chapter, the training department
could distribute questionnaires to the staff and management and use closed questions or a
scaled format to determine why the time management problem exists and whether it can
be solved by training or whether it is an organisational or managerial problem instead.
6.6.4.2 Diagnostic instruments

A variation of the questionnaire is a diagnostic instrument, a paper and pencil test usually
used in management development needs analysis. This technique measures management
knowledge as well as values, attitudes and beliefs, from which the analyst can draw con-
clusions about the respondent’s management beliefs and style. Values inconsistent with
the organisational culture can be identified for addressing by training, or the technique can
be used to sensitise managers for the introduction of a planned change management pro-
gramme. The potential disadvantage in this approach is that the wording of the instrument
may imply that there is only one best way to manage in all circumstances, which, of
course, is not true. This is outweighed by the advantage that thoughtful completion of the
instrument and feedback by a skilled facilitator can provide respondents with personal in-
sights about their values and behaviours and motivate them to change. Another advantage
is that the instrument can be used as a pre- and post-test to evaluate whether the training
has been effective in changing attitudes. A sample of such an instrument, used by a train-
ing manager when conducting training programmes for the Glenrand MIB Group, one of
the largest insurance broking companies in South Africa, is included as appendix 6.2.
6.6.4.3 Interviews
Interviews can be conducted with a structured or semi-structured interview guide to keep
the discussion focused. They are similar to surveys, except that the information is gathered
verbally, face to face or on the telephone.
Advantages of an interview are that the interviewer can probe and rephrase questions to
clarify the meaning, which is especially important in South Africa because of our diverse
population. A skilled interviewer can elicit richer data by creating rapport and reading
body language.
Disadvantages are that the process can be time-consuming, data could be affected by
interviewer bias, and this method is not practical if many people have to be interviewed in
a limited period of time.
6.6.4.4 Focus groups

These are meetings called for a specific purpose, consisting of stakeholders who have an
interest in the topic under discussion. The process is facilitated by the researcher, who is
able to probe deeply and obtain information from different perspectives. The advantages of
this method include low cost and the creation of an open forum for discussing and brain-
storming problems. In addition, focus groups can be used to obtain input from stakehold-
ers who are not usually consulted in the more reactive methods of determining training
needs. A disadvantage could be that it does not always work as it should if personalities
and organisation politics interfere with the process. A key information group is a focus
group of knowledgeable people, which can be used to identify work standards.
For example, internal and external customers can be included in a needs analysis process
focused on determining the effectiveness of the service provided by a customer relations
team in an organisation and what, if any, training interventions are required to make the
service more effective. The results of the focus group can then be compared with input
provided by management (and if required the customer relations team themselves) and
then used to design a tailor-made instructional design process.
6.6.4.5 Training committees

To comply with the requirements of the Skills Development Act, a representative training
committee should be established in all organisations with more than 50 workers. The com-
mittee should consist of members from all occupational groups and should meet regularly
to discuss issues relating to training needs and other relevant matters.
6.6.4.6 Observation
The needs analyst literally observes the employee performing the task and is able to ask
questions and to record information about the employee’s current skills and knowledge in
the work environment. This enables the analyst to make inferences about the person’s com-
petencies and needs.
Advantages include that the method provides real life, objective evaluation of job per-
formance, and the employee is not removed from the job. A disadvantage is that the
worker, knowing that he or she is being watched, may modify his or her behaviour. This
method should be used in conjunction with other methods. It would be suitable for certain
jobs, for example, in determining the training needs of jobs such as bank tellers.
6.6.4.7 Examining work samples

Similar to observation, this looks at the results achieved by the employee and evaluates
them against criteria. The advantage of this method is that it can make an objective evalu-
ation of tasks (whether it is completed or still in progress) and inferences can be drawn
about the person’s knowledge, skill and attitude. A disadvantage is that poor quality work
samples, on their own, do not necessarily identify training needs, as other factors may in-
fluence the quality. Situations where this method could be used could include clerical
jobs, where employees work on files that should periodically be examined by supervisors.
6.6.4.8 Critical incident analysis

This method, probably not used enough in practice, can be a powerful way of identifying
both performance strengths and deficiencies. Similar to a case study, the researcher or
panel examines a real life situation or complete incident that occurred to a person or group.
The incident is critical because it meant the difference between success and failure.
They analyse the incident, asking questions such as:
• What did the person or group do that led to effective job performance?
• What did the person or group do that resulted in ineffective performance?
• What could have been done differently to improve performance?
• What knowledge, skills or attitudes, or lack thereof, led to success or failure?
The incident is then written up and used in future training. Reports of grievance or discip-
linary hearings are a rich source of critical incidents, which could be used in industrial
relations training.
A South African company in the highly competitive financial services industry uses this
method when they have either gained or lost an important client. The advantage of this
method is that it is relatively simple and based on actual job-related incidents in which
lessons were learnt the hard way. In in-house training, this contextualises the case study
technique in the organisation and makes it more powerful.
A disadvantage could be that the process is past-orientated, based on conditions which
existed at the time of the incident, but this can be overcome by predicting future conditions
and adapting the information of the incident.
6.6.4.9 Assessment centres

This sophisticated and expensive method is usually used to identify managerial potential
and for selecting supervisors and managers. It involves the assessment of candidates in
various areas of knowledge, skill and attitude by a small group of highly trained obser-
vers. The candidates are given simulated tasks to perform, such as in-basket exercises and
business games. The observers rate the performance of the person, which can reveal areas
of strengths and developmental needs. The advantage of this method is that it simulates
real job conditions, although in an artificial situation, and the process is validated by the
built-in multi-rater system which is fairer than individual assessment. The disadvantage is
the high cost.
6.6.4.10 Performance appraisals

A practical method of analysing needs is the use of the performance appraisal system. A
properly designed and administered performance appraisal system can be a valuable tool
for identifying the training and developmental needs of employees in an organisation. It
should make provision for current performance deficiencies to be identified and agreed
jointly by the employee and the manager or supervisor in a non-threatening manner. A
written agreement can be recorded, similar to a learning contract, summarising the devel-
opmental needs agreed upon, the preferred method of training or learning, the target date
for achievement and the follow-up review date.
Spangenberg (1994:8–13) identifies the following problems associated with the trad-
itional performance appraisal system, from a total quality approach:
• It confuses people with the system, assuming that the person being evaluated is respon-
sible for results, whereas in reality, the functioning of the system is beyond the control
of the individual.
• It destroys teamwork, especially when performance appraisal is tied to individual
rewards and increases.
• It could foster mediocrity, encouraging individuals to set easy objectives in order to
meet standards.
• It focuses on short-term gains rather than long-term planning and improvement.
• Ratings given by managers and supervisors are notoriously biased and unreliable.
Edwards and Ewen (1996:6–7) add that politics, favouritism and friendship may affect the
assessment, the supervisor may be unwilling to confront poor performance, and different
supervisors have different degrees of rigour in making decisions regarding performance.
They advocate the use of a formal multi-rater or 360-degree appraisal and feedback sys-
tem, which is used by most organisations in the USA, primarily for employee develop-
ment rather than for pay decisions. This consists of a combination of self-assessment and
anonymous feedback from at least four others, drawn from peers, colleagues, supervisors,
managers, and internal and external customers.
A 360-degree system can help employees and managers learn about their behaviour and
performance from the input and feedback provided by a number of organisational stake-
holders. Weaknesses and developmental areas are identified and can be used as a basis for
analysing training and developmental needs and for developing training interventions.
Managers and others whose performance is evaluated by this method should select three
of the identified problem areas and complete an individual developmental plan with action
steps and time frames for attainment. This can then be incorporated into the organisation’s
performance management system.
Vital prerequisites for the success of this rather complex system are an open and sup-
portive organisational culture and the involvement of all stakeholders, managers, employ-
ees and unions in the design, implementation and application of the process at all levels
not only the lower levels.
6.6.4.11 Exit interviews

An easy and inexpensive source of information regarding training needs, or lack of training
in any department, is to interview departing employees. This may yield biased informa-
tion if the employee has resigned because of differences with management or colleagues,
but if the HR department carries it out sensitively, it can be useful.
If the interview identifies needs, or a lack of required training, feedback should be given
to the manager concerned. This may cause problems if the feedback is personally critical
towards the manager.
This sub-section has dealt in some depth with data collection methods. There are many
others and the practitioner must be guided by available resources and the unique situation
in a particular company when choosing one or more method.
6.6.4.12 Comparing the needs analysis methods

Over the past 10 years, the ASTD State of the South African Training Study has been
collecting information on training-needs analysis methods (see Figure 6.3). Training
managers were required to select the different training-needs analysis methods that they
use in their organisations.
The popularity of questionnaires as a method of analysing learning needs increased in
2010, but performance management has overtaken questionnaires as the most popular
method. However, as regards traditional needs analysis methods, questionnaires are still
more popular than most other methods and are used by 78% of organisations, with per-
formance management at 83%. Overall, the use of focus groups and interviewing has
declined while the use of customer complaints has increased.
The increased preference for performance management as a method of training-needs
analysis can be ascribed to the importance of managing performance in an environment
characterised by a shortage of skills and talent. Questionnaires are still used as a tool for
conducting skills audits for the purpose of compiling workplace skills plans.
6.6.5 Collect data and analyse results; compare information with relevant
criteria to determine gaps; draw conclusions
This step depends on the method and procedures used for collecting the data and the in-
tended method of reporting the results. If the intention is to provide a qualitative report on
the findings, the analysis will be different to a quantitative report, for which the data may
have to be analysed statistically. For example, if the data is collected by means of struc-
tured interviews, the answers to the interview questions can be compared to the identified
criteria, comparisons made and conclusions drawn on a qualitative basis.
Figure 6.3 Training-needs analysis methods
Source: ASTD/SABPP (2010).
6.6.6 Report results and recommendations to client

The nature of the report will depend on the scale of the problem and the client to whom
the report is to be presented. It could consist of a ten minute feedback session with a man-
ager, or it could be a comprehensive document, incorporating charts and graphs, presented
to top management. The recommendations must be realistic and must take factors such as
training strategy, methods (on or off the job) and costs into account. The analyst must also
be keenly aware of factors which may influence decisions, such as the organisational cul-
ture and management buy-in to training. These factors would have been identified from an
organisation/situation analysis. (See section 6.7.1) It is an important step because it forms
the basis of decisions regarding training.
6.7 Other types of analyses

In section 6.6 we discussed the key steps in the learning needs process and the sources of
data for use in the analysis. This section describes certain other types of analyses, their pur-
pose, methodologies and appropriate uses. They are related to and complement training-
needs analysis. The next section will present an example of an analysis conducted by a
South African company in the insurance sector, using a technique synthesised from two of
the analyses described, to demonstrate the flexibility that can be achieved by an imagina-
tive approach, and one which is compatible with NQF requirements.
6.7.1 Organisation or situation analysis

Organisational systems analysis is described by Mills et al (1988:22) as an analysis pro-
cedure focusing on systems-wide variables such as climate, leadership, co-operation, group
decision-making, role relationships and productivity. For the purpose of this section, the
work of Rothwell and Kazanas (1992:83), who refer to the subject as “work setting analy-
sis”, will be used.
According to them, the purpose of organisation/situation analysis is to gather infor-
mation about the organisation’s resources, constraints and culture so that training will be
designed in a way that is appropriate to the work environment.
These authors propose that a systematic examination of three environments or settings
be carried out at the beginning of the instructional design process, namely, the develop-
ment environment, the delivery environment and the application environment.
• The development environment: As a starting point, an analysis is conducted on the set-
ting in which the intervention will be developed as it may affect the design of the inter-
vention. The characteristics that should be examined could include the apparent nature
of the required change, the organisation’s mission, philosophy, values, structure, goals,
plans and the results of a needs assessment.
The next step is to consider how many of these characteristics will affect the design of
the intervention and how, thirdly, a “reality check” should be conducted by means of
discussions with key members of the organisation, and any relevant modifications that
should be made.
• The delivery environment: The characteristics of the delivery setting are then assessed
to determine how they might influence the delivery of the intervention. Delivery of in-
struction may take many forms, for example on-the-job, computer-based, self-study or
group lectures in a classroom setting. The characteristics to be considered could include
learner motivation, instructor expertise, physical comfort and facilities. Again, a reality
check should be done using key members of the organisation.
• The application environment: The application environment characteristics could have a
greater effect on the success or failure of the intervention than the development or
delivery environments, in that excellent design and delivery could be totally nullified if
the instruction is not transferred to the workplace. Some of the characteristics to be
examined are employee involvement and autonomy, supervisor or manager support,
work problems and job stress. An assessment is made of which of these characteristics
are relevant to the design of the intervention, and to what extent. Again, a reality check
should be conducted.
Broad and Newstrom (1992:21) report on their research which identifies the following
factors as major barriers to the transfer of training to the workplace:
• The most significant barrier is the lack of reinforcement on the job to support trainees
in applying knowledge and skills learned in training to their jobs.
• The second most powerful barrier is interference from the immediate environment, for
example work and time pressures, insufficient authority, ineffective work processes
and inadequate equipment or facilities. This means that even if learners are willing to
change, they are prevented from using their new skills by real or imagined obstacles.
• The third most important barrier is lack of support by the organisational culture, which
may manifest itself by management paying lip service to the concept and value of train-
ing, but in reality only going through the motions to satisfy outside pressures.
Historically, trainers have concerned themselves more with delivery environmental factors
and evaluations have measured effectiveness at this stage.
An appropriate situation where this technique would be vital could be where an inter-
vention is being designed by an outside consultant or trainer who is not familiar with the
organisation. Usually an internal trainer or change agent should have a good feeling for
the culture and politics of the organisation. If not, he would be well advised to conduct a
detailed work-setting analysis to ensure the success of the programme.
An example of an organisational characteristic which could affect the design, delivery
and transfer of instruction would be the managers’ attitude to the use of company time
versus employees’ private time for education and training, especially if the subject matter
of the intervention is not directly job-related. This causes problems when the managers
perceive that their staff are spending “too much” time away from their desks on training
courses, such as language and numeracy skills.
6.7.2 Target population analysis

This is an analysis technique by which a learner profile is created which describes the
characteristics of the target population of learners for whom the training is designed, and
the assumptions made about them in the design process.
The purpose is to determine the starting point of the training and to design the pro-
gramme to fit the predominant needs and characteristics of the group of learners. The
designer is able to incorporate the most appropriate examples and vocabulary and to select
the most effective media and method of instruction. This is particularly important in South
Africa, and we make assumptions about our learners at our peril.
The major components of this technique, according to Mager (1988:51–60), are as fol-
lows:
• First, one should aim at producing a working document that is not complicated or time-
consuming. In many cases a broad knowledge of the target group will already exist.
• Secondly, one should write down everything one knows about the group.
• The third step is to identify a range of the expected characteristics of the group, such as
prior education and experience.
The key characteristics identified by the analyst should be checked out with others such as
line managers and the prospective learners themselves.
In an organisational setting, expensive and time-consuming methods are usually un-
necessary, as in most cases, the analyst and the manager know the employees for whom
the training is being designed.
Appropriate use of this analysis in a corporate training environment in South Africa
today, given our increasingly heterogeneous work population, is a vital prerequisite for the
design and delivery of any HRD intervention. Failure to take the different levels of lan-
guage skills in a learner group into account, for example, would prevent the success of the
intervention.
As an example, a financial life skills programme, offered by a South African organisa-
tion as part of an ABET programme, targets carefully selected groups, based, inter alia, on
their language ability and their perceived level of financial sophistication. This course is
delivered at two levels: a basic level for ABET candidates and a more advanced level for
more literate and educated persons. Given our multilingual country, this type of course
could also be translated into the major languages where feasible.
6.7.3 Task analysis

A task is a series of sub-tasks, steps, actions or behaviours that result in a meaningful out-
come. Although there are many methods of task analysis, varying in complexity, the sim-
plest method is observing a competent performer, who, according to Mager (1988:31),
may be you. He describes the procedure as simply drafting a task list and describing the
steps in each of the tasks identified, either narratively or by means of a flowchart.
Mills et al (1988:55) describe five methods of conducting a task analysis. Perhaps the
most appropriate is the “job-duty-task” method, which incorporates an identification of
the knowledge and skills required to perform the function being analysed. These authors
suggest the use of a task analysis form, which calls for five levels of function to be listed:
job title, a specific duty, respective tasks under each duty, sub-tasks, and knowledge that
must be evidenced to produce the result or outcome of the job. This method can be em-
ployed whether the analysis is being conducted by observation by the analyst or with the
assistance of an observer.
An appropriate situation for this type of analysis is where a job is transformed from a
specialised to a multi-functional nature and an employee or group of employees is required
to upgrade their knowledge and skills to cope with the new demands of the job. Task, skills
and competency analyses would be a prerequisite of any form of re-training programme.
6.7.4 Skills and competency analysis

According to Mager (1988:41), the completion of the task analysis allows one to derive a
list of the skills required of anyone to be able to perform each step of those tasks.
The major purpose of this analysis is to draft training or learning objectives in the design
of training interventions.
The method advocated by Mager is, briefly, to consider each step of the task analysis;
write the skills (and knowledge) that the trainee would need to be able to perform that step;
ignore trivial or simple steps that do not really require identifiable knowledge or skill; and
delete duplications from the list. The remaining list of skills and knowledge will be the
ones for which to consider learning objectives.
Once the objectives have been set, the next important step in the design process is to
determine which skills should be mastered before others can be attempted, in other words,
to determine the sequence of learning modules. This is done by constructing a skills hier-
archy which identifies prerequisite knowledge. Prerequisite knowledge is what learners
should know before participating in ETD, or a skill that someone must have in order to
benefit from the training.
According to Rothwell and Kazanas (1992:129–130), there are three methods of iden-
tify prerequisites: learning hierarchies, cluster analysis and procedural analysis. The first
method seems to be the simplest, and is carried out by repeatedly asking the question of
each task and sub-task: “What does a learner need to know to do that?” The results can
then be flowcharted or represented in boxes arranged in a hierarchical fashion (Mager,
1988:73).
This is probably one of the most underutilised of all the analysis techniques in the South
African corporate training environment, resulting in an enormous waste of time, money
and effort. Even highly skilled course designers make false assumptions about the pre-
requisite knowledge of learners. As an example, a recent study of a self-directed learning
course, designed by a university professor and written in English for artisans in the build-
ing industry, found that the language level was way beyond the capability of the majority
of the learners, most of whom were functionally illiterate in English!
The continuing development of the NQF, the requirements for registration of qualifica-
tions with SAQA and the concept of “learning assumed to be in place”, will eventually go
a long way toward preventing situations such as described above.
A recent trend has been to use competency models as the foundation for a more pro-
active way of analysing training needs. Once competencies are set for different occupa-
tions, employees can be trained according to the set of competencies needed to execute
the job. The recently developed HR Competency Model developed by SABPP is a good
example of a proactive approach to competency development (Meyer, 2012). Other occu-
pations and professions have similar competency models, while some companies have
developed their own competency models according to their specific needs.
An example of the practical application of this form of analysis would be the assessment
of the language capability of the proposed learners in a technical training course and,
where necessary, screening out the under-qualified learners, presenting the course at a
language level that the learners can cope with, or arranging remedial bridging education.
6.7.5 Attitude analysis

Attitude analysis is a method of obtaining and analysing data in order to gain information
about how employees in an organisation feel about their jobs, work groups, managers or
any other aspect of organisational life. While perhaps not directly related to training, it
can be used to conduct the organisation or situation analysis referred to in section 6.7.1.
The purpose of this technique is usually to obtain information to guide management in
making decisions about company policy or organisational development interventions.
The method usually takes the form of an anonymous questionnaire containing a set of
questions or statements which the respondents are asked to rate on a five point scale, from
“strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”. The scores are analysed, sometimes separately, in
racial groups, work groups, divisions or departments, and a quantitative report is compiled
summing up and interpreting the scores. A qualitative dimension could be added by in-
cluding a number of open-ended questions, which can produce a lot of rich material in the
form of opinions and suggestions.
Examples of such surveys and analyses in a South African organisation are in connec-
tion with the introduction of a policy dealing with smoking in the workplace or the intro-
duction of an employment equity policy.
Good use of the technique ensures that all staff feel that they have been consulted prior
to the introduction of workplace change, and management are aware of the attitudes of all
or most of the staff towards such change. Good suggestions from the survey, that man-
agement may not have thought of, could be implemented. A well-conducted survey, good
analysis of the data, transparent feedback to all participants and management commitment
to action, could be seen as the beginning of the intervention itself, and could sensitise the
staff to the desired changes, and lay the foundation for further steps in the change process.
A poorly conducted survey and analysis, with no feedback, follow-up or action on iden-
tified problems, will result in cynicism and resentment towards management.
6.8 Skills audits

6.8.1 What is a skills audit?
The Central Queensland TAFE states that “a skills audit is a process where skills held by
employees are identified and compared with skills required now and in the future so that
the skill shortfall or surplus can be determined. This skill shortfall forms the basis of a
Learning Needs Analysis (LNA), so that the company can reach the desired skill base
amongst its employees” (www.cqtafe.com).
With the advent of skills development legislation and the requirement for organisations
to develop an annual workplace skills plan, many organisations have responded by per-
forming regular skills audits. The BANKSETA positions skills audits in the skills develop-
ment process as follows:
Figure 6.4 Positioning skills audits in the skills development process
BANKSETA Workplace Skills Plan Guidelines 050725
The goal of the skills audit as shown in this figure is to determine the current skills that
are available in an organisation and to compare said skills to the required skills. These
required skills may be either those already required of individuals to fulfil their roles and
complete current tasks and processes or alternatively, those required of employees to meet
future business objectives in accordance with the organisation’s business strategies.
6.8.2 The skills audit process

The key to completing this type of needs analysis is therefore to firstly ascertain what skill
sets the organisation will require in order for business strategies to be realised. Secondly,
the organisation needs to establish what skills are required per role, per job, per task or per
organisational process. When combined into a matrix, these two sets of skills form the
“desired skills” set for the organisation. Note that organisations may also include skills
required by the sector in their “desired skills” matrix – such skills are identified in each
SETA’s sector skills plan. The desired skills can then be compared to the “current skills”
which are ascertained through the assessment of employee skills, the third stage of the
skills audit process.
The method used to assess skill sets varies distinctly from one organisation to another.
An organisation may choose which method to use by evaluating some or all of the follow-
ing factors (note that these evaluation criteria combine SAQA’s principles of assessment,
such as validity and reliability, with key business factors, such as robustness, logistics,
cost and time):
• How robust is the method? In other words, is it able to resist scrutiny and does it result
in large numbers of grievances/appeals? Equally, will the method produce results that
are acceptable to key stakeholders in the organisation – this could include management,
employees and the unions.
• How valid is it? Does it measure what it purports to measure?
• How reliable is it? In other words, will the same results be obtained in other environ-
ments and by other assessors?
• How reproducible is the method? Can the approach be applied in a number of different
environments across an organisation? For example, a computer-based assessment may
be applicable in centralised urban environments but not in more remote branches.
• Is it cost-effective?
• How much time will the assessment process require?
Figure 6.5 Selecting a method of assessment for your skills audit
High
NQF assessment
Validity, reliability, robustness
Panel assessment
360 degrees
Low
Employee self-assessment/Management assessment of employee
Low Complexity, cost and time High

The assessment methods chosen through this evaluation process vary across a time, cost
complexity, validity and reliability continuum. At one end of the continuum are simple
assessment methods such as employee self-assessment. Slightly more complex, costly and
time-consuming is a 360-degree assessment method involving assessment input from key
stakeholders such as the employee, the manager, other team members and even custom-
ers. Further along the continuum are methods such as panel assessments where evidence
is presented by the employee and/or the manager to support skills development. Finally,
at the other end of the continuum is an NQF assessment process by which each employee
is assessed against unit standards matched to each identified skill. This method involves a
form of recognition of prior learning where assessment precedes learning and is used for
the purpose of diagnosis or formative assessment rather than summative assessment.
Once the organisation has a skills matrix of required skills and a profile of the skills of
each individual, the fourth stage of the process is to compare the two results to identify
where the skills deficits exist. Finally, in the fifth stage, the organisation prioritises skills
deficits and develops a training plan to ensure that the gap between skills required and
actual skills is closed over time.
Note that in order to ensure that skills audit information is usable for translation into
workplace skills plans, skills audits usually report on skills requirements per role, per pos-
ition of role in an organisational structure and per employee profile (this includes race,
gender and disability status).
6.8.3 Skills audit application

For example, a company in the banking sector has a business strategy to implement work-
flow in its customer service department. The skills associated with workflow include tech-
nical IT skills (the ability to use the software) and process management skills (the ability
to understand and apply the processes governing workflow) as well as organisational skills,
problem-solving, scheduling, use of other hardware such as imaging equipment, and data
maintenance. In addition, management and the HR department analyse the customer ser-
vice role and the analysts determine that among others, the role requires communication
skills (verbal and written), listening skills, processing skills (the ability to understand and
apply all the technical and paper-based processes required in the department), teamwork,
computer skills, problem-solving, decision-making and organisational skills. Further, be-
fore proceeding, management consults the BANKSETA’s sector skills plan (2005–2010)
and identifies that customer-interface-related skills (including communication skills) and
IT skills are high priorities in the sector. This is of particular importance for two reasons.
One, it gives the organisation the ability to partner with other organisations in the sector
to build required skills and secondly, because the SETA’s policy is to allocate resources
(including discretionary grants) to organisations that help them achieve their sector skills
goals. The above skills requirements are then combined into a skills matrix against which
the team’s current skill sets are compared.
When choosing an assessment method, management determines that there has already
been a huge amount of buy-in from staff and unions for the skills audit process and they
therefore decide that the key factors governing their choice of an assessment method are
cost-effectiveness and time. As a result, they select a self-assessment method, supple-
mented by a management assessment, to assess the skills gap. Finally, once the gap is
ascertained, management analyse the results and deduce that the IT and processing skills
associated with workflow and communication skills are the greatest development priorities
for the customer relations team. Initial training interventions therefore focus on these skills
deficits and these skills priorities and training interventions are reported in the organisa-
tion’s workplace skills plan where it is also noted that they are aligned with the sector
skills plan, thus potentially making the organisation eligible for the BANKSETA’s discre-
tionary grants.
6.9 Company example

The following section describes an analysis performed in an insurance broking organisation
in South Africa, called the Glenrand MIB Group. Their strategy encompasses a combined
“job-duty-task” analysis incorporating competency or knowledge or skill identification.
The method employed in the analysis consisted of the identification of the tasks and
sub-tasks performed by, and the requisite knowledge skills and competencies possessed
by an ideal performer in the job of “domestic insurance claims handler”. These factors
were identified by the analyst and checked out with supervisors and a number of job in-
cumbents. The result of the analysis is depicted in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4 Job-duty-task analysis
The job title: Domestic insurance

The duty: Settling client’s claims
claims handler
Task (1): Accepting notification of a Sub-tasks:
potential claim and advising the client 1 Obtain relevant verbal information from the
on requirements for settlement by the client, either in a face-to-face situation or
insurance company telephonically, in order to record the claim.
(Examples: date, time and circumstances of loss.)
2 Inform the client of the procedure and require-
ments for processing the claim. (Examples: com-
pletion of required claim form, report to police,
obtaining quotes for repair or replacement.)
3 Check for the existence of a valid policy covering
the loss from the preliminary verbal information
provided by the client.
4 Advise the client of the status of cover:
acknowledge the claim report courteously and
sympathetically, and assure the client of prompt
attention.
Task (2): Process the claim to finality Sub-tasks:

1 Record the details of the initial verbal claim
report in accordance with company quality
standards, and initiate the procedure to obtain
the written details of the claim. (Examples: mail
or deliver claim form, arrange for client to visit
office, or for representative to call on client.)
2 Report the loss/claim to the insurance company,
and if authorised, appoint a loss adjuster;
alternatively, request the insurance company to
attend.
continued
The job title: Domestic insurance

The duty: Settling client’s claims
claims handler
3 Record the claim on the company computerised
record system; open a file; mail the written con-
firmation of the report and the action initiated to
both the client and the insurance company.
4 Activate follow-up procedure, such as computer
and manual diary system.
5 Monitor the progress of the claim and the actions
required of the client and the insurance company.
(Examples: return of completed claim form by
client; authorisation of repair or replacement by
insurance company and, where necessary,
facilitate action by both parties.)
6 Obtain the insurance company’s settlement
cheque; alternatively, their confirmation of direct
settlement with the client, repairer or replacement
contractor.
7 Record the settlement details on the computer
system in accordance with company procedure.
The range/context Criteria
Claims reported under domestic policies, According to the claims procedure and quality
namely, motor own damage, household standards manuals: The diary period is limited to
contents, all risks, where according to initial a maximum of 14 days: Claims are to be settled
information there is no dispute as to the within 14 days of receipt of required documentation.
validity of the claim. (NB Legal liability and
bodily injury claims are to be handled by the
insurance company.)
Competency, knowledge or skill identification

The following is a list of the competencies, knowledge and skills for an insurance claims
handler. The major items are reflected in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5 Competency, knowledge or skill
Core competencies Knowledge and skills

English language competency Reading skills: For example being able to read and
understand pieces of writing relative to the job,
technical writing such as policy wordings; able to
grasp the general meaning as well as details; can use
spelling, punctuation and grammar rules to aid the
understanding of the written word.
Writing skills: For example being able to write for
a variety of job-related reasons, such as business
letters and reports; can use a range of vocabulary in
writing; can describe events in the past, present and
future.
Speaking skills: For example being able to say the
same thing in different ways; able to give all the
facts; able to correct own mistakes.
continued
Listening skills: For example being able to get the

general meaning from listening situations; able to
recognise the difference between fact and opinion;
able to cope with and understand different accents.
Numeracy competency Can perform basic numerical operations, can work in
percentages, decimals, fractions, ratios, proportions,
averages and volumes.
Personal/interpersonal competency Able to manage time effectively, establish a routine,
identify priorities and meet deadlines; able to assess
situations, predict outcomes, have an objective
approach to problem-solving and decision-making;
able to relate to a client’s problems and deal with
difficult people; able to work in a group or team;
able to cope with stress.
Job specific competencies Knowledge of the general principles of insurance;
Technical competence able to interpret policy details for the types of claims
handled; able to evaluate information provided by
the client, compare with policy cover and assess
merits of the claim; knowledge of the company
computer systems, for example policy and claims
management systems; knowledge of the limits of the
claims settling mandate granted by the insurance
company.
6.10 Key learning points

Key learning points from this chapter are the following:
• Prove an understanding of the role and purpose of learning needs analysis in the HRD
process.
• Position needs analysis within national, sectoral and organisational strategies and train-
ing processes.
• Outline the methods of needs analysis.
• Follow the different steps in the learning needs analysis process as outlined in the
national learning needs analysis standard of SABPP.
• Provide the learner with guidelines regarding which method to choose and why/when.
• Identify the stakeholders in needs analysis processes and outline how various methods
are designed to include various stakeholders.
• Provide practical guidelines and applications to assist the learner in developing and
conducting a needs analysis in the workplace.
• Demonstrate how learners may apply skills audit methodology to comply with national
and SETA requirements and plan strategic skills development interventions.
6.11 Conclusion
This chapter has examined some of the current methods of needs analysis in organisations.
QCs established in terms of the NQF Act supervise the writing and registration of stand-
ards relating to qualifications in all sectors and fields in South Africa. These standards
define specific outcomes, with learning assumed to be in place before a learning pro-
gramme is commenced with its associated assessment criteria. They are useful in the setting
of minimum performance levels and in the identification of learning needs for most jobs
in organisations.
However, even with this useful tool, HRD practitioners must still possess analytical
skills in order to conduct different types of needs analysis successfully and thereby add
value to employee performance. A problem cannot be addressed and solutions cannot be
proposed and implemented unless the problem is clearly defined, and the problem cannot
be identified and defined unless the practitioner has tools and methods to help identify
training and other needs. Analysis is the tool that identifies whether the problem is one of
performance, management or organisation. The correct definition of the type of problem
usually implies the methods by which the problem can be solved. The new national
learning needs analysis standard developed by SABPP provides a useful guideline to
ensure a professional approach to learning needs analysis.
Proper learning needs analysis provides the basis for the development and implementa-
tion of workplace skills plans (chapter 2), the design of HRD interventions (chapter 7) and
the planning and organising of training programmes (chapter 8). The importance of needs
analysis in this value chain cannot be overemphasised.
6.12 Case studies

Case study 1: Insurance company
After the promulgation of the Skills Development Act, the top management of a large South African
insurance company employed a skills development facilitator to compile a workplace skills plan to
submit to the Insurance SETA (INSETA). Like many other companies, it is a product of its past.
About 20 years ago it employed many people with a low educational level to perform low-level jobs
such as filing clerks, messengers, drivers and catering staff. With the advance in technology and the
pressure to become more competitive, these types of jobs are disappearing quickly. In the current
milieu it would be politically and socially unacceptable to retrench such employees, most of whom
are in their 40s or early 50s, especially as this company has many lucrative business dealings with
government departments and trade unions.
One of the education and training priorities identified by management and included in the work-
place skills plan was offering learnerships and educating and training the employees described above
in basic business and insurance practice. At this stage, unit standards and qualifications for business
and insurance had not yet been developed and registered on the NQF.
The company discussed their concerns with a private educational institution which offered to
design, deliver and certify an NQF-compliant five subject qualification at matric level especially
designed for the employees described above. The aim of the course was to give successful candi-
dates access to further higher education and training to improve the skills level and to enable them
to obtain a registered qualification in due course. The programme comprised four basic business
subjects plus a module on insurance. The insurance module is offered and certified by the insurance
industry educational institute and is intended for study by matriculants as part of a qualification at
matric plus one level. The rationale for including this subject was to open up job opportunities for
the successful candidates in the mainstream business of the company. The delivery mode was by
distance education, supplemented with minimal contact sessions for the three business subjects. It
was assumed that the company would provide coaching in the insurance subject.
The company called for nominations from their branch offices and management enrolled a total of
195 candidates for the programme. After two years, over half of the original nominees have dropped
out of the programme, a fair number have passed the examinations for the business subjects, but only
six have been successful in the examinations for the insurance subject. The company, in the light of
the disappointing results, is now reassessing its strategy and education and training priorities.
continued
Questions
1 Identify possible reasons for the high drop-out rate.
2 If a “fair number” were able to pass the examinations for the business subjects, what could be the
reason for the poor performance in the insurance examinations, compared with the other subjects?
3 If you were employed by this company as a consultant, what advice would you give their man-
agement regarding the present and future programmes to align them with the requirements of the
NQF?
4 Which analysis technique(s) would you use before starting future programmes of this nature,
either in the company described in the case study or in your own organisation? Motivate your
answer.
5 Design a questionnaire and a structured interview guide to identify the future educational and
training needs of the candidates who dropped out of the programme.
Case study 2: Airline Carrier
An international airline carrier (ASA) calls you in to assist them with the development of their
workplace skills plan. The company has approximately 10 000 employees and does not want to lose
out on the opportunity to claim back their skills levy. The company is in a state of transition. New
management has taken over the organisation and is now focusing on the achievement of a number
of core business strategies. The three chief strategies are cost cutting (management), customer ser-
vice and productivity. These three strategies represent a new focus on optimal staff performance in a
cost management environment and therefore a change in culture and operating strategy across the
organisation. The transport sector in which the airline is found has the following key focus areas:
• Quality management
• Management skills
• ABET
• Business processes
• Entrepreneurship
• End-user computing
• Safety
• Customer satisfaction.
On your arrival at the company, you discover that training is considered by many as a waste of time
and a cost centre in the company. It is certainly not viewed by many as a means of achieving the
company’s business objectives. At present, training budgets are allocated in a haphazard fashion, in
many instances without regard for the needs of the company. Training also tends to focus on the
development of so-called “soft skills” rather than technical skills. The HRD department would
therefore like to use the workplace skills plan development exercise to help legitimise training with-
in the organisation and make it more meaningful. This means ensuring that a thorough needs analy-
sis exercise is carried out to determine the organisation’s business-related training needs.
You are required to take the sector and organisational objectives and develop a needs analysis
strategy to ensure that the training plan meets the global needs of the organisation and the specific
business targets of each business unit. This will then form the basis for the company’s workplace
skills plan.
Questions
1 Obtain the unit standard, “Develop a workplace skills plan”. Discuss how you would meet each
of the specific outcomes for the above case study.
continued
2 Plan a needs analysis process to determine the training needs of the resources in the organisation
per role and then per employee.
Hint: A skills/competency analysis or task analysis approach would be useful for this exercise.
3 Develop a plan to link the needs identified to the three business strategies of the organisation and
the goals identified by the sector.
Case study 3: First National Bank
First National Bank conducts skills assessments by making use of a 360-degree approach, which
forms the assessment module of PerforMAX. A skills matrix is used to analyse skills in relation to
results. Skills matrices are analysed for roles as well as per individual.
When using the skills matrix to analyse roles, different roles within the organisation are compared
with each other based on the respective results scores and competency scores. They are normally
grouped into the Top 10 performing roles and the Bottom 10 performing roles. This report is very
useful in indicating how the different roles compared with each other. Based on the results from the
skills matrix, action plans are developed to address development areas per role.
continued
From the skills matrix comparing roles, managers can determine the following:
• The progress made in the improvement of the competency (skills) levels per role to determine
which competencies improved and which competencies decreased in score.
• The competencies (skills), which identify the required development per role to determine the
specific strengths and development needs for the roles with lower scores.
• The strengths and development needs for each individual within those roles with lower scores.
• The results achieved per individual (Key Result Areas) within the roles with lower or higher
scores.
continued
From the skills matrix comparing individuals, managers can determine the following:
• The development areas per individual.
• The comparison of overall skill levels of other individuals within the specific role to determine
how these individuals compare with other individuals within the same role.
• Overview of the skills levels of individuals per assessor type (for example peers, superiors, direct
reports, etc).
• The strengths and development areas of individuals per competency area (for example leader-
ship, managerial, technical, etc) compared to that of the peer group.
• The impact of key assessment statements for individuals to determine strengths and development
areas on specific key assessment statements.
Based on the analysis of the skills matrix, learning and development initiatives/interventions are dis-
cussed with the individual and applied in order to improve those competencies indicating a develop-
ment need.
Making use of the PerforMAX skills matrix indicating the relationship between results and com-
petencies, makes it possible for First National Bank to determine their development needs in terms
of roles and specific individuals and to analyse how a shortage in competencies influences perform-
ance results.
Questions
1. Explain the approach used by FNB to conduct a skills audit.
2. Describe the purpose of a skills matrix.
3. Indicate the extent to which the skills development intervention is linked to performance man-
agement at the bank.
Source: Contributed by Roy Braxton and Marica Richter.

1 Distinguish between a need and a want from a training management perspective.
Illustrate your answer with practical examples from your own experience.
2 Propose your own definition for the concept of needs analysis.
3 Identify the three different types or levels of performance gaps and correlate them
with the three major causes of performance deficiencies.
4 Which of the performance gaps or deficiencies can most easily be addressed by train-
ing? Explain your answer.
5 Give at least five reasons for conducting training-needs analyses in your organisation
or any other South African organisation with which you are familiar. Rank them in
order of your perception of importance and justify your ranking.
6 Distinguish between the three levels of training needs according to Erasmus et al
(2006) and give an example, from your own experience, of each.
7 Critically evaluate the following statement by Erasmus and Van Dyk (1999:129): “It
is clear that the organisational development approach is the correct one with which
to address macro- and mesolevel needs, while the systematic training approach can
effectively accommodate the microlevel needs.”
8 Indicate the key steps in conducting a learning needs analysis and describe how you
can apply these steps in the identification of education and training priorities.
9 Describe at least five commonly used methods of data collection in the needs analysis
process and explain the advantages and disadvantages of each.
10 Identify at least six stakeholders who should be involved in the training-needs analysis
process and give reasons as to why they should be consulted.
11 Explain why it is important to conduct an organisation or situation analysis before
starting the training design process.
12 Explain the use of a target population analysis and identify the problems that could
arise if this is not taken into account in the design and delivery of a training interven-
tion.
13 Describe three organisational contexts in which an attitude analysis would be appro-
priate.
14 Develop a framework you can use to conduct a skills audit at an organisation.
15 Motivate how the new national learning needs analysis standard will contribute to
professionalise approaches to learning needs analysis.
Appendix 6.1 Training-needs analysis questionnaire for first line

supervisors
Instructions: Column 1 states the main supervisory functions you perform.
In column 2, circle the number to show how important each function is in your job.
0 means not at all important
1 means a little important
2 means very important
In column 3 circle the number you feel shows how well you perform the function.
0 means not at all well
1 means quite well
2 means very well
Column 2:
Column 3:
Column 1: Main supervisory functions How
How well do
I perform in my job important
I perform
is my job
1 Planning my team’s work for the day 0 1 2 0 1 2
2 Giving the team instructions 0 1 2 0 1 2
3 Delegating work to team members 0 1 2 0 1 2
4 Checking the work done by the team 0 1 2 0 1 2
5 Giving feedback to the team 0 1 2 0 1 2
6 Leading and motivating the team 0 1 2 0 1 2
7 Conducting team meetings 0 1 2 0 1 2
8 Helping team when needed 0 1 2 0 1 2
9 Managing my own time 0 1 2 0 1 2
10 Keeping the boss informed 0 1 2 0 1 2
If you have circled the numbers 0 and 1 in column 3 for a function that is important in your
job, write down the reasons you feel are preventing you from performing very well.
Name: Department:
Signed: Date:
Notes to readers
1 A similar questionnaire, worded slightly differently, should be sent to the supervisors’
managers to establish the relevant criteria, that is, the managers’ expectations and
opinions of how their individual supervisors perform. The two forms can then be com-
pared and the responses to the open-ended question analysed to identify training needs
and barriers to performance. The analyst should bear in mind that while this type of
questionnaire can reveal how supervisors perceive their roles and competencies, the
responses can be very subjective.
2 Depending on the language level of the respondents, the questionnaire may have to be
used as an interview guide where the interviewer can probe into the answers to the
open-ended question.
3 A similar exercise in a South African company revealed significant differences in the
responses from the managers and the supervisors, yielding valuable information for
the implementation of both training and non-training interventions.
4 This questionnaire can be customised for use in higher level management needs analy-
sis.
Source: Moira Katz, Kavan Consultants.
Appendix 6.2 Management style diagnostic instrument

This exercise is designed to test your ideas and opinions on management and see how they
compare with those of other managers. It is only a small sample of your ideas and opinions and
is NOT a formal test of your ability to manage in all situations. Read the following 30 state-
ments and indicate whether you agree or disagree with each by placing a tick in the appropriate
column, in column A if you agree, in column D if you disagree. Please be honest and answer
what you really think.
A D
1 Completing jobs far in advance of deadlines is a sign of good plan-
ning.
2 There is a direct relationship between pay increases and productivity.
3 The main reason workers often resist change is simply because they
have become comfortable with the current situation.
4 Close supervision promotes high morale.
5 Company policy need not be communicated below supervisory level.
6 Evidence of good planning in a department is to have 100% of every-
one’s time scheduled for a week in advance.
7 Workers will do less work if they are continually watched and super-
vised closely.
8 Important changes are always best introduced by written memos
placed on notice boards.
9 Bosses should know all the answers to keep the respect of their sub-
ordinates.
10 All important communication is either spoken or written.
continued
A D
11 Since conditions change and problems arise in many cases it is better
not to set definite objectives to be achieved.
12 If management does not lay out goals and strict guidelines, employ-
ees will generally be passive and nothing will be achieved.
13 Workers should usually influence the rate at which changes are
implemented.
14 Management talent develops faster under tight supervisory control.
15 The best supervisors usually listen more than they talk.
16 It is best to formulate only very general plans and take care of the
operational problems as they arise.
17 Motivating people is largely a job of selling your ideas and what the
company demands of them.
18 Group discussion, especially where hostility to management exists, is
seldom a good way to introduce change.
19 Leadership is fundamentally establishing high standards and then
controlling through performance measurements to ensure they are
met.
20 When communicating, the supervisor’s sole concern should be with
the facts.
21 Planning is almost impossible since it is unrealistic that future prob-
lems can be forecast.
22 In general, employees should be allowed to set their own level of
work output.
23 Supervisors who introduce change should give their primary attention
to the technical and mechanical aspects so as not to slow down pro-
duction.
24 There are a few people who have the ability and will rise to the top,
but many do not and their advancement possibilities are limited.
25 Workers should accept some of the responsibility for understanding
their supervisors’ communications.
26 If workers are taught to plan, then supervisors have their planning
jobs done for them.
27 The average person tends to work as little as possible.
28 Changes in company policy which are likely to be controversial and
disagreed with should simply be announced from the highest level
without discussion.
29 Generally, bosses should make decisions for those below them.
30 Stating a point clearly and frequently is usually the best way to get it
across.
The objective of this instrument is to measure knowledge and attitudes in the following
five management areas:
1 Goals and planning – Items 1, 6, 11, 16, 21 and 26
2 Motivation – Items 2, 7, 12, 17, 22 and 27
3 Making changes – Items 3, 8, 13, 18, 23 and 28

4 Leadership and developing subordinates – Items 4, 9, 14, 19, 24 and 29
5 Communication – Items 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30
The “correct” answers are A for items 7, 13, 15, 22 and 25, and D for all the other items.
(Adapted from Watson, 1979.)
6.14 References
ASTD/SABPP, 2010. The 8th Annual ASTD State of the South African Learning Industry
Report 2010, Johannesburg: ASTD Global Network SA/SABPP.
Broad ML and Newstrom JW, 1992, Transfer of Training, Reading: Addison-Wesley.
Cascio WF, 1998, Managing Human Resources, 5th edn, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Edwards MR and Ewen AJ, 1996, 360º Feedback, New York: Amacom.
Erasmus BJ, Loedolff P van Z, Mda T and Nel PS, 2006, Managing Training and Devel-
opment in South Africa, 3th edn, Cape Town: Oxford.
Knowles MS, 1988, The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species, Houston: Gulf.
Mager RF, 1988, Making Instruction Work, Belmont: David Lake.
Meyer M, 2012, “HR gets its house in order”, HR Future, 6, 18–21.
Mills GE, Pace RW and Peterson BD, 1988, Analysis in Human Resources Training and
Organization Development, Reading: Addison-Wesley.
National Training Board, 1998, Education Training and Development Practices Project –
Final Report, Pretoria: NTB.
Robinson DG and Robinson JC, 1989, Training for Impact, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Rothwell WJ and Kazanas HC, 1992, Mastering the Instructional Design Process, San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Rothwell WJ and Sredl HJ, 1992, The ASTD Guide to Professional Human Resource
Development Roles and Competencies Vol II, Amherst: ASTD.
RSA, 2008, The National Qualifications Framework Act, Act 67 of 2008, Pretoria: Govern-
ment Printer.
Rummler GA, 1987, “Determining needs”, in RL Craig (ed), Training and Development
Handbook, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Spangenberg H, 1994, Understanding and Implementing Performance Management,
Kenwyn: Juta.
Van der Schyff R, 2001, “Developing workplace skills plans”, in Meyer M, Mabaso J and
Lancaster K (eds), 2001, ETD Practices in South Africa, Durban: Butterworths.
A Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Resources Development in Southern Africa,
2nd edn, Halfway House: International Thomson.
Watson CW, 1979, Management Development Through Training, Reading: Addison-
Wesley.

Barbazette J, 2006, Training Needs Assessment: Methods, Techniques and Tools, San
Francisco: Pheiffer.
Barksdale S and Land T, 2001, Rapid Needs Analysis, Alexandria: ASTD.
Bellis I, 2000, Skills Development, Randburg: Knowledge Resources.
Jerling K, 1997, The Education Training and Development Process, Pretoria: Kagiso.
Mankin, D, 2009, Human Resource Development, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Meyer M and Orpen M, 2007, Occupationally-directed Education Training and Develop-
ment Practices, Durban: LexisNexis Butterworths.
Mitchell GM, 1993, The Trainer’s Handbook: The AMA Guide to Effective Training,
New York: Amacom.
Nadler L, 1988, Designing Training Programmes: The Critical Events Model, Reading:
Addison-Wesley.
Opperman C and Meyer M, 2008, Integrating Training Needs Analysis, Assessment and
Evaluation, Randburg: Knowledge Resources.
Rossett A, 1992, “Analysis of human performance problems”, in Stolovitch HD and Keeps
EJ (eds), Handbook of Human Performance Technology, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
SAQA, 2012, NQF Level Descriptors Booklet, Pretoria: SAQA.
SAQA, 2012, The System of Collaboration, Pretoria: SAQA.
6.16 Internet sites

Adult Learning, Productivity and Creativity: http://www.learnativity.com
American Management Association: http://www.amanet.org
Australian Society for Educational Technology: http://www.ascilite.org.au
British Association for Open Learning: http://www.baol.co.uk
Central Queensland TAFE: www.cqtage.com
National Research Foundation: http://www.nrf.ac.za
The HRD Group: http://www.trainingneedsanalysis.co.uk
Training Magazine: http://www.trainingmag.com
• A special word of thanks to Ken Lancaster, previous training and development manager
at Glenrand MIB and lecturer at UNISA, for his input into this chapter.
• The authors are grateful to Roy Braxton and Marica Richter of Braxton Consulting for
providing a case study for this chapter.
CHAPTER
7
DESIGNING HUMAN
INTERVENTIONS
Melanie Bushney
The design component, of course, is the development of learning events
that will enable participants to perform the desired behaviours.
(Michael Milano and Diane Ullius)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Apply the phases and steps in the National Learning Design Standard (SABPP)
• Describe the various HRD interventions
• Provide practical guidelines when designing and implementing various human resource interven-
tions
• Provide recommendations for successful on-the-job training to ensure life-long learning
• Develop a curriculum, programme strategy and workplace-based material for any learning pro-
gramme of your choice in accordance with the relevant unit standards
• Discuss the factors in choosing and implementing a suitable intervention to ensure that value is
added to an organisation
• Explain the conditions that are necessary for adventure learning to be successful in ensuring that
effective learning takes place
• Design an intervention which would address an effectiveness or efficiency problem in an organ-
isation
• Distinguish between an “evolved” simulation and a “custom” simulation
193
7.1 Introduction
The design phase of human resource development (HRD) is of critical importance to the
success of any HRD intervention. During the process of design, the outcomes of an HRD
intervention are determined. This is followed by the design of appropriate learning mate-
rials and the selection of appropriate learning strategies and techniques to facilitate the
learning process.
The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) has had a major impact on the design of
HRD interventions. Not only does it require that an integrated approach to design be
implemented, it also ensures that relevant interventions are selected to contribute to effec-
tive learning and the development of human resources in South Africa. HRD practitioners
no longer develop training programmes for the sake of training; rather, appropriate,
relevant and credible learning programmes are designed to meet the needs of the South
African economy. In fact, the generation of occupational curricula overseen by the Qual-
ity Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) will ensure that learning-programme
design will look completely different in the future. Learning programmes should comply
with the requirements of an occupational curriculum, from planning the curriculum, to
preparing learning aids, to developing training materials, to practical application and
workplace experience. This chapter is a direct follow-up to the previous chapter. Once
training needs have been analysed, HRD practitioners can design the necessary HRD
interventions. This chapter provides guidelines for the design, management and application
of HRD interventions and deals with selected types of HRD interventions, including
conferences, on-the-job training, industrial theatre sessions, action learning, adventure
learning, team-building, learning programmes and games and simulations.
7.2 National Learning Design Standard (SABPP)

In 2014, the SA Board for People Practices (SABPP) developed and published a National
Standard on Learning Design. The standard was developed by several HR and HRD
professionals as part of the National HR Professional Practice Standards – i.e. phase two
of the National HR Standards project. The purpose of the HR standards initiative is to
standardise HR practices by reducing inconsistency and providing clear guidelines for
application. The Learning Design standard is part of the Learning and Development
element of the HR Management National System standard.
Learning design has been defined as follows in the National Learning Design standard:
Learning design is the practice guiding the design and development of learning solutions that lead
to improved workplace performance.
The definition of learning design provides an innovative approach to focusing on learning
design in a professional and business-friendly manner. Building on the performance
consulting approach to HRD discussed in chapter 5, the emphasis in the standard is to
direct learning design to learning solutions that lead to improved workplace performance.
The learning design standard goes on to stipulate the fundamental requirements for
good learning design practices (SABPP, 2015):
• Learning design should be based on an acceptable instructional design model, which
encompasses adult-based learning theory and is therefore a practice for a trained pro-
fessional.
Chapter 7: Designing Human Resource Development interventions 195
• Advances in technology are contributing to major advances in the effectiveness of

delivery of learning and learning design, and therefore design of any learning interven-
tion should consider how technology can best support the desired learning outcome.
• Learning design should always be outcomes based and the outcomes, with the out-
comes being defined through the learning needs analysis process. Thus, various stake-
holders are involved.
• Learning solutions go beyond formal training, and proposals on learning solutions
should consider other alternatives, including practical and experiential learning, dis-
tance learning, and technology-based learning.
• Learning design should specify how achievement of competency should be assessed.
Figure 7.1 sets out the learning design process as outlined in the national learning design
standard (SABPP, 2015):
Figure 7.1 Learning design process according to learning design standard
Identify existence of
Learning needs
learning path/
analysis
curriculum into which
learning solutions must
fit in. If none, construct
learning path/
curriculum
Identify if suitable
Job profiles solution exists or can be Signed-off
adapted learning
Competency solution
models
Performance Draft design proposal
standards and obtain sign-off
Operating
procedures Assessment
Determine modules methods and
needed, formulate follow-up
learning outcomes,
sequence modules,
formulate assessment
criteria, identify learn-
ing activities, obtain
Existing sign-off
learning
solutions
(Internal or Conduct pilot
external)
Incorporate feedback
Handover and maintain

Building on the above overall process of the learning design standard, the following
detailed steps support the learning design process (SABPP, 2015):
1. Receive learning solution request:
• Confirm if there is an existing job-based learning path or curriculum that the solu-
tion could be incorporated into (national qualifications or a company-based curricu-
lum).
• Confirm if there are existing solutions by doing a gap analysis of learning solutions.
• Inform the client of the learning solutions available.
2. Formulate the learning proposal:
• Formulate the draft proposal and design the brief (including learning solution
options and costing) for partially fulfilled and non-existing solutions.
• Obtain sign-off by internal or external client.
3. Design the solution:
• Obtain input from subject-matter experts in terms of job requirement, with specific
reference to knowledge, practical skills and work exposure, in order to fulfil the
identified need.
• List the modules.
• Formulate the learning outcomes of each module.
• Sequence the modules.
• Align South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) unit standards and out-
comes-based qualifications to the identified module outcomes, where applicable.
• Formulate assessment criteria and align them with the learning outcomes, catego-
rised into activities aimed at sourcing and gaining information, and internalise the
information, demonstrating mastery of information and learning.
• Obtain sign-off.
4. Development of learning solution:
• Developer engages with subject matter expert in order to obtain current content.
• Source additional content.
• Develop the learning solution based on the signed-off methodology.
• Incorporate comments obtained during regular feedback sessions with client regard-
ing learning solutions.
• Pilot the solution.
• Obtain sign-off.
5. Hand-over and implement the solution:
• Depending on the organisational structure, either hand over the learning solution to
the client for implementation, including train the trainer (where applicable), or
• Inform the client that the solution is ready for implementation.
6. Maintain the learning solution:
• Client informs developer of changes to be made to the solution, e.g. process changes,
and then continuously improves the solution.
7.3 Selection of HRD interventions

In support of the National Learning Design Standard, we will now cover some HRD
interventions and solutions. Kenney and Reid (1988:184) include under the term “inter-
vention”, “any event which is deliberately planned by those responsible for training to
assist learning to take place. It includes a wide range of activities, from formal courses to
structured work experiences”. Any intervention means change. Training efforts targeted at
enhancing organisational development are OD interventions – for example, team-
building.
Given the numerous HRD interventions, HRD managers will have to choose among
them. This may seem a difficult task. HRD practitioners as performance technologists or
interventionists may select and use only those interventions which are known to them,
thus an improvement project may not achieve the improvement it was intended to achieve.
Another selection factor is intervention interference. HRD practitioners should be aware
that one selected intervention might have an adverse effect on other interventions that are
to be implemented.
Intervention selection involves an accurate and complete performance analysis (gap
between existing and desired performance), identification of what change is needed and
at what level, knowledge about the best available interventions and implementing the
change by collaborating with others who also conduct interventions (Langdon, Whiteside
and McKenna, 1999:23). When others who may be part of the solution are also involved
in the analysis and development of the performance solution, the result is ownership of
the solution and its maintenance. For instance, a marketing manager who has resources at
his disposal, may know how to obtain certain information about clients that nobody else
knew existed.
Interventions should fit the organisation’s culture. For example, in third-party interven-
tions during interpersonal conflict in the workplace, the focus will fall on content and/or
relationship issues. Interventions that focus on content are concerned with what happened
and who was at fault. In organisations which emphasise compliance with procedures, find-
ing the facts and placing blame would be suitable for that culture (Kruse, 1995:3). On the
other hand, organisations that place value on flexibility and diversity, will view conflict as
a learning experience.
Noe (1999:183–184) discusses other factors which play a role in choosing a suitable
intervention. These factors refer to the extent to which the intervention facilitates learning
and contributes to the transfer of learning, the costs related to the development and the use
of the intervention as well as its effectiveness as applied against the specific training needs.
When learners apply what they have learnt back on the job, transfer of learning has occur-
red. When the training content and environment prepare trainees to use the learning out-
comes on the job, it is more probable that transfer will take place. For example, transfer of
training is high in on-the-job training, medium in role-playing, but low in adventure learn-
ing (Noe, 1999:184).
Two types of costs should also be considered: development costs and administrative
costs. The design of the intervention is related to development costs. Administrative costs
(consultants, facilitators, materials and trainers) are costs which are incurred every time the
intervention is used. The training budget to develop training interventions influences the
choice of intervention made by the trainer. For example, trainers who are limited by their
budgets in developing new interventions can apply structured on-the-job training, which
is relatively inexpensive but effective. Other factors to consider include the number of
people affected and the amount of time available to implement the intervention.
Finally it seems an intervention design is determined by what competence must be
acquired. Therefore, the focus of an intervention will inform the design and delivery of
the required intervention.
7.4 Implementation of interventions

The implementation of interventions requires careful thought, since the intervention is
nearly always a source of change in a complex setting and it involves performance and
behaviour and other sensitive issues.
Langdon, Whiteside and McKenna (1999:27) recommend a master project plan which
consists of six elements:
• A plan to develop the intervention itself: This plan includes the identification of the in-
ternal and external resources required to complete the development – timelines, budgets,
experts, rollout dates and milestones.
• A strategy to ensure communication throughout the intervention: An analysis of who
must do what and the media to be used. This element includes the planning and sched-
uling of presentations. Celebrations may also be an important vehicle of communica-
tion.
• An analysis of the target population: This analysis does not have to be long but it should
indicate an understanding of the implications of the target population’s age, learning
styles, language, typical reactions to and acceptance of change and other relevant attri-
butes which may affect success.
• A plan to assess political bases: An assessment of the political bases is critical to ensure
success. For instance, when launching an intervention on leveraging diversity, the po-
litical impact must be weighted. The identification of key sponsors and inclusion of
informal leaders are required in order for a successful implementation to occur.
• An analysis of intervention sequencing and review for intervention interference: It is
possible that a single intervention – team-building, for example – is all that is needed to
solve a problem. At other times many interventions are implemented one at a time or
simultaneously in a large organisation. Multiple interventions include conflict reso-
lution, relationship-building, career development and a decision-making process. HRD
practitioners should ensure that all parties communicate with each other, that all inter-
ventions are sequenced correctly, that interventions do not contradict each other and
that they will not confuse the target populations. Since the implementation does not
occur in a vacuum, the collaboration of internal and external consultants, line managers
and informal leaders is critical for success.
• A project plan for rollout: The larger the group at whom the intervention is targeted,
the more planning is required. Decisions need to be made as to who will be where and
when and who will receive what.
7.5 HRD interventions

Various HRD interventions will now be discussed, with specific reference to their appli-
cation.
7.5.1 Conferences
Professional conferences provide a valuable source of learning. In a conference a group of
people from various organisations, departments or viewpoints get together. However, they
share some common interest or background and their objective is to identify a problem
and reach a solution. In the process they also exchange information and increase co-
operation. Conferences are usually designed around a theme. Attending conferences may
be incorporated into employees’ workplace skills plans and skills profiles to enhance their
learning processes.
Planning and conducting a corporate conference are big tasks. Kaufman (2002:1–4)
provides several tips to make corporate conferences more successful:
• Begin with a bang: Start the conference with an impressive video clip, attention grab-
bing slides, a stirring song, powerful first speech, dramatic performance or multi-media
presentation.
• Use big names on conference tags: A bold, clear typeface with the largest possible
letter size will be suitable. Nametags should be readable from a distance of three meters.
It should make it easy for delegates to meet and mingle.
• Distribute a delegates’ networking sheet: A user-friendly networking sheet containing
the contact information of all the delegates may be used during and after the conference.
A digital or smart phone camera enables the organisers to include portraits of delegates
which makes it easier to find each other during the conference or to remember faces
afterwards.
• Promote a theme: The conference should have a distinctive theme and title like Reach-
ing for the Top, Thriving in the Future or The Winning Team. Link the theme with an
appropriate logo to illustrate the key idea. Repeat the theme by requesting presenters
to link their content to the selected theme. This leads to continuity and reinforcement.
The theme should be visible on the conference decorations and materials like folders,
banners and nametags. Presenters and exhibitors should receive “camera-ready” images
in hard copy and on diskette in order to customise their materials.
• Involve the audience before the conference: They should receive advance mailings with
a selection of materials, “think about” assignments, information gathering responsibil-
ities and a detailed programme agenda.
• Continue the conference after it is over: Sending out a follow-up article, newsletter,
results of a conference survey, printed version of action plans or decisions taken during
the conference and an invitation to the next event will extend the value of the con-
ference. Place a page on your website with photographs from the conference, key ideas
and articles presented and conference survey results. Announce the post-conference
webpage during the conference as well.
• Always triple check all microphones audio-visual needs: The first thing your audience
should hear is not “Can you hear me at the back?” Have back-up technology ready if
needed.
• End with a memorable finale: The last impression should be a lasting one. Close the
conference with a powerful speaker, stirring song, major award presentation or multi-
media event to motivate the audience.
7.5.2 On-the-job training

A common method of training is on-the-job (OJT) training. No matter how effective em-
ployees are, there are times when they will be confronted by some aspect of the job that
they have not experienced before. When a manager, supervisor or co-worker gives train-
ing at the workplace, it is called OJT training.
OJT training enables the individual to acquire new skills and behaviour via observation
and guided practice while he or she is working “on-the-job” (Craig, 1987:371). OJT train-
ing is thus when the organisation trains newly hired employees, upgrades the skills of ex-
perienced employees when new technology is applied, cross-trains employees within a
department or work unit and orientates transferred or promoted employees to their new
jobs (Noe, 1999:166).
The procedure in OJT training is informal. A co-worker tells the worker what he or she
is expected to do or the worker observes an experienced worker for some indefinite period
of time and tries to imitate that person’s behaviour. Rarely does the trainer receive guide-
lines to follow during the instructional period (Gordon, 1994:205). For example, when
training as a waiter, the learner follows the experienced waiter for one or two days. Often
the worker or trainer is busy and the learner observes while the job is being performed.
The learner may also be expected to perform the job for a period of time while the trainer
observes.
Gordon (1994:205–206) compares the strengths and weaknesses of OJT training. From
his analysis it would appear that OJT training is a poor intervention. However, most weak-
nesses stem from a training programme that is usually not well designed to serve as the
basis for OJT training. The whole instructional programme may be the responsibility of
someone who may not know how to perform the job well or who lacks expertise in in-
structional design and coaching (Noe, 1999:1661). In such circumstances, OJT training
will not be effective and the learner will acquire undesirable or incorrect behaviour or
skills. The weaknesses described by Gordon are based upon the assumption that the OJT
training programme occurs in an unstructured manner. The weaknesses may be mitigated
when proper instructional design is applied.
According to Gordon (1994:206) OJT training reveals the following strengths:
• OJT training has low cost, since people do what they would normally do.
• It is easy to implement because it requires little advance efforts.
• There is usually an employee or supervisor available to do the training.
• The content is flexible and changes as the job changes.
• OJT training provides a good transfer of training for skill acquisition, since it is the
same as the ultimate job environment.
• OJT training offers the opportunity to test declarative knowledge access and use under
realistic circumstances.
• OJT training affords more potential for active learning and skill practice than most other
HRD interventions such as classroom training.
OJT training is often ineffective especially when it is not well planned. Gordon
(1994:206–207) mentions the following weaknesses:
• The trainer usually lacks instructional design skills.
• The trainer usually does not take any extra time to design a programme or think about
what to train or how to train it.
• The trainer must still continue to perform his or her regular job at the same pace. Con-
sequently, the trainer does not have enough time to train the learner properly.
• The trainer will usually not cover declarative knowledge in adequate detail. He or she
will only verbalise those things of which he or she is spontaneously reminded.
• The trainer will usually not cover sufficient detail of skills and task performance. He or
she only covers what comes up or what he or she can access from memory.
• The worker may resent his or her role as a trainer and show a lack of commitment.
• The learner usually has a passive role. He or she may not actually perform the job to a
great degree.
• The learner may receive too little feedback from the trainer. There is also usually too
little practice of the various sub-tasks.
For OJT training to be successful, careful selection of a trainer who can establish a warm,
friendly and trusting relationship with new employees is necessary. OJT training can also
be successful if it is structured, implemented properly and good principles of instructional
design are considered. Therefore, Gordon (1994:252) recommends that OJT programmes
should be carefully designed and developed, since the employee who carries out the
instruction lacks the expertise to train. It should be specified who, where, when and what
knowledge and tasks should be taught. The training methods, the type of practice and feed-
back mechanisms should also be specified.
The programme for OJT training will be more effective if the trainer receives material,
even if it is only a task list of items to include in the programme. A task list can be de-
veloped in conjunction with trainers and management. It should be tied to the learning
material in the task analysis. If subject matter experts develop the learning programme,
they should examine the task list and examples of materials or exit tests. They should also
be asked for other types of relevant information, if such information was not gathered
during the task analysis. This includes:
• The length of time required to give task and sub-task training;
• Possible hazards in teaching each task;
• Whether the task should be automated;
• How often the learner will have to perform the task during the job;
• Difficulties learners may experience in learning the task.
In OJT training checklists should be used as well as exit tests, depending on the specific
situation. A brief introduction to the checklist is also necessary for the person who will
conduct the training. The purpose of this introduction is to indicate the importance of the
checklist and how to use it in an effective way. The trainer can mark items on the check-
list if they have been covered during instruction or when the learner demonstrates that he
or she can successfully perform the task.
OJT training involves several principles with regard to the preparation for training and
the actual intervention. According to Noe (1999:167) the trainer can prepare for the inter-
vention by doing the following:
• Break down the job into important steps.
• Prepare the relevant equipment, materials and supplies.
• Calculate the time which you will devote to OJT training and the time by which the
employee should be competent in skill areas.
The actual training during the process of OJT training involves the following:
• Inform the learner about the objective of the task. He or she has to observe as the trainer
demonstrates the task.
• Show the learner how to perform the task.
• Explain the key points or behaviours.
• Demonstrate to the learner how to do it again.
• The learner should perform one or more single parts of the task and be praised for
doing them correctly.
• The learner then performs the whole task. It seems that criteria should be built into the
task to ensure learning quality and the trainer should praise the trainee for doing it cor-
rectly or suggest corrective action.
• When errors occur, the trainee will practise until he or she can perform the task accu-
rately.
• The trainer should praise the learners for their success in the learning process.
According to Langdon et al (1999:245) two developments have affected OJT practice.
First, experienced employees instead of supervisors now do most of the OJT, since many
organisations vest decision-making in empowered worker teams. Experienced employees
may then need to be trained on effective approaches to structured OJT in order to become
effective on-the-job trainers. Knowing how to train others does not always come naturally.
Secondly, many organisations place more emphasis on the learner’s role in OJT. In some
organisations, one-on-one training is not always possible. That problem is addressed by
training newcomers in how to pull the information they need to do their job out of experi-
enced and knowledgeable co-employees, in contrast to expecting trainers to push that
information. This has led to the recognition of planned and unplanned on-the-job learning
(Langdon et al, 1999:245). Planned OJT, a variation of structured OJT, places responsi-
bility on the learner rather than the trainer. Classic Planned OJT involves the learner in
activities like watching, asking, doing and inviting feedback in contrast to the classic
approach of showing, telling, doing and checking. OJT is in line with efforts to create
learning organisations, as discussed in chapter 4.
7.5.3 Industrial theatre sessions

Although this type of intervention is relatively new, it is becoming more popular. Industrial
theatre seems to focus on themes where large groups of people can be included. It adds a
fun element and humour to learning while still getting the basic message across.
Industrial theatre makes use of drama and actors within a commercial setting. Its aim is
to sell a product or service, to convey a concept, raise the awareness of people and to en-
hance training. This type of intervention can be very informative, exciting, engaging and
entertaining.
Industrial theatre addresses argumentative issues in a non-threatening way through the
mediums of storytelling and humour. According to Isaacson (1995:33) the use of satire
enables people to laugh at the portrayal of certain behaviours and prejudices by fictitious
characters, which may be offensive in another context. Audiences are thus required to
make a mental shift and see themselves from another person’s point of view. The prox-
imity and impact of live theatre attracts people and makes it preferable to watching a
video. Nedbank, for instance, has made extensive use of live theatre and video pro-
grammes.
Industrial theatre can address topics like affirmative action, diversity issues, gender
problems, customer service, human resources (recruitment and selection), safety pro-
cedures, industrial action and poor communication on the shop floor (Isaacson, 1995:34).
Plays can be adjusted to address specific organisational issues. For example, Western Deep
Levels asked the management consultancy, Labour Link, to script a play which would
communicate diversity in the vernacular of illiterate underground workers (Isaacson,
1995:34). In this sense, industrial theatre is seen as a sensitisation instrument to create
awareness among cross-sections of staff. It is suggested that the message be compatible
with the issue being addressed to ensure that positive associations are made with the
experience.
Some people may be wary of industrial theatre as a training and mobilisation method-
ology. They believe that industrial theatre should be as glamorous as big hit-shows. Big
launches of new products using the full array of theatrical resources can be expensive, but
those events form a small part of the whole industrial theatre world which aims at facilita-
ting learning (Learning Theatre News Letter, 2000:2). The majority of industrial theatre
productions use only two or three actors. They produce shows in factories, canteens and
offices or from the back of trucks. Industrial theatre has an effect on the work lives and
personal attitudes of the people. When followed by facilitation, it will lead to learning,
mobilisation and change in the people and the organisation.
Industrial theatre seems an expensive intervention, but it may be intended to address a
very specific audience, for example, people who require programmes which fall under
ABET.
7.5.3.1 Applications and usage of industrial theatre sessions

Theatre in the business environment can be more than just a communication tool. The
Learning Theatre Organization News Letter of December (2000:2–3) points out several
areas for industrial theatre applications:
• Internal communication: In an effort to create awareness and understanding, industrial
theatre may be used to communicate a new policy, procedure, process, direction or
organisational change to employees.
• External communication: By employing various theatre principles, all sorts of informa-
tion can be shared with communities in public places.
• Behavioural interventions: Drama has an influence on emotion, assumptions, attitudes,
culture, beliefs and reference frameworks. Dramatic solutions can be applied to assist
resistant employees and mobilise them in the direction of changes.
• Promotion: Dramatic solutions can assist the consumer in the decision to purchase,
thereby enabling the organisation to achieve its goals. Individuals and their behaviour
during the purchase decision are mirrored. The mirroring cuts the decision-making pro-
cess and simplifies a complex process.
• Competency-based development/skills development: Competencies consist of a com-
bination of knowledge, skill, experience and behaviour. The latter enables dramatic
solutions to play a part in competency development. Drama demonstrates correct and
incorrect behaviour to learners. In the development of soft skills like teamwork, leader-
ship, customer service and diversity management, drama can be applied effectively.
• Conference and exhibition support: A piece of drama can be scripted to reveal particu-
lar action, relevant to the topic of the conference. Role-play with conference delegates
will afford them the opportunity to experience some of the areas under discussion. Im-
provisation may be used to explore subject areas. Facilitation of the discussion of large
and smaller groups may be required. Actors can add a creative and original touch to
exhibitions to present a product or service by making use of role-plays, scripted theatre
or improvisation.
• Presentation and training: Industrial theatre can lend more impact and effectiveness to
a presentation when a scripted or improvised theatre is used). However, interactive the-
atre alone is not enough. Isaacson (1995:34) recommends that follow-up workshops are
necessary to retain the impact of a play. Industrial theatre can be very effective in the
form of role-play, when it is used in conjunction with interview situations and similar
situations. This has the benefit that people can try out various ways of approaching a
problem area.
• Scriptwriting: In a consultative relationship scripts, character outlines, scenarios and all
the information necessary for both actors and delegates to conduct role-plays, can be
generated Furthermore, actors can lend a helping hand in writing or preparing scripts
for presentations and speeches.
The Learning Theatre Organization makes use of the following types of theatre:
• Industrial or Corporate Theatre: Although this type provides little or no feedback from
the audience, it can be used effectively during launches and for the dissemination of
information concerning, for example, new policies, employment equity, safety and cus-
tomer service.
• Interactive Theatre: This type of theatre leads to more involvement and debate from the
audience in order to indicate a right and wrong way. It can be used for many applica-
tions such as soft-skills training.
• Facilitated Theatre: This type of theatre makes use of facilitators to draw out the learn-
ing from the theatre at group and individual levels. It is used in times of major organisa-
tional or cultural changes when, for example, a comprehensive leadership development
programme is embarked upon when a company makes the transition from a local to an
international company.
• Participative Experiential Theatre: This type is a uniquely South African product. Par-
ticipants receive information by various means. With the assistance of facilitators and
actors, they learn new skills and behaviours on a deep level, by doing it themselves.
Participants are able to understand organisational change, expected culture and expected
new skills or leadership style (http://learningtheatre.co.za/types.htm).
7.5.3.2 Company examples

The Blue Moon Company works in the mediums of industrial theatre, video and inter-
active websites and CD-ROMs. They are pioneers in the use of theatre in the area of in-
ternal communication and are leaders in this field. The focus of the company falls on large
organisations with the typical cross-section of diversity in South Africa, which are engaged
in a transformation process; senior executive teams who have to convey contentious or
complex messages; and organisations characterised by sophisticated internal audiences
who have faced an overexposure to conventional mediums, such as classroom training.
Harmony Goldmines, the sixth largest gold producer in the world, has handed the greater
part of their internal communication process to theatrical types (Trevor, 2002:2).
Transnet has used industrial theatre sessions to create awareness about safety in the
workplace. The organisation required a script beforehand, written by scriptwriters from
outside the organisation. The script was dramatised in front of management for final
approval before road shows were arranged. The themes addressed in industrial theatre
sessions were sexual harassment and AIDS awareness.
Old Mutual has used two plays of the management consultancy, Labour Link, as an in-
tegral part of their affirmative action approach with positive results (Isaacson, 1995:33).
The viewing promoted open, honest and direct discussion and the majority of the audi-
ence indicated that the play had given them a clearer understanding of what affirmative
action is all about.
The Learning Theatre Organization establishes theatre workshops that cover topics like
organisational changes and the communication thereof, leadership development, market-
ing and promotion of products and services, communicating vision and business pro-
cesses, the implementation of new information management technology, customer service,
e-business, e-commerce and health, safety and environment.
The following are detailed examples of industrial theatre which have been applied by
the Learning Theatre Organization:
The Learning Theatre Organization has established an industrial theatre production to address HIV/
AIDS prevention and after care. Five small plays (seven minutes each) address these issues in a
dramatic and emotional way without focusing on the normal array of scientific facts or the scare tac-
tics used by many. Each play closes by highlighting the key learning points. Large audiences of 700
people have attended the performances. Although AIDS is a reality with devastating effects on indi-
viduals and their social circle, there are ways of making it bearable and fruitful. The organisation
believes that the production, with its exciting music, will be effective and educational, and supported
with a medical backup from company clinics, community health workers and centres, will warn of
the dangers of infection and give hope to those who are already infected.
Scene one: A bar/shebeen at night. Venus approaches Franklin. They dance and Franklin buys Venus
a drink. She flirts with him and his initial shyness disappears. Ultimately she is ready to leave with him
but he mentions that his wife is waiting. Venus says she really likes him and besides, what his wife
doesn’t know won’t hurt her. She gives him a whole lot of misinformation about AIDS. They leave
together. The mood is light and full of fun, with the focus placed on the comedy of the situation.
Music link: The song is about having a good life and how dangerous it can be, but how Franklin
and Venus do not care.
Scene Two: Franklin comes home. His wife, Lucy, is in tears. She tells him that upon going to the
doctor for a check-up, she has tested positive for HIV. He accuses her of promiscuity. She says to
him that she knows she didn’t sleep around, and that she got it from him. He informs her that one
can contract AIDS from various sources like drinking from someone else’s cup or from a mosquito.
She tells him that he is wrong and he finally leaves in a bad mood. She collapses. The serious mood
emphasises the terrible consequences of Franklin’s actions.
Music link: The song is a duel between them in which there are accusations flung at each other,
until they collapse in each other’s arms and have to face the reality that they may die.
Scene three: Franklin is at the canteen at work. Everyone knows that he has AIDS. The waitress puts
the tray down at the far end of the table and pushes it towards him with a broom. Franklin discusses
with her the realities of living with AIDS and how it is not the AIDS that kills you but AIDS-related
diseases like TB. The extent of the epidemic and the fact that most people have daily contact with
AIDS sufferers without even knowing about it are conveyed. Although it starts out as a funny scene,
it becomes serious quickly.
continued
Music link: Franklin’s song is about how his life has changed. He has lost all his friends, and he
is concerned about his family’s welfare.
Scene four: Franklin and his young daughter, also called Lucy, mourn his wife’s death. They grieve
the fact that she died as an innocent. The daughter wonders if she is also going to die. He explains
that she will not contract it from him and if he manages his diet and exercise programme correctly,
he may still live a full and healthy life for many years. He is assisting with a volunteer programme
to help others cope with AIDS and HIV infection. He has done some financial planning so that she
will be looked after in the event of his death. The audience gets a peek at old playful Franklin. The
mood is light, and there will be a few smiles and even laughs behind the tears.
Music link: Lucy sings a sad song about losing her parents, stating that irresponsible behaviour
has broken their family apart.
Scene five: Little Lucy meets a young man. They are attracted to each other but behave responsibly.
She tells him that her parents have both died of AIDS. He believes the younger generation has to
fight the disease and eliminate it. The mood is optimistic, stressing the energy required to combat
this frightening disease.
Music finale: The song is a battle cry against AIDS and risky behaviour. It challenges the audi-
ence to join in the fight against this disease.
Participants have described the performances as an emotional experience. It compelled them to
rethink their current behaviour patterns and attitudes towards the sufferers of this disease. They
committed themselves to fighting this disease.
In another example a hi-tech chemical company experienced major structural changes due to a
merger with a similar company. The merger brought along new business processes, teamwork,
retrenchments, momentous cuts in the budget and a new leadership style. Employees became de-
moralised, distrustful and demotivated. The company wanted to change the leadership style from a
control-based management style to a participative leadership style. The company required a training
intervention for every leadership competency needed in the new culture. They wanted 1 000 leaders
to attend each competency intervention they believed they needed. The problem was to get 1 000
leaders sufficiently motivated during the transformation period where the emotional energy to attend
the interventions was low.
The company used a Facilitated Theatre workshop. They wanted to create understanding about
the need for the leadership initiative, and to ensure common comprehension of the competencies.
Leaders had to develop an awareness of how their own leadership behaviour needed to be modified.
The Facilitated Theatre workshop consisted of four plays and three facilitation sessions. The first
play covered the history of the company and the challenges that the company faced in the past and
the need to change once more in order to successfully address the future. The second play highlighted
the newly expected leadership competencies. The third play demonstrated the application of the new
competencies and the resistance to change. The fourth play gave a view of the future. The facilitation
sessions assisted the participants in comparing their own emotions, assumptions, beliefs and leader-
ship behaviour with those of the characters in the plays. Furthermore, the discussions enabled the
participants to release some of their own emotions about the changes. The intervention created a
common picture in the minds of the participants. The theatre mirrored leadership behaviour which
educated, confronted, empathised and joked with the audience who often had a good laugh at them-
selves during the performances.
The leaders developed a sense of pride in their company. With regard to the objective to activate
the leaders to acquire the new leadership skills by attending the voluntary follow-up training inter-
ventions, an attendance rate of 85% was achieved. Moreover, the attendance rate had been main-
tained over a two-year period (http://learningtheatre.co.za.htm).
7.5.3.3 Ambush training

Ambush training is a variation or special type of industrial theatre. Eskom launched an
intensive national road show campaign to support and maintain visible public safety in the
country. Critical factors influencing the shift in the public safety risk profile from a
relatively safe environment to an unsafe one include the rise in crime like theft of electri-
city and cables. Eskom representatives visited communities and schools around the country
to stress the dangers of tampering with electricity. They used industrial theatre, an effect-
ive multi-cultural communication tool, to convey the safety message.
In an effort to explore new and innovative ways of informing and educating the public,
they have introduced an exciting new campaign – “ambush” or street theatre performances.
Ambush training is described as a technique in which undercover actors create a scenario
which the public believes to be real (Eskom News, 2002:13). The actors blend in with the
crowd at a taxi rank, train station or food market, for example. Then they begin to act out
the so-called drama. This technique is very effective, since it grabs the attention of the
people. The “act” unfolds and the actors will emerge from among the crowd and give an
explanation of what had happened. The crowd begins to realise that tampering with elec-
tricity is not to be taken lightly and could harm you.
7.5.4 Action learning

Learning which involves participants more fully is expected to result in learning taking
root in employees. Research has demonstrated that retention levels have improved by as
much as 90% once learners shift from a classroom setting in which they passively receive
information to a situation in which they try out what they are learning as they are learning
it – a process called action learning (Blaine, 2007:40). Action learning is a “group
problem-solving process built on diversity, reflective questioning and commitment to in-
dividual, group and organisational learning” (Langdon et al, 1999:52). As such it serves
as an individual, team and organisational development intervention.
Action learning presents an opportunity for continuous self-development, growth and
learning. This is vital for learners who can apply their learning in a significant manner to
function effectively in the complex world of business today.
Action learning programmes consists of six key elements:
• Form action learning groups: These groups are composed of four to eight members
from different functions or departments.
• Undertake projects, problems or task: The problem must be current and feasible.
• Question and reflect: Action learning concentrates on the right questions rather than the
right answers.
• Make a commitment to action: Learning does not occur unless the group acts on the
problem they are addressing.
• Discuss what has been learned as individuals and as a group: They should also discuss
how that learning should be applied in other areas of the organisation.
• Analyse the learning experience: A facilitator will assist the members in reflecting on
what they are learning and how they are solving problems.
Action learning as a powerful problem-solving tool consists of the following phases:
• Introductory phase: Group members identify what they are trying to achieve, obstacles
which prevent them from achieving it and ways to overcome these obstacles.
• Diagnostic phase: Group members explore the issues of who knows and who cares
about the problem and who can implement solutions.
• Consultation phase: Group members interview or observe external resources.
• Implementation phase: Group members compile action plans, recommend a solution to
senior management and implement or monitor the implementation of the solution.
• Review phase: Group members share what they have learnt and decide on how to apply
it in other parts of the organisation.
Action learning groups do not have to be implemented throughout an organisation. They
can be implemented in any area in which problems occur and meaningful learning is pos-
sible and needed. Langdon et al (1999:52) describe the following steps in the process of
implementing action learning in an organisation:
• Step 1: Conduct an informational workshop: An organisation-wide workshop serves to
inform both managers and non-managerial employees how action learning works. Ex-
ternal consultants and employees with the relevant expertise explain and demonstrate
the basic principles and dynamics of action learning.
• Step 2: Establish projects: Projects concerning organisational problems are identified
to be addressed by action learning groups.
• Step 3: Form action learning groups: Action learning groups contain four to eight mem-
bers from diverse backgrounds who possess different kinds of functional expertise. A
facilitator may be assigned to each group, although this is not essential. The facilitator
should not already be known to the members in order to act in a manner that is inde-
pendent of the group’s culture.
• Step 4: Work on problems: Each group meets periodically (daily, weekly or every two
weeks) over a period of several weeks to several months. Meetings may last a full day
or a few hours, considering the nature of the problem which is being addressed and the
schedules and responsibilities of the members.
• Step 5: Record findings: The learning of the group develops as a result of discussing and
resolving its problem. The action learning groups make use of techniques like feedback,
brainstorming, reflection, discussion and analysis to arrive at solutions. Whatever they
detect and experience during the process is recorded.
• Step 6: Reflect on the work: After a group has completed its project, the members reflect
on their work. A facilitator may or may not assist them in their reflection. The aim is to
learn as much as possible about their identification, assessment and resolution of the
problem. They also focus on what enhanced their learning, their communication and
assumptions that influenced their actions.
It is appropriate to apply action learning as an intervention when the organisation wants to
solve complex problems with a comprehensive systems approach which concentrates on
causes and organisational assumptions (Langdon et al, 1999:52). The organisation may
also desire to accelerate individual, group and organisational learning. The leadership of
the organisation should, however, be willing to commit the time, people and resources to
solve crucial problems. Although the expense of implementing action learning may be a
bit higher than the traditional lecture style learning, Blaine (2007) concludes that the fun,
retention and application of action learning in the workplace prevail over those costs.
7.5.5 Adventure learning

In adventure learning (also called “wilderness training” or “outdoor training”) people learn
how to work together as a team and display leadership skills by participating in structured
outdoor activities. The latter may be individual-based as well as group-based. This type of
intervention is appropriate to develop skills like self-awareness, problem-solving, team-
building, conflict management and risk-taking. Some of the activities involved in adven-
ture learning may be physically demanding and include wall climbing, rope courses, trust
falls, climbing ladders and travelling from one point to another by using a device attached
to a wire which connects the two points (Noe, 1999:179).
Rope courses involve ropes that may be held three to four feet (about one meter) or 25
to 30 feet (seven to nine meters) above the group. The purpose of the high-ropes course is
to help the learners to overcome their fear. For the low-ropes course, the whole team has
to complete the course successfully. In these exercises, the members develop team identity,
cohesiveness, motivation and communication skills (Noe, 1999:179).
In trust fall exercises, each trainee stands on a narrow platform two metres above the
ground and falls backward into the arms of the other group members on the ground. If the
learner is unwilling to participate, this suggests that his team members have not gained his
trust. After the exercise, the facilitator may ask the trainee to identify sources of anxiety
and to relate them to specific workplace incidents. A task that was delegated to a colleague
and not completed on time and that led to distrust of that colleague is an example of such
a source (Noe, 1999:179). This exercise clearly indicates the level of trust between par-
ticipants.
Effective adventure learning exercises should be relevant for the types of skills trainees
are required to develop. Noe (1999:179) recommends that a skilled facilitator should con-
duct a feedback session afterwards so that participants can share what happened in the
exercise, what they learned from it, how events in the exercise relate to the work situation,
how to establish goals and apply what they have learnt back on the job.
The facilitator has to be clear about when to use adventure learning instead of another
training intervention. This type of learning gives trainees the opportunity to interact on an
interpersonal level in a situation which is not characterised by formal business rules and
the constraints of the normal workplace. The participants also share a strong emotional
experience. According to Noe (1999:180) the latter can be useful in helping trainees change
their behaviour. Behaviour patterns that are revealed in the adventure learning exercise
may be similar to the behaviour patterns seen at work. The analysis of behaviours dis-
played during the exercise, may lead to insight on the part of the trainees into unsuccess-
ful behaviours. This form of self-awareness offers opportunities for improvement in a more
productive working environment.
Noe (1999:180) raises the question whether adventure learning works. Its impact on
productivity or performance has not been established. However, trainees gain more insight
into themselves and their interaction with co-workers. One success factor is the require-
ment that the whole group should work together so that group problems in individual and
group behaviour, which are detrimental to effectiveness, can be discussed.
7.5.6 Team-building
A team consists of a “small number of people with complementary skills who are commit-
ted to a common purpose, performance goals and approach for which they hold themselves
mutually accountable” (Katzenbach and Smith, 1993:45). Teams serve largely as learning
and sharing systems for organisations. Since they obtain satisfaction from trading expert-
ise and sharing teamwork, they are very good learners (McDonald and Keys, 1996:5).
Many team-building efforts have failed because teams were used for the wrong purposes
or established in an authoritarian way.
McDonald and Keys (1996:5) identify seven major errors in team-building programmes
and offer guidelines to overcome each of these errors:
• Malselection or selection of team members based on personalities rather than needed
skill: Members must be chosen by taking the requisite skills for the team into consider-
ation. The outcome should be an integration of diverse skills, knowledge and ideas and
allowing interaction between members in close proximity. A manager may build a team
on the basis of personal acquaintances, but team membership may then depend on being
in absolute agreement with that manager, even in issues that have nothing to do with
organisational goals. It is not expected that everyone know how to do all of the jobs of
the team, including the team leader. Teams need diverse skills, clear roles, interdepend-
ent activities and responsibilities and mutual respect for each other.
• Impatience or failure to allow time for team development: To advance from a work-
group to real teamwork at a high performance level requires time. In the stages of team
development, a working group may mistakenly be classified as a team. This depends
on the sum of individual bests for performance, but a synergy is lacking. A pseudo-team
may even reflect poorer performance. Joint work and collaboration should be encour-
aged. By overcoming certain obstacles, a potential team emerges. By building on initial
successes they become a real team and finally a high performance team. Explicit threats
to motivate others to do better jobs of team-building lead to fear and demoralisation
and will destroy team development.
• Deception or using teams for pseudo-teamwork purposes: Managers may desire team-
building for purposes which are inappropriate for team-building, for instance, using a
team-building programme to camouflage difficulty or conflict between individuals or
among several teams constitutes an inappropriate use of the process. The assistance of
a mediator is required for conflict issues, not a team-builder. The pressure from group
exposure may also create too much tension to allow them to be resolved.
• Aimlessness or failure to set performance goals for the team: Great expectations about
teamwork without a focused performance orientation or follow-up, indicates failure for
team-building. This problem is precipitated by a lack of senior management commit-
ment at the start up. This commitment should have been evident throughout the pro-
gramme. Team-building initiatives should include all levels and must be maintained for
high performance. A demanding performance challenge is the most important compo-
nent of team-building.
• Inhibited communication system or failure to establish open communications: Team-
work is not simply encouraging a workgroup to work in a harmonious manner, smother
complaints and avoid conflict. Effective team-building needs a conducive environment
which values different opinions and an open or transparent solution of conflict. Team-
building sessions should begin with questions like “What do we do well?”, “What needs
improvement?” and “What are the barriers to improvement?” Members should apply
active listening skills and share their knowledge and skills. Characteristics of an effect-
ive communication system for teams include the following: accessible information, the
information must originate from credible sources, a documentation system for matters
that were discussed and decisions that were made, a climate of trust to raise matters of
concern and in meetings members should be allowed to raise issues that are not on the
agenda.
• Powerlessness or a failure to empower employees, build confidence and ensure mutual
accountability: Managers hope to create and build teams with a pep talk, but do not
formulate a purpose for them. Team members feel powerless to complete the task and
doubt that managers would recognise their achievement if they are successful. Team
members should be encouraged and mutual accountability should be established.
• Competitive mania or creating an overemphasis on competitiveness that destroys team-
work: Top management may precipitate a focus on competition and a lack of trust.
Teamwork should include shared team rewards. Competition within a team has a nega-
tive influence. Organisations may be more successful when building relationships across
teams. Upstream employees may then view themselves as serving internal clients.
Downstream employees may view themselves as key role-players in order to ensure
that quality products and services are being sent out.
7.5.7 Learning programmes

Learners should have access to learning programmes which are relevant to their job
requirements. An overview of learning-programme design and development is provided in
this section.
7.5.7.1 Introduction
A learning programme is regarded as “the process through which the learner achieves the
standard or qualification” (WRSETA, 2002:10). The SAQA understanding of the criteria
for programme design and development is that:
programmes are flexible and designed with national needs as well as the needs of prospective
employers and learners in mind. Their form and structure encourage access and are responsive
to changing environments, while the learning and assessment methods are appropriate to the
aims and purposes of the programme. (WRSETA, 2002:11.)
Critical components of the learning programme entail its relationship to registered stand-
ards and/or qualifications in view of learning outcomes, purposes and assessment and
accreditation requirements. Whereas these components were often treated separately in the
past, there is now a clear focus in ensuring that learning programmes directly conform to
the unit standard or qualification curriculum and that all components are aligned and inte-
grated. These components will ensure the relevance of the programme. Finally, quality
requirements should be met in the design and development of programmes. The Public
Sector Education and Training Authority, for instance, has developed a guide for learning
providers on learning-programme design and development (PSETA, 2009).
In support of the integration principle of the NQF, the design of learning programmes
should include theoretical and practical learning components. It should reflect the inte-
gration of the relevant critical cross-field outcomes, specifically those contained in the
standard or qualification. Workplace experience should be accommodated in the learning
design. To support the access principle of the NQF, programme entry requirements should
be as open as possible and provide for the recognition of prior learning and exemptions.
Research for learning-programme content should be translated into organisational strat-
egies and workplace skills plans aspects in order to determine competences and compe-
tencies which the organisation will require based on the research (WRSETA, 2002:5–6).
This is followed by an identification of the unit standards and qualifications to meet the
identified competencies and competences. A link between content and registered unit
standards is crucial. The HRD department should indicate responsibility for sourcing unit
standards for learning programmes to meet training needs. Those involved will decide
what will be included or excluded in the learning programme. In the case of non-unit-
standard training needs, the training policy should indicate how these needs would be sat-
isfied (WRSETA, 2002:6–7). To prevent the development of learning programmes in
isolation, the articulation thereof with other programmes should be clear. Thus, where
necessary, alignment with SETA and QCTO requirements is recommended.
7.5.7.2 Planning of learning programmes

ETD practitioners who plan and evaluate their education and training practices to ensure
they meet the needs of the learner, society and the economy should comply with the unit
standard “Plan a learning programme”.
The unit standard “Plan a learning programme” for occupationally directed adult learn-
ing states that practitioners should identify the labour market needs by analysing the sec-
tor, enterprise or workplace skills plans to determine the need. Partnerships to design and
deliver the programme are established by identifying the role-players and involving them
in a forum. The employment context within which learners will apply their competence can
be analysed by reviewing the nature of work and the NQF qualification, which describes
the outcomes which will satisfy the labour market needs. ETD practitioners will then need
to analyse how learners will be able to progress to a further qualification. Detailed course
outlines like the purpose, outcomes, materials, assessment strategy and delivery mode will
assist learners in achieving the outcomes. This forms part of the programme strategy as
discussed in the next section. Storage of documentation should be in accordance with
organisational and quality assurance.
7.5.7.3 Programme strategy

Part of the process of designing learning programmes is the development of a learning-
programme strategy document. It serves as a departure point to align current courses and
ensure that all unit standards are included. It also offers an overview of the learning pro-
gramme, its components and the context within which the programme is presented
(WRSETA, 2001:54–57). This document is partial evidence of learning-programme
alignment with an outcomes-based format. Table 7.1 provides an overview of the learn-
ing-programme strategy.
Table 7.1 Learning-programme strategy
Title Content
1 Programme overview Programme name, description, purpose and entry-level
requirements of the programme
2 Unit-standard alignment Registered NQF unit standards, all learning outcomes,
programme articulation and learning pathways (for example,
does the programme improve current job skills?)
3 Programme design and delivery Learning strategy (for example, self-study), workplace
experience, time allocation per module, prescribed content,
delivery methods (for example, facilitation), media, aids and
equipment
continued
Title Content
4 Assessment strategy Patterns of assessment (for example, frequency of assess-
ment), assessment strategy (for example, formative assess-
ment), assessment methods and RPL opportunities
5 Learner support information Learner support (for example, access to electronic media),
learner role and responsibilities (for example, preparation of
projects)
6 Programme evaluation Programme, facilitator and logistics evaluation
7.5.7.4 Curriculum development in terms of the QCTO

ETD practitioners will need to plan an occupational curriculum that delivers a related
learning programme within the structured workplace or any other learning context. Occu-
pational curricula are designed by development quality partners (DQPs) and approved by
the QCTO. Different role-players need to be consulted during the process of curriculum
development. Aspects to address in the curriculum include the learner needs identified,
the available resources and an analysis of the sector, enterprise or workplace. The educa-
tion and training philosophy or approach on which the curriculum is based should be
stipulated in the curriculum framework together with the purpose, outcomes and mode of
delivery of and materials for each programme in the curriculum. An assessment frame-
work for the curriculum indicates the purpose of assessment, the roles of relevant parties,
the assessment principles, where assessments should take place and what will be assessed.
Records of the curriculum should be accessible to other practitioners and comply with
national and organisational quality-assurance purposes.
The curriculum of the learning programme serves as a guide to the facilitators as to how
learning should be facilitated. It demands regular review and update to satisfy organisa-
tional needs and management approval to ensure quality and commitment (WRSETA,
2002:17). It should make provision for the interface between the theory and skills compo-
nents.
In terms of the new occupational framework for qualifications development, it is im-
portant to understand the roles and functions of the DQPs. The QCTO will appoint and
delegate key functions to a DQP which will be governed by a service-level agreement.
According to the QCTO (2011), the DQP will fulfil the following functions during the
process of qualification development:
• appoint a qualifications development facilitator (QDF) to facilitate the development of
occupational qualifications
• co-ordinate the design, development and/or revision of specified occupational standards
and qualifications and/or part-qualifications according to QCTO procedure
• deliver key documents to the QCTO (i.e. the occupational qualification document, cur-
riculum document including accreditation criteria, external assessment specifications
document and qualifications development process report)
• report to the QCTO on the performance of the functions in the service-level agreement
• collaborate with QCTO in the evaluation of this process.
In addition to the above functions the DQP will also recognise qualifications or part-
qualifications registered on the NQF which carry credit towards the achievement of one or
more of the curriculum components and provide a mechanism for RPL. Furthermore, the
DQP will appoint a learner qualification development facilitator to enhance equity and to
be trained in the facilitation of occupational qualification development (QCTO, 2011).
Only approved bodies will be allowed to function as DQPs. A party interested in per-
forming the functions of a DQP (QCTO, 2011):
• must be recommended by stakeholders in a QCTO-facilitated scoping meeting
• must have the human resources necessary to perform the DQP functions as specified in
the QCTO policy
• must have access to communities of expert practitioners in the occupation(s) concerned
• must have the financial resources necessary to perform its functions and confirm that
effective, efficient and transparent financial management and internal control systems
are in place
• must be willing to sign the QCTO Code of Conduct, a code of ethics and professional
conduct
• must submit a valid tax-clearance certificate where appropriate.
Once the QCTO has evaluated and approved an application from a DQP, it will provide
the DQP with access to the NOPF system. The QCTO will then monitor and evaluate the
execution of the DQP functions. In addition, the QCTO will evaluate and recommend
occupational qualifications and/or part-qualifications received from the DQP to SAQA for
registration. Thus, the QCTO will maintain a register of approved curriculum documents
and assessment specifications. Furthermore, it will play an advocacy role and promote
occupational qualifications and/or part-qualifications registered on the sub-framework for
trades and occupations and make available curricula to QCTO-accredited skills develop-
ment providers (QCTO, 2011).
7.5.7.5 Checklist
Apart from these aspects pertaining to learning-programme design, HRD managers should
provide leadership in helping other staff members of the HRD function to design and
develop learning materials that meet the requirements of the NQF and QCTO. Outcomes-
based training materials which are relevant to the South African context will contribute to
the goals of education and training within the NQF. Table 7.2 presents a checklist that can
be used to make the paradigm shift from traditional to workplace-based training when
developing NQF-aligned learning material.
Table 7.2 Self-assessment checklist for designing workplace-based learning material
Outcomes-based dimension Yes Partly No

• Do learning outcomes or objectives directly correspond to the overall
outcomes of the programme?
• Do the learning outcomes or objectives reflect what the learner must be
able to do in the work situation?
• Does the learning guide focus more on applied competence than on
content or theory?
• Is enough information provided to the learner to achieve the desired
outcomes?
continued
Outcomes-based dimension Yes Partly No

• Has the approach to workplace-based learning in this particular pro-
gramme been explained to the learner?
• Does the learning guide use the word ‘learner’ rather than ‘student’?
• Is there evidence that you have considered learner needs when
compiling the learner guide?
• Are the seven NQF critical outcomes covered within the framework of
the learning programme?
• Does the learning guide use the term ‘assessment’ rather than
‘evaluation’?
• Have appropriate forms of assessment been identified, explained and
integrated? (for example, self-assessment, portfolios, etc)
• Have learners been encouraged to integrate knowledge from different
sections of the learning guide and other sources?
• Have learners been encouraged to integrate knowledge from different
fields to achieve an outcome?
• Are the criteria for assessment of competence clearly indicated?
• Do the criteria for assessment of learner competence correlate with the
overall assessment criteria of the module?
• Are learners encouraged to apply critical thinking and problem-solving
skills when studying the content and attempting the learning assignments?
• Are learners encouraged to reflect on their learning?
• Is a conversational rather than lecturing style used by the compilers of
the learning guide?
• Has the learning content been organised in logical units or sections
according to the outcomes?
• Do learning assignments reflect the achievement of outcomes?
• Have learning assessment forms been developed in accordance with the
learning outcomes?
• Are methods and sources of learner support built into the learning
guide?
• Are the benefits of the learning programme indicated for the learners?
• Have learners been requested to provide feedback on the quality of the
learning guide?
• Have different types of learning activities been incorporated to accom-
modate different learning styles?
• Is information provided on progression and articulation
possibilities into other related learning areas?
Significant progress can be made in applying the principles of workplace-based learning

in the curriculum development process if ETD practitioners use the above checklist. The
workplace-based learning approach starts with the outcomes of the learning programme.
The appropriate knowledge, skills and processes are derived as enabling objectives to
achieve the outcomes. The next step is to plan for the appropriate learning experiences to
achieve the outcomes. In order to keep abreast of NQF and QCTO developments, it is
essential that HRD practitioners be involved in standard-generating activities and other
curriculum development sessions.
7.5.7.6 Learning aids

Human resource practitioners will need to develop workplace-based learning aids which
are relevant to the South African context and learners’ needs and adapt existing training ma-
terials to suit the target population group. Training materials can be modified by changing
the sequence of activities, editing and adding or removing materials and by changing the
language and content to accommodate learners. Learning aids should invite learner in-
volvement.
7.5.8 Games and simulations

Business requires employees who have the basic skills and who can cope with uncertainty
and instability in a growing global economy. Therefore, an organisation needs to weigh
the kind of training intervention they select carefully. For example, banks may seek inter-
active scenario-based simulations. Instead of only looking at life-like instructional events
playing out before them, users can practice and assess themselves within the simulation.
Simulation-based assessments need to be adaptable, practical and be able to instruct and
assess users at various skills proficiencies. A scenario may be based on a financial chal-
lenge faced by a fictional family. The user of the simulation assessment needs to advise
them. Games, exercises and ideas can be used to develop sales, customer service and other
staff. The games vary from easy ‘skill boosters’ for coaching sessions or team meetings,
icebreaker, energisers and selling quizzes to advanced role-playing and case studies. The
games and exercises enable sales managers and trainers to:
• develop their staff with confidence.
• guarantee a flexible approach by varying their pace or style in reaction to the subject
matter and their audience.
• strengthening their learning by applying different formats of exercise to cover the same
learning points.
• train by employing the material to encourage learners to use what they already know.
HRD practitioners use business simulations because they are more instructive, memorable
and enjoyable than the typical lecture, text or slide-show approach. HRD practitioners usu-
ally have to decide whether to use an “evolved” or a “custom” simulation. The former is a
standardised programme which a variety of organisations have used for a number of years.
A “custom” simulation is a programme which has been created ad hoc for a specific organ-
isation or industry. Watters (2006:15) offers ten reasons why an evolved simulation is
better quality than a custom, client-specific simulation for training people in business con-
cepts and insights:
• Purpose: Custom simulations mirror a particular organisation’s beliefs, thereby closing
the mind of participants. On the other hand, an evolved simulation takes participants
outside their familiar area in order to open their minds and assist them in thinking “out-
side the box” which leads to more creative business thinking.
• Time: HRD practitioners gain better practice with evolved simulations because of the
many repetitions involved in such simulations. In other words, evolved simulations
offer longer periods of practice than client-specific simulations.
• Reach: Client-specific simulations develop fewer leaders than evolved simulations
which typically have more users.
• Research: The materials which come with evolved simulations go through a develop-
mental process which can cover decades. In contrast, the materials of client-specific
simulations go through a months-long developmental process and involve linking com-
ponents from other programmes which may be unsuitable.
• Input: Evolved simulations are examined and influenced by ideas from numerous busi-
ness school academics, executives and many participants. The ideas which form client-
specific simulations originate from a small community, often less than 20 people.
• Support: Evolved simulations train a skilful support staff which can assist learners and
faculty members. On the other hand, custom simulations provide no support depth, since
it lacks the user volume to substantiate a comparable dedicated support group.
• Cost efficiency: Custom simulations take months to develop. It is more expensive and
as a new programme may be full of mistakes. Alternatively, evolved simulations have
been proven to work, are bug-free and ready for use that afternoon without additional
investment of time or money.
• Space: While evolved simulations are available online and need no space, large and
robust custom simulations can necessitate noteworthy server space.
• You can try before you buy: Interested buyers can test evolved simulations beforehand.
In contrast, buyers pay for custom simulations first and on a take-it-or-leave-it basis.
Another crucial element in the training process is fun. Using games and simulations to en-
liven training interventions has been popular in the USA (an estimated 60% of businesses
in the USA have applied simulations in their training processes) but has been neglected in
South Africa. Although traditional lectures and training sessions assist in setting the bases
for individual development, they do not automatically contribute to long-lasting personal
change essential to organisational change. Then again the fun element has induced some
critics to revert to more conventional training programmes that are more serious in nature.
Blaine (2007:41) thinks that the most effective training interventions ought to include a
mixture of games and theory to support and help contextualise what participants learn so
that learners have the best of both worlds. Organisations are also more likely to capitalise
on their return on investment in training when they employ a simulation or action learning
approach (Blaine, 2007:41). Implementing simulations and action learning will ensure that
organisations spend money wisely and help them achieve Minister Nzimande’s vision for
skills development in this country.
Simulations have the further advantage of being entertaining. When HRD practitioners
focus on the playful energies of the participants, the latter exhibits less resistance to train-
ing (Blaine, 2007:41). Even the cynics in the organisation may find it difficult to with-
stand the appeal of becoming involved in the game and having fun. Whether simulations
vary from the complex and expensive computer-produced games to the humble board
game, these interventions are able to facilitate from the functional management skills to
the “softer” skills like leadership and teamwork. Dup du Plessis and Ansi Verster of Pep
Stores who went this route with their HR team, believe that simulations and games bring
theory to life, since employees are able to notice the effect of their actions and decisions
on co-team members. The energy created by the simulation led to a brainstorming session
by them around an action plan which dealt with some of the team challenges. The simula-
tion challenged all participants to reach a level of honesty and openness that otherwise
would have taken hours to determine.
7.5.9 Design thinking

In addition to the eight types of HRD interventions discussed above, a new more radical
type of business innovation intervention has emerged in recent years. It is called design
thinking. Naiman (2016) defines design thinking as “a methodology used by designers to
solve complex problems, and find desirable solutions for clients”.
Design thinking differs from traditional HRD design in that it is not problem-focused
like most HRD work, but solution focused and action oriented towards creating a pre-
ferred future. In essence, design thinking draws upon logic, imagination, intuition and
systematic reasoning to explore possible actions that could create outcomes to the benefit
of the end user. Hence, the focus is very similar to production or service design in devel-
oping a solutions-based end-state. But the difference is that the people using design
thinking think like artists or designers to generate a solution that is almost guaranteed to
meet the needs of the client.
Design thinking goes through five steps:
1. Show empathy with the end-user by putting yourself in their shoes when thinking
about what they really need.
2. Define the issue or possible solution.
3. Ideate by generating ideas in a creative manner.
4. Develop a prototype of the solution.
5. Test the prototype with the user.
7.6 Conclusion
This chapter dealt with the design of HRD interventions. Practical guidelines were pro-
vided to indicate how interventions like conferences, on-the-job training, industrial theatre
sessions, action learning, adventure learning, team-building and training programmes
should be developed and managed. Several factors such as learning outcomes, the extent
to which the intervention facilitates learning and transfer, and cost, which influence facili-
tators’ choice of appropriate intervention, were discussed.
Learning-programme design refers to the development of a programme strategy and
alignment with the new workplace-based learning approach of the QCTO. Effective
learning-programme design forms an important part of the ETD process. It establishes an
important link between the training-needs analysis (chapter 6) and the planning and organ-
ising of HRD interventions (chapter 8). It is, furthermore, essential that learning pro-
grammes be designed to meet the requirements of the NQF.
The chapter concluded with a discussion of games and simulations. Games and simula-
tions operate on the same principles as action learning by involving employees in what
they learn and applying what they learn as they learn it.
7.7 Case study

People Forward, based in Gauteng, is a leading global manufacturer of products which link people
to electronics and electronic networks. Their products consist of personal computers, cordless phones,
computer security systems, automobile instrumentation, multi-media centres and microwave ovens.
When poor delivery performance from one of the plants led to an inability to provide quality ser-
vice to one of their customers, the plant’s senior managers decided to do something about this situ-
ation. They chose eight people from different areas throughout the company to become members of
a Customer-Request Improvement Team, with the mission to resolve the service problem. The mem-
bers were from sales, marketing, engineering, manufacturing and planning. Top management re-
quested that the first session be videotaped so as not to miss anything. The team had no objections.
During the second session the participants were noticeably quiet. Apparently two senior managers
had criticised some of the comments observed on the tape.
Adapted from Langdon, Whiteside and McKenna (1999:56–57) and McDonald and Keys (1996:4).
Questions
1 Which intervention(s) would you apply in this situation?
2 Why would you choose this intervention?
3 How would you implement this intervention?
4 Which kind of questions should the members ask to clarify the problem?
5 What do you think of the decision to videotape the session?
6 How would you deal with the problems which occurred after the senior managers’ criticism was
revealed?

1 Indicate the reasons why OJT training can be unsuccessful. What do you recommend
to ensure its effectiveness?
2 Explain the conditions which are necessary for adventure learning to be successful.
3 Develop an action plan to ensure that the industrial theatre session you want to con-
duct on “the impact of AIDS in the workplace” will be a success.
4 Develop a programme strategy for a learning programme on safety procedures in the
factory.
5 Reflect on the success or failure of team-building efforts in your organisation.
6 Provide an implementation plan to ensure that the HRD design conforms to the prin-
ciples of outcomes-based education.
7 Reflect on a personal experience where you have been a participant in an intervention
and reflect on the learning as it applied to you.
8 How would you or your company conduct industrial theatre sessions? Which topics
would you use?
9 How would you form and apply an action learning group in your organisation?
10 You as an HRD practitioner have to choose between an evolved simulation and a cus-
tom simulation for a training session. Which one would you choose? Provide reasons
for your choice.
11 Explain how you can apply the National Learning Design Standard when designing a
learning solution for an organisation.
12 Critically discuss the following statement: “In the modern workplace, design think-
ing is more useful than traditional learning design”.
7.9 References
Blaine K, 2007, “Use smarter training interventions”, HR Future, Johannesburg: Blue
Moon.
Craig RL (ed), 1987, Training and Development Handbook: A Guide to Human Resource
Development, 3rd edn, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Eskom News, 2002, “Electricity thieves ambushed through theatre”, Eskom Johannesburg:
Corporate Communications.
Gordon SE, 1994, Systematic Training Program Design: Maximising Effectiveness and
Minimising Liability, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Isaacson N, 1995, “Industrial theatre: One day marvel or here to stay?”, Human Resource
Management 11(5): 33–34.
Katzenbach JR and Smith DK, 1993, The Wisdom of Teams, New York: Harper Collins.
Kauffman R, 2002, “10 Tips to make your corporate conference more successful”, Active
Learning 1–4.
Kenney J and Reid M, 1988, Training Interventions, 2nd edn, Bradford-on-Avon:
Dotesios.
Kruse A, 1995, “Third party roles in conflict management”, Training and Development,
49(5): 1–5.
Langdon DG, Whiteside KS and McKenna MM, 1999, Intervention Resource Guide: 50
Performance Tools, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.
Learning Theatre Organization, 2000, “Big five: The Lion”, Learning Theatre Organiza-
tion News Letter 1(4): 1–2.
Learning Theatre Organization, 2000, “Big five: The Rhino”, Learning Theatre Organ-
ization News Letter 2 (2): 1–3.
McDonald JM and Keys JB, 1996, “The seven deadly sins of teambuilding”, Team Per-
formance Management 2(2): 1–6.
Naiman L, 2016, “Design thinking as a strategy for innovation”, Creativity at Work,
October 2016.
Noe R, 1999, Employee Training and Development, Boston: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
PSETA, 2009, Learning Programme Design Development and Evaluation Guide, Pretoria:
PSETA.
QCTO, 2011, QCTO Policy on Delegation to DQPs and AQPs, Pretoria: QCTO.
SABPP, 2015, National HR Professional Practice Standards, Johannesburg: SABPP.
WRSETA, 2001, “Developing learning programme strategies and curricula”.
Watters C, 2006, “10 Reasons why an ‘evolved’ simulation beats a ‘custom’ one”, Train-
ing 43(8): 15.
WRSETA, 2002, “Policy 2: Management of design, development and delivery of educa-
tion and training” http://learningtheatre.co.za.htm.

Blanchard PN and Thacker JW, 1999, Effective Training: Systems, Strategies and Prac-
tices, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Coghlan D, 1994, “Managing organizational change through teams and groups”, Leader-
ship and Organizational Development Journal 15(2): 18–23.
Engel HM, 1994, Handbook of Creative Learning Exercises, 2nd edn, Amherst, Massa-
chusetts: HRD Press.
Erasmus BJ and Van Dyk PS, 1999, Training Management in South Africa, 2nd edn,
Johannesburg: International Thomson.
ment: Theory and Practice, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
Jacobs RL, 1995, Structured On-The-Job Training: Unleashing Employee Expertise in the
Workplace, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Kipp MF, 2000, “Of teams and teambuilding”, Team Performance Management 7(8):
138–140.
McEvoy GM, 1997, “Organizational change and outdoor management education”, Human
Resource Management 36: 235–250.
Meyer M and Orpen M, 2007, Occupationally-directed Education Training and Develop-
ment Practices, Durban: LexisNexis Butterworths.
Milano M and Ullius D, 1998, Designing Powerful Training: The Sequential-Iterative
Model, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.
Olivier C, 1998, How to Educate and Train Outcomes-based, Pretoria: JL van Schaik.
Owen H, 1997, Open Space Technology: A User’s Guide, 2nd edn, San Francisco: Berrett
Koehler.
Rothwell WJ and Kazanas HC, 1994, Improving On-The-Job Training: How to Establish
and Operate a Comprehensive OJT Program, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Rothwell WJ and Kazanas HC, 1996, “Planned OJT is productive OJT”, Training and
Development Journal, 53–56.
Smalley LR, 1994, On-The-Job Orientation and Training: A Practical Guide to Enhanced
Performance, Irvine, California: Richard Chang Associates.
Tarullo GM, 1992, “Making outdoor experiential training work”, Training, 47–52.
7.11 Internet sites

Action learning: http://www.actionlearning.ca/what.htm
Adventure learning: http://www.adventurelearning.co.uk
Blue Moon Company: http://www.bluemoon.co.za
Business Presentation Products: http://www.bpp.co.za
Industrial theatre: http://www.learningtheatre.co.za/theatre.htm
Instructional Design Group: http://www.idg-online.com
International Foundation for Action Learning: http://www.mentat.co.uk/park/ifal
International Foundation for Action Learning (US): http://www.metalearning.com/ifal-usa
Open Space Technology: http://www.openspacetechnology.com

Open Space Technology Institute: http://www.tmn.com/openspace
Ron Kauffman – Active Learning: http://www.RonKauffman.com
Team building: http://www.teambuilding.co.uk and www.buildingteams.com
The Dancing Satellite Company (industrial theatre): http://www.tdsc.co.za
The Learning Theatre Organization: http://www.learningtheatre.co.za
Tool Thyme for Trainers: http://www.tool-trainers.com
Trainer’s Warehouse: http://www.trainerswarehouse.com
Training Buz: http://www.trainingbuz.com
CHAPTER
8
PLANNING AND
ORGANISING TRAINING
Marjon Meyer
Plans are nothing, planning is everything.
(Dwight D Eisenhower)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Formulate a training strategy and plan for any learning event
• Identify relevant stakeholders in the training process and describe why they should be consulted
in planning for training
• Compile a training budget based on sound budgetary principles
• Develop a marketing strategy for training
• Select various training aids by comparing their advantages and disadvantages
• Indicate all considerations when choosing a suitable venue for a learning programme
• Design a planning checklist for venues and other training-related uses
• Use a project management approach in planning training interventions
• Develop action plans for the activities involved in pre- and post-course training administration
8.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on the management of the human resource development (HRD)
function from a planning and organisation perspective. These two factors are believed to
be integral to the success of training interventions. In fact, the planning and organising of
training interventions constitute two of the most important managerial tasks of the HRD
223
manager. The aspects that should be considered when planning training are explored, such
as budgeting, marketing of programmes and maintaining good administration. A stake-
holder approach is strongly recommended, meaning continuous liaison and consultation
with management, trade unions, learners, training authorities and other relevant role-
players.
Building on the development of National HR and L&D Standards published by the SA
Board for People Practices (SABPP) since 2014, the MICE Academy started developing
planner standards in 2016. These planner standards are not only useful for event and
conference companies, but also for training co-ordinators responsible for planning and
organising training as described in this chapter. In essence, these planner standards pro-
mote a high level of professionalism in the planning and organising of all events, includ-
ing training sessions.
The information contained in this chapter represents a logical follow-up on the previous
two chapters. The training process starts with a learning needs analysis (chapter 6), which
is followed by designing appropriate training interventions to address the particular learn-
ing needs (chapter 7). Training programmes are subsequently planned and developed based
on the decisions that have been taken during the process of learning design and develop-
ment.
It is harder to unlearn than learn.
8.2 Compiling a training plan

For years training has been closely linked with HRD. Some people have even considered
the two terms to be synonymous. Many HRD professionals regard themselves as trainers
because they have devoted their careers to employee training, especially the planning and
execution thereof.
It is important when considering the planning and administration of training, that HRD
practitioners realise that it is only one of the many responsibilities of the HRD function. It
cannot be stressed enough that the success of any training intervention is hugely deter-
mined by the planning and administration functions. Many well-intended training pro-
grammes fail because of a lack of planning and improper organisation.
Reflect on any training programme, seminar, workshop or conference you have attended. How well
was it planned and organised? What went wrong? What would you have done differently?
In the light of the above, it is clear that the preparation for a training programme requires
the application of sound management principles. The training strategy should be based on
the overall strategy of the business. To move from a business strategy to a training strategy
one must (BPP, 2000:197):
• identify the skills and competencies needed by the business plan
• draw up the development strategy to show how training and development activities will
assist in meeting the targets of the corporate plan
• implement the training and development strategy.
The following need to be planned for and organised:
Chapter 8: Planning and organising training 225
• alignment of the learning programme with NQF, skills development and SAQA require-
ments
• consultation with stakeholders
• preparation of ETD staff
• budget
• marketing and selling of training
• administration
• facilities
• records
• instruction
• learning material
• evaluation.
A project management approach should be followed where a project leader is appointed to
oversee the planning and execution of each step. A haphazard approach to the planning of
such interventions is guaranteed to cause disaster. The project leader should also be re-
sponsible for the design and maintenance of a budget for each individual intervention.
An important consideration in the planning phase is to decide which approach should be
followed. The approach obviously depends on the objective of the learning intervention.
The approach will also be determined by the size of the group to be trained. Training is
more cost-effective when done for a group of people with similar needs, but from time to
time individual training is required. Examples of using a particular learning method based
on the learning need have been identified by Moss (1993:34):
• To transfer knowledge, use
– group discussions (questions and answers)
– group or individual exercises
– lectures (with handouts)
– forums
– panel discussions
– films, videos, etc
– excursions
• To practise problem-solving, use
– case studies
– brainstorming
– discussion groups
– exercises
• To develop skills, use
– demonstrations of manual skills
– role-playing for interpersonal skills
– peer teaching
– coaching
– programmed instructions
– computer-based training
– assignments and projects
• To change attitudes, use
– debates
– displays
– role-playing (to clarify how others feel)
– group discussions (for group attitudes)
– industrial theatre (see chapter 7)
– individual exercises
– demonstrations
– campaigns
Approaches can also be used in different combinations to achieve maximum results. A
secretarial development programme recently run at BMW combined class and group dis-
cussions with project work, excursions and demonstration of skills. Delegates who com-
pleted the programme not only gained more knowledge about their field, but also about
the organisation they worked for. Furthermore, they had to implement new skills almost
immediately as part of their project work, minimising the risk of “forgetting what they
have learnt”. At the Gauteng Department of Housing a similar programme was run where
delegates had to reflect on new skills learnt every week. Although delegates aren’t always
excited about assignments, once they start to work on these the training process gains mo-
mentum and learners buy into the process because they are actively involved.
8.2.1 Alignment with NQF and QC requirements

For training to be relevant in the new learning dispensation, it is essential to ensure that all
learning programmes meet the requirements of the National Qualifications Framework
(NQF) and specifically those of the quality councils (QCs). This means that HRD practi-
tioners and other employees involved in the training function should continuously study
the NQF requirements with regard to the planning of learning programmes. In particular,
the new Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) system provides a range of
issues that should be considered by education, training and development (ETD) practi-
tioners in rolling out occupational training. These standards should form the basis for all
training and development strategies that are embarked upon.
8.2.2 Consultation with stakeholders

The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) regulations make it very clear that
stakeholders must be consulted before learning programmes are implemented. This will
ensure that the NQF requirements of credibility, relevance of learning and legitimacy are
adhered to.
The first question that must be answered is: who are our stakeholders? The aim of learn-
ing is to bring about change, whether it is a change in perception or a change in behaviour
to improve performance. It is important to get the organisation’s stakeholders’ agreement
of the process or learning programme that you are about to embark on. The term “stake-
holder” includes various role-players, namely:
• a manager or supervisor who needs to be convinced to implement a new learning pro-
gramme or to accept the training budget
• learners – they are at the centre of skills development and it is therefore imperative to
get their buy-in into the training to ensure skills transfer and performance improvement
• senior management who should support the training process and allocate enough re-
sources to the training to make it a success
• unions – in South Africa unions have played an important role in the development of
their members for a long time and it is important to get them on board when designing
training interventions (Black et al, 2003:148)
• the service provider – although training is increasingly being outsourced the provider
should be involved in the process regardless of whether it is an internal or external provider
• training boards, standards bodies and other accreditation bodies (QCTO, CHE, Uma-
lusi, SETAs) – with the new look at learning and recognition of prior learning in South
Africa, considering regulatory bodies will become increasingly important during the
planning stage of training.
To get all stakeholders around the same table at the same time is not an easy task. It is
therefore important to realise that it is more important to consult all relevant stakeholders,
even separately, than have as many stakeholders as possible available at the same time.
There are various success stories about stakeholder consultation. Rand Water has vari-
ous forums where unions and management sit around the table to discuss issues that are
relevant to staff well-being, staff development, labour relations, etc. A consultative pro-
cess was followed when introducing adult basic education programmes resulting in the
programmes being successful at most sites.
PricewaterhouseCoopers recently designed training for administrative staff where man-
agers, learners, HR and the service provider were consulted. The result was a highly suc-
cessful programme.
At CMS the middle management team attend the same training as the supervisors to
ensure that the whole organisation buys into the training process.
It has been mentioned that service providers should also be involved. It is wise that train-
ing providers insist on stakeholder consultation before training programmes are developed
or customised. They often follow the “focus group” route where both a representative
group of delegates and a group from management attend pre-training sessions to highlight
their needs, ideas and expectations. The fact that this consultation is done by external train-
ing consultants gives this process credibility. Consultation with all groups prevents the
training from covering only management needs and interests. This ensures organisation-
wide buy-in and commitment.
Yet, there must be no illusion about the time and effort that such consultative processes
take. Mitchell (2005:372) says consultation (and negotiation) is a process, not an event.
Agreement about all aspects of training is often not reached completely, forcing the role-
players to come to an agreement which is in the interest of all parties involved. A way to
get around this, according to Mitchell (2005:372), is to be informed. The more you know
about your stakeholders, as well as what their objectives are, the greater the leverage will
be in making progress towards effective learning programmes.
Furthermore, Moss (1993:11) states it is important to involve supervisors in the plan-
ning process. They should be involved in both the planning and execution of training.
Without their commitment, support and encouragement, training can be wasted. Newby
(1992:57) postulates a partnership between managers and trainers at all stages of the train-
ing process. He says managers can play the following roles:
• Help trainers to diagnose learning needs
• Ensure that the right people are matched to the right training
• Brief subordinates before training so that they know what is expected of them after the
training
• Debrief returning trainees to check what they have learnt and agree on an action plan to
put things into practice
• Allow subordinates to do some things differently and to take some risks
• Provide constructive feedback on their performance when they try out new skills
• Act as a model for effective behaviour and as a guiding mentor and coach
• Evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the investment that the manager has made in the train-
ing of staff.
8.2.3 Planning the method of training and development

Different training and development needs require different methods and approaches. A
training session is not always the answer to developmental problems. A key decision needs
to be made as to what the developmental vehicle will be. The list of developmental oppor-
tunities is endless, but includes the following:
• Formal training
– training courses
– seminars, lectures and symposiums
– computer-based training or programmed learning
• On-the-job training
– demonstration/instruction
– coaching
– job rotation
– delegation
– “assistant to” positions
– membership of committees
– attend informative meetings
– project work
Although organisations are becoming increasingly active in arranging training interven-
tions, there is also the reality of releasing employees to attend training courses. This is just
one of the considerations of planning your training intervention.
Avroy Shlain ran a customer service programme with Marjon Meyer and Associates
where a four module programme was presented during one morning per week for four
weeks. This prevented delegates from being away from the office for too long and thus
disrupting normal operations. A similar strategy was followed with BESTmed where
learners improved their English business writing skills over six weeks. The advantages of
this modular programme included:
• Focused training for a short period
• Adequate time for implementation of new skills
• Avoiding an overload of training
• Minimal disruption of operations
• Staff who otherwise could not be released for a long period also benefiting from train-
ing.
This certainly does not mean to say that longer programmes are outdated. An intensive
programme is often needed to introduce a paradigm shift or to teach a new skill. In order
to decide what format the training should be, consider the following factors:
• Objective of the development intervention
• Nature of the learner’s job
• Time available for training
• Distance learners have to travel to attend the training session
• Budgetary constraints.
Another consideration is whether to use an internal facilitator or to outsource training.
Many companies outsource their training because they prefer to focus on core business. An
ASTD report (ASTD/SABPP, 2010) stated that there was a global decline in outsourcing
but an increase in expenditure on training. White (2002:33) is of the opinion that out-
sourcing is the most cost-effective approach, allowing the organisation to concentrate on
its core business. It is therefore clear that each organisation has to formulate its own plan
that will be in line with its strategic objectives, training needs and financial resources. In-
ternal facilitators know their own organisations inside and out and are therefore often the
best choice. However, it is said that learners are more prepared to hear about change from
an outsider because this person is usually seen as neutral with regard to changes in the
organisation concerned.
Table 8.1 Internal versus external facilitator
Criteria Internal facilitator External facilitator

Budget For a single session it is less expen- As an immediate expense it is more
sive, but if remuneration package is expensive
considered, it could be more expen-
sive
Knowledge of the Usually have in-depth knowledge of Have knowledge based on own
organisation the organisation research and/or assessments
Variety of training Variety is limited to the knowledge Unlimited as experts in each field
interventions and expertise of internal facilitators can be sourced
Effectiveness of Can be effective if training is Can be effective if training is
training approached and presented effectively approached and presented effectively
and in line with learners’ needs and in line with learners’ needs
continued
Criteria Internal facilitator External facilitator

Relationship with Often have intimate knowledge of If rapport is established and after-
learners learners and have good relationships training support is provided, it can be
with staff. Company politics can a positive long-term relationship.
have a negative impact Where financial gain is more
important than relationship building
it can have a negative impact
8.2.4 Managing ETD staff

The planning of many learning programmes revolves around ensuring that all the right
equipment is in place before the programme commences. While these aspects are indeed
essential, HRD managers should put particular emphasis on the development of their ETD
staff. Unfortunately many HRD managers are so preoccupied with the development of the
company’s human resources, that they often neglect their own staff members. When man-
aging ETD staff it is essential to recognise the unique needs, concerns, problems and
expectations of ETD practitioners. The workload of ETD practitioners is of such a nature
that they are often required to work after hours when preparing for a training course. The
HRD manager should therefore ensure that these staff members receive the necessary
support and that action plans are developed to maintain a high level of morale and job
satisfaction. The following guidelines can assist in this process:
• Keep ETD practitioners informed of all developments at national, industry and company
level.
• Provide learning opportunities to ETD practitioners so that they will be up to date with
the requirements of the NQF and Skills Development Act.
• Develop career paths for ETD practitioners.
• Expose them directly to line managers and employees in other departments.
• Recognise their achievements and contributions.
• Obtain their input and participation in the management of the training function.
8.2.5 Budgets
One of the questions that has to be answered during the planning phase of training is how
much will the training cost? It is interesting to note that training professionals are nearly
always asked how much training will cost, rather than what the size of the training invest-
ment will be. A better question would be how much will it cost us if we don’t train?
Walsh (2002:12) reminds us that although management understand that training is in-
tangible, they need to see a return on their investment. Organisations who do not keep a
finger on the pulse of their training budgets often find that they spend too much on one
particular programme and that funds are thereafter limited for the rest of the financial
year. Training funds are spent irresponsibly (or sometimes not at all) when commitment
to training is lacking.
Training used to be a centralised function and the responsibility of the training or human
resource department. It is often argued that better control can be applied in the case of
centralised budgets. This may be true, but commitment is better when training becomes a
shared responsibility. Many progressive companies are now realising that training is the
responsibility of line management rather than that the training function is there to support
and facilitate learning interventions. It is therefore important that the training function is
involved in the strategic planning of the organisation to ensure that training objectives
underline the strategic direction of the organisation.
This philosophy is reflected in the way training budgets are administrated. Rand Water,
BMW and some government departments, to name but a few, share the budgetary respon-
sibility of training. Line management has to foot the bill when an individual wants to
attend a course. Training therefore has to meet the needs of line managers! On the other
hand, training departments often run corporate development programmes with an allocated
budget. It also happens that line management and the training function will share some
costs. There are numerous possibilities. A healthy relationship between line and staff man-
agement is necessary to make this dual responsibility work.
Working out a training budget is not always as easy as it may appear at first. This is
because of the difficulty of deciding what should be included in the costs. Should one in-
clude the salaries of trainers if internal trainers are used? Should one include loss of pro-
duction during training? What is the cost of in-service training? Many organisations work
on a cost-recovery principle, whereby the training department runs training as a business
unit and training is “sold” to other departments. Eskom and Transnet, among others, have
training centres where this principle is applied. The decision to form a training business
unit is a brave one, but certainly has its advantages and disadvantages. The biggest chal-
lenge to business units is undoubtedly marketing themselves, thus being able to run profit-
ably.
The size of the budget determines how much of the organisation’s training needs will
be addressed, according to Wills (1993:128). Appleby (1999:62) says before even starting
to think about venues, location, trainers and so on the budget must be established. He
defines the budget as a quantitative goal which states the financial confines in which you
are working. Although a budget should be set at the start of the project, it can be altered
and monitored as you proceed.
When compiling a training budget it is important to realise that costs can be divided
into fixed and variable costs.
Fixed costs are those costs that will be encountered irrespective of the number of dele-
gates who may attend. They may include:
• Course development
• Trainer’s fees
• Travel
• Accommodation
• Venue hire
• Equipment hire.
Variable costs are those which vary according to the number of delegates who attend, for
example:
• Printing of training manuals
• Catering
• Stationery.
Depending on a decision made during the planning phase, you may decide to make use of
professional trainers or consultants. It is important that rates are discussed beforehand and
agreed to in writing. Professionals usually charge extra for travel, so keep it in mind and
negotiate all fixed and variables with the service provider. It is vital that the agreed costs
and conditions are set out in a written agreement with the external providers.
Remember to play it safe and to build a contingency fund into the budget. This will
cover unforeseen expenses and will help to ensure that your budget does not get out of
control. A rule of thumb is that 10% of the budget is a comfortable contingency amount.
Table 8.2 represents an example of a training budget for a three-day senior management
training course for 15 delegates held at an external venue by a training consultant. No
accommodation is required for this particular course. The fees mentioned are purely
imaginary.
Should an internal trainer be used for training, the cost of train-the-trainer as well as his
or her “cost to company” should be calculated. Be careful of those hidden costs, such as
stationery and transport. If an internal venue is used, there will most probably be some cost
involved such as the costs of equipment hire or catering. For a complete picture of the
actual cost of training, loss of production time should also be included. It is easier to sell
training by indicating the cost per person versus the cost of the group of delegates.
Table 8.2 Example of a budget for a training course
Cost per
Item Total
person
Conference package (inclusive of venue hire, equipment, stationery,
tea and refreshments at 10:00 and 15:00, lunch) @ R350 per person
per day × 3 days R1 050,00 R15 750,00
Hire of data projector @ R600 per day 120,00 1 800,00
Course development 667,00 10 000,00
Workbooks in files 90,00 1 350,00
Training consultant for three days @ R12 000 per day 2 400,00 36 000,00
TOTAL R4 327,00 R64 905,00
A more complex type of budget is the annual training budget. When calculating the
annual training budget, it is important to have done your organisation’s needs assessment
(discussed in chapter 6) and planned training interventions accordingly. However, in
today’s fast-changing business environment it is not advisable to have a rigid training cal-
endar worked out for an entire year. Training needs will still crop up from time to time
and the budget should therefore be flexible enough to accommodate those needs.
The HRD manager is also responsible for controlling the training budget. The amount
you have spent needs to be checked at regular intervals, so that deviations can be detected
early. Controlling the budget can be done monthly or on a project-for-project basis. It is
important to remain within the set budget, especially in the interest of future budgets for
training and related projects.
8.2.6 Marketing and selling training

Training professionals should always keep in mind who their real customers are. Trainers
ultimately work for management, not only for the learners. Managers are the decision-
makers; therefore training professionals should convince management that they are get-
ting good value for the money that they are willing to spend on training.
Mitchell (2005:349) says training professionals cannot wait for people to come to them;
they must go to their customers and ask to solve their problems.
Trainers are sellers too.
8.2.6.1 Selling to management

To convince management that they are getting a good investment on their training, you
need to keep the following guidelines in mind:
• Training objectives should match organisational objectives and should support efforts
to achieve them.
• Learning programmes should meet the needs of management.
• Training should address the most important needs of the organisation.
• Keep record of changes in skills, knowledge and attitudes after training.
• Calculate the return on investment of training.
• Keep within the training budget.
• Involve all stakeholders in the organisation.
• The training investment and approach should meet national imperatives such as the
NQF and Skills Development Act.
When promoting training to management, find an organisational objective that training
can be linked to. The training professional has to prove to management that the training
budget is being spent in support of management goals and objectives. Decide whether the
training budget is used to help increase production or profits, reduce staff turnover, im-
prove morale, improve client satisfaction or customer service or even improve the public
image of the organisation.
Organisations and training providers who are registered with the relevant SETAs can
also claim their training levies back should they invest in credible training interventions.
This is an excellent selling tool as HRD practitioners can help an organisation to have
“real value for money”.
8.2.6.2 Motivating learners

Another important customer is the learner. Learners should be excited about training and
not be forced to attend training interventions against their will. So often in the past, train-
ing programmes have been imposed on delegates without getting their approval of or buy-
in in the process.
An organisation that employs almost 5 000 employees decided to embark on a training
drive to enhance communication and trust between staff and management. Is it not ironic
that management decided on everything regarding the programme, including what, where,
when and who? After the first month of this intensive “attitude change training”, the com-
pany had a major strike that lasted several days. Workers accused management of poor
communication and nepotism. When management and worker representatives eventually
sat around the same table, a shop steward mentioned that if it had not been for the training
programme, workers would never have come to the conclusion that communication was
the source of their problems with management. Be careful not to shoot yourself in the foot!
Needless to say, the training programme was put on hold, while “negotiations” on what
the programme should consist of and who should attend took place.
8.2.6.3 Steps in marketing

A comprehensive training marketing strategy is needed to ensure that all staff members
are aware of the benefits of training. There are six steps involved in a training marketing
effort, as indicated by Mitchell (2005:333) and Stolz, Majors and Soares (1994:231):
• Defining the target market and stakeholders: Identify exactly who needs training or who
you will be targeting to promote your department or project or training programme. It
is also important to determine who in the organisation will benefit from the training.
• Defining the product or service: The training department usually has various “products”
that can be sold to target markets. Products may include customised training pro-
grammes, seminars, workshops, computer-based training, needs analyses, performance
consulting, expertise in bringing in external consultants, etc.
• Researching the target market: Find out about your target market to determine what
their attitude towards training is, how their profile looks, what previous training they
have attended, what they expect of the training department, etc.
• Choosing the best channel: There are many ways of approaching people. Be creative in
finding ways to get the message across to the target group. Ask for a few minutes at
important meetings to present a talk on what the training department can offer and what
they have been doing in the past. Invite line management to presentations by external
providers and listen to their feedback.
• Selling the product or service: Choose a few effective channels such as newsletters and
electronic mail. Do not oversell, as people may become irritated.
• Follow-up: Remember to get people’s feedback about training, seminars and other inter-
ventions. A training professional who is seen as someone who is not only interested in
getting enough people on a course, but interested in the difference training makes to
people’s careers and the performance of the company, has far more credibility in the
organisation.
Often people need your gentle persuasion before they see the need for training. Mitchell
(2005:342) emphasises the three elements of persuasion:
• Logical appeal: Whatever you are selling must make sense, especially from the other
person’s point of view.
• Emotional appeal: Do not rant and rave or become hysterical, but do show some excite-
ment in what you have to say. As a training professional you must show that you care
and that you are working in the client’s best interests.
• Ethical or authoritative appeal: To be persuaded, people must feel that what you are
asking them to do is the right thing. They need to believe they are making a good de-
cision to use the products and services of the training function.
8.2.7 Training aids

When planning training it is important to consider what training aids will enhance training.
Different interventions and trainers have specific training aid requirements. It is important
to establish early on in the planning process what their needs are and what is available at
the venue. Advantages and disadvantages are outlined in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 The application of different training aids
Training aid Advantages Disadvantages Primary purpose

Slides on data Colourful, varied, easily Require darkened room, Take them where they
projector transportable, give no personal contact, cannot otherwise go
uniform presentation possible mechanical (close-ups, enlarge-
problems, overused, ments, other locations)
passive
Charts and Flexible, simple, readily Limited sightlines, Can develop material
posters available, colourful, limited viewing interactively with the
show organisation of distance, replacement group, can refer back to
material, enhance costs, markers dry out, earlier material
interaction in the group, awkward to transport
can be referred to
several times
Boards Can be colourful, Limited sightlines, Best when you need to
flexible, familiar, messy, must be erased, add or remove things
universally available associated with school from a diagram,
excellent for chart
development, good
brainstorming aid
Films Colourful, show action, Require darkened room, Take them where they
readily available, give cover generic principles cannot otherwise go
uniform presentation, only, easily dated, not with action (or other real
lend credibility and always focused on life locations)
professionalism training
Audio tapes Effective for Limited aural attention Let you hear yourself as
sound-orientated span, talk at trainees, others hear you, let you
training, voice training, not with them, no listen and learn while
portable, create a mood interaction, limited travelling
sensory input
Models, actual Real thing, larger than Limited sightlines, Demonstrate how things
items life, help visualisation of initial cost, work, look or will look,
the abstract, some easily unavailability, storage show complex
made and breakage problems, relationship of parts in
maintenance, distracting context, show internal
if used sloppily, movements, allow close
tendency for information inspection and hands-on
overload practice
Video/DVD Dynamic, take group Fairly high initial cost Let people see and
where they cannot go evaluate own and others
otherwise, easily performances,
updated, easily action-orientated
transported
continued
Training aid Advantages Disadvantages Primary purpose

Computers Self-paced instruction, Mechanical process Hands-on practice, can
interactive, exciting with no human contact, be used to give trainees
future high initial expense, practice on equipment
time-consuming to they will actually use,
programme, tied to excellent for simulations
commercial software,
monotonous to use,
tendency for information
overload
Social media Instant and quick Not all learners are To stay connected with
communication, very connected and you can’t learners by providing
good tool for learner provide much detail on them with instant
motivation. certain platforms such as information and
Twitter. feedback.
Handouts Can be referred to after Distracting if distributed Useful for hands-on
the course, no sightline while you are talking practice and for giving
problems assignments
Pointers Can be used to enhance Distracting if played Excellent for focusing
several other aids with, can be seen as trainees’ attention on
(boards, slides, posters “telling” style one specific detail at a
etc) time
You You can adapt any Can focus on To train: for everyone
training method to suit self-interest, biases, may you are the main
the exact needs of the not be able to satisfy message, you can
learners learner needs motivate learners as
nothing else can
Source: Adapted from Mitchell (2005).
Part of ensuring the success of a training intervention would be to test all equipment before
use. It cannot be assumed that venue owners test equipment (although theoretically it
should be). Many trainers can probably think of situations where they were embarrassed by
dysfunctional equipment in front of a group of delegates. Recently a South African hotel
group was chosen as the venue for an important training programme. The organisers sub-
mitted their requirements, specifying their exact needs, to the hotel. What an embarrass-
ment to the organiser when an invited guest speaker could not get the video machine to
operate!
Electronic technology has added new dimensions to training. The increased use of
e-learning, teleconferences and video conferences make training more enjoyable and valu-
able. You can now bring world authorities into training rooms with a minimum of effort.
But do not get carried away by the tools of training – the basic objectives, skills and mo-
tivation are more important. Chapter 10 provides more detail on e-learning.
8.2.8 Planning the venue

One of the keys to effective training is a positive learning environment. Although the phys-
ical environment does not teach individuals, it makes it easier or harder to learn. If learn-
ers are comfortable, they will be able to concentrate on what is being learned. Choosing
the right venue for the learning event is important. Only a few organisations have training
facilities that are adequate for learning. It is often reasoned that enough money is spent on
development and facilitation and that using a conference room on the premises can save
some costs.
Should the conference room be adequate in terms of the facilitator and learner needs, it
can certainly be used. The room should also be disturbance free to ensure maximum con-
centration. The writer of this chapter has facilitated in some very interesting places, in-
cluding a bar, a stable, a huge hall, and worst of all in a little room hardly big enough to
accommodate the delegates.
Appleby (1999:19) identifies the following considerations:
• Modern, purpose-built conference centres have the latest in audio-visual equipment.
• Training centres belonging to large organisations (for example, Eskom Training Centre,
Transnet’s Esselen Park) are rented out when not in use.
• Out-of-town venues offer numerous outdoor activities within their grounds.
• Hotels have the benefit of overnight accommodation and leisure facilities for delegates.
8.2.8.1 Selecting the right venue

It is important to select the most appropriate venue for a learning event. Several factors
need to be considered when selecting a venue:
• Course specifications: Specifications about the facilities, materials and equipment that
are needed to run the programme.
• Target group: Your delegates could co-determine the choice of a venue. When organ-
ising a workshop for executives you will have different requirements than when you
are organising training for low-level factory workers.
• Budget: Naturally your budget will greatly determine the choice of a venue.
• Location: When your delegates have their own transport you have a bigger choice of
venues than when delegates make use of public transport.
• Equipment: Should the training require specialised equipment, your venue should
accommodate it.
• Catering: When delegates are expected to be present for more than a few hours, it is
expected to provide a meal. Remember to keep learners’ dietary requirements in mind!
It is furthermore important that your delegates are comfortable. If learners are comfort-
able, they will concentrate on the learning process. Mitchell (2005:287) and Wills
(1993:121) consider the following comfort factors as important:
• Temperature: Few things kill a seminar faster than a room that is too hot or too cold. If
it is too hot, delegates struggle to stay awake. When the room is too cold, people are too
uncomfortable to learn. For optimum learning, it is probably better to have a slightly
cool than a slightly warm temperature. Vermeulen (1999) recommends a room tem-
perature of between 16 and 18 degrees Celsius.
• Lighting: Many training rooms have too little light. It is also possible to have too much
light, making it difficult to view transparencies or videos.
• Chairs: If you have ever attended training or a conference where you had to sit on hard
or uncomfortable chairs, you will know how distracting it can be.
• Writing and workspace: A steady, spacious surface is a must for every delegate. You
want delegates to take in as much as possible, therefore, make it easy for them to take
notes. It is also uncomfortable to sit too close to the next delegate.
• Sightlines: When delegates cannot see the trainer or the visual aids they will eventually
lose interest in the training. Also ensure that nobody has a blocked view due to seating
arrangements or equipment.
The more the organisers can do to create an ideal learning environment the better.
8.2.8.2 Venue checklist

The use of checklists is extremely helpful when selecting a venue and when doing a last-
minute check-up. An example of a venue checklist is depicted in Table 8.4. This checklist
is compiled based on the perspectives of Appleby (1999:24) and Wills (1993:119).
Table 8.4 An example of a venue checklist
Important points Specific requirements Due date Done

Location of venue – easily accessible
Enough parking
Organised reception area
Helpful staff members at venue
Size of training room
Capacity of training room
Equipment
Room temperature
Lighting
Comfortable chairs
Enough workspace for delegates
Power sockets
Acoustics
Wall space for posters or flipcharts
Breakaway rooms
Toilets
Catering
Security
Wifi
Administration back-up (making of
copies, fax, typing, etc)
Value for money
Other (specify)
8.2.8.3 Doing homework about the chosen venue

It is vital that the course organiser visit the chosen venue. Although modern technology
makes it very easy to make bookings from an office, it is no guarantee that everything will
be to the liking of the facilitator or the delegates. It is also important to confirm all the
arrangements in writing. A facilitator recently ran an in-house management course for
high-level managers. Arrangements to run the course at an outside venue were made by the
trainer’s assistant, but never followed up by the facilitator. Imagine the disappointment
and embarrassment when the facilitator and delegates arrived at the venue only to discover
that they were in the process of closing down and not in a position to accommodate a train-
ing course. What a rocky start to the training course! This same course eventually had to
be run in one of the company’s inadequate conference rooms.
Ensure that delegates know exactly where the venue is. Starting late because delegates
become lost is a waste of valuable time and money. Ensure that maps are attached to the
confirmation letters. It is also useful to provide the telephone number of the venue in case
a map is not enough to enable a delegate to find the venue.
The arrangement of chairs and table is another aspect of venue planning. Seating arrange-
ments can vary according to the structure of the training session. The following illustra-
tions are only some examples of seating arrangements.
Figure 8.1 Examples of seating arrangements
8.2.9 Administration
Wills (1993:147) says that administration is the “glue” of the training process. Training
and development needs are becoming more complex, but the training professional still has
to get the right people to the right courses at the right time. This, as anyone involved in
training administration will know, is easier said than done. The following aspects are im-
portant when considering training administration:
• Scheduling trainers
• Booking rooms or venues
• Scheduling and maintaining a training calendar
• Booking accommodation
• Printing manuals or learning materials
• Arranging catering or refreshments
• Facilitating nomination of delegates
• Confirmation to delegates
• Handling cancellations or substitutes
• Facilitating handing in of assignments or projects
• Ensuring that reports are written
• Ensuring that delegates arrive at the right course at the right place at the right time
• Keeping training records up to date
• Ensuring that accounts are paid.
8.2.9.1 Pre-course administration

Booking venues and trainers
Once the training plan is finalised, venues and facilitators need to be booked first. Internal
venues need to be booked and preferably be confirmed in writing. If using an external
venue, booking several months ahead is often necessary. All requirements should be made
clear in writing to avoid any disappointment or embarrassment on the day of the training.
Should a consultant be used to do the training, it is important to finalise a written agree-
ment.
Course nominations
A process of consultation with stakeholders should be followed even when canvassing for
nominations for the course. Various methods can be used to promote the course as dis-
cussed earlier. A nomination form should be completed by the delegate or the manager,
and should contain the following information:
• Course name
• Selected course date
• Course fee
• Name – as learners would like to be called on the course
• Name – as learners would like to have printed on their certificates
• Employee number
• Department
• Designation
• Contact number for delegate
• Immediate manager or supervisor
• Manager’s signature.
Organisations often do course scheduling well in advance to avoid double bookings. It is
advisable that schedules be kept on computer as manual systems do not have “alarms” that
can go off when there be a double booking. A schedule will also give any person an oppor-
tunity to see whether there are bottlenecks or whether one department will be seriously
short-staffed by the scheduled training. Avoid booking too many courses around school
and public holidays as many people take leave during those periods.
On receipt of nominations or bookings for delegates, a course list should be completed.
A course list can look as follows:
Course list
Course name ..........................................................................................................................

Course date/s .........................................................................................................................
Venue .....................................................................................................................................
Delegate name Department Designation Contact number
and e-mail
Facilitator ...............................................................................................................................
If a course is overbooked, keep a waiting list as people often have to cancel or postpone
because of work pressure or for personal reasons and so on. A way to get around the can-
cellation problem is to keep delegates or their departments responsible for the training
cost (or even a cancellation fee). It has been my experience that delegates will think twice
about cancelling if they are held responsible for the costs. In order to do this, a written
commitment should be included in the booking form. Alternatively, delegates can be en-
couraged to nominate substitutes.
Course confirmation
Sending confirmation of training to delegates is one of the most important aspects of pre-
training administration. The following information should appear on a confirmation letter:
• Name of course
• Date of course, for example, Wednesday 24 November and Thursday 25 November
• Starting times and estimated closure time
• Venue
• Pre-reading or work required before start of training
• Name(s) of facilitator(s)
• Contact person for queries and telephone number (preferably a cell number)
• Map or directions to external training venue
• A summary of the benefits of the course to the learner and the organisation.
Facilitators are seldom responsible for pre-course administration. It is therefore important
that administrators communicate with facilitators to ensure that the latter have all the
necessary information about the venue, delegates and other relevant issues. CBM Training
administrators prepare “training kits” for trainers containing training manuals, directions,
details about delegates, stationery, and equipment. This means that one person is in charge
of arranging logistics. This avoids “gaps” and duplications in arrangements.
8.2.9.2 Post-course administration
The course is not finalised when the last word is spoken on the course. Apart from evalua-
tion, it is important that reports are written on delegates to give feedback to line managers.
Reports can be on individual delegates’ progress and behaviour during the course or it can
be a group report. A group report is recommended when a larger group (15 or more dele-
gates) is trained or where the purpose of the training is to change group attitudes. As the
facilitator sees the delegates under different circumstances, the information conveyed to
management is very important. The following can be addressed in the report:
• Delegate’s level of participation
• Delegate’s level of understanding (especially of more complex principles)
• Parts of the training the delegate took special interest in
• Development areas of delegates (often these are recommendations for further training)
• General behaviour in class and in small groups
• The support needed from the manager to ensure application and skills transfer.
Training records
Records of completed training are an important source of information for training profes-
sionals. It is critical to decide how training records can serve a purpose. Record systems
should therefore be designed to be useful sources of information to the organisation. With
the implementation of the NQF and SAQA, organisations are required to keep records
especially for the purpose of recognising prior learning. The objective of keeping records
will differ from organisation to organisation. Training records may be kept to:
• Keep track of training and skill development in the organisation for historical purposes
• Comply with NQF and SAQA regulations as well as the Skills Development Act
• Build accurate records of staff members’ development
• Guide training and development initiatives as part of the HRD strategy
• Record performance of HRD activities.
Many computer-based human resource information systems have a facility to accommo-
date comprehensive training records. It is important that the nature of the information is in
line with the needs of the organisation. Examples of records are:
• Human resources planning data
• Records of courses attended while in the company’s service
• Individual training records (including training undergone while in another company’s

service)
• In-service training records
• Performance management (including appraisal records)
• Records of study loans and bursaries
• Employment equity records
• Course reports
• Skills development records
• Training-needs analysis data.
8.2.10 Planning for training evaluation

Trainers, learners and managers should evaluate training. The objective of evaluation is to
assess the strengths and weaknesses of the training activity. Feedback and suggestions are
needed for improvements. Evaluation may be ongoing, carried out at the end of the train-
ing or some time thereafter. Assessments are imperative for organisations to measure the
value of training interventions.
Ways of evaluating and validating an intervention are:
• Trainees’ reaction to the experience – evaluation forms are generally a good tool.
• Trainee learning – measure learning through post-course assessments.
• Changes in job behaviour following training – this is relevant where the aim of the
course was to learn a skill.
• Organisational change as a result of training.
• Impact of training on organisational goals.
We rarely learn from our successes but we learn from our mistakes.
It is important to plan evaluation to ensure that the objective of the intervention is achieved
and that evaluation is not merely a haphazard exercise. It is necessary to decide what
method of evaluation you will implement before the start of the training intervention. For
example, if evaluation forms are used at the end of a learning programme, these forms
must be developed well in advance so that they will be ready when they are needed. The
same principle applies to workplace assessment after a course has been completed.
Feedback is the key to improvement.
If evaluation is carried out effectively it will indicate whether or not the learning pro-
gramme is effective or if the money has been well spent. It will also provide information
regarding which areas of the learning programme should be improved. The planning of
the evaluation strategy should be based on the information provided in chapter 17.
8.3 A project management approach

Want to complete training projects successfully? On-time, within budget, and involving
the appropriate people to ensure integration? These project management steps will ensure
that you practice effective project management.
8.3.1 Handling a successful project

The table below is based on Michael Greer’s (2007:2) steps of handling a successful
project. These actions are organised according to the five crucial steps of project manage-
ment:
1. Initiating
2. Planning
3. Implementing
4. Controlling
5. Closing.
Action Results of Successful Performance Initiating
1. Demonstrate A confirmation that there is a need for the training and describing the
training needs training deliverables, means of creating the training, costs of creating and
and feasibility implementing the training
2. Obtain training A “go/no go” decision is made by the relevant manager
authorisation A project manager is assigned
A “project charter” is created which:
• Formally recognises the project
• Is issued by a manager external to the project and at a high enough
organisational level
• Authorises the project manager to apply resources to training
3. Obtain A “go/no go” decision is made by the relevant manager who authorises
authorisation for the project manager to apply organisational resources to the activities of
the phase a particular phase
Written approval of the phase is created
Approval is granted by a manager external to the project and at a high
enough organisational level so that he or she can meet project needs
Action Planning
4. Describe training Statement of training project scope
project scope Scope training plan
Work breakdown structure
5. Define and An activity list (list of all activities that will be performed on the training
sequence project project)
activities Updates to the work breakdown structure (WBS)
A project network diagram
6. Estimate Estimate of durations (time required) for each activity and assumptions
durations for related to each estimate
activities and Statement of resource requirements
resources
required Updates to activity list
7. Develop a Project schedule in the form of Gantt charts, network diagrams, milestone
training schedule charts, or text tables
Supporting details, such as resource usage over time, cash flow projections,
order/delivery schedules, etc
continued
Action Planning
8. Estimate costs Cost estimates for completing the training project
Supporting detail, including assumptions and constraints
Cost management plan describing how cost variances will be handled
9. Build a budget A cost baseline or time-phased budget for measuring/monitoring costs
and spending A spending plan, telling how much will be spent on what resources at what
plan time
10. Create a formal Quality management plan, including operational definitions
quality plan Quality verification checklists
Compliance with NQF regulations
11. Create a formal A communication management plan, including:
project Collection structure
communications
plan Distribution structure
Description of information to be disseminated
Schedules listing when training will take place
A method for updating the communications plan
12. Organise and Role and responsibility assignments
acquire staff Training providers/internal trainers
Organisational chart with detail as appropriate
Project staff
Project team directory
13. Identify risks and A document describing potential risks, including their sources, symptoms,
plan to respond and ways to address them
(optional)
14. Plan for and Procurement management plan describing how external providers will be
acquire outside obtained
resources Statement of work (SOW) or statement of requirements (SOR) describing
(optional) the item (product or service) to be procured
Bid documents, such as RFP (request for proposal), IFB (invitation for bid), etc
Evaluation criteria – means of scoring provider’s proposals
Contract with one or more service provider
15. Organise the A comprehensive project plan that pulls together all the outputs of the
project plan preceding project planning activities
16. Close out the A project plan that has been approved, in writing, by the senior manager.
project planning A “green light” or okay to begin work on the training project
phase
17. Revisit the Confidence that the detailed plans to execute a particular phase are still
project plan and accurate and will effectively achieve results as planned
replan if needed
Action Implementing
18. Execute project Work results (deliverables) are created
activities Change requests (that is, based on expanded or contracted project) are
identified
continued
Action Implementing
Periodic progress reports are created
Team performance is assessed, guided, and improved if needed
Bids/proposals for training are solicited, providers (suppliers) are chosen,
and contracts are established
Contracts are administered to achieve desired work results
Action Controlling
19. Control project Decision to accept inspected training
activities Corrective actions such as rework of training, adjustments to work process, etc
Updates to project plan and scope
List of lessons learned
Improved quality
Completed evaluation checklists (if applicable)
Action Closing
20. Close out project Formal acceptance, documented in writing, that the senior manager has
activities accepted the product of this phase or activity
8.3.2 Key principles for training project management success

1. Project managers must focus on three dimensions of project success. Simply put,
project success means completing all project training on time, within budget, and to a
level of quality that is acceptable to managers and stakeholders. The project manager
must keep the team’s attention focused on achieving these broad goals.
2. Planning is everything – and ongoing. On one thing all Project Management Author-
ities agree: The single most important activity that project managers engage in is plan-
ning – detailed, systematic, team-involved plans are the only foundation for project
success. And when real-world events conspire to change the plan, project managers
must make a new one to reflect the changes. So planning and re-planning must be a
way of life for project managers.
3. Project managers must feel, and transmit to their team members, a sense of urgency.
Because projects are finite endeavours with limited time, money, and other resources
available, they must be kept moving toward completion. Since most team members
have lots of other priorities, it’s up to the project manager to keep their attention on
training and deadlines. Regular updates, meetings, and reminders are essential.
4. Successful projects use a time-tested, proven project life cycle. We know what works.
So when time or budget pressures seem to encourage taking short cuts, it’s up to the
project manager to identify and defend the best project life cycle for the job.
5. All training and all project activities must be visualised and communicated in vivid
detail. In short, the project manager and project team must early on create a tangible
picture of the finished training in the minds of everyone involved so that all efforts
are focused in the same direction. Avoid vague descriptions at all costs; spell it out,
picture it, prototype it, and make sure everyone agrees to it.
6. Training must evolve gradually, in successive approximations. It simply costs too
much and risks too much time spent in rework to jump in with both feet and begin
building all training. Build a little at a time, obtain incremental reviews and approvals,
and maintain a controlled evolution.
7. Projects require clear approvals and sign-off by senior managers. Clear approval
points, accompanied by a formal sign-off by senior managers, SMEs, and other key
stakeholders, should be demarcation points in the evolution of training. It’s this sim-
ple: anyone who has the power to reject or to demand revision of training interven-
tions after they are complete must be required to examine and approve them as they
are being built.
8. Project success is correlated with thorough analyses of the need for training. Our
research has shown that when a project results in training that is designed to meet a
thoroughly documented need, there is a greater likelihood of project success. So
managers should insist that there should be a documented business need for the pro-
ject before they agree to consume organisational resources in completing it.
9. Project managers must fight for time to do things right. In our work with project
managers we often hear this complaint: “We always seem to have time to do the
project over; I just wish we had taken the time to do it right in the first place!” Projects
must have available enough time to “do it right the first time.” And project managers
must fight for this time by demonstrating to senior managers and top managers why
it’s necessary and how time spent will result in quality training.
10. Project manager responsibility must be matched by equivalent authority. It’s not
enough to be held responsible for project outcomes; project managers must ask for
and obtain enough authority to execute their responsibilities. Specifically, managers
must have the authority to acquire and coordinate resources, request and receive
SME co-operation, and make appropriate, binding decisions which have an impact
on the success of the project.
11. Project managers and stakeholders must be active participants, not passive custom-
ers. Most senior project managers and stakeholders rightfully demand the authority to
approve project training, either wholly or partially. Along with this authority comes
the responsibility to be an active participant in the early stages of the project (helping
to define training), to complete reviews of interim training in a timely fashion (keep-
ing the project moving), and to help expedite the project manager’s access to SMEs,
members of the target audience, and essential documentation.
12. Projects typically must be sold, and resold. There are times when the project man-
ager must function as salesperson to maintain the commitment of stakeholders and
senior managers. With project plans in hand, project managers may need to periodic-
ally remind people about the business need that is being met and that their contribu-
tions are essential to help meet this need.
13. Project managers should acquire the best people they can and then do whatever it
takes to keep the garbage out of their way. By acquiring the best people – the most
skilled, the most experienced, the best qualified – the project manager can often com-
pensate for too little time or money or other project constraints. Project managers
should serve as advocates for these valuable team members, helping to protect them
from outside interruptions and helping them acquire the tools and working conditions
necessary to apply their talents.
14. Top management must actively set priorities. In today’s leaner, self-managing organ-
isations, it is not uncommon for project team members to be expected to play active
roles on many project teams at the same time. Ultimately, there comes a time when
resources are stretched to their limits and there are simply too many projects to be
completed successfully. In response, some organisations have established a Project
Office comprised of top managers from all departments to act as a clearinghouse for
projects and project requests. The Project Office reviews the organisation’s overall
mission and strategies, establishes criteria for project selection and funding, monitors
resource workloads, and determines which projects are of high enough priority to be
approved. In this way top management provides the leadership necessary to prevent
multi-project log jams.
8.4 Conclusion
Effective training requires comprehensive planning and organising. For a training pro-
gramme to be successful, a whole host of factors need to be considered. No planning is
complete without a budget, and no programme can be successful if the venue does not suit
the training. As discussed, involving all stakeholders from the beginning is challenging,
but a critical success factor. Sound administration systems are vital to the survival of the
training function, as are innovative methods to market the training department or pro-
gramme. The success of any training programme depends significantly on the way it is
managed. Well-planned training programmes contribute to effective learning and the
accomplishment of the goals and principles of the NQF.
8.5 Case study

Info-tech enterprise is a medium-sized company which employs 90 people. They provide software
solutions to mainly the financial market. A large number of the employees are programmers who
consult with clients on a daily basis. The sales staff members are responsible for getting new clients,
but seldom have time to follow up after a programmer has been allocated to a client to design a cus-
tomised programme. Info-tech’s staff members are mainly young, enthusiastic and competent com-
puter programmers.
Clients have lately been complaining about the service they get from Info-tech. After an inves-
tigation into the problem it seemed that clients were satisfied with their software, but not with the
treatment they received from staff.
Management has employed you as the external training consultant and asked you to help solve
their problem. The staff members have not been involved in the problem-solving process and are
unaware of the so-called “service” problem.
Questions
1 How will you as the training consultant go about establishing the real problem?
2 Do you think this is a training problem?
3 Who should be involved in trying to find a solution?
4 How are you going to convince management to involve staff in trying to find a training solution?
5 What is the solution to the problem?
6 Management is prepared to pay R52 000 to solve this problem. How will you use this amount?
Prepare a budget.
7 Describe how you are going to convince your target group to attend your particular intervention.
8 Draw up a checklist for planning the intervention.
8.6 Learning points

The key learning points from this chapter are as follows:
• It is critical to plan and organise training to ensure the effective execution of a training
intervention.
• A training plan should be compiled to use as a basis for planning.
• A project management approach will assist in ensuring that training is managed effect-
ively.

1 Why does any training department need a training plan?
2 Who should be involved when the training plan is determined?
3 When should formal training be considered over on-the-job training?
4 Prepare the following budget:
12 delegates need to attend a four-day training programme at a venue 225 km from
the office. An internal facilitator will present the course, but an external training con-
sultant will develop it and train the facilitator. (Remember to budget for accommoda-
tion and train-the-trainer.)
5 Develop a plan to sell a training course aimed at supervisors on “world-class manu-
facturing” to your organisation. Describe the marketing steps and strategy.
6 If you are going to present a course to frontline staff (including receptionists, security
staff and customer service staff), which training aids will you use and why?
7 Indicate all important factors to consider when selecting a venue for a learning pro-
gramme.
8 Imagine you are a course administrator. Describe what you will do to ensure that the
sales training which one of the internal trainers is going to present, runs smoothly.
9 Critically evaluate the following statement: “Good facilitation and training in a class-
room is more important than training administration.”
10 Explain how you can ensure the effective planning and organisation of training using
a project management approach to training.
8.8 References
Anon, 2000, Organisational Management – CIMA Study Text, London: BPP Publishing
Limited.
ASTD/SABPP, 2012, Eight Annual ASTD State of the South African Learning and Devel-
opment Industry Report, Johannesburg: SABPP/ASTD Global Network SA.
Appleby P, 1999, Organizing a Conference: How to Plan and Run an Outstanding and
Effective Event, Plymouth: How to Books.
Black P, Hartzenberg T and Standish B, 2003, Economics Principles and Practice, Cape
Town: Maskew Miller Longman.
Halfway House: International Thomson.
Green M, 1999, “Chapter 6: Planning and managing human performance technology

projects”, Handbook of Human Performance Technology, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Greer M, 2007, Making Project Management Work for You, About.com.
Mitchell G, 2005, The Trainer’s Handbook, New York: AMACOM.
Moss G, 1993, The Trainer’s Desk Reference, 2nd edn, London: Kogan Page.
Newby T, 1992, Cost-Effective Training, London: Kogan Page.
Stoltz PG, Majors RE and Soares EJ, 1994, Sales Training, New York: AMACOM.
Vermeulen A, 1999, “Mind Brain Trends”, ASTD Conference: Johannesburg.
Walsh C, 2002, Key management ratios, London: Prentice Hall.
White D, 2002, “Outsourcing – take your business activities to the next level”, HR Future
1(4): 32–33.
Wills M, 1993, Managing the Training Process, London: McGraw-Hill.

Financial Mail Essentials, 2014, Exhibitions & Events, Cape Town: Cold Press Media.
Kruger D, 2015, How to make your point without Powerpoint, Cape Town: Penguin.
Mankin, 2009, Human Resource Development, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Meyer M, 2004, Effective Facilitation: Practical Guidelines for Managers, Facilitators,
Consultants and Trainers, Cape Town: New Africa.
ment Practices, 3rd edn, Durban: LexisNexis.
Noe RA, 1999, Employee Training and Development, Boston: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
Reay DG, 1994, Planning a Training Strategy, London: Kogan Page.
SA Conference Directory, 2014, 3SMedia: Rivonia.
SABPP, 2014, National HR Standards, Johannesburg: SABPP.
8.10 Internet sites

AIC Worldwide Africa (event and conference organisers): http://www.aic-africa.com
American Society for Training and Development: http://www.astd.org
Business Presentation Products: http://www.bpp.co.za
Exhibition & Events Association of Southern Africa: http://www.exsa.co.za
Institute for International Research: http://www.iir.co.za
MICE Academy: http://www.miceacademy.co.za
Project Management Forum: http://www.pmforum.org
Project Management Institute: http://www.pmi.org
Project Management Resources: http://www.allpm.com
Southern African Professional Trainers Association: http://www.saptaonline.org
South African Conferences Database: http://www.saconference.co.za
South African Training and Capacity Building Providers: http://www.web.co.za/prodder

Trainers Warehouse: http://www.trainerswarehouse.com
Training and Seminar Locators: http://www.tasl.com
Venuesearch (database of conference venues): http://www.venuesearch.co.za
CHAPTER
9
MANAGEMENT AND
LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT
Moira Katz
The training and development of managers is of the utmost importance
to any enterprise because managers are responsible for providing direction.
(Barney Erasmus and Piet van Dyk)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Outline the changing roles of managers at all levels to add value to the bottom line
• Analyse and benchmark international best management practices
• Structure a variety of different approaches to learning to fill management skills gaps
• Identify the problems facing ETD providers when concerned with the training of management at
the various levels and recommend solutions
• Integrate other learning that impacts on the performance of supervisors and managers
• Align leadership development programmes to the national standard on leadership development
(SABPP)
• Identify resources to assist with management development
• Set up transfer partnerships and manage transfer of training
• Integrate SAQA requirements and the latest legislation which affects supervisors and managers
• Develop a strategy for management and leadership development
253
9.1 Introduction
Most employees are promoted into management as a reward for excelling in the technical
skills of a particular job, such as in mining, manufacturing, accounting, computer pro-
gramming, plumbing, law, or any of the hundreds of modern-day technologies. The newly
appointed manager is therefore armed with superior technical knowledge and skills, but is
often lacking and even unaware of the complex knowledge and skills of managing work
and employees. To the recently promoted, this is a new world with utterly different func-
tions, skills, demands and criteria for success.
Traditionally in South Africa there are three distinct management levels:
Supervisors or first line managers

Generally, supervisors or first line managers contribute to the management process, rather
than take total responsibility for activities. Traditionally they are charged with the direc-
tion and control of the activities of other people, the achievement of results, and the effi-
cient and effective use of resources. They divide up the work, manage the work flow, set
performance targets, develop teams, provide instructions, delegate, monitor and check
progress measured against set objectives through controls, solve problems and make
decisions, and give feedback on performance.
Middle managers
Middle managers receive strategic guidance from senior management, take responsibility
for interpreting and implementing policy, and hand down this information to employees.
They take charge of initiating change and development in systems, practices and pro-
cedures. They control the resources necessary for meeting their objectives, participate in
key customer relations and account decisions, develop key management and professional
talent.
Senior managers
The role of senior managers is critical to the success of the organisation as they are re-
sponsible for developing strategies and providing leadership. In order to be effective they
need a wide range of skills, behaviours and knowledge. Their major tasks are to set stra-
tegic objectives and initiate significant shifts in the direction of the organisation, monitor
results, obtain and control capital resources, maintain relations with key external parties,
including shareholders, major customers, the general public, as well as provide the phil-
osophy and example of “how we manage”. With the launch of the King IV™ Report and
Code on Corporate Governance for South Africa on 1 November 2016, the role of senior
managers as prescribed officers in implementing board decisions in strengthening corpo-
rate governance cannot be over-emphasised.
In practice, however, the levels are not always so clear cut. For example, there may be
two or more grades at each management level. The current approach to cut as many layers
as possible and flatten the organisation through re-engineering or downsizing or right-
sizing, has often led to a variety of skills at each level and, in some instances, a blurring of
the clear-cut demarcations.
It is widely recognised that there is a close relationship between good management and
successful business performance. This has led to a renewed focus on establishing routes to
better business performance through improving the skills and practices of supervisors and
managers.
Chapter 9: Management and leadership development 255
In recent years the problem of workplace literacy and supervisory development has at
last come to the forefront. The words “workplace illiterate” are not always used to mean
someone who cannot read. They may refer to those who are less literate than it is thought
they should be and do not have the basic communication and computation skills required
to successfully perform the day-to-day operations of a job. This is the form of literacy that
employers are most concerned with, because of its direct connection to work, to quality
and to job performance. Workplace literacy is therefore specific to the work setting and
each workplace determines its own definition. For example, in a work setting “literacy”
may mean the ability to read blueprints, to figure percentages, or be able to read and follow
instructions contained in a manufacturing process sheet in order to assemble a product.
The difficulty is the number of South African supervisors who may be or are workplace
illiterate. Karen Berney, writing in Nation’s Business, stated that in the United States one
in three potential American employees cannot read, write or reason well enough to com-
pete in today’s economy. They lack the skills that new and evolving jobs require, such
as the ability to communicate clearly, to analyse and solve problems and to work co-
operatively with others. As a result, businesses lose billions through low productivity, poor
product quality, workplace accidents, absenteeism and lost managerial and supervisory
time. There is no reason to believe that conditions in South Africa are any different, except
to add that the local situation has been exacerbated by the politics of the past 50 years,
coupled with an iniquitous education system, resulting in an even more inadequate stand-
ard of basic education in the lower echelons of management.
• Many large organisations are not yet convinced of the importance of training at lower
levels and limit the numbers of supervisors being trained to one or two token groups a
year. To a lesser extent the same can be said of middle management training. Neither the
organisations nor the country can afford this.
It is the contention of the author that it is unnecessary to wait for literacy courses to be
completed before training in supervisory skills can begin. It has been proved that the best
solution is not to wait until learners have at last laboured through ABET levels, but to run
the two programmes concurrently (train supervisors in literacy skills and train them in
supervisory skills in parallel programmes).
• Many organisations in South Africa are still not training their illiterate or semi-literate
supervisors in supervisory skills.
• Supervisors still need training in workplace literacy skills and basic life skills. There is
a problem with underpinning knowledge in the area. A theoretical accounting for the
empirical findings in research literature has yet to be explored.
• There is, however, hope for improved literacy levels as well as better supervisory man-
agement skills. After completing a training programme, supervisors feel and believe
they are more a part of the management team because:
• they are now speaking the same “language” about work as other supervisors
• they understand each other’s roles
• they have improved their understanding of the why and how of communications
from top management
• they have common objectives
• they no longer feel isolated
• they no longer feel singled out because they are workplace illiterate
• they now see a reason for continuing with personal development because they have
learnt something about themselves which is that they are trainable. Often supervi-
sors and team leaders who have been through a specially designed programme for
semi-literate or home language literate employees, start thinking, “My company
sent me on supervisor training. They have faith in me. I can become promotable. I
think I’ll go back and finish my ABET training.”
South Africa used to see the western world as the pacesetter for business and training and
had to adjust culturally and continuously to this “westernised” climate. The new thinking,
however, is that as a country of 54 million people we need to take the best and adapt it to
suit our local and very specific circumstances, and not merely imitate the West.
• However, it must be accepted that managers, no matter where in the world they oper-
ate, will always need the same basic skills to manage their jobs.
• With the rapidly changing political and educational scene it remains to be discovered
how much will impact on managers and affect the direction of training.
• Top management needs to change its thinking. The senior team is not yet convinced
that the bottom line can be positively influenced by serious training at first line level.
Unless reform is undertaken, the outcome is obvious. Faced with hiring or promoting from
an inadequately educated pool, South Africa, already underperforming dismally in World
Competitiveness Reports, will continue to struggle to climb the ladder.
9.2 Changing role of management

The long-standing South African approach has been to train senior and then middle man-
agement and ignore first line management (usually supervisors). The rationale is not dif-
ficult to understand. In a traditional authoritarian organisational society, management
routinely sent down instructions and supervisors routinely implemented these instructions.
Frequently compounding the problem, middle and upper management were white and the
lower levels were black.
The winds of change, however, having swept strongly and swiftly through South Africa,
delivered a new awareness that supervisors are a vital component of the organisation, a key
link to productivity, and require upgraded skills. Several problems immediately surfaced.
The major one was strikingly evident: this was not an area where management willingly
spent – or indeed spends – money. A vast shift in thinking was mandatory and is still on-
going.
From the time of the 1994 elections, training in South Africa has been in the process of
undergoing a long awaited and necessary remodelling, in order to adjust to the transformed
political climate. Organisations large and small have started to realise the importance of
training their lower management echelons, especially illiterate and semi-literate super-
visors. This is a sector of the management team that has been generally disregarded, neg-
lected and overlooked. It consists mostly of employees who have gained technical expert-
ise, but have come out of an inferior education system with sometimes only six or seven
years of inadequate schooling. In order to mainstream this section of the community,
organisations need to spend a lot of time, effort and budget.
In addition, supervisors do not know what it is to be an integral part of the management
team. Although they are considered the first line of management and much is made of their
position in books and manuals (and often in lip service), in reality management considers
them to be a separate entity and treats them as such. They are charged with seeing that the
workers get on with the work, but in fact have little other power. Many barriers, therefore,
have to be broken down. The first step takes place when management acknowledges that
supervisors should not only be trained in the basics of managing their team members, but
should also attain the skills to become accepted and competent members of the manage-
ment team.
The important question is: what should supervisors and managers be able to do?
The answer is obvious. Supervisors and managers must be able to supervise and manage.
This is the cornerstone of their jobs. At entry level and without training, few can do so
competently as the demands and pressures are tremendous.
It must be stated categorically that traditional management, in one variation or another,
but always containing problem-solving and decision-making, planning, organising, control-
ling, implementing and leading, is still the backbone of management learning and practice.
So, to add to their technical skills, supervisors must have sound planning, organising,
leading and controlling capabilities, while at the same time remembering that they interact
daily with their teams and with management and therefore require, for example, leader-
ship skills, communication skills and people skills. At the same time other “soft” skills,
such as conflict management and assertiveness need to be acquired, as well as taking note
of the vital role played by attitude, passion and emotional intelligence.
Today, when we look at outcomes-based training, we are faced with a dilemma: what
are the most important outcomes an organisation expects from a supervisor or manager? It
is no longer sufficient to say, for example, managers must be able to plan, organise and
control. The new approach says the theory is necessary as a basic ingredient, but the im-
plementation to reach set standards is paramount.
Pat McLagan (1991): “The demands on managers are changing. They must provide more leadership
and less constraint, more anticipation and less reaction, more developed people and less developed
activity, more cross-functional linkage and less functional individualism, more total enterprise
decision-making and less budget gamesmanship, more focus on outputs and less on activities.”
Sound management development is a deliberate process. It flourishes in an organisation

where top management believes in it, supports it visibly and rewards it. It flourishes under
the guidance of able and skilful leaders who are regarded with respect and who are able to
mentor, coach, guide and assist other managers in becoming competent and dedicated in
developing their people. Management development dies when managers, no matter what
their level, are not trained and developed and, worse still, are stifled in their efforts to
improve the way they do things.
The textbook definition of a manager can be explained in a few simple words: a manager
gets work done through others but, in practice, this implies a huge number and variety of
skills. The traditional way to reaching an understanding of the job of a manager was
through breaking it down into three distinct although overlapping categories of functions
(Katz and Kahn):
Conceptual functions (based on intellect and logical thinking)
Examples are planning, organising, scheduling, delegating, developing systems, analysing
problems, making decisions, co-ordinating, setting and monitoring control systems.
Human relations functions (based on personal qualities, character and personality)

Examples are leading, motivating, morale building, communicating, listening, teaching,
helping, training, developing, coaching, giving feedback, working with others and being
emotionally intelligent.
Technical skills (work-related)

Technical or specialist skills are concerned with knowledge of and proficiency in activities
involving methods, processes and procedures. They deal with such things as tools, ma-
chines, processes, specific techniques and methods of production.
Table 9.1 presents another way of looking at the basic competencies managers need. In
this instance there are four clusters with a number of specific competencies in each cluster.
Table 9.1 Clusters of managerial competencies
The administrative cluster: managing • Time management and prioritising

your job • Setting goals and standards
• Planning, scheduling work and setting controls
The communication cluster: relating to • Listening and organising
others • Giving clear information
• Getting unbiased information
The supervisory cluster: building the team • Training, coaching, instructing and delegating
• Working together
• Performance appraisal
The cognitive cluster: thinking clearly • Identifying and solving problems
• Making decisions and weighing risks
• Making good judgement calls
• Thinking clearly and analytically
Any gaps in these competencies (benchmarked against the best) will cause problems in
the functioning of the team, the success of the department and the organisation. It is there-
fore essential that all managers possess all these competencies in order to function effect-
ively as managers or supervisors of their teams.
Building on management development programmes, in recent years, there has been a
strong shift towards leadership development. While management development pro-
grammes focus directly on formal management job titles and the requisite competencies,
the shift towards leadership development highlights the importance of vision, influence,
inspiration and building organisational capabilities and culture from a leadership para-
digm. While we use the terms management and leadership interchangeably in this chapter,
we recognise the need for both paradigms.
9.3 International best practices

What do the world’s best managers do that sets them apart? Competent managers not only
have a good knowledge of problem-solving and decision-making, planning, organising
and setting and monitoring controls, they also:
• have an absence of turnover problems
• are concerned with good morale of their team
• carry out setting objectives and measuring achievements on a weekly and monthly basis
• distribute fairly the budget for training and development
• work together as a team, managing projects and managing diversity
• participate in assessment and selection
• are actively involved in satisfaction along the customer chain, both internal and external
• delegate responsibility and empower others
• implement personal improvement and development plans
• keep up with information technology and co-operate across the organisation
• conduct interviews and meetings effectively, with confidence and fairness
• train for self and team members to use systematic approaches to problem-solving and
decision-making
• evaluate return on investment in training and development
• keep up-to-date with all the new legislation affecting the workplace and their jobs, for
example employment, health and safety law
• improve communication between managers and teams, managers and their managers,
managers and both internal and external customers.
In high performance systems, the managers are charged with being part of the systems
operation and are concerned with aligning the following:
• strategy, vision, mission and goals
• beliefs and values
• management practices (leadership, style, decision-making and communication)
• organisational structure
• work practices and processes (jobs, tasks, skills, knowledge and abilities)
• human resource systems (selection, training and development and compensation)
• other systems (technology, communication and measurement).
Before selecting management training and development opportunities, it is imperative to
state clearly what managers in the organisation should be able to do, what competencies
they have, what competencies they need to do their jobs better, and where the gaps are
between “what is” and “what is needed” (gap analysis).
A starting point is to gather data to analyse the present state of the organisation. Data
gathering methods set a baseline against which to measure the results of the benchmark-
ing, carried out at a later stage, and gathered from:
• company archives
• job descriptions
• group interviews with managers and supervisors
• individual interviews with managers and supervisors
• performance appraisals
• observations
• questionnaires
• measuring outputs.
More information can be gathered by asking employees the 12 questions indicated in Table
9.2. These questions do not provide all the answers to management development needs,
but they do capture the most important information. They measure the core elements
needed to attract, focus and keep the most talented employees. They are the simplest and
most accurate way to measure the strength of a workplace. Moreover, they indicate the
competence levels of managers. If the questions are answered in the affirmative, they will
discriminate between the most productive departments and the rest.
Table 9.2 Questions to ask employees to determine their management development needs
1 Do you know what is expected of you at work? And to what standard?

2 Do you have the materials, knowledge and equipment you need to do your work properly?
3 At work do you have the opportunity to do what you do best every day?
4 In the last seven days have you received recognition or praise for good work?
5 Does your manager, or someone at work, seem to care about you as a person?
6 Is there someone at work who encourages your development?
7 At work do your opinions seem to count?
8 Does the mission of your company make you feel that your work is important?
9 Are your co-workers committed to doing quality work?
10 Do you have a good friend at work?
11 In the last six months have you talked with someone about your progress?
12 At work are you finding or being given the opportunity to learn and grow?
Apart from international benchmarking data, it is also important to consider the relationship
of these trends with the NQF requirement for international comparability. Also, this
integration is essential, not only for management development, but also for HRD in general.
The NQF has identified seven critical outcomes which experts believe are essential to
any person leaving school and which serve as foundational stones to those who want to
progress and learn more. An interesting point is that these critical outcomes correspond
with major international trends in the field of training and development (Schenk and
Meyer, 1999). They can thus be aligned with international best practices in the field of
training and development.
When these critical outcomes are applied to a specific job, it is easy to see how import-
ant they are to being able to do the job competently. The problem is that many supervisors,
having come out of an inferior schooling system, do not possess these basic skills. For
example, critical thinking skills are lacking throughout the organisation, but even more so
at the lower levels.
Table 9.3 The relationship between the NQF critical outcomes and world themes
NQF Critical Outcomes World Themes

• Identify and solve problems in which Performance consulting, training-needs
responses display that responsible decisions analysis, training design, quality training,
using critical and creative thinking have been change management
made
continued
NQF Critical Outcomes World Themes

• Work effectively with others as a member of Teamwork, 360-degree performance feedback,
a team, group, organisation or community emotional intelligence, diversity training
• Organise and manage oneself and one’s Emotional intelligence, self-management,
activities responsibly and effectively self-directed learning
• Collect, analyse and critically evaluate Creativity, knowledge management,
information training-needs analysis, measurement and
evaluation of training, organisational
development
• Communicate effectively using visual, Communication, instructional design, language
mathematical and/or language skills in the training, training presentations
modes of oral and/or written persuasion
• Use science and technology effectively and Scientific approach to all the phases of the
critically, showing responsibility towards the training process, multimedia and
environment and health of others technology-based training
• Demonstrate an understanding of the world Globalisation, learning organisation, knowledge
as a set of inter-related systems by management, change management,
recognising that problem-solving contexts do performance consulting, supplier management
not exist in isolation
These seven critical outcomes can form the basis for management development pro-
grammes. Not only do they correspond with international trends in HRD, they can easily be
applied in all management development programmes. The fact that the seven critical out-
comes have been developed from a cross-field approach further enhances their value from
a management development perspective. All managers need to apply the critical outcomes,
whether they are strategic planners, production directors, financial managers or workshop
supervisors. The challenge is to ensure that all learning materials and assessment methods
in the field of management development correspond with these critical outcomes.
9.4 Learning opportunities for management development

Once gaps have been identified and international benchmarking conducted, learning oppor-
tunities can be created to embark on a systematic process of management development.
The following guidelines can be used when organising training, whether you do it your-
self or employ an outside consultant.
• Assess training needs, not in a vacuum, but in relation to the business plan and require-
ments identified in the appraisal process, and with the co-operation of every employee’s
manager, taking cognisance of future needs.
• Prepare an individual training schedule annually in conjunction with each employee’s
manager, cost it and secure budget funds. Be prepared to motivate or argue for what
you require, once again linked to the business plan and the skills development plan and
to achieving results.
• Look for opportunities to group employees together for training. If sufficient numbers
require the same course, it may justify a customised programme, designed specifically
for the department or organisation.
• Select the appropriate type of intervention and the person or organisation to carry it
out. For example, if one-on-one coaching is required, select the person with the skills,
interest and patience to be a committed coach.
• Only select interventions that are linked to performance outcomes and set standards so
that individuals can learn, grow and do their jobs better.
• Select interventions that are suitable for managers at their specific level. Do not group
all employees requiring planning skills, for example, into one class, because their needs
are very different at the various levels. Also, the lower the level, the more simple the
exercises must be in order to achieve greater learning and the ability to transfer skills
immediately to the workplace.
• At all levels training must be learner-orientated and outcomes and standards-based in
line with the NQF.
• The training providers selected to carry out the training must be prepared to stand by
their word that the implementation of their training programme will make a difference.
If the programme fails, they should be held liable or should commit to re-training. This
step must be negotiated up front before training begins.
• An important consideration is how many hours an organisation should spend on train-
ing managers. No figures are available to indicate current practices in South Africa, but
here are some figures from the United States, from an industry study reported in Train-
ing Magazine in October 1998 (56). The companies surveyed spent the following:
First line managers: 64 hours per year
Middle managers: 72 hours per year
Senior managers: 64 hours per year
Executives: 70 hours per year
At Tektronix headquarters (USA) on a new management programme, managers attend
eight five-day modules over two years, which evens out to 20 days of training per year!
How much time do South African organisations spend on training? How many days of
training are necessary per year? There has been a feeling for a long time that senior man-
agers and executives are awarded far more training time than managers at lower levels
who have as urgent a need for better and more training. The current legislation (the Skills
Development Act) helps somewhat to even out the process.
In large organisations in South Africa there is a visible effort to keep up with the rest of
the world which has incorporated electronic forms of training media: CD-ROM, the Inter-
net and internal intranets (see chapter 11). Note that e-learning is not “instead of” class-
room training: it is rather looked on as one more training tool. The latest thinking is that
blended training is the ideal answer to meeting diverse learning needs. In most organisa-
tions, however, the classroom remains the workhouse of organisational education and
training, with live instructors delivering training.
HRD managers need to make employees aware of the many and varied development
programmes which, if pursued, will help them advance their careers. Some of these devel-
opment programmes are:
• self-development opportunities (seminars, conferences and workshops)
• college diplomas and certificate programmes
• professional association membership
• committee and taskforce membership
• further academic qualifications at universities and universities of technology

• reading management books, journals and magazines
• OJT coaching
• mentoring and coaching programmes (see chapter 10)
• succession planning (see chapter 16)
• OJT training (see chapter 7)
• cross-functional job rotations
• cross-country job rotations
• Internet learning
• sabbaticals
• performance appraisals and 360-degree feedback (as part of the performance manage-
ment system)
• short, specialised management training courses
• adventure learning (see chapter 7)
• retreats (the old bosberaad, or lekgotla)
• assessment centres
• self-motivated study groups.
Managers have to be reminded constantly that they are in charge of their own growth and
progress, and need to learn to make the most of what they are offered, as well as seek self-
growth opportunities. This is crucial in the fast-changing business environment.
9.5 Management concerns

It is not only the question of how to improve training that concerns managers. The con-
temporary organisation is changing rapidly and other problems abound which impinge on
how well managers do their jobs. The variety of concerns and challenges facing managers
today are as follows:
• unions
• automation
• administrative office systems
• employment relations
• legislation changes, regulations and control
• physical and plant security, data and information security
• support services
• market competition
• necessity to develop staff
• corporate downsizing or re-engineering or restructuring or reshaping the business
“landscape”, leading to reduction of employees, both in management and non-
management positions
• mergers and acquisitions
• the new focus on performance, outcomes, standards and measurement
• the need for change, linked to the business strategy

• keeping up with new technology
• globalisation
• discipline
• corporate governance and ethics
• compliance and risk management
• disruptive business models of competitors
• sustainability.
Let us take just one concern, for example developing staff, and look at the associated areas
where managers need to be proficient:
• counselling and appraising as required
• developing new employees or new promotions as well as incumbents
• OTJ training
• helping teams to become motivated
• understanding team and personal styles
• facilitating team interactions
• promoting diversity of workplace and successful interactions
• giving feedback
• coaching when required.
Despite being harried by these concerns and their growing workload, managers can max-
imise their chances for work achievement and personal satisfaction by:
• positioning themselves for success: managing the issues that will result in winning situ-
ations
• growing in their work: learning new skills to improve current practices which will lead
to future successes
• coping with common challenges: dealing with common difficulties so that they continue
to succeed
• deciding what comes next: looking ahead to the next stage in their work life
• being clear about performance expectations and standards
• taking personal responsibility for their own growth and success.
9.6 Managerial learning

The changing roles of managers have led to new and different kinds of training needed to
help them develop new skills, such as training in:
• new roles and responsibilities for high performance
• coaching and counselling skills
• team development
• interpersonal skills
• facilitation skills
• change management
• continuous improvement and quality management

• finance for non-financial managers
• mentoring skills
• the language of business and how businesses operate
• advanced technology and globalisation.
In order to get full co-operation from aspirant managers, it is essential to involve them in
redesigning their current roles. If they understand the need for continuous managerial
learning, they will be able to contribute significantly towards their own development and
growth.
9.7 Leadership development standard for South Africa (SABPP)

In 2014 the SA Board for People Practices (SABPP) developed a leadership development
standard for South Africa as part of the HR professional practice standards, i.e. phase two
of the national HR standards initiative. Leadership development processes are informed
by the talent management strategy of an organisation and therefore form an important
talent management intervention. Leadership development is a special form of HRD and is
a critical success factor to effective processes along the HR value chain, including per-
formance management, reward and recognition management, employment relations
management and wellness management (SABPP, 2015).
Leadership development has been defined as follows in the national leadership devel-
opment standard as part of the HR professional practice standards:
Leadership development is a structured and facilitated process to grow leaders and those identified
as potential leaders in their ability to unlock potential in themselves, in others and through others.
According to the leadership development standard, the following fundamental require-

ments for good leadership development practice should be in place (SABPP, 2015):
• The organisation should have a clear idea of what constitutes good leadership in that
particular organisation and should develop a leadership competency model comprising
several relevant dimensions to express that idea.
• Development of an individual’s leadership development potential is specific to that
individual, so leadership development practices should take into account personal pref-
erences, styles, needs and circumstances. A range of development opportunities should
therefore be provided.
• Leadership development should be role-modelled and led by top and senior managers,
who should take on mentoring and other development roles.
The HR professional practice standard on leadership development is illustrated in Figure
9.1 below.
Figure 9.1 Leadership development standard for South Africa (SABPP)
Leadership Implementation
development strategy process Leadership competency
document framework document
(document and flow)
IDENTIFICATION INTERVENTION
(ANALYSIS) DESIGN AND
SELECTION Communicate within
Who are current and
organisation and to
potential leaders
individuals what is
Assessment and gap Formal academic planned
analysis according to programmes
competency
framework
Personal leadership
Career paths, career
effectiveness
and succession
development
planning Implement
Assessment and/or interventions
profiling including Coaching/mentoring
team/individual/ (internal/external)
division
effectiveness
Speakers
Feedback and Review
9.8 Managing resources

In a digital business environment, it is no longer necessary to be able to memorise every-
thing. In fact, the world is far too complex to do so. It is more important to be able to find
knowledge managers and other resources to tap into in times of need. Managers should be
supported by the organisation’s knowledge management system to find the resources
necessary to be effective in their day-to-day activities. The speed and complexity of
change and development makes it essential that managers should be able to identify the
resources they need to do their own work, and also have the necessary infrastructure and
systems to provide resources to team members when they need it. The management of
resources, information, knowledge and technology is therefore of paramount importance.
9.9 Transfer partnerships

Good training is vital. However, the most important part of training is not what happens in
the classroom, but what happens after the training event. HRD departments can do much
to create an empowered environment where managers grow and flourish. This requires a
fundamental culture change in the way the organisation functions. The following are some
characteristics of an empowered environment in which the transfer of learning is encour-
aged:
• Self-directed teams are able to get on with the job.
• Senior managers and managers share information with their team members regarding
the organisation’s strategic plans and goals.
• Employees receive the training they need to achieve their outputs, whether these are
specific work skills, or education on “bigger picture” issues, such as time management
or aspects of leadership.
• Employees are continually involved in developing new work skills.
• Managers understand and respect the challenges of an empowered workforce.
• Managers are seen more as coaches than as bosses. They empower gradually and sys-
tematically as team members become ready. They do not expect or push for immediate
results.
• Employees are in control of the resources they need to meet their outputs.
• The organisation provides measurement tools so that teams can check whether their
plans and the implementation thereof have been effective.
• Team members receive continuous feedback (such as 360 degree) and positive reinforce-
ment.
However, the internalisation of these characteristics does not occur automatically. A man-
agement strategy must be designed to ensure transfer of training. HRD practitioners can
do much to encourage this process. By far the most important aspect is getting initial
“buy-in” from the learners’ managers, that they will support the training and coach the
learners where and when necessary. The following guidelines can be used:
• align HRD thinking with the organisation’s strategic plan
• establish managerial performance standards
• involve managers and employees in needs analysis and gap analysis procedures
• agree with managers on the selection process
• collect baseline performance data
• review instructional content and learning materials (must be outcomes-based and
aligned with national standards)
• involve managers in content planning
• provide managers with coaching skills
• brief learners on course outcomes, processes and applications to their jobs
• provide time to complete pre-course and post-course assignments
• provide a positive learning environment
• build transfer of training into daily training routine
• plan with learners the assessment of transfer of new skills to the job.
Here are some other points to take into consideration:

• Management is an artificial role. Unlike a family or a friendship, the management role
is not natural. Managers are not always liked or popular, and frequently their jobs are
not fun.
• Expect people to honour their agreements, both formal and informal. Not only is this
good management, it also calls people’s integrity into account.
• Provide feedback, both formally and informally. People need to know what is expected
of them and how they will be assessed. Feedback should be timely, regular, construct-
ive and honest.
• Reward good people. Keep a solid perspective and spend time, money (budget) and
attention on good people. Do not inadvertently reward poor performance.
• Set up systems. Lay down procedures to manage daily operations.
• Know the real organisational chart. There is a difference between real power and organ-
isational chart power. Discover who really makes the decisions in the organisation.
To achieve all the above, HRD practitioners need to establish sound partnerships with line
managers and supervisors at all levels of the organisation. However, when managing the
transfer of training it is indeed essential that companies realise that they need to confront
and dispel the myths surrounding managing managers. Failure to do so, often results in
unnecessary resources being squandered on management development, while inadequate
transfer and supporting structures are in place. These myths have been identified by
Longenecker and Gioia (1991:88):
• Myth 1 Managers are self-starting, self-directing and autonomous, or they would not
be managers
The myth revisited: Good managers are self-managing, often to an extraordinary degree.
They want, appreciate and accept autonomy, but they also want input, attention and
guidance that only their superiors can provide.
• Myth 2 Managers worth their salt know what their jobs really entail
The myth recast: Even smart managers need an unambiguous picture of what they are
responsible for in their jobs and, just as important, what they are not responsible for.
Without leadership from senior management, subordinate managers have less clarity of
purpose and are less effective.
• Myth 3 Good managers can judge how well they are performing
The myth reconsidered: Managers want and need regular feedback on their perform-
ance. Managers performing ambiguous work want unambiguous feedback, and they
want it on a regular basis.
• Myth 4 Good managers seek out the information they need
The myth refurbished: Good managers are proactive information seekers. Yet they often
do not have access to the information that their managers have. Their proactiveness is
thus wasted on unnecessary work that their superiors could eliminate through an im-
proved information flow.
• Myth 5 Goals are adequate guides for effective managerial action
The myth reframed: Goals must be carefully established, must provide for mutual input
and must include some discussion on means and processes. To implement goal-setting
in an authoritarian manner generates poor communication, changing of positions (often

to negativity) and ultimately obstructs success.
The need to consider and dismantle these myths is therefore crucial to the development of
managers. The next important issue is to question whether the training will change man-
agerial behaviour. Today human resource development (HRD) practitioners are asking
vendors whom they are considering for outsourced training, “Are you able to guarantee
that your training course will actually change the participants’ behaviour?” This is an
excellent question and goes back to gap analysis and standards. Briefly, according to the
McClelland’s (1973) theory of competency training, the trainer must start the process to
put certain steps in place:
• recognition by participants of the need to change behaviour
• understanding by participants of what exactly the required new behaviour is
• self-assessment by the participants of their current skill level – compared with the
benchmark or that of a high achiever
• learn the skill, practice the skill and gain feedback
• transfer the skill back to the workplace
• follow-up and support from trainer to monitor and reinforce the learning
• and a seventh which I would add: support from the participants’ managers.
The evaluation/assessment processes do not begin after training has taken place. They must
be designed at the same time that training is being planned. The Kirkpatrick system is still
the most widely used, except that a pre-step and a post-step (often called Step 5) have been
added. The pre-step is checking the level at which participants are entering training and the
post-step is the ROI (return on investment). The problem here is that many organisations
get involved as far as behaviour evaluation, but step four and the post-step are baulked at
because of the difficulty involved in actually getting down to serious research and the
costs involved in doing so. However, organisations that have completed ROI have been
rewarded by being able to establish the value of training and the difference that good and
widespread training makes to the bottom line.
9.10 South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) requirements

HRD managers and indeed the whole of every HRD department must have up-to-date
knowledge of the NQF and the latest legislation affecting the training of supervisors and
managers. This means that HRD managers and departments should be directly involved in
or very well-informed about the work of the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations
(QCTO), Council for Higher Education and the Umalusi Council for Quality Assurance in
the area of management development. It is hoped that management standards, together
with the new legislative requirements, will fundamentally influence the content and
approach to management training and development. With the backing of the SETAs many
organisations are slowly moving to occupational training for managers at all levels in
organisations.
9.11 Performance management

In the well-run organisation the performance management system holds managers
accountable for applying the principles of the organisation. But it is the duty of the HR
department to ensure that the system is implemented and that it works smoothly for the
benefit of both the organisation and the employees. HR and HRD staff can play the
following roles in contributing to effective performance management:
• HR managers share organisational objectives and strategies. Learners should immedi-
ately see the connection between their new skills and where the organisation is going.
This makes training more relevant and gets everyone focused on applying their new
skills to the organisation’s key priorities and goals.
• HR managers encourage senior management to be seen as part of the performance im-
provement system and not only as the people who administer performance appraisals.
• HR managers encourage OTJ learning because managers achieve a deeper level of skill
development when they teach others and are encouraged to practise what they preach.
9.12 A process approach to management development

What is a “good” management development programme? It is one in which the knowledge
gained in training or education can be brought back to the workplace and implemented
immediately. It is one which increases the knowledge and productivity of managers and
the teams they manage. It is one which, ultimately, shows up in organisational profitabil-
ity. It is one which creates a state of mind and understanding in which it is possible for the
individual learner to continue learning through trial and experience and to do this inde-
pendently of the trainer or facilitator as far as possible. It is not a programme which teaches
the latest “fad” and which creates immediate interest but disappears in a year or so.
Although many management concepts and best practices can be effective across indus-
tries and organisations, the context in which management occurs has implications for what
constitutes effectiveness.
9.12.1 Why some management development programmes fail

• The programme is designed purely from the organisation’s viewpoint, with little or no
thought for the individuals involved.
• The programme is totally prescriptive and makes no allowances for flexibility in either
content or delivery.
• The programme makes unrealistic time demands and participants are expected to meet
a schedule for personal learning which does not take into account other work pressures
and commitments.
• The programme offers a range of “set” topics and development opportunities, but is
unable to cope with individual development needs which fall outside this core.
• The programme has a highly developed theoretical base, but provides little in the way
of guidance or support to help learners practise using these theories or their application
in the workplace.
• The programme content is derived from what facilitators want to teach, rather than from
any real understanding of what managers within the organisation need to know and do.
• The organisation always uses the same provider who does not have expertise in all
fields.
• The programme is based on a new management “fad” accompanied by the latest buzz
words. A fad is a fashion that is taken up with great enthusiasm for a brief period of
time. The key words are enthusiasm and brief. Think of recent fads. ‘Re-engineering’,
‘TQM’, ‘virtual teams’, ‘emotional intelligence’ and ‘balanced scorecard’ have all been
designated fads in the initial stages of their development, before their real potential has
been seen to be applicable in specific areas.
The best management development programmes are flexible with regard to learning topics
while having a “core” structure in order to remain focused. They are outcomes-based and
practical in the application of knowledge rather than teaching theory and concepts, they are
integrated in combining learning activities with actual workplace experiences, and they
make ongoing support available on a day-to-day basis, as required. The better ones also
create a “sense of community” within the group, commitment to the programme, a focused
sense of direction and purpose, and enable participants to start thinking about and plan-
ning their personal development needs.
A new development is the creation of talent management programmes where promising
employees are singled out for further training and development.
9.12.2 A process for individual management development

Individual development is being taken seriously these days, especially with regard to those
who need further tools to improve their interpersonal and communication skills and effect
behaviour change for optimum performance. Here are some basic steps in the process:
• The consultant has separate discussions with the participant, the participant’s manager
and the HR professional regarding areas of development.
• The participant, the participant’s manager and the HR professional meet with the con-
sultant to agree on areas where change is indicated in order to leverage performance.
Agreement is reached by all on development areas to be pursued.
• Participant and consultant work together on a regular (weekly) basis, using assessments
and 360-degree feedback.
• At midpoint of the programme the participant, the participant’s manager and the HR
professional meet to evaluate progress and, if necessary, agree on modifications.
• The participant and the consultant continue to work together, using behaviour logs,
debriefing situations, simulation training and video feedback for behaviour change en-
hancement.
• At the conclusion of the programme the participant, the participant’s manager, the HR
professional and the consultant meet to assess success and a continuing way forward.
9.12.3 When does the need for individual development arise?

The need for individual development develops when managers need to extend competence
from technical fields to the people arena in such areas as: communicating in non-technical
terms, developing feedback skills in both giving and receiving feedback effectively, and
coaching. Other training needs are to develop the ability to confront without causing dam-
age to teams or individuals, and also to balance the need to control with the ability to em-
power. More specific needs are to improve assertiveness and balance it with co-operation;
develop communications skills such as the ability to say “no” without being perceived as
a non-team player; and learn to probe for information without being perceived as an in-
quisitor. In addition, they need to improve delegation skills, be able to identify and deal
with resistance, and balance team needs and corporate goals.
9.13 Conclusion
Management development, in the final analysis, is self-development. Employees may re-
ceive appropriate guidance and the necessary developmental opportunities, but if change
is to occur, the onus is on them to choose to improve. Through learning, employees
become aware of their individual strengths and their developmental needs. But the most
important ingredient is individual desire and commitment.
Most training efforts never get off the ground because the methods currently employed
do not change behaviour or the training is poorly delivered and inadequately integrated
into the organisation. The waste of money is depressing and regrettable for such a vital
investment in the economy of the country.
This chapter postulated a process approach to management development. Without com-
petent managers, organisations will not be able to deliver the performance required of a
global player in an increasingly competitive business world. In addition, it is essential that
management development programmes conform to the standards, principles and require-
ments of the NQF.
9.14 Company example: Telkom

Telkom designed and implemented a unique internal leadership and management development pro-
gramme targeting the company’s middle managers. This intervention, termed the Implementing
Strategy and Managing Corporate Performance (ISMP) programme, was designed to identify busi-
ness solutions that can be implemented to support the Company’s Business Plan and Strategy.
The ISMP is an Action Learning intervention designed specifically to deal with External and
Internal Company challenges as learning content, with a Business Impact Project (BIP) assigned to
syndicated cross-functional learning teams. These teams design solutions for problems and/or chal-
lenges identified by the business leaders, with knowledge gained through classroom session, self-
directed learning and action field research conducted locally and internationally. The BIP evaluation
is done by business leaders and implementable solutions are identified for the next steps in the com-
pany. BIPs are presented to business leaders as business cases.
1. Context
The challenges and opportunities that businesses are faced with today require a comprehensive and
cohesive response for corporations and organisations to stay successful and competitive. This means
that every capability in the organisation should be geared to respond proactively to the challenges
and maximise the opportunities, to ensure that the organisation meets the expectations of its custom-
ers, investors and other stakeholders.
An organisation’s human resources, or the organisation’s people, remain central in building com-
petitive advantage capabilities to ensure organisational success. Studies across the world have iden-
tified the relationship between organisational competitiveness and human capital value.
Given the globalisation of markets and the increasing demands of customers, corporations are
faced with changing and equally demanding labour dynamics both locally and globally. The need
for certain specialised skills within a fast-paced changing business landscape often leads to scarcity
of certain specific skills required by organisations to respond with speed to market and customer
pressures.
The cost of human resources/labour is often the single biggest cost line in most businesses and
organisations. To turn these often costly resources into human capital from which maximum value
should be extracted, is probably the most challenging of all human resources practitioners’ deliver-
ables to businesses.
continued
With all these issues relating to people or human capital, there is a need to focus business leaders
to take accountability for managing this resource closely, and expect returns for the costs put into it.
Human resources, human capital, labour or people, must therefore be top priority and the top agenda
point of every business meeting. The activities relating to human capital must all be geared to ensur-
ing maximum returns for all the investment put into it.
The issue for the business leaders and human resources (HR) practitioners is HOW? How do busi-
ness leaders hold HR accountable for business impacting on HR practices? How do business leaders
take responsibility for ensuring maximum returns for investments made in employees?
Business leaders and HR practitioners can maximise the return on employee costs by co-creating
solutions that are aligned with Company challenges and company strategic direction. This can be
achieved by several decisions that a Company should make:
1. Is the HR function involved in crafting the key strategies that deliver value to the Company? Or
is the HR function brought in as an after-thought when all the business plans are completed?
2. Does the HR function know the critical business challenges facing the Company, and aligning
all the HR activities with Company strategy?
3. Does the HR function, with Line Managers, co-operate to co-create people solutions for the
Company? Or is HR working in its own silo, while Line Managers view it (HR) as just an
administrative function to help with forums and disciplinary processes?
4. Does the Company expect HR to be aligned with Company strategy? Do business leaders know
what to expect from HR?
Based on the Company Strategy and Business Plan, the HR function creates an aligned HR Strategy.
The output or deliverable of the HR strategy must be directly related to the Company strategic prior-
ities and long-term strategic intent. If the Company has customers as a priority stakeholder, this
should be reflected in the HR strategy. If the Company is faced with technological evolution or
expansion/changes in its markets, these should also be reflected in its HR strategy.
To deliver the HR strategic outputs, there are various activities of the HR function which form the
day-to-day functioning of the HR unit. These activities, for ease of delivery and focus, form a com-
prehensive Employee Life Cycle or the Employee Management Cycle. This cycle provides focus for
the HR function to identify employee activities that impact both the employer and the employees,
and provide value to both. The elements of the Employee Management Cycle are illustrated below:
continued
Given the Company challenges, various elements of the Employee Management Cycle can be max-
imised, prioritised and utilised to generate value for the Company and for employees. Here are two
examples:
Example 1
To drive Customer Service Excellence and build a Customer-Centric Corporate Culture, the Organ-
isational Effectiveness interventions will ensure that the organisation is structured around the cus-
tomer and not in silos around the “bosses”. Through staffing, the right people are put into the right
roles, and their performance is closely managed to ensure productivity. The company’s recognition
programmes (awards) will be focused on rewarding the right behaviour towards the customer.
Training on Customer Service will involve the customer inputs and customer feedback. Appropriate
measures will be used to manage performance.
Example 2
The Company strategic intent is to expand beyond its immediate markets. This may be moving off-
shore for the first time, or even entering new markets outside its immediate geographic markets.
The compensation and benefit schemes will be reviewed, and the training and development function
will create new interventions aligned with globalisation and business development. The Company’s
talent management programme will expand the talent pools, adding a new talent pool and expand-
ing the succession programme and the skills pipeline’s interventions.
Through all the elements of the Employee Management Cycle, the intended output is to ensure that
the company is able to identify and attract the right employees to suit its business human capital
needs, have appropriate financial and non-financial reward/recognition tools to keep employees
motivated, then reward the right people with the right value-adding behaviours, and retain the key
talent that adds the competitive advantage capabilities required. The notion that human capital is an
asset to an organisation is not a passing cliché, but a business requirement for winning in a market
where there are fewer and fewer differentiating elements in business, other than its people. This is
the one asset that cannot be replicated! Even when moved from one employer to another, there may
be variables that create the employee success that cannot be moved with the employees, such as en-
abling business processes and organisational culture. The combination of the right people, the right
leadership, the right organisational culture and the right HR processes build sustaining organisation-
al capabilities that make other companies win, while others do not.
According to work done by thought leaders such as Dave Ulrich and Gary Hamel, organisational
capabilities are unique clusters of competencies that distinguish one corporation from another, and
are often a combination of people, processes, culture, organisational structure, values and leadership
style, among other organisational factors. The interplay of these unique characteristics makes them
very difficult to copy or to “import” with the poaching of staff. They make up the “DNA” of a cor-
poration.
There are various ways that an organisation can build capabilities required for organisational suc-
cess. According to the work done by Dave Ulrich, a well-known business and human resources
thought leader, these can be through:
• buying (recruitment, poaching, head-hunting)
• building (training and development)
• binding (reward and retention)
• bouncing (outplacement, separations and planned staff movements).
As indicated, these are elements of the Employee Management Cycle, classified differently for the
impactful delivery of HR value.
To illustrate how the Telkom HR function has aligned with the company’s strategic intent, a case
study of the company’s unique training and development intervention is explained in this work.
continued
2. The Telkom Strategic Intent informing HR practices

Telkom’s fixed-line local, long distance and international outgoing revenue is declining, as are most
if not all fixed-line telephony businesses world-wide. In response to this, Telkom has identified the
need to strategically expand its foot-print beyond the South African markets, and also beyond the
fixed-line business. The HR function then put into place, among other interventions, a programme
for identified candidates to build knowledge and exposure to the possible new markets that Telkom
will be entering.
3. The Telkom Training and Development Investment
Telkom invest over 6% of its total labour costs to training and development, which is 1.3% of its
total revenue. Benchmarked in South Africa and also globally, this investment places Telkom with-
in the top Companies who invest in training and development (ASTD Benchmark Study 2006). The
Build Strategy of Human Capital Plan at Telkom is aligned with the Company strategy to ensure
that the company gets the maximum benefit out of this investment.
The role of training and development at Telkom is to build competencies and enhance leadership
capabilities required to achieve business results and ensure corporate success, while building skills
pipelines for future company skills needs. Needless to say, Telkom is an industry leader in training
and development in the ICT sector locally, and its training arm, the Centre for Learning, has been
recognised globally for best-practice in training and development. The ATD, a leading global asso-
ciation of training practitioners, has awarded Telkom Centre for Learning with a “BEST” award for
the past two years (2006 and 2007), placing Telkom among the top 40 companies world-wide.
4. Telkom Training and Development aligned with Company Strategy
Given the investment the Company makes in training and development, it only makes sense that
Top Management at Telkom expects immediate and direct returns of this investment.
The training programmes were then designed in support of Telkom business needs and challenges.
There are various interventions for technical training, management training and leadership develop-
ment, customer service competency training as well as employee professional and career develop-
ment opportunities. This investment benefits the company, teams and their managers as well as
Telkom employees as individuals. The overview of the process for identifying critical business chal-
lenges and needs is as follows:
• The HR function is part of the business deliberations about the strategic direction of Telkom
• The HRD team, through the HR Leadership, obtains the strategic direction from Top Manage-
ment. This is as a result of directly involving HR in strategy formulation and inputs into business
planning
• The HR Leadership identifies the capabilities and competencies required to achieve Company
Strategy and the Company Business Plan
• The Competency gaps are identified through interaction with business leaders and specific line
managers, against which human capital strategies are determined, including training
• Training is co-created with line managers and designed against required competencies
• Delivery of training through various mechanisms
• Evaluation of whether training met individual, company, business leaders’ and line managers’
expectations. The evaluation of training and development is done at four levels, being Reaction,
Learning, Performance, and Business Impact. All programmes are evaluated at Reaction level,
with up to 80% at Learning level, and at least 60% at Performance, and 100% of management
training at Business Impact level. The focus is on management because they create the culture
required for company performance and employee engagement.
The programme presented here, a case study to illustrate this process; is a leadership and manage-
ment development programme for middle to senior line managers across the company.
All leadership and management development interventions at Telkom contain a business impact
project (BIP); an output of learning; presented to Business leaders as business cases.
continued
5. Leadership and Management Development: How the Company Business Plan became the
core of a Training Programme
The ISMP Design Process and Target Group
The case study programme, Implementing Strategy and Managing Corporate Performance (ISMP),
was fully developed by Telkom Centre for Learning and verified as academically sound by the Uni-
versity of North-West. It is now in its third year of implementation, and formed part of the award-
winning case study for an ATD best-practice award among top global businesses.
The ISMP, as the title of the intervention states, was designed to get middle to senior managers to
identify and implement interventions that will ensure that the current year’s strategy and business
plan are achieved by making use of impactful, innovative and cost effective processes, tools, prod-
ucts, or any other continuous improvement input that will lead to enhanced corporate performance.
The innovative processes/interventions, the business impact projects, are identified and created
during the learning process.
The ISMP Learning Structure and Modules
The ISMP intervention is designed around the business challenges, and not around the functional
and typical business school modules. For all participants of this programme, the generic manage-
ment competencies are assumed to be in place, making it typical that the participants are largely
graduates of other Telkom interventions run by the company’s learning partners, such as EDP, MDP
and MBAs.
The ISMP Modules are structured around the key challenges facing the company as they evolve
over time. There are two types of modules; categorised as Context and Content Modules.
• Context Modules. These modules are of information that is constantly changing, and is not with-
in Company control. Typically, these will be around:
– Legislation and Regulation
– Disruptive Technology and Technological Changes
– Markets and Customer Dynamics
– Competitor Analysis
– Globalisation
– Specific Telkom Critical Challenges.
ISMP Modules. Context Modules
Regulation & Disruptive

Legislation Technology &
Evolution
Telkom
Challenges
Competitor Activity &

Globalisation and
Customer Dynamics
Market Dynamics
…Drivers of ICT Market and Business Changes
Slide 14
continued
• Content modules. These modules are of best-in-class and right-practices of the various approaches
in managing the various business challenges facing the company. The information for this mod-
ule is extracted from across various fields, and presented within the context of ICT. One example
is “Strategy Formulation and Business Planning” as a learning approach, taken from various
sources by faculty. The four Content Modules are focused on:
– Customers and Markets
– Technology, Innovation and Infrastructure
– Leadership, People and Culture
– Products and Services
ISMP Modules. Content Modules

Customer surveys Technology strategies
Heartbeat surveys Marketing surveys

…Internal Challenges facing TELKOM
Slide 13
The Content modules may often be the same for more than one course, whereas the Context mod-
ules may change year on year, based on the dynamics of the external factors.
The critical aspect of the focus of the ISMP is that the content alignment is based on actual data
from the previous business year, as baseline input, since this is often part of the business planning
process, and a benchmark for higher corporate performance. For instance, the Customers and Mar-
kets data will be based on the company’s actual CSM scores, Technology and Infrastructure will be
based on the company Technology structure and roll-out plans and Products and Services will be
based on actual market surveys, and the Leadership, People and Culture area will be based on the
annual company climate survey.
This is about using actual past corporate performance data, as well as the current/future business
plan, to ensure that participants know the baseline for their business impact projects, and that the
right outputs are crafted during learning.
The Learning Process
There is a deliberate use of the concept “learning” instead of “training”. This is because the pro-
gramme is learner-focused versus facilitator-intensive training.
The learning process is short and intensive. The critical aspect is to ensure that any innovative
solution/intervention is crafted and implemented during the running financial year, as the learning is
based on the current/running business plan.
continued
There are four components to the learning methodology:

• Orientation, syndicated teaming and Business Impact Project allocation
• Classroom Learning:
– Context Modules: Drivers of ICT Change
– Content Modules
• Best Practice Research
– Desk Research
– Study Tour Field Research, local and international
• Business Impact Project (BIP) Implementation
– The Business Case Implementation Planning
– Evaluation Presentations to Top Management for possible next steps/implementation.
The learning process may be illustrate as follows:
ISMP Learning Methodology
A Total of 70 contact hours over 6 months
BIP
Presentation
Content Best Practice & Evaluation
Modules: Field
Context Internal Company Research
Modules: Challenges
External Drivers
Orientation, of Change
Teaming &
BIP assigned
The Business Classroom Learning Sessions BIP Action Research &

Challenge Implementation
BIP: Business Impact Project
Slide 18
There is minimal time-out from work, as the total programme is delivered within 70 learning hours
over six months. Each area of learning is delivered in one month, for example, all context modules
are done in one month, with a maximum of ten contact hours. In short, there are ten hours of contact
learning per month, covering all the work that needs to be done. There is a vast amount of individu-
al and off-work syndicate team interaction, which is estimated at more than 100 extra hours.
The teaming process is crucial, as the BIP is allocated by Top management right at the start of the
programme, and through-out the context and content modules; teams are looking for the relevant
information and tools to craft their BIP solution. This maximises learning, as the focus on the class-
room and other learning opportunities is high.
The BIPs are crafted by Top Management whose areas are critical in the business plan based on
Company strategy for a particular year. For instance, in the year that customer centricity was the
critical issue (every year actually!) based on CSM scores, the programme BIPs were all on Customer
Service. The one other focus was the company’s globalisation and pan-African expansion pro-
gramme, then the ISMP BIPs were all focused on the African expansion strategy.
continued
Here are two of the typical examples of BIP topics that were actually used in the ISMP:
Example 1
“Create a marketing, Service Activation Quality process for “Customer Self Install” (equipment
and technology) with specific reference to broadband and the top 1 000 Retail/SOHO customers to
increase revenue by ……% over 6 months and decrease customer dissatisfaction by ……% in the
same period”
Example 2
“Develop a Business Case to ensure growth of ISP Retail services into rest of Africa and emerging
markets. The development should follow the normal Telkom market development process, from
concept to business case”
Note: Both these BIPs were appropriately incorporated into Telkom business processes by the re-
spective Business leaders.
These BIP topics (business challenges) were for two different ISMP programmes, and had cross-
functional team members that were not from the related service organisations.
Given these challenges, the specific Business Leader within the Top 25 leadership of the com-
pany becomes the sponsor of the programme, and assigned Executives as ‘course validators’ of con-
tent, mentors and faculty. They also teach, coach, guide and accompany the syndicate teams on
study tours. This maximises the quality and relevance of the learning output, as it will be closer to
the required business input identified.
Participants conduct research, collect material during contact time and out-of-class availability of
faculty, as well as go on local and international study tours with Business leaders to specific identi-
fied areas. Study tours are conducted in South Africa, and as far afield as China, Australia, Nigeria,
Angola, Egypt, the UK, Europe and the USA. Classroom learning is typical teaching by both local
and international Faculty, as well as Telkom leadership/Top Management as internal faculty. The
BIPs are then presented, and the Business Leader and executives decide on the use of the material as
inputs to actual business process and decisions.
Learning Outcomes
The ISMP has multiple benefits:
• The Company and Top Management
– Telkom generates intelligence using a learning programme
– The containment of possible risks, if any, since the generation of possible solutions is done in
a learning environment, and often thoroughly investigated before implementation, even with-
in the short timing given by the programme
– Innovation!
– The visibility of otherwise middle management talent to the Top Management can never be
underestimated
– Planned and structured visibility of Top Management to employees that do not report to them
directly, and not even within their work functions
– Critical business issues receive attention by and input from a set of “outsider consultants”,
who provide a “fresh perspective” to a process in their functions
– Top management learn about employees and culture as they teach.
• The BIP receiving teams and their managers
– All teams welcome any innovative process that enhances their work!
• Learning Participants
– Access to Top management
– Cross-functional teaming that breaks silos
continued
– Time management skills

– Broadened Business exposure and learning of Telkom as a business beyond one’s functional
area
– Leadership and Management Skills
– Local and International exposure to ICT and other business areas. BIP research is not con-
fined to ICT businesses, although prioritised.
• The Training and Development Department
– Business Leaders own the Learning programme, and will not challenge the investment
– Faculty is never in short supply, as the learning output is important to the teachers
– Relevance of training and development to Company business.
6. Critical Success Factors and Lessons Learnt!
For any HRD intervention to succeed, such as this training and development programme case study,
there are critical imperatives that must be in place:
• Top Management Ownership
• Company Leadership’s direct involvement in teaching and evaluating the intervention, partici-
pants and the outputs of training programmes
• Direct alignment with real and current Company challenges
• Use of real Company material for input into training
• Careful selection of participants
• Accelerated and compressed learning period
• Academically sound intervention and quality tested by independent experts
• Learner-directed and learner focused intervention with minimal facilitator-led interaction
• Start with the intended end-goal in mind!
• Deliver within the relevant business time-frame while the outputs can still be utilised
• Cross-functional teaming of participants
• Innovate, stay current, and change what does not work.
The HRD team must ensure that the logistics of this project/programme are well planned and that all
resources are available. Access to on-line learning material by all participants, internal and external
faculty, as well as Executive coaches, is critical for information sharing and cohesion within the
programme.
7. Tips for Getting Started: What should the HR and HRD Practitioner do?
Different companies have different challenges at any given time.
• Identify the burning issues in your company, and identify the right business leaders. Ensure that
the business leaders who own the business challenges own the programme (this may change
annually with the changing, pressing issues in the company).
• Identify the right target group through which specific identified solutions are implemented in the
company.
• Get early buy-in from business leaders and line managers through dialogue and influencing.
Understand the issues that impact on the Company challenges as well as the target group who
implement the solutions (or simply implement a specific part of the business plan).
• Review the training and development interventions and keep only those with the most impact. Be
decisive on what needs to be stopped, and/or replaced by this programme.
• Move key resources to this project, financial, office and learning space, e-HR tools and team
members. Add and rotate some members of this team to spread the learnings beyond the core
team, and lessen the “elite club” within the delivery team and broader HRD function.
continued
• Ensure tight project management, and keep the project team close to leadership. Break the usual
reporting structures and ensure direct access of this team to all key stakeholders with minimal
bureaucratic red-tape.
• Create comprehensive documentation, but make only the outline of the programme available and
visible to Top Management and the rest of the Company. Impactful communication and not in-
formation overload!
• Communicate, communicate and communicate to all involved.
• Use business owners as Programme Sponsors, and use them to communicate the intervention.
Spend time with them discussing all aspects of the intervention. A cross-learning opportunity for
business leaders and HR.
• Implement within the given timeframe to keep the solutions relevant.
• Keep the programme within timeframes that can be tolerated by the business, and minimise time
away from work.
• Deliver a programme that is specific to your company, and be innovative.
• Learn as you go, fail fast, fail forward!
• Share learnings within and beyond the company and gather feedback for improvement and best
practices.
• Document from start to finish, and review each intervention before starting the next.
The HR function should adopt the business essentials to implement any HR interventions and deliver
value to the company. The HR actions and deliverables should not be about HR, but about the busi-
ness. The value of HRD deliverables will always be measured by the business leaders and employ-
ees, whether or not this is planned by HR. Therefore, as HRD practitioners, our work should be
structured for evaluation of value against business needs.
To succeed, business needs must be HR inputs, and HRD outputs must be business solutions.
9.15 Case studies

Case study 1
Lerato was looking forward to her new job as a first line supervisor. On her first day she asked for a
job description and found that what existed was quite out of date. No one seemed concerned though.
Lerato wondered if she should push for clarification and run the risk of seeming unwilling to “go
with the flow”. She decided that it would be a good thing to keep quiet for the moment and see how
things panned out.
But she thought that for her own good it would be important for her to know if she was perform-
ing well, so she put together her own job description that specified performance levels for herself
and her team, as well as control measures such as response times.
Then, for the next few weeks, she set about observing and noting carefully what was happening in
the department before she initiated any drastic moves. She discovered that the staff resources
assigned to her were inadequate and did not cover the requirements she had set out in order for her
team to carry out their work in a competent manner. For example, she discovered that most of the
customer volume was early in the morning or over the lunch hour. By tradition, staff did not arrive
at work until the office opened for business, meaning that they were not well-organised when the
doors opened to customers. Also, while staff took alternate lunch break times (11:30–12:30 and
12:30–13:30), this meant that staff levels were at 50% during the busiest time of day.
continued
Armed with this knowledge she approached her manager and together they sat down to discuss
the problems she had uncovered. They then met with the team and discussed matters in detail. The
team came up with the following ideas which they agreed to try out for the next two weeks and then
meet to discuss results:
• part of the staff started coming in half an hour early to set up the office so that they were ready
for early morning customers
• lunch times would be from 11:00–12:00 and 14:00–15:00.
The results were very positive. Once the staff saw customer queues were shorter and the number of
complaints and bad tempers dropped, they were pleased with the solution.
Questions
1 Comment on the good things that Lerato did in her new job. What should her next steps be?
2 Indicate the implications of the case study for management development programmes.
3 Which of the seven NQF critical outcomes did Lerato apply in her job? Motivate your answer.
Case study 2
Paulus Mtimkulu had been in his job for about six months when he was told that it was time for his
performance review, which would be handled by the HR department as his manager, Cynthia, was
much too busy to spend time meeting with him.
At the review session, Tom Nyati, the HR manager, read out to him what his manager, Cynthia,
had written. None of it was very complimentary. Paulus was shocked and embarrassed. He could
not believe that his manager had expected such things of him, especially seeing that she had not sat
down with him and talked things over with him when he had been promoted. Neither for that mat-
ter, had Tom.
Paulus told Tom that he had not known that he was supposed to perform certain functions, nor
that some of his team members had complained about him.
Questions
1 What should Paulus and Tom, the HR manager, do now and for the future?
2 Draw up a management development programme for Cynthia.

1 As a manager, discuss the following training problems and offer solutions:
• relying on unstructured OTJ training
• assuming that employees must be sent for training because you have been told to
improve performance.
2 “We need flexible, resourceful, resilient people who can tolerate a lot of surprise and
ambiguity” (Eric Trust).
Comment on your interpretation of this quotation regarding supervisors, managers
and the training they need if they are to become flexible and resourceful. What part
can you play in this process?
3 Sales and marketing has again promoted three outstanding sales people into man-
agement. Not surprisingly, their managerial skills are weak. The sales and marketing
director has asked you for three two-hour long training sessions to enhance their
skills, since they will be developing the new sales people who have been recruited to
fill their old positions. You recognise the need for coaching, but also know that other
skills are necessary. What should you do? Outline your plan of action.
4 A few managers have complained to you that their supervisors cannot solve prob-
lems. You have conducted a needs assessment and there is definitely a need for a
creative problem-solving programme. You approach your director of HR, but she re-
jects your idea saying that creativity or “out of the box” thinking is just introducing
exceptions to the system. In her opinion, HR should be concentrating on creating
standards rather than promoting free-wheeling spontaneity. What are your alterna-
tives?
5 The new world of work requires managers and supervisors to have new thinking pat-
terns, skills and abilities. What new thinking patterns, skills and abilities does your
organisation require of its supervisors and managers, in order to compete successful-
ly in the new millennium?
6 A good supervisor in a manufacturing plant could be a good supervisor in an insur-
ance company. Critically evaluate this statement.
7 Do the best workers make the best supervisors? Why or why not?
8 Compile a management development programme for an engineer who has recently
been promoted to the position of operations manager.
9 Formulate a strategy to ensure that management development programmes meet the
requirements of the NQF.
10 Explain how an organisation can apply the national standard on leadership develop-
ment.
9.17 References
Halfway House: International Thomson.
Griffin RE (ed), 1997, VisionQuest: Journeys towards Visual Literacy.
Hughes RL, Ginnett RC and Curphy GJ, 2006, Leadership: Enhancing the Lessons of
Experience, Boston, MA: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
IMD, 2012, World Competitive Report 2012, Lausanne: IMD.
Jacobs RL and Jones ML, 2003, Structured on-the-job Training: Unleashing Employee
Expertise in the Workplace, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Longenecker CO and Gioia DA, 1991, “Ten myths of managing managers”, Sloan Man-
agement Review.
McClelland DC, 1973, “Testing for competence rather than for intelligence”, American
Psychologist 28: 1–14.
McLagan PA, 1991, Models for HRD Practice: A Manager’s Guide, Alexandria, Virginia:
ASTD.
Mintzberg H, 1990, The Manager’s Job: Folklore and Fact, Boston, Mass: Harvard Busi-
ness Review.
SABPP, 2015, National HR Professional Practice Standards, Parktown: SABPP.
Schenk H and Meyer M, 1999, Report on the 1999 ASTD Conference, Florida: Technikon
SA.
Stewart DM, 2005, Handbook of Management Skills.

Abib-Pech M, 2013, Leadership: How to lead Effectively and Get Results, London:
Financial Times/Pearson.
Bower JL and Gilbert CG, 2007, “How managers’ everyday decision create – or destroy –
your company’s strategy”, Harvard Business Review.
Bester C, 2012, Live & Lead: Discover Your Personal & Organisational Guidance
System, Johannesburg: Porcupine Press.
Bratton W and Tumin Z, 2012, Collaborate or Perish: Reaching Across Boundaries in a
Networked World, New York: Crown Business.
Brent M and Dent FE, 2014, The Leader’s Guide to Managing People: How to Use Soft
Skills to Get Hard Results, London: FT/Pearson.
Crainer S (ed), 2000, The Financial Times Handbook of Management, London: Pitman.
Drucker P, 2003 Management Challenges for the 21st Century, Harper Collins.
Erickson TJ and Gratton L, 2007, What it Means to Work Here, Harvard Business Review.
Goodwin CR and Chapman EN, 2005, Supervisor’s Survival Kit, 10th edn, Neteffect
series.
Groenewald A, 2015, Seamless Leadership: Universal Lessons from South Africa, Johan-
nesburg, Jonathan Ball.
Hill LA, 2003, Becoming a Manager: Mastery of a New Identity, 2nd edn, Boston, MA:
Harvard Business School Press.
Harvard Business Review, 2006, Managing with People in Mind, Boston, MA: A Harvard
Business Review Paperback No. 90085.
Jones J and Chen CW, 2005, New Supervisor Training, ASTD Trainer’s workshop series.
Krige K and Silber G, 2016, The Disrupters: Social Entrepreneurs Reinventing Business
and Society, Johannesburg: Bookstorm.
McLagan PA, 2014, The Shadow Side of Power: Lessons for Leaders, Randburg: Know-
res.
McKnight W and Chapman E, 2001, The New Supervisor: Stepping up with Confidence,
Crisp paperback.
Mosala T and Bowen A (eds), 2013, Business Cases for Managers, Randburg: Knowres.
Patridge D, 2015, People Over Profit: Break the System, Live with Purpose. Be More
Successful, Nashville: Nelson Books.
Rue LW and Byars LL, 2005, Management: Skills and Applications, 11th edn, New York:
McGraw Hill/Irwin.
Schultz C and Van der Walt H, 2015, Reinventing HR: Strategic and Organisational
Relevance of the Human Resources Function, Randburg: Knowres.
Smit PJ, Cronje GJ de J, Brevis T and Vrba MJ, 2007, Management Principles: A Con-
temporary Edition for Africa, Kenwyn: Juta.
Sull DM and Spinosa C, 2007, “Promise-based management: the essence of execution”,

Harvard Business Review.
Ungerer M, Ungerer G and Herholdt J, 2016, Crystallising the Strategic Business Land-
scape: Strategy Analysis Practices and Tools for Business Leaders and Strategy Practi-
tioners, Randburg: KR.
Van Eeden D, 2014, The Role of the Chief Human Resource Officer: Perspectives, Chal-
lenges, Realities and Experiences, Randburg: Knowres.
Veldsman TH and Johnson A (eds), 2016, Leadership: Lessons from the Front Line.
Randburg: KR.
Watkins M, 2003, The First 90 Days, Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.
9.19 Internet sites

Institute for Management Development: http://www.imd.ch
Journal of Management Development: http://www.mcb.co.uk/jmd.htm
Leadership and Organizational Development Journal: http://www.mcb.co.uk/lodj.htm
Leadership Magazine: http://www.leadershiponline.co.za
Leadership Platform: http://www.leadershipplatform.com
Management and leadership articles: http://www.mcb.co.uk/services/articles/liblink/lodj/
komaki.htm
Management Concepts: http://www.managementconcepts.com
Management Development Review: http://www.mcb.co.uk/mdr.htm
Targeted Communication Management Training and Development Resources:
http://www.tcm.com/trdev
Training Magazine: http://www.trainingnet.com
Training Success: http://www.tsuccess.dircon.co.uk/newsletter
Thank you to Charlotte Mokoena, previously from Telkom, for the ATD award-winning
company example provided for this chapter.
CHAPTER
10
MENTORING AND COACHING
Marius Meyer
Good coaches keep creating situations where they’re no longer needed.
(Marshall Cook)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Motivate the benefits of mentoring and coaching for organisations
• Identify the pitfalls of mentoring and coaching
• Differentiate between the types of mentoring and coaching interventions
• Indicate the role of HRD in mentoring and coaching
• Provide guidelines for effective mentoring and coaching
• Apply the HR professional practice standard by SABPP on coaching and mentoring developed
• Formulate an implementation plan for mentoring and coaching
10.1 Introduction
The past ten years have seen a huge interest in the notion of mentoring and coaching in
both the business world and the public service. In fact, organisations worldwide have rec-
ognised that mentoring and coaching can be one of the most powerful techniques in accel-
erating workplace learning and growth.
The different definitions or approaches to mentoring and coaching are debatable. Be that
as it may, the huge interest in the concept both locally and internationally, clearly shows the
current emphasis on mentoring and coaching. Unlike other fads that have quickly appeared
and disappeared, there appears to be a more apparent sustainability of this trend, both
locally and abroad (Koeppel, 2007). On the one hand, there is great enthusiasm on the part
287
of coaches and coachees alike, and on the other hand, there is the realisation that mentoring
and coaching, if properly implemented, can yield significant benefits for South African
organisations. In fact, I am convinced that more than 80% of our nation’s current prob-
lems can be resolved through mentoring and coaching. Look at the skills shortages in dif-
ferent areas such as agriculture when it comes to land reform, public-sector inefficiency in
many departments, and underperforming companies in the private sector. Imagine what we
can achieve as a nation, if every good mentor or coach would be willing to invest one hour
a week to transfer knowledge and skills to a more junior employee or an employee with
potential that has not yet been realised. And that is the reason why evaluation is so essen-
tial, because it helps us to reflect on our current mentoring and coaching efforts and then
to identify opportunities for improvement. While several companies have wasted days,
weeks and months to debate the differences between mentoring and coaching, the masses
remain uneducated, under-utilised and frustrated. This chapter is based on the premise
that given our current skills crisis, unemployment, under-employment and poverty, there
is no time for debate. Rather, let us embrace mentoring and coaching, get on with it, and
develop the knowledge and skills of people to turn the current skills crisis around.
In many professions today, mentors are thought to enhance if not ensure the professional
development and success of talented employees. That is the reason why mentoring and
coaching are such valuable talent management strategies (see chapter 16). Increasingly,
mid-career professionals seek mentors and/or coaches when they wish to develop new
levels of expertise and to advance in their organisations. Similarly, lower level employees
often need mentors or coaches to accelerate their growth and development.
But what is mentoring and coaching really?
Mentoring is a professional relationship where an experienced person (mentor) assists another

(mentee) to achieve personal and professional growth, maximising potential and improving perfor-
mance. It is a mutually agreed-to relationship outside the supervisor/subordinate relationship and
is maintained through mutual trust and respect. It usually lasts for a minimum period of one year,
but may become long term.
Coaching is a professional relationship where a person with specific knowledge and/or skills
(coach) assists another (coachee) to develop more knowledge or skills as defined in coaching goals
stated upfront.

Thus, as can be seen from the above definitions, mentoring is knowledge and wisdom
orientated, while coaching is task and output related based on clear goals to be achieved.
It is also significant to note how often CEOs refer to the role of their mentors in helping
them to climb the corporate ladder. Raymond Ackerman of Pick ’n Pay dedicated the first
five chapters of his autobiography Hearing grasshoppers jump to the five major mentors
in his Life (Prichard, 2004). Many CEOs are quite open in stating that they would not have
been in their positions if it was not for the support, guidance and encouragement of key
mentors during the development of their careers.
In the context of these business trends, mentoring and coaching help organisations and
managers to deal with this reality. In fact, mentoring can achieve far more than a traditional
management development programme. Mentoring involves real learning in real-life situ-
ations, not simply theory one reads in textbooks or journals.
However, the role of a mentor is not only to give advice: it is twofold. Firstly, men-
tors provide career development behaviours such as coaching, providing challenging
Chapter 10: Mentoring and coaching 289
assignments and fostering the mentee’s visibility. Secondly, they provide psychosocial
support such as counselling, support and role modelling. Without a mentor, an individual
will learn less, more slowly or not at all. However, overemphasis of the psychological
perspectives of mentoring and coaching will do this powerful concept more harm than
good. Managers in hard business-driven productivity-focused organisations such as
banks, mines and manufacturers do not have the time to spend days and weeks working
with psychologists in so-called “coaching” sessions. And that is the reason why we pro-
pose moving away from a “soft” psychological approach to a business management ap-
proach to mentoring and coaching – one that integrates the needs of the business with the
needs of people (Meyer, 2007).
In South Africa, mentoring and coaching can play a vital role in promoting equal oppor-
tunity, employment equity and broad-based black economic empowerment. Mentoring pro-
grammes can seek diversity outcomes and involve designated members. The challenge is
to first identify pools of potential mentors and mentees, provide mentoring training with
particular emphasis on diversity issues, and then offer informal opportunities for the devel-
opment of informal mentoring relationships. Further support can be provided by structur-
ing diverse work teams that span departmental and hierarchical lines, and by facilitating
informal interactions aimed at dispelling stereotypes and attributions. Mentoring is about
facilitating change by providing a stable source of support throughout the process.
To understand the background to and context of mentoring in an organisation, it is use-
ful to look at the concept of coaching. All supervisors should be coaches, which means
that the coaches play a role in training and developing their employees to achieve the re-
quired results. So be careful of consultants who tell you that only they can be the coaches
– ideally your managers should be coaches themselves.
There are two approaches to coaching: one is psychodynamic, and the other one a busi-
ness approach – coaching a person to do the job well, as in, say, sport. This type of coach-
ing therefore entails the systematically planned and direct guidance of an individual or
group of individuals by a coach to learn and develop specific skills that are applied and
implemented in the workplace, and therefore translates directly into clearly defined per-
formance outcomes achieved over a short period of time.
Coaching is primarily concerned with performance and the development of definable
skills. It usually starts with the learning goal already identified, if not by the executive,
then by an influential third party. Coaching in an human resource development (HRD)
context is a form of on-the-job training, using work to provide planned opportunities for
learning under guidance. It is therefore not surprising that the South African Qualifica-
tions Authority (SAQA) registered unit standards emphasising the “training” role of the
coach.
It is important to focus on the key role of managers in driving organisational success.
However, managers are often so busy strategising and planning around achieving business
objectives, that they do not engage sufficiently in reflecting on the impact of their own
behaviour on the organisation and its people, let alone deal with complexity, volatility and
disruption in the business environment. The role of a coach in assisting managers to do
introspection in a focused way is key to managerial growth and development (Mkhondo,
2016).
We need both mentoring and coaching in our organisations. We need coaching to help
individuals perform over the short term so that business goals are met. We need mentoring
to ensure that employees and managers are continuously developed so that the
organisation’s performance can be sustained and improved over the long term. If the
wisdom of mentors is shared with mentees, the future sustainability of organisations is
enhanced. Both mentoring and coaching is therefore a strategic business management
imperative in organisations.
While it is crucial to understand the above terminology, of greater importance is grasp-
ing the interrelationship between the different concepts. The strength of mentoring and
coaching lies in the integration of these two primary concepts. A good mentor is in all
probability also a good manager and leader. Furthermore, a mentor must also fulfil the
role of an informal counsellor to be able to help a mentee through problems and obstacles
when they occur. A mentor and coach should also be a trainer when he or she trains the
mentee to acquire certain knowledge and skills to do his or her job more effectively.
10.2 Benefits of mentoring and coaching

But why are mentoring and coaching so popular today? There are a number of good
reasons (Meyer, 2007):
• It is an excellent tool for management and leadership development.
• It supports and reinforces training and skills development interventions. Mentoring,
when combined with training, increases a manager’s productivity by 88% according to
the Association for Talent Development (ATD).
• It can help with the induction and orientation of new employees or managers.
• It assists in career development and talent management.
• It promotes succession planning and skills transfer.
• It promotes teamwork and sound working relationships.
• It assists in the implementation of performance management.
• It contributes to job satisfaction.
• It accelerates employment equity and black economic empowerment.
• It builds competence and capacity in an organisation.
• It contributes to employee retention. Business Week reports that over 35% of employ-
ees who are not mentored within 12 months of being hired are actively looking for a job!
(Career Systems International, 2003.) According to Louis Harris Associates, only 16%
of those with good mentors are expected to seek other employment (Sukiennik, 2004).
• It harnesses the full potential and talents of employees.
• It promotes a learning culture in an organisation.
• It helps a company to achieve its business objectives.
• It supports the principles of sound corporate governance, in particular the emphasis on
succession planning and human capital development.
10.3 Pitfalls of mentoring and coaching

Despite the overwhelming benefits of mentoring and coaching, there are indeed some pit-
falls to avoid when implementing mentoring and coaching interventions in organisations
(Meyer, 2007):
• Management is often not committed to mentoring or coaching. They believe that they
“came up the ranks the hard way, why must the youngsters now get all the support and
opportunities that they as managers themselves did not have?”
• HR and HRD managers know that their organisations need mentoring and coaching,
but they often don’t know where to start.
• While we spent too much time arguing and debating about the difference between men-
toring and coaching, the rest of the organisation has lost interest.
• Mentoring and coaching are seen as the latest buzzwords and therefore haphazardly
adopted to align yourself with what other companies are doing.
• There are too many consultants and training providers in the market and many of them
have totally different perspectives on how to implement mentoring/coaching. The mar-
ket is thus confused.
• Like other typical power plays, national attempts to professionalise the “coaching pro-
fession” has led to political infighting and turf battles between the leading consultants
in the field. While some consulting firms have gained enormously from a financial per-
spective, the market lost in the process.
• Every second consultant these days has become an “executive coach” or “life coach”
overnight and many of these people do not necessarily have the required credentials. In
addition, the over-emphasis on “professionalisation” without recognising great mentors
or coaches who have been doing excellent work for decades, defeats the object of skills
transfer. Surely, it will be absurd to expect the Raymond Ackermans, Patrice Motsepes
and Trevor Manuels of this world to “register” as coaches. They have already shown
that they have what it takes to lead people and great organisations to success.
• Learnerships have institutionalised “workplace mentors” as part of the learnership
agreement, but in reality no or little workplace mentoring takes place, it is merely seen
as a paper exercise signed off by the “workplace mentor”.
• Mentoring and coaching are often viewed from a simplistic and one-sided perspective,
while it is in fact a multi-disciplinary field. It does not belong to psychology, or indus-
trial psychology, HR management, or any other specific subject discipline. It has failed
when people from one of these fields claimed exclusive ownership and therefore
attempted to implement it from a narrow one-sided perspective. Taking the best ele-
ments from psychology, business management, project management, leadership, human
resource development, general management, sport management, sociology and some
other fields will produce a more integrated approach to mentoring and coaching. The
time for protection and self-interest is over, now we have to learn, share and empower
– isn’t that what mentoring and coaching is all about?
• Mentoring and coaching “training” or capacity-building is provided, in the absence of a
proper mentoring and coaching strategy and policy framework.
• No or limited skills transfer strategies are in place to ensure that mentoring and coach-
ing is implemented effectively.
• Mentoring and coaching programmes are not aligned with the overall business strategy
of the company and it is therefore not surprising that they are not seen as adding any
value to the organisation.
• Because of all the above-mentioned problems we have forgotten about what matters
most in mentoring and coaching – the development and growth of mentees and coachees.
10.4 Types of mentoring and coaching interventions

Different types of mentoring and coaching interventions have emerged from traditional
approaches to mentoring and coaching, so much so, that vast options are available for
companies and individuals. In fact, the options are so vast, and the different approaches
and methodologies so varied, that it can be extremely confusing to select the most appro-
priate type of mentoring or coaching intervention. However, some of the traditional
approaches are still very relevant today, and with some modification can yield significant
benefits for companies all over the world. Two broad programme approaches are available:
Directive Non-directive
mentoring/coaching mentoring/coaching
Steering or directing Asking questions to

the person in the right help the person to
direction discover the solutions
him or herself
• Directive mentoring/coaching, that is, when the mentoring or coaching plays a direct
role in providing advice and support, to a certain degree the mentor or coach is almost
like a conductor – steering and directing the mentee or coachee in the right direction.
This type of mentoring and coaching is especially relevant in countries like South Africa
where serious skills and education gaps are prevalent.
• Non-directive mentoring/coaching, that is, when the mentor or coach uses a more
facilitative style by listening and asking the right questions at the right time to help
mentees or coachees to generate the answers themselves. This approach is very popular
among psychologists who have recently entered the field of coaching.
Within these two broad approaches, a whole list of mentoring and coaching options are
available.
Table 10.1 Types of mentoring and coaching interventions
Types of
Brief description Typical applications
intervention
Executive coaching An external coach has regular sessions with a Senior management
senior manager to help him or her make better development
life and business decisions
Performance A line manager provides clear guidance to Performance
coaching employees to improve their performance management
continued
Types of
Brief description Typical applications
intervention
Reverse mentoring A company appoints mentors from different Diversity management
groups to help key staff members learn at a
cultural or technical level. The roles are thus Transformation, BBBEE
reversed, because the more “junior” employee
mentors the boss
Electronic When staff members are in different cities, Performance support
mentoring provinces or countries, electronic mentoring is Regional or global
used to conduct the relationship via email business strategy
Multiple mentoring More than one mentor is assigned to develop a Multi-skilling
(also called power wide variety of diverse skills to accelerate Accelerated development
mentoring) development (employment equity)
Management development
Professional development
Traditional An independent third party who is not the Management development
mentoring direct manager of the mentee is used as Employment equity
mentor to facilitate growth and development
Learnerships
Professional An employee striving to achieve professional Career development
mentoring status in a professional field (for example, law Recruitment and selection
or accountancy) is mentored by a senior
Continuous professional
registered professional in that field
development
Management development
Life coaching An individual is coached by a coach helping Personal development
him or her to make important decisions Decision-making
affecting his life, in most cases, life coaches
Work-life balance
support the achievement of balance and
excellence in both personal and work lives Employee wellness
Team coaching A team is coached to help the team work more Team-building
effectively in achieving the goals of the team Goal achievement
in a more effective manner
Sources: Adapted from Ensher and Murphy (2005), Meyer and Fourie (2006) and Mthembu (2007).
The above-mentioned mentoring and coaching options are not mutually exclusive. It is in-
deed possible to use a combination of all these options. However, HRD managers should
be careful not to lose focus in the process, because it may be difficult to integrate all these
options into one HRD strategy. Selecting the best consultants may also be challenging in
the light of the large number of consultants working in the field, and some of them are not
able to integrate their approach, style and methodology with the particular business needs
of the company.
10.5 Role of HRD

While the benefits of mentoring and coaching are clear for an organisation and its staff,
clear role clarification is needed regarding the role of HR, HRD, mentors or coaches, man-
agement and the mentees or coaches. Management should drive mentoring and coaching
in an organisation, mentors and mentees should play their role to make the relationships
work, and HRD will typically fulfil the following functions:
• Doing proper needs analyses to determine mentoring, coaching and other capacity-
building needs.
• Selecting consultants and coaches to support the initial and/or ongoing implementation
of mentoring/coaching.
• Build the capacity of mentors/coaches and mentees/coachees to effectively manage the
relationships.
• Assist in the matching of mentors/coaches and mentees/coachees.
• Create and maintain a sound institutional framework for mentoring and coaching by
drafting policies, strategies and action plans.
• Monitor the effective implementation of mentoring and coaching relationships and
strategies.
• Integrating and aligning mentoring and coaching with other organisational strategies
such as talent management, career development, knowledge management, performance
management and HR strategy.
• Provide follow-up capacity-building interventions identified during mentoring and
coaching.
• Evaluating and measuring the impact of mentoring and coaching on the organisation, if
possible, by calculating the return on investment (ROI).
• Ensuring that mentoring and coaching agreements are implemented, especially if these
agreements form part of the workplace components of learnerships.
10.6 The coaching and mentoring national standard (SABPP)

In 2014, the SA Board for People Practices (SABPP) developed a HR professional prac-
tice standard as part of the National HR Standards project. The standard provides a clear
guideline on how to implement mentoring and coaching in the workplace. Figure 6.1
illustrates the standard on coaching and mentoring.
Figure 6.1 Coaching and mentoring HR professional practice standard (SABPP)
L&D policy Recruit/screen/train

coaches and mentors
Business case Identify

defined coaches/mentees Observable
improvements
as defined
Match
Coaching/
mentoring
programme
defined Contract including Programme
goals/outcomes reports and
analyses
Support, monitor
and intervene if
Programme necessary
management
Amend goals if
necessary
MONITOR + EVALUATE
As is evident from Figure 10.1, the standard provides a professional and systematic ap-
proach to mentoring and coaching. Currently there are too many fragmented and superfi-
cial consulting models and the standard attempts to address this matter by creating a
consistent and professional approach to mentoring and coaching. The standard goes on to
specify the following fundamental requirements for good coaching and mentoring practices
(SABPP, 2015):
• Both coaching and mentoring are more effective if positioned as developmental in
nature rather than for correcting performance deficiencies.
• Coaches and mentors are essential in transferring knowledge and skills, especially in
relation to practical and experiential workplace learning. Coaching and mentoring can
support formal training programmes and ensure transfer of learning back into the work-
place.
• Both coaching and mentoring should take place within a defined organisational pro-
gramme with specific business objectives, supported by policies and procedures on is-
sues such as, who qualifies for coaching and/or mentoring, which budget is used if
external coaches are used, who decides on suitable coaches and mentors, and who
chooses the specific coach or mentor.
• Confidentiality of the content of coaching and mentoring sessions should always be
assured. Feedback to sponsors should be on progress against defined goals, never on the
detailed content of the discussions. Both parties should sign confidentiality agreements.
• Goals/outcomes and duration should be agreed upfront for each relationship.
• All coaching and mentoring should be monitored to identify relationship problems and
intervention instituted where necessary and progress should be measured. The final
achievement of the coaching/mentoring relationship in relation to goals/outcomes
should be assessed through appropriate means at the conclusion of the intervention.
• Coaching and mentoring programmes should be managed by staff who are qualified to
do so.
• Participation in coaching and mentoring activities should be voluntary for both coach-
es/mentors and coachees/mentees.
• Coaches/mentors and coachees/mentees should be equipped with skills and resources to
support effective coaching and mentoring. Resources for coaches/mentors should in-
clude professional support from a professional coach in regular supervision sessions.
10.7 The mentoring and coaching implementation process

Mentoring and coaching, like all other HRD interventions, must be implemented in a care-
fully planned and professional manner, both in terms of the process and content of the
intervention. Some of the major steps in initiating and managing a mentoring programme
in an organisation will be discussed below as outlined by Meyer and Fourie (2006).
10.7.1 Introducing the intervention

A mentoring or coaching process is introduced in an organisation when an individual has
the vision to see that mentoring will provide a credible method of accelerating empower-
ment or supporting other HRD interventions. The programme needs to be introduced as a
way of supporting the process of empowering the members of the organisation. Critical to
implementing the initiative, is the support of management for the process, because much
of the learning and application will need to be demonstrated in the workplace. Hence,
some managers may be expected to fulfil the role of coach to ensure the development of
competence and the transfer of learning in the workplace.
The mentorship process may also be seen as a mechanism to ensure the transfer of learn-
ing to the workplace. Here there would be a partnership between various role-players in-
volved, and the co-operation of those who manage the workplace is therefore essential to
the support of mentoring that has taken place. Furthermore, it is in the workplace that
applied competence needs to be demonstrated.
At this stage it is important to specify the objectives of the mentoring programme, for
example, management development, learnerships, succession planning or fast-tracking to
achieve employment equity targets. Mentoring support structures are needed to steer the
implementation of the mentoring strategy. These support structures may assume various
forms, depending on the unique nature of the organisation. The following options are
possible:
• A policy statement on mentoring
• The formulation of a mentoring strategy
• Appointing mentoring co-ordinators
• Allocation of resources for mentoring
• Derivation of a communication and marketing plan for mentoring and coaching.
When large-scale mentoring and coaching programmes are launched, mentor co-ordinators
need to be assigned to ensure that the process is implemented and maintained to the advan-
tage of the mentors, mentees and the organisation. Typically, these individuals would also
assess the process to ensure its continued effectiveness. They could also provide the organ-
isation’s employment equity committee with the necessary information and feedback.
10.7.2 Training of steering committee

Although mentoring and coaching co-ordinators might be positively inclined towards the
process and its implementation, they need knowledge and skills to implement mentoring
effectively. Their training would typically revolve around the mentoring and coaching
process, as well as broader aspects of organisational development and transformation.
10.7.3 Identifying mentors/coaches and mentees/coachees

Mentors/coaches and mentees/coachees are identified. The steps one takes to market the
mentoring and coaching programme and recruit participants depend on what is available
and appropriate in the organisation and the resources available. In deciding how to publi-
cise the programme, the appropriate communication channels in the organisation need to
be considered. The information can be presented in brochures, newsletters, poster displays
in high-use areas and e-mail notices.
In the process of preparing publicity material, try to locate people who have experience
either as mentors or mentees in the programme. One is able to use their endorsements in
the brochures or newsletters as indications of benefits that can be derived from mentoring
and coaching relationships. Try to promote the programme in other interactive sessions.
This gives staff the chance to ask questions and clarify what the programme might have to
offer them. Encourage people to contact the mentoring/coaching co-ordinator in person if
they do not feel comfortable with a public forum.
In some instances the recruitment process of individuals to become mentors and men-
tees is controlled at a centre (HR department or a committee on skills development). In
other cases, participation is voluntary. The main qualifying aspect of participation is men-
tors’ voluntary participation, but one should not have to wait until they nominate them-
selves, because some of them might be hesitant to do so. Instead, ask other members in the
organisation to nominate potential mentors or coaches. This includes asking potential men-
tees whom they would suggest. This exercise enhances the credibility of the programme.
Approach the nominated members and establish whether they are willing to participate. If
mentors select themselves for the programme, this demonstrates their level of commit-
ment. This is clearly advantageous to the mentoring and coaching initiative.
10.7.4 Capacity-building for all role-players

All role-players are oriented and trained for their role and responsibilities in the mentoring/
coaching relationship. Joint induction training for mentors/coaches and mentees/coachees
affords valuable opportunities to become acquainted and reach agreement about expect-
ations. Even those who know each other well will need to set parameters in terms of their
existing relationship to encompass the roles of mentor/coach and mentee/coachee. If you
use external consultants or coaches, ensure that there is clear role-clarification and deliver-
ables to be achieved. Be careful not to allow external coaches to run the show for you.
Despite their specialised knowledge in certain areas, you know what is best for your organ-
isation.
10.7.5 Matching of mentors/coaches and mentees/coachees

Ideally, the linkages between the parties should be a natural process. However, there are
times when it is necessary to ensure that all learners are linked to a mentor/coach and
have a mentoring or coaching relationship at a formal level.
The matching of mentors and mentees is absolutely critical. We can allow mentees to
identify and approach their own mentors. Where there was already a mentoring relation-
ship of some sort between manager and employee, this must be encouraged to strengthen
the relationship. In other instances, try to find out as much information as possible about
what the potential participants consider important so that you have a strong foundation on
which to base the matching. One can also generate a dossier from which the participants
can choose.
10.7.6 Relationship goal-setting

The mentor and mentees hold a discussion during which they formulate the developmen-
tal goals. Part of this discussion includes the quality of evidence required to determine
whether the objectives of the programme will be met.
To ensure that there is clarity about what is to be achieved, a learning contract serves as
a mechanism to ensure effective communication and understanding. Guidelines are useful
for documenting what needs to be achieved and how the achievements will be evaluated.
Another vital instrument in managing the mentoring relationship is the maintenance of
a contact log of all interactions between mentor and mentee. This can be used to exercise
control over the mentoring relationship and ensure that all actions are documented for
future reference and follow-up action. However, be careful of over-control, it may reduce
the dynamic nature of a mentoring or coaching relationship.
Once the previous six steps have been followed, one is ready to implement the mentoring
process. This means that the goals and action plans for the mentoring or coaching relation-
ship have already been set and that the parties can now work actively to make the mentor-
ing and coaching process work. Flexibility is crucial during the process of implementation,
in other words, adapting the process to suit the needs of the programme. However, it is
essential that both mentors and mentees should realise that they have a responsibility to
keep to the deadlines and action plans decided upon by both parties.
An effective relationship will be founded on mutual respect and will be a “risk-free
zone” for the mentee to examine options and brainstorm strategies. Remember that many
of us “talk our way to understanding” when we are given freedom and encouragement to
express our creative thoughts without fear of judgement. Active listening on the part of
both mentor and mentee is important.
Make sure all parties view the mentees as capable adults who are able to draw their
own different conclusions. The aim of the relationship should not be for the mentee to
copy the mentor or adopt ideas or approaches without question, but rather for the mentor
to help the mentee explore the possible outcomes or consequences of a strategy that they
propose and then make their judgement and choices. The mentor/coach can then share his
or her own experiences with the mentee and disclose the problem-solving process used in
similar or related issues.
The relationship should be subject to renegotiation in order to accommodate new issues
and address needs as they arise. Clear and concise records of dates of meetings should be
kept. The duration of each meeting will vary according to the learner’s need to discuss
issues. At least one hour should be set aside for every meeting.
The meeting times and venues should be conducive to focused and confidential discus-
sions and should be mutually convenient. The venue should be private. The times of meet-
ings should vary, but should not always be at the end of a working day or week.
Periodic feedback and discussion are essential to ensure the continued development and
support of the coachee. This will also provide an opportunity to establish progress and
provide resources and aids. All progress should be recorded to provide an indication of
what needs to be done in the next review period.
Feedback needs to be done in a way that supports learning. Ensure that the feedback
session is a dialogue in which the mentees also has the opportunity to voice their ideas
and opinions on the issues at hand. Feedback should first be given on positive issues, for
example, something the mentee has done well, then moving on to the areas where devel-
opment is still required, ending with issues regarding areas where the mentee has per-
formed well again.
Feedback should be descriptive, specific, in the mentee’s interests, useful, given at the
right time, clearly formulated and correct. Conditions under which feedback occur should
be socially minded; refrain from demoralising the mentee and giving subjective interpret-
ations; do not confuse feedback with value judgements; be open and honest. Finally, the
feedback should relate to the learning and how performance may be improved.
The learning contract would be completed when the mentees have evidence that all the
learning included in the contract has taken place. The completion would depend on the
learner’s ability to apply what has been learnt. This is particularly useful when mentoring
is used as part of a learnership.
10.7.8 Evaluation
Evaluation means that the success and problems of the programme must be assessed to
determine whether the objectives of the programme have been met. All role-players must
form part of the evaluation process, that is, the mentors/coaches, mentees/coachees, man-
agers, mentoring co-ordinators or other staff who have inputs in the programme such as
the skills development facilitator or employment equity manager.
One of the shortcomings of mentoring and coaching programmes in South Africa is that
very few of them involve systematic evaluation. Different types of evaluation may be
conducted.
Measuring relationship processes asks questions such as:

• Have the mentor/coach and learner established close rapport?
• Are meetings sufficiently frequent?
• Do the mentor/coach and learner value them?
• Are both the mentor and mentee learning? And if so, what have they learned?
Measuring relationship outputs focuses on more quantitative data such as:
• How many of the learning objectives were achieved?
• Has the mentee improved key scores on his or her performance appraisal?
• Does the supervisor feel that mentoring/coaching is helping the learner to progress?
Measuring/coaching intervention outputs involves the following:
• A decrease in employee turnover
• The achievement of performance appraisal scores on key competencies
• The number of mentees considered suitable for promotion after a set period.
Another skill learners need is to be able to reflect on and assess performance. This means
that he or she must have a high level of self-awareness and be committed to continuous
improvement.
10.7.9 Improvement
No mentoring or coaching intervention will be perfect. Mentoring and coaching, like many
other functions in an organisation, depends largely on the human element, which means
that mistakes are inevitable. All role-players should therefore see the intervention as a
learning experience. The long-term objective should be to improve employee performance
and development.
Mentoring and coaching, unlike performance management, has more medium and long-
term implications. For certain skill areas, it will be impossible for the learner to develop the
required skills within a year. It may be necessary for the learner to attend other courses or
do a degree before he or she will obtain the overall level of competence required.
10.8 Guidelines for effective mentoring and coaching

The following guidelines can be used to ensure effective mentoring and coaching in the
workplace:
• Do proper planning before embarking on a mentoring or coaching initiative.
• Create a mentoring and coaching guidelines document or policy to promote clarity and
focus.
• Be careful to select consultants too quickly. Use a thorough screening process.
• Train mentors/coaches and learners in the dynamics of the relationship and their roles
in order to optimise these relationships.
• Provide the necessary resources to make the intervention work.
• Set clear goals and targets to achieve.
• Carefully manage consultants. There are hundreds of consultants out there who do not
really have the knowledge to be mentors or coaches.
• Keep records of learner achievements.
• Communicate details about the programme to the whole organisation.

• Share success stories and lessons with all parties.
• Monitor and evaluate the impact of the programme.

Mentoring 4 Success (Pty) Ltd has been a pioneer in developing large group-based Criti-
cal Knowledge Transfer and Structured Knowledge Mentoring programmes in multiple
technical sectors for over 10 years, and consequently has had the pleasure and privilege to
work with some of the giants in the Southern and African Engineering and Construction
sectors.
Without divulging individual organisational strategies on developing and implementing
successful and sustainable knowledge sharing and mentoring cultures and capabilities, this
case study is based on the experiences and lessons learned from planning, managing and
facilitating large group Structured Mentoring programmes, and associated training and
transfer interventions, in the following three major organisations:
• AECOM (Africa) – a global multi-disciplinary leader across multiple general and
specialised engineering and technical fields;
• WBHO – a local and international leader in large scale civils, building, roads and
earthworks projects; and
• Stefanutti Stocks – a local and international leader in large scale civils, building, roads
and earthworks projects.
A common thread amongst all three of these world class organisations is that knowledge
sharing and mentoring is fully supported by the executive management teams and indeed
the Chief Executives, who not only participate in the projects as either executive sponsors
and in some instances even as executive mentors, but also maintain a close connection
with the subtle nuances and needs contained in the regular feedback. Each organisation
ensures that even in these tough, recessionary times, the most experienced and connected
grouping possible of executive directors and senior line managers, plays an active role as
either fully participative mentors, or oversight mentors – contributing significantly to the
year-on-year success of these collaborative mentoring programmes.
An additional element of success is that the author is also a Professional Civil Engineer
in South Africa (Pr.Eng), as well as a Chartered Civil and Structural Engineer (C.Eng)
internationally, and was intimately involved as both the Managing Director of Mentoring 4
Success, as well as the lead facilitator and “master mentor” in all the above projects.
10.9.1 Study Sample and Data Collection and Analysis Method

The study sample has been collected and collated from the following body of both experi-
ential as well as empirical evidence, gathered as follows from 2008 to 2016:
• AECOM – six large group, 12 month, multi-regional, structured mentoring and profes-
sional registration support programmes from 2008 to 2016, involving as many as 80 to
100 mentors and mentees per year (with an average of 22 “person years of engineering
experience” per partnership, equating to nearly 2200 years of “experiential wisdom”
that is connected for mentoring and improved collaboration each year);
• WBHO – three large group, 12 month, multi-regional, structured mentoring and site
management development programmes from 2012 to 2014, involving as many as 50
mentors and mentees per year (with an average of 23 “person years of construction ex-
perience” per partnership, equating to nearly 1150 years of “experiential wisdom” that
was connected for mentoring and improved collaboration during each year of the pro-
grammes); and
• Stefanutti Stocks – four large group, 12 month, multi-regional, structured mentoring
programmes from 2013 to 2015, involving as many as 75 mentors and mentees per
year (with an average of 23 “person years of construction experience” per partnership,
equating to nearly 1725 years of “experiential wisdom” that was connected for mentor-
ing and improved collaboration during each year of the programmes).
The programme data and feedback collection methodology is as follows:
• Monthly Progress Presentations and Feedback Reports are collated for each group and
the key threads and insights are analysed and consolidated into a Monthly Management
Progress Report to each client’s Executive Sponsor and HR Executive.
• An “anonymous” Interim Partnership Progress and Programme Evaluation is complet-
ed by each participant at the half-way mark in each programme (month 6) and the
feedback is once again collated and consolidated into a confidential/no-names feedback
report to the client’s Executive Sponsor and HR Executive.
• An “anonymous” Programme Close-Out and Evaluation is also completed by each
participant at the end of each programme (month 12) and the feedback is once again
collated and consolidated into a confidential/no-names feedback report to the client’s
Executive Sponsor and HR Executive.
• A Yearbook is also prepared from volunteered feedback from each participant in each
programme, which provides an equally rich source of experiential and important “sen-
timent data”.
• The above data set for each project, for each client, for each year, represents a substan-
tial body of evidence, which the Mentoring 4 Success team use to guide the facilitation
process as well as the interaction with each group, which in turn leads to an additional
wealth of interactive “experiential feedback” and has also been included in this case
study.
10.9.2 Methodology and Approach

Each of the above organisations identified a combination of needs and expectations from
the various Structured Mentoring Programmes as summarised below:
• Initiating and nurturing a sustainable culture of mentoring and mutual support;
• Candidacy and professional registration support (1 to 3 year journeys);
• Scarce and critical skills and knowledge sharing and transfer;
• Both consulting and construction site management development;
• Personal growth and development to foster confidence and capability;
• Connecting knowledge sources and seekers through improved internal communication;
and
• Improving intra-organisational cooperation and collaboration.
Each programme is initially set up with a set of agreed “measurables” with the client’s
business sponsor and HR executive. These measurables are used as the key performance
indicators of progress and success in the various monthly, interim and close-our pro-
gramme reports itemised above.
The findings in this case study are based on the large amount of feedback as measured
against the individual programme measurables and expectations.
10.9.3 Findings
The following findings are those which are most consistent across the three sample organ-
isations and are indeed also consistent amongst a variety of other highly “technical and
specialist organisations” spanning the banking, financial services, nuclear, manufacturing
and armaments industries. The data source for these findings are extracted from not only
the reports mentioned previously in this case study, but also the comments offered for the
production of the 13 Mentoring Programme Yearbooks produced as a keepsake for each
of the programmes identified.
Executive commitment, buy-in and active participation

There is no doubt that programmes that enjoy highly transparent levels of executive
engagement yield far higher knowledge exchange results and have repeatedly led to both
cost savings and business process improvements. All three of the sample organisations
above demonstrated very tangible and consistent senior executive engagement – from the
initial orientation sessions to the final graduation and celebration function.
Mutual clarification of common internal purpose

A multiplicity of objectives can be achieved through structured mentoring, but trying to
use the initiative as a “catch-all” will eliminate focus and a clearly measurable outcome. It
is essential that the business sponsor, programme champion, internal co-ordinator and all
participants (mentors, mentees, managers and subject matter experts) are all completely
aligned as to the mutual objectives and outcomes expected (and the metrics of success to
be used).
Strategic alignment to external national imperatives and laws

Structured mentoring initiatives offer multiple benefits to various strategic, societal and
legal drivers. This requires an integrated approach and systems thinking mindset, which
spans multiple opportunities and reporting requirements (for example, the B-BBEE,
SARS, CETA). It is the authors experience and opinion that this integrated value chain
and the profound nation-building benefits achievable therefrom, could be improved in all
three sample organisations.
Time and distance are the most common challenges expressed

Constantly changing project schedules, over-stretched management and specialists,
pressures on utilisation and billable hour contributions, pressurised personal diaries,
logistical separation, traffic congestions and mercurial client priorities do not only create
major challenges for “one-on-one” mentoring partnership sessions, but also create a far
more complex mathematical conundrum for achieving any form of coordinated group
collaboration and knowledge exchange. Modern technologies in the form common
knowledge-based collaboration tools and mobile mentoring apps are essential solutions
for addressing these very real challenges.
The need for improved inclusion of the Modern Learner concept

The research conducted through Bersin by Deloitte (2015) and the multi-programme
experience during the sample programmes above, as well as the on-going research of the
author, Marsh (2016), are in complete congruence – the modern generation of younger
engineering and construction graduates are overwhelmed, impatient and confused with the
sheer overload of information and expectations. Collaborative mentoring and group
interaction, with the higher degrees of knowledge sharing and “experiential wisdom”
offered, are preferred over the traditional and more confidential types of one-on-one
mentoring, where cultural, academic and generational differences may present uninten-
tional barriers to building individual trust and effective knowledge exchange.
Changes in project personnel needs

The changing life-cycle of projects and the almost nomadic nature of both experienced
and younger technical staff, creates shorter than ideal time-frames to establish effective
and sustainable trust-based mentoring relationships. It is therefore essential that the
mentor’s pool is seen as more of a cooperative resource pool, for the knowledge potentia-
tion of the collaborative, as opposed to traditional and more confidential partnership
resources only.
“Effective empowerment” training of mentors and mentees

Training of mentors and mentees needs to include far more focus on the neurosciences
and essential soft skills, as opposed to just the traditional focus on hard competencies and
contractual matters, which tends to be the focus of many of the more generic construction
mentoring type programmes. The generally tough environment and the relentless pres-
sures experienced in the engineering and construction sector have tended to perpetuate the
baby boomer culture of over-focusing on performance, procedures and productivity, and
less on passion, potential and personality. There is strong evidence in the feedback reports
and yearbooks across all three organisations that the “soft human side” of the 13 sample
programmes was highly valued and an unexpected benefit of the journey. The training of
mentors and mentees should therefore always include a combination of both interpersonal
and intrapersonal skills, including self-assessment, self-correction and personal growth
and re-generation techniques.
Differentiation between job support, professional registration, knowledge gathering and

career development
An important lesson learnt across the 13 sample programmes is that “one-size-does-not-
fit-all” and that there needs to be clear differentiation in programme structure, format and
inputs in order to effectively achieve any of the above with measurable success. For
example, the monitoring and reporting required to offer the benefits of a DTI Skills
Matrix Category C – Professional Registration Support Mentoring Programme (Candida-
cy Development), is completely different to what is required in a knowledge gathering
programme. The former is almost solely inwardly focused on the three-to-four year
process-like journey to registration of an individual candidate, whilst the latter is a rich
group collaboration and explicit contextualisation and mapping intervention. Similarly,
the focus on current job-based requirements for needed skills and knowledge is vastly
different to the experiential and relationship development journeys of career mentoring.
So clarification and focus is essential.
Validation of effective knowledge sharing and transfer

Validation of effective knowledge sharing and transfer always needs to be built into the
process to avoid the common human challenges of miscommunication and expectation of
understanding. An interesting but consistent outcome across all the three organisations, is
that whilst the pressurised mentors want to spend shorter amounts of time listening to
progress and feedback from the mentees, the mentees themselves view the opportunity to
discuss and share their growth and development within a trusted collaborative environ-
ment, as an essential ingredient of success. Indeed, when the monthly Mentee Progress
Feedback sessions were curtailed on two of the 13 programmes due to pressure from the
mentors, the sudden drop off in attendance and the reduction in perceivable participation
was palpable.
10.10 Conclusion
Mentoring and coaching have many business benefits for South African organisations. In
fact, they are two of the most powerful business management tools of the twenty-first-
century organisation. Not only do they provide opportunities to accelerate skills develop-
ment, but they also help an organisation achieve its overall business objectives. However,
it is crucial for an organisation to adopt a business management approach to mentoring and
coaching and then decide how these concepts can be internalised and optimised. The
SABPP HR professional practice standard on coaching and mentoring provides a sound
framework for a systematic approach to ensure good governance and application. A clear
implementation process is needed to effectively manage mentoring and coaching in the
workplace.
10.11 Case study

Neville Pritchard, HRD manager at Barclays presented a paper at an ATD conference on how they
created a coaching culture at the bank. Barclays decided to develop a coaching culture as part of its
management and leadership development interventions. The performance development model con-
sisted of line managers who played the role of “head coaches” with the necessary support provided
by human resource specialists.
According to the Barclays philosophy, a coaching culture is a culture where every individual is
able to focus on their own performance and support others through coaching activity and is willing to
receive coaching from others whatever their status to take responsibility for co-ordinating develop-
ment.
Barclays conceptualised the following six elements of effective implementation:
• Engage
• Enthuse
• Equip
• Enable
• Energise
• Effect
The initial learning was the main focus of the relationship to ensure that coaching takes place. Aware-
ness was created to optimise buy-in and support from all role-players. The measurement system used
consisted of a pre-measure of performance, the intent of coaching, reaction evaluation, application
as well as measuring the value.
continued
Several actions were implemented to support the coaching initiative:

• A coaching academy was launched to steer the process.
• A performance agreement ensured accountability for all line managers.
• The training and development role-model specialist coaches, circles and pilot the intervention
within a significant business unit.
• A coaching website was launched to provide information and resources.
• Hints and tips booklets were compiled as additional support material.
From a measurement point-of-view the intervention played a huge role to support people develop-
ment at Barclays. For instance, telesales induction was reduced from 22 days to six days (saving
pounds). Advisors are in their role taking telephone calls much earlier, and thereby reducing cus-
tomer waiting time. Furthermore, advisors are building up confidence in answering phones, develop-
ing product and business area knowledge and experiencing the bigger picture. Advisors are also
better controlled, because they don’t move onto the next phase of the training programme until they
and their managers feel that they are ready.
Some of the reported results are as follows:
FTE saving 1 500 000 Cost 1 500 000
Additional income 3 336 900 Benefit 2 396 275
Training travel saving 4 886 900 4 886 900
Several measures were used as indicators for success of the programme:
• Reduction in the number of training requirements
• Delivering bigger impact sessions
• Positively taken into performance
• Team performance is more important than individual’s
• Individuals help each other
A coaching culture was effectively created at Barclays. Out of a hundred, the number of colleagues
with personal development plans before coaching was 15. It has now improved to 90. Barclays build
their coaching strategy on benchmarking data that showed that the average ROI on executive coach-
ing is 570% (Manchester USA). The ability of the bank to maintain the coaching culture as well as
their effort to measure the financial impact thereof contributed significantly to the success of the
intervention.
Source: Adapted from Pritchard (2002).
Questions
1 Analyse the above case study and identify the key success factors from the Barclays approach to
coaching.
2 Identify other HRD themes from your textbook that are used at Barclays.
3 Motivate the extent to which Barclays measured the business impact of coaching.

• Mentoring and coaching can play a critical role to enhance sound HRD practice in
organisations.
• Mentoring and coaching have many benefits for companies.
• Despite the benefits of mentoring and coaching, there are certain pitfalls to avoid.
• The role of HRD in mentoring and coaching programmes should be clarified.
• A range of mentoring and coaching options are available depending on the needs of the
organisation.
• The HR professional practice standard on coaching and mentoring developed by

SABPP provides a systematic approach for effective application of mentoring and
coaching best practices in the workplace.
• A clear implementation plan is needed to ensure the effective implementation of men-
toring and coaching interventions.

1 Explain the meaning of the terms “mentoring and coaching”.
2 Indicate the benefits of mentoring and coaching.
3 Identify the pitfalls of mentoring and coaching.
4 Develop a mentoring and coaching implementation plan for an organisation.
5 Differentiate between the different mentoring and coaching options for your organisa-
tion.
6 Provide guidelines for effective mentoring and coaching interventions.
7 Explain how you will apply the HR professional practice standard on coaching and
mentoring.
8 Clarify the role of HRD in mentoring and coaching.
10.14 References
Dennis H, 2004, “Mentoring and coaching best practices”, Sandton: Knowledge Re-
sources.
Ensher E and Murphy S, 2005, Power Mentoring: How Successful Mentors and Protégés
Get the Most out of their Relationships, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Koeppel D, “In the market for a high-paying job? Try hiring an executive coach”, Sunday
Times, 3 June 2007.
Meyer M and Fourie L, 2006, Mentoring and Coaching: Tools and Techniques for Imple-
mentation, Randburg: Knowledge Resources.
Meyer M, 2007, Measuring the Return on Investment in Mentoring and Coaching, Rand-
burg: Knowledge Resources.
Mkhondo L, 2016, “Introspection: A vital leadership responsibility”, BBQ, Third Quarter,
Cape Town: Cape Media.
Mthembu D, 2007, Team Coaching, Randburg: Knowledge Resources.
SABPP, 2015, National HR Professional Practice Standards, Parktown: SABPP.
Sukiennik D, 2004, “A group mentoring model for developing leaders”, Sandton:

Abbott P and Bennett K, 2011, A Guide for Coachees: How to Optimise your Personal
Coaching Journey, Randburg: Knowledge Resources.
Allan D, Finkelstein LM and Poteet ML, 2009, Designing Workplace Mentoring Pro-
grams, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
Brent M, and Dent FE, 2015, The Leader’s Guide to Coaching and Mentoring: How to
Use Soft Skills to Get Hard Results, London: Pearson/FT Publishing.
Brockbank A and McGill I, 2006, Facilitating Reflective Learning through Mentoring
and Coaching, London: Kogan Page.
Heroldt J (ed), 2012, Mentoring and Coaching: Articles from the Human Capital Review,
Klasen N and Clutterbuck D, 2002, Implementing Mentoring Schemes: A Practical Guide
to Successful Programs, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Law H, Ireland S, Hussam Z and Hoboken NJ, 2007, The Psychology of Coaching, Men-
toring and Leadership, New Jersey: John Wiley.
McLeod A, 2003, Performance Coaching: The Handbook for Managers, HR Profession-
als and Coaches, Bancyfelin, Wales: Crown.
Meyer M (ed), 2011, Wisdom from HR Mentors, Randburg: Knowres/SABPP.
Nicholson H, 2006, Networking: The Unwritten Rule of Business you Need to Know,
Johannesburg: Helen Nicholson.
Scheepers C, 2011, Coaching Leaders: The 7 “P” Tools to Propel Change, Randburg:
Steinman N, 2006, Raising Giant Killers: The Fundamentals of Mentoring, Randburg:
Stone FM, 2007, Coaching, Counselling and Mentoring: How to Choose and Use the
Right Technique to Boost Employee Performance, New York: AMA.
Stout Rostron S, 2010, Business Coaching: Wisdom and Practice, Randburg: Knowledge
Resources.
Tucker K, 2007, Establishing a Mentoring Programme, Randburg: Knowledge Resources.
Whitworth L, 2007, Co-active Coaching: New Skills for Coaching People Toward Suc-
cess in Work and Life, 2nd edn, Mountain View: Davies-Black.
10.16 Internet sites

Coaches and Mentors of South Africa: http://www.comensa.org.za
Coach U: http://www.coachinc.com
Thank you to Philip Marsh from Mentoring4Success for the engineering and construction
case study and to Neville Pritchard of Barclays for the case study he provided. I also
would like to thank my mentors, Elizabeth Dhlamini-Kumalo and Michael Glensor for
their continuous efforts to mentor me, as well as for the SABPP Mentoring Committee
Chairperson, Getty Simelane for her leadership role. In addition, a special word of thanks
to Lazarus Nenungwi, one of my most successful mentees, for his continued success as
evidence that mentoring really works.
CHAPTER
11
ELECTRONIC, MOBILE AND
SOCIAL LEARNING
Marius Meyer
Computing is not about computers any more. It is about living.
(Nicholas Negroponte)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Motivate the benefits of e-learning to organisations
• Distinguish between different types of e-learning and terminology
• Develop a management plan for the implementation of e-learning
• Identify the competencies required for the design and implementation of e-learning
• Indicate the role-players in the design of e-learning and their responsibilities
• Develop an action plan to prepare trainers for e-learning
• Formulate an implementation plan for EPSS
11.1 Introduction
The past ten years have seen dramatic changes and developments in the area of informa-
tion technology. There has been an exponential growth in the power, speed and capacity of
computers and other devices such as smart phones and iPads. Technological applications
have become a necessity in society and the modern business environment. All jobs and
functions are affected by information technology. How does technology affect training in
the workplace? Perhaps more important is the question whether HRD practitioners are
equipped to deal with the technology revolution.
309
Not only do HRD practitioners have to prepare managers and employees to become
skilled in the use of technology in their day-to-day work, they have to acquire skills
themselves to effectively use technology when they facilitate effective learning in the
workplace. This approach is clearly encouraged by SAQA when they state in the sixth
critical outcome that learning programmes should equip learners to use science and
technology effectively and critically (SAQA Bulletin, 1997).
Responding to the technology challenge, some companies have started to make use of
technology-based training or electronic learning (e-learning). E-learning can be defined as
the application of electronic technological systems to support the learning process. Train-
ers are increasingly using multimedia computers and the Internet as part of their training
approach. These sophisticated tools are available to meet modern training needs. It is evi-
dent that the advent of e-learning signifies a new era in training. In fact, e-learning has the
potential to revolutionise workplace learning and performance. It has enormous power to
make learning more user-friendly, effective and cost-effective. More recently, the expo-
nential growth in the use and sophistication of mobile and smart phones has led a new form
of e-learning called mobile learning (m-learning). Learners can now learn on their own
devices wherever they are, and many of these devices have now replaced laptops. More-
over, the explosion of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and
LinkedIn has added social learning (s-learning) as an informal but very powerful variation
of e-learning and m-learning. The challenge for HRD practitioners is to combine the
needs of learners with the appropriate technological application to enhance productive
learning and performance.
ASTD Global Network South Africa and SABPP (2010) investigated the status and
prevalence of the use of e-learning among HRD managers and their companies in South
Africa. The results of its investigation are presented in Figure 11.1.
Figure 11.1 Prevalence of e-learning in South Africa
In the area of e-learning it appears that good progress has been made over the last couple
of years. The use of e-learning in South Africa increased from 29% in 2007 to 33% in
2010 and is considerably higher than the 15% reported in the USA in 2009 but lower than
the figure reported for the UK where e-learning makes up 57% of training in the work-
place. Furthermore, while 19% of companies were working on an e-learning strategy in
2003, this figure increased to 26% in 2007, 2008 and 2009 but dropped slightly to 25% in
2010. Of significant interest is that the proportion of companies surveyed who indicated
Chapter 11: Electronic, mobile and social learning 311
that they would not use e-learning remained consistent at 3% to 4% which compares with
the figure for 2003 (4%). However, there still appears to be some uncertainty with regard
to e-learning in that 31% of respondents do not know whether their organisations are using
e-learning. This figure is much lower, however, than the 38% reported in 2006 and the
40% of the 2003 study.
This chapter will focus on the effective implementation of e-learning in the work en-
vironment. E-learning terminology will be clarified, as will the benefits for an organisation
of e-learning. We will use the term e-learning as the overarching focus of this chapter,
while we encourage readers to bear in mind that m-learning and s-learning are powerful
new developments to be optimised as part of an overall e-learning strategy (see Table 11.1
for a description of these terms and other related concepts). While technology enables
e-learning and m-learning, it also promotes social learning (s-learning) given the fact that
people are better connected today. You learn from others on a daily basis, and smart
phones enable you to learn every minute about almost any topic with other social learners
from all over the world. A myriad of applications and social media platforms offer instant
access to learning and the sharing or information. Hence, technology accelerates social
learning on a wider scale than ever before. The major part of this chapter will address the
management of the implementation phase of e-learning in order to contribute to produc-
tive learning in the workplace and society at large.

Many special technological terms are used in the field of e-learning. Some of these terms
are very similar in meaning, but it is imperative that HRD managers and other training
staff have a clear understanding of these terms in order to support the implementation of
e-learning. The terms consolidated in Table 11.1 are among those used most frequently in
South African organisations and companies worldwide.
Table 11.1 Summary of e-learning terminology
Term Description Source

Application (App) A self-contained programme or piece of Wikipedia (2016)
software designed to fulfil a particular
purpose, especially as downloaded by a
user to a mobile device.
Asynchronous e-learning Learners learning at different times. In Fee (2009)
other words, the content is available and Mankin (2009)
continuously updated and learners can
access it whenever they want to.
Avatar A virtual tutor, or animated character, Cascio (2012)
who guides learners through a course of Fee (2009)
e-learning (and has wider applications on
other websites).
Blog An online diary that allows feedback and Fee (2009)
comments and is therefore a useful tool
for interactive e-learning.
Browser A client programme used to surf the web, Ravet and Layte
like Netscape or Explorer. (1997)
continued

Cloud computing The practice of using a network of remote Wikipedia (2016)
servers hosted on the Internet to store,
manage, and process data, rather than a
local server or a personal computer.
Compact disc read only A format and system for recording, storing Bassi and Van Buren
memory (CD-ROM) and retrieving electronic information on a (1999)
compact disc that is read using an optical
drive.
Computer-assisted The use of a computer to deliver Reynolds and Iwinski
instruction (CAI) instruction. The modes of CAI are drill (1996)
and practice, modelling, tutorial and
simulation.
Computer-based training A generic term for a computer programme Ravet and Layte
(CBT) used by a learner to acquire knowledge or (1997)
develop new skills.
Computer-managed A computer programme that directs and Ravet and Layte
learning (CML) tests learners’ performance through their (1997)
learning and produces various reports.
Digital video interactive DVI is a compact disc format designed Reynolds and Iwinski
(DVI) for interactive multimedia. (1996)
Disruptive technology The kind of technology that displaces an Michael (2016)
established technology and shakes up the
industry, or a ground-breaking product
that creates a completely new industry.
Electronic performance EPSS is a well-constructed computerised Barras-Baker and
support system (EPSS) tool, systematically integrated at the Steyn (1998)
employee location, which exploits the
diverse capabilities of a computer to
improve individual and organisational
performance. This means that the
employee gets advice from the computer
when a particular problem occurs.
Extranet A collaborative network that uses Inter- Bassi and Van Buren
net technology to link organisations with (1999)
their suppliers, customers or other organ-
isations that share common goals or
information.
Hypermedia A programme that links different media Reynolds and Iwinski
under learner control in a way similar to (1996)
hypertext linkage or text. Hypermedia
links media such as text, graphics, video,
voice and animation. For example, the
learner can choose video, see a related
video sequence, and then return to the
programme.
continued

Hypertext A computer programme that links non- Reynolds and Iwinski
linear text. Hypertext allows flexible, (1996)
learner-directed browsing to seek
additional information by moving between
related documents along thematic lines,
without losing the content of the original
inquiry.
Hypertext mark-up The standard for web documents Ravet and Layte
language (HTML) supported by Internet browsers. (1997)
Integrated services digital A telecommunication service with a Ravet and Layte
network (ISDN) bandwidth larger than current telephone (1997)
lines.
Interactive distance IDL is an interactive training process in Schabel (1998)
learning (IDL) which the instructor and learners are
separated by time and/or space.
Interactive This is when a computer responds in real Ravet and Layte
time to a user’s demand. True interactivity (1997)
happens when people interact. Computers
can be a support for interactivity when
connected through a network like the
Internet.
Internet A loose confederation of computer Bassi and Van Buren
networks around the world connected (1999)
through several primary networks.
Intranet The use of Internet technology within a Ravet and Layte
group or an organisation. (1997)
Local area network A network of computers in a restricted Ravet and Layte
(LAN) area like a building. (1997)
Menu-driven The types of authoring or learning systems Reynolds and Iwinski
in which actions or topics are selected by (1996)
the learner from a list of choices.
Mobile learning e-Learning accessed via mobile devices Fee (2009)
(m-learning) such as phones and other handsets.
Modem A device placed at each end of a Ravet and Layte
communication line to transfer data (1997)
between computers.
Multimedia A variety of media (text, graphics, sound Ravet and Layte
and video) combined in a single medium (1997)
or computer.
Podcast An audio or video offer that may be Fee (2009)
accessed whenever the user chooses,
even via a handheld device.
Reusable Simple A process whereby users are alerted to Fee (2009)
Syndication (RSS) the latest updates to a fast-changing
website as they occur.
continued

Second Life An Internet-based virtual world where Cascio (2012)
users can live, work, learn and undertake Fee (2009)
all kinds of virtual experiences.
Simulation A way of artificially representing or Fee (2009)
modelling events or behaviours, offering
a safe and secure way of learning while
being as close as possible to the real thing.
Social learning Learning that takes place at a wider scale Wikipedia (2016)
than individual or group learning, up to a
societal scale, through social interaction
between peers.
Social media A broad term used to describe a host of SABPP (2012)
web-based technologies and developments
and how modern Internet users typically
interact, consume and generate content
and images in an open-space electronic
interactive platform.
Staging Collecting all the relevant data while a Ravet and Layte
subject matter expert is performing the (1997)
tasks: video, documentation and job aids.
Subjective probability An assessment technique where learners Ravet and Layte
measurement (SPM) rate their confidence when they respond (1997)
to a test.
Synchronous e-learning Synchronised learner participation – that Fee (2009)
is, learners learn at the same time.
Uniform resource locator The Internet address of a document. Ravet and Layte
(URL) (1997)
User-friendly The desirable attribute of a computer Reynolds and Iwinski
system in which the user does not have (1996)
to be an expert or use the system and that
mistakes are easily overcome or avoided
by the system.
Virtual reality (VR) VR is a computer-based technology that Gunther-Mohr (1998)
gives learners a three-dimensional, inter-
active or simulated experience. VR is
used to simulate conditions that do not
actually exist, but may also be used to
simulate actual potential conditions.
Webinar A web-based seminar or live e-learning Fee (2009)
event.
Wiki A website based on software that allows Fee (2009)
users to create, edit, hyperlink and
organise the website’s content
collaboratively.
Worldwide web A distributed information service based Ravet and Layte
on the metaphor of hypertext to structure (1997)
the access to the Internet.
11.3 Benefits of e-learning

The power of technology not only provides invaluable support for learning, but also assists
in the management of the learning process with unparalleled speed, versatility and accur-
acy. In fact, the application of sophisticated technology in the learning environment can
yield multiple benefits for the organisation in all aspects and phases of the HRD process.
The benefits of e-learning can clearly be seen in the following areas of training manage-
ment.
11.3.1 Course administration

Training-managers and course co-ordinators in South Africa must keep track of a variety
of training events such as internal and external training courses and seminars, open and
flexible learning, adult basic education and training, and aligning training programmes
with the legislative requirements of the Skills Development Act and other relevant laws.
These activities generate an enormous amount of paperwork and information-sharing
which must be processed and acted upon continuously. A comprehensive administration
system is therefore needed. Technology has made this task easier and more productive. In
fact, Raven and Layet (1997:160) indicate that an e-learning system reduces the burden of
training administration by 40%.
Various software packages are available which provide a range of administrative options.
These packages make it possible to process course registrations, update participant rec-
ords and generate correspondence in a fraction of the time formerly used. In addition, the
software packages can function as a management tool, since the raw data can be presented
from many different angles depending on the particular needs of the user. Moreover, this
information is immediately accessible. Accurate records can be immediately retrieved, for
example, an employee’s training profile, information on course capacity, scheduled courses
and venues.
11.3.2 Financial management

One of the most significant features of an e-learning system is that it provides a tool for
the sound financial management of the HRD function. Some software packages allow
users to create a budget for each training programme using all the cost categories, such as
trainer fees, accommodation, training aids and refreshments. Furthermore, it also calculates
very specific measurements, such as the cost per delegate per hour, cost per class, etc. It is
therefore evident that an e-learning system can ensure that the financial management of
the training function is managed more effectively.
11.3.3 Management reports

One of the main problems training departments experience is their capacity in terms of
time and staff available to produce quality reports at the end of a training programme. This
is an even greater problem for training centres that present a large number of training pro-
grammes in quick succession.
Computer packages can be used to consolidate information from the training records
which indicate timetables, participant lists, course programmes, guest speakers and others.
Some packages make it possible to generate customised reports by selecting information
from the database and sorting and organising it to meet specific report requirements. For
example, one can create a report which details, by department or occupational category,
which employees have undergone a particular training programme. These reports can help
build a business case for decision-making regarding further investment in equipment, iden-
tifying machines needing updating, employment equity reporting or meeting particular
client needs.
11.3.4 Resource management

Equipping a training centre with the necessary computer and other equipment constitutes
a major investment. It is therefore unacceptable for expensive computer equipment to be
under-utilised, especially in today’s business environment which focuses on cost savings
and sound financial management.
Software packages can be purchased which enable the training manager to monitor
learner use of e-learning resources. Some programmes can measure and report individual
work station usage, enabling the training manager to measure the return on investment of
the equipment installed (Raven and Layte, 1997:161).
A control system can record the use of the computers and allows for computers to be
pre-booked at particular times. Moreover, the system can help the e-learning facilitator by
reporting on learner progress in terms of material covered, modules completed and tests
passed and exercises completed.
The rapid development of training technologies over the past decade has dramatically
expanded the possibilities for delivery of effective learning in the workplace using a
variety of resources. Different types of technologies can be used such as CBT, EPSS,
interactive multimedia and web-based training. The end-result is the better management
of company resources, including people.
11.3.5 Cost savings

The cost of traditional training is very expensive, especially when trainers from a head
office are required to travel all over the country to present training courses at regional
offices or branches. Staff members in Cape Town, Bloemfontein, Durban, Johannesburg
and Harare can be trained at the same time if e-learning is used. E-learning is more cost-
effective because the same training session delivered at one central location can be trans-
ferred by means of satellite to various locations countrywide. Large numbers of learners
can therefore be reached simultaneously. Considerable cost and time savings are thus
achieved.
Furthermore, training time can be dramatically reduced. Masten (1998) reports a 50%
reduction in training time due to e-learning implementation. A reduction in training time
has an immediate impact on training effectiveness and overall productivity in a company.
11.3.6 Learner needs

Another key principle of adult learning is that the learner should be at the centre of the
learning process. E-learning can make a significant contribution to institutionalising this
principle in the workplace in that e-learning can accommodate individual learning needs.
The computer can track the speed of learning and the knowledge of individual learners.
One learner may have some knowledge of a particular topic and can, therefore, complete
an e-learning programme quickly; another learner may need more time. Thanks to the
flexibility embedded in e-learning, learners can take their time to master an e-learning
programme. In addition, e-learning is effective for any kind of content, whether it is
knowledge-based learning or skills training. Furthermore, whilst some learners are reluc-
tant to ask questions in traditional classroom training, e-learners can “raise their hands”
electronically with the push of a button. In essence, e-learning promotes collaborative and
participative learning (Buchen & Hamelman, 2011). Also, the rapid growth in m-learning
and s-learning makes it possible for learners to access learning platforms at any time
using their smart phones or other devices. The digital learning hub at Unilever is an
“always-on” service that employees can access 24/7 and it provides a wide range e-
learning courses covering many subjects in various interactive digital formats (Burrows,
2016).
11.3.7 Effective learning

E-learning promotes effective learning through the fact that standardised computer sys-
tems are used. The different contributions of individual trainers are moderated in order to
ensure a consistent training message conveyed by technology. Moreover, simulated prac-
tice can be used for applications in which OTJ training would be dangerous or inconveni-
ent. Skills transfer is encouraged, especially with advanced e-learning systems such as
EPSS which immediately improves OTJ performance.
11.3.8 Evaluation
Sophisticated evaluation techniques can be used which are quicker and more accurate.
Integrated tracking and record-keeping forms part of many e-learning systems which
makes it possible for the trainers to start the evaluation process while they are busy facili-
tating the training session.
myUNISA e-learning management system
The University of South Africa (UNISA) is the fourth-largest university in the world with almost
300 000 students in different countries across the globe. Having originally started as a correspond-
ence university more than a century ago it is now a fully fledged distance learning university, and
you can study at UNISA from anywhere in the world.
But how did the university create the capacity to serve so many students? Having developed a dis-
tance learning capacity over several decades, the growth in student numbers could not be maintained
without adapting to current forces such as globalisation and technology. Most students are full-time
employees and are sometimes transferred to other cities or other parts of the world right in the mid-
dle of their studies. UNISA realised the necessity to optimise technology in order to reach students
throughout the world. Prior to the merger between the old UNISA and Technikon Southern Africa,
the two largest distance education institutions in South Africa, two different online learning man-
agement systems were used at the campuses in Pretoria and Florida respectively. The challenge was
to create a single integrated virtual campus system to replace the previous separate systems without
losing the functionality of either system. The new system had to be presented through a portal.
After an in-depth investigation it was decided to adopt Java-based architecture for the new virtual
campus. Further investigation revealed that there was almost a 100% match between the online archi-
tecture envisaged for UNISA and the architecture adopted by an international initiative called Sakai.
The Sakai Project is a community-source development project which aims to design, build and de-
ploy a new collaboration and learning environment for higher education. The project was initiated in
2004 by the University of Michigan, Indiana University, MIT and Stanford along with the Open
Knowledge Initiative and the uPortal consortium. The software is being built by designers, software
architects and developers from more than 80 tertiary-education institutions from around the world,
using a more formalised variation of the open-source development model called a community-source
model. UNISA is currently deploying a localised version of Sakai to meet the needs of UNISA stu-
dents. The system is called myUNISA not only to enhance the UNISA brand that is worth
continued
R157 million but also to let the students take ownership of the system. The system belongs to them –
they can access it any time of the day or night, chat with one another, or the lecturer, or view their
marks and submit assignments online. myUNISA is thus an electronic learning management system
designed to help learners connect with one another and with their lecturers. The success of the system
depends to a great extent on the pioneering work done by the information technology management and
specialists team especially by the director, Deon van der Merwe, who formed the international allianc-
es and Johan Moller who is driving the implementation and capacity-building of staff and students
using the system.
What exactly are the benefits of myUNISA for students?
• Students can access the system 24 hours a day – whenever they want, wherever they are, whether
it is Nyanga, Ventersdorp, Dubai, London or Nairobi. The system therefore eliminates the dis-
tance between students and the university.
• The system offers the opportunity to people who do not have the opportunity to attend residential
classes to obtain qualifications via distance learning.
• Owing to economies of scale, distance learning is on average of 50% cheaper than residential
learning, making it a more cost-effective option for students. People also do not have to “wait”
for three or four years of school to start working, you can commence employment immediately
and study at the same time, thereby saving a few years of your life, with a positive impact on sal-
ary growth and career development. In addition, students can also continue with post graduate
studies, and thereby further improve their career development and income potential.
• It helps students improve their computer skills – a skill that is not only one of the NQF critical
outcomes of all learning programmes, but also an essential life and work skill in the modern
global business environment.
• Students can check their marks on the system – it is a self-help system.
• Students can get documents such as tutorial letters, articles, etc under the heading “materials”. It
only takes one minute for a lecturer to load a resource for students, whereas previously it took
more than a week for a document to be posted to students.
• In the absence of face-to-face classes, students can join the electronic discussion group where
they can chat with the lecturer and their fellow students in order to optimise the learning oppor-
tunity. This is very important in distance education, because students can feel very lonely if they
only study on their own.
• Most employers allow their employees to use company computers to access the Internet. There is
thus no additional cost for the students. It is also not necessary to use your cell or work phone to
contact the university.
• The lecturer can present an “electronic class” via the group discussion forum which students can
access 24 hours a day. Other tools such as blogs and wikis further enhance learning.
• Students can get additional advice and learner support in the form of, for example, guidelines
relating to the completion of assignments, study methods, etc.
• Students are updated regarding changes and developments in the subject field.
• Job and networking opportunities can also be posted on the system.
• Students can join in a discussion that started weeks or months ago – you enter and exit when you
want and when it suits you. This is real learner empowerment.
• Should a student be away for business or relocate to another city or country, he or she can still
access the system and continue with the learning process.
• Student motivation and responsibility is encouraged and enhanced.
The above example of the myUNISA e-learning system is one example of how e-learning
can be implemented. Several other organisations in both the private and public sectors have
enthusiastically embraced e-learning. Tshwane University of Technology is another higher-
education institution that implemented e-learning as a mode of delivery, thereby reducing
the amount and frequency of traditional contact classes (Botha, 2007).
11.4 Disadvantages of e-learning

Despite the advantages of e-learning, it is rarely the complete answer to a company’s
training needs. According to Gerard et al (1998), the development cycle for e-learning
courseware is expensive and time-consuming. Therefore e-learning is inappropriate for
topics that change frequently or that require multiple versions to meet geographical or
departmental variations within an organisation. Moreover, there are some topics such as
conflict management and team-building that benefit from interactive discussion or role-
playing. Other disadvantages of e-learning are mentioned by Reynolds and Iwinski
(1996:41) and Capdeferro and Romero (2012:26–30):
• Off-the-shelf software or courseware may not be available, depending on the topic.
• Generic off-the-shelf software or courseware may not meet local needs.
• The initial cost of e-learning is high, compared with the cost of developing a lecturer-
based course.
• Development requires skills that may not be available.
• Development of high quality instruction requires intense and extensive effort.
• E-learning may require investment in new equipment.
• Learner frustrations with ineffective online systems and collaboration.
From the above, it is evident that e-learning should not be seen as a panacea to an organisa-
tion’s training problems. Rather, a holistic approach should be adopted in which e-learning
contributes to overall training performance. The optimal learning situation is therefore a
blend of e-learning and instructor-led learning. This approach is called “blended learning”.
11.5 Different types of e-learning methodologies

E-learning offers a range of methodologies that can be used in combination with one
another, depending on the particular needs and the unique situation of a particular organ-
isation. The most frequently used technologies are as follows:
• Interactive multimedia: The trainer can communicate with trainees in different locations.
The trainer and learners are separated by time and space.
• Web-based training: This type of training offers increased access to information. The
training is delivered to the desktop. Course content can be made available as an online
reference that supports the transfer of learning to job performance.
• Video conferencing: While the training takes place, speakers are in different locations.
Video conferencing is therefore an effective training tool where the trainer and learners
are in different locations.
• Internet: The Internet offers new ways of increasing learning, such as the linking of
resources and the sharing of knowledge within and outside an organisation. Interactive
tutorials can be used that let learners take courses online. Learners can also download
documents, tutorials and software.
• Intranet: This form of e-learning uses internal electronic networks. The intranet pro-
vides opportunities to develop programmes that have been developed or customised for
an organisation’s particular learning needs. The intranet affords an opportunity to de-
velop a comprehensive management information system which administers, updates
and changes information from a centralised organisational source.
• EPSS: EPSS uses computers to capture, store and disseminate knowledge and informa-
tion throughout an organisation.
• Social learning: Social media make it possible for learners to learn by using their hand-
held devices to access social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn.
For instance, via the LinkedIn discussion group of SABPP, the HR professional body,
thousands of HR and HRD professionals working for different organisations can inter-
act, learn and share ideas on a daily basis, any time of the day or night.
11.6 E-learning implementation

The implementation of e-learning should be carefully planned and managed to ensure
effective training and transfer of skills. When making decisions regarding e-learning, the
phases and sub-steps indicated in Figure 11.2 should be used. It is interesting to note that
the implementation process for e-learning development is very similar to that of the trad-
itional training process, although some modification is needed to ensure proper manage-
ment of the system and process, while leveraging the speed and power of technology.
11.6.1 Training-needs analysis

As is the case with all other training interventions, the first step in planning e-learning is
to conduct a training-needs analysis. This step is of paramount importance, especially in
the light of the benefits and potential disadvantages of e-learning for the organisation.
Some companies implement e-learning because of the attractiveness, sophistication, power
and speed of technology. This means that e-learning is used for the sake of technology, and
not necessarily to address a particular training need. The end-result is usually a waste of
resources and the delivery of ineffective training.
Figure 11.2 E-learning implementation process
1 2
E-learning-needs analysis E-learning platform and design
• Select analysis methods • Assign project team
• Assess training needs • Review needs analysis report
• Assess learner profile • Design a project team
• Conduct cost-benefit analysis • Decide on system or outsourcing
• Obtain management support • Acquire e-learning resources
• Develop e-learning system and platform
• Train e-learning staff
• Market e-learning system
5 3
E-learning improvement E-learning delivery
• Review evaluation reports • Revise project plan
• Compile improvement plans • Assign responsibility
• Communicate to whole organisation • Present programme
4
Evaluation
• Reaction
• Learning
• Behaviour
• Results
It is therefore essential to first conduct a thorough needs analysis. Various needs analysis
techniques can be used such as focus groups, questionnaires or performance data analysis.
The needs analysis should indicate the types of skills required and, secondly, whether
e-learning is indeed the answer to the particular training need. For example, if training in
conflict resolution is identified as a training need, a group facilitation session is probably
a better training solution than e-learning alone.
An essential component of e-learning-needs analysis is analysis of the learner profile.
This means that the HRD manager should consider the characteristics of the learners in-
cluding their preferred learning styles, their locations and their learning needs. This infor-
mation will help the e-learning project team design appropriate e-learning interventions.
In addition, given the need for IT governance in accordance with the King IV Code on
Governance for South Africa, it is essential to manage any IT risks when implementing
e-learning. Thus, policy frameworks such as social media policies may be useful to miti-
gate risks or problems during the implementation of e-learning (SABPP, 2012).
11.6.2 E-learning platform and design

The design phase of e-learning is more complex and comprehensive than traditional train-
ing: even designing an appropriate training system to accommodate and integrate technol-
ogy and training takes time, effort and resources. The complexity of e-learning requires
that a project team should be constituted to develop and design the e-learning system. This
project team should consist of an information technologist, instructional designer, graphic
artist, line managers and the HRD manager. Once the platform has been created, the design
process can commence. From Figure 11.2 and Table 11.3 it appears as though most train-
ers will find it difficult to bridge the gap between traditional training and e-learning. In
fact, it will be rare to find these competencies in a single ETD practitioner. It is therefore
of critical importance that a number of people be included in the design and development
of e-learning. Ravet and Layte (1997:121) provide a list of parties that should be involved
in the design of e-learning:
• Trainers and training managers
• Subject matter experts
• Graphic designers
• Human-computer-interface designers
• Video or sound producers and editors
• Programme designers and programmers
• Project managers.
It is clear that e-learning cannot be implemented by a training department alone. In fact, a
project team approach is needed, one in which all the parties work together to achieve the
goals of the particular e-learning intervention. The responsibilities of these parties are de-
picted in Table 11.2.
From Table 11.2 it is evident that training managers and all the other role-players should
work together as a team to make e-learning work. This will also require that a multitude
of factors be taken into consideration when planning and designing e-learning. These fac-
tors are as follows:
• Learner profile: The profile and needs of learners should be considered when designing
and implementing e-learning. Important factors are the number of learners, the number
of sites, the distance of learners from the training site, the training schedule, the prefer-
red learning style of learners and their level of computer proficiency.
• Learning content: The type of content (whether it focuses on hard or soft skills), the
availability of content experts, the difficulty of the content and the availability of re-
sources should also be considered.
• Training objectives: The particular training objectives should be taken into account, for
example, the importance of consistency and performance tracking, the number of times
the programme will be offered, the frequency of updates, the development timetable
and business objectives.
• Learning outcomes: The learning outcomes should be clearly specified and the training
manager must ensure that an e-learning programme achieves the learning outcomes.
The technology employed should facilitate the attainment of the learning outcomes.
Table 11.2 Responsibilities of e-learning designers
E-learning designers Responsibilities

L&D managers Managing the e-learning process, building relationships,
change management, ensuring e-learning is integrated in
overall HRD strategy
Subject matter experts Providing information and advice regarding the content of
a learning programme
Programmers Customising or creating computer programmes according
to specifications
Human-computer-interface design- Integrating human component and learning tasks with
ers manipulation of the software supporting the learning tasks
Project managers Managing and co-ordinating specific e-learning projects
such as an e-learning satellite training programme on
customer service skills
Video or sound producers and Developing appropriate video and sound applications to
editors support particular learning activities
Graphic designers Designing and integrating graphics to support the learning
content
Trainers Presenting and facilitating a training session using
e-learning to support the training message
• Computing resources: Factors to consider are the availability and compatibility of com-
puters, their configuration and the availability of support personnel.
• Organisation readiness: The level of organisation openness to change should be deter-
mined, the organisation’s view of technology, the cash flow available, as well as the
readiness of managers and employees to adapt to e-learning.
• Decision-making regarding trainers and support staff: Consider the availability of skills
of personnel, time available to undertake the initial project and subsequent projects.
This will also include deciding whether internal trainers or outsourcing will be used.
The team will review the needs analysis report with the objective of planning an e-learning
system or outsourcing project to address the e-learning needs. A comprehensive e-learning
plan is therefore needed to ensure the effective management of the e-learning system and
that the necessary e-learning resources are acquired. Once the plan is in place, specific
e-learning programmes can be developed or purchased.
Changing from traditional training to e-learning requires that HRD practitioners should
acquire a range of new skills and competencies which should be considered during the
planning and design phase. Table 11.3 summarises the competencies needed to design,
implement and evaluate e-learning interventions.
From Table 11.3 it is evident that many HRD practitioners will have to be re-trained in
order to acquire the competencies needed to implement e-learning. Moreover, the rate of
technological change is so rapid that HRD managers should ensure that their staff mem-
bers are continuously keeping abreast of the latest developments in the field of e-learning
by studying market trends and attending e-learning seminars and conferences.
Table 11.3 Competencies needed for e-learning design and implementation
Competence area Reason and scope of competence

Managing projects Interaction required with specialists and role-players such
as information technologists, graphic artists, instructional
designers, engineers, external suppliers, line managers and
clients.
Designing learning Learning interventions focus on advanced technology. Design
interventions must consider the human-computer interface and ergonomics.
Text, animation, graphics, video and sound are integrated.
Decide on methods – for example, satellite, multimedia,
EPSS, etc.
Editing learning material Sound, video, simulations and interactivity models must be
edited to test appropriateness and feasibility.
Presenting e-learning A range of e-learning presentation skills is required,
including voice quality, high energy level, body language,
media co-ordination, organisation, social media etc.
Evaluating e-learning Sophisticated evaluation techniques are used, for example
integrated tracking, record-keeping and e-learning learner
feedback.
Once staff members have been trained to implement e-learning, the HRD department
should embark on a marketing campaign in order to inform the rest of the organisation of
the benefits of e-learning as well as the e-learning services that can be offered. During this
process, it is imperative to highlight the benefits of e-learning in terms of cost-savings to
line managers and supervisors alike.
11.6.3 Implementation of e-learning delivery

The delivery phase of e-learning is when the actual learning will take place, for example, in
the form of an interactive satellite session. It is imperative that the e-learning project plan
be continuously revised to ensure the effective implementation of e-learning. In addition,
regular meetings should be conducted so that the various role-players understand their
assigned responsibilities as far as implementation is concerned.
As indicated before, e-learning will require new skills on the part of the people respon-
sible for e-learning. While training managers need knowledge of the overall e-learning
strategy implementation process, the people conducting the actual training session will
have to utilise a new set of skills and competencies to deliver e-learning. Trainers who
will deliver e-learning will have to concentrate on the following guidelines proposed by
Schabel (1998) for presenting interactive e-learning:
• A strong introduction and closure are needed to stimulate interest in the particular
training intervention and to show the benefits of e-learning.
• Trainers should involve participants in a variety of ways, by varying the instructional
techniques to suit the particular training need and e-learning method.
• Trainers should maintain constant eye contact with the camera.
• E-learning facilitators need to improve their listening skills and show a “listening face”.
This is especially important when people phone in and the e-learning facilitator answers
their questions.
• Voice quality is very important. The pitch and tone must be varied to make the presen-
tation interesting and stimulating.
• Trainers should develop a “screen personality” which is friendly, relaxed and organised.
A sense of humour is also needed.
• A high energy level is needed. Talk directly to participants and use verbal reinforcers.
• Media co-ordination skills are also essential, for example, to switch from one camera to
another.
11.6.4 Evaluation
The next phase in the e-learning implementation process is to evaluate the effectiveness of
the e-learning intervention. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2011) approach to the evalu-
ation of training programmes can also be applied to evaluating e-learning:
• Reaction evaluation in the form of reaction forms can be used to assess the learners’
perceptions of the quality of the e-learning programme.
• Learning evaluation can occur while the e-learning programme is conducted by using
computerised tests and exercises to assess whether the learners have learnt the acquired
knowledge and skills. This form of evaluation is very useful in e-learning as instant
feedback on learner performance can be provided to both the learner and trainer.
• Behaviour evaluation can be used to measure the performance of the learner back in the
work situation. This can be done by observation of learner behaviour, or by computer-
ised systems such as EPSS.
• Results evaluation is a crucial form of e-learning evaluation especially in the light of
the large amount of resources invested in the design of e-learning systems. The impact
of the e-learning intervention in terms of financial results should therefore be calculated
and reported to management in order to ensure their continuous support of e-learning.
Irrespective of the level of evaluation, it is important to ensure that e-learning evaluation
meets the requirements for effective evaluation in a multimedia environment (Fee, 2009).
Fredericks et al (1998) identify three criteria for evaluating the success of multimedia:
• E-learning must be effective, in other words, the training must improve performance.
• E-learning must be efficient. It should use the least resources consistently assuring
effectiveness, which also means that learners know where they are and how to achieve
the learning outcomes.
• E-learning must be engaging. The learners are active rather than passive in the learning
process and must feel in control of their own learning experience.
These factors should be integrated in all e-learning evaluation systems to ensure that
appropriate measurement takes place. Without a measurement system it will be impos-
sible to determine the effectiveness of e-learning.
11.6.5 E-learning improvements

As e-learning is a new training technique in South Africa, most companies are likely to
use a trial-and-error approach. The feedback and information obtained from the e-learning
evaluation process should be used to develop appropriate plans for improvements. These
improvements should be documented and systematically integrated into the development
of subsequent e-learning interventions. The improvements should also be communicated
to the whole organisation to ensure that employees and managers are kept informed of the
evolving nature of the e-learning system and to reaffirm their support of the implementa-
tion of e-learning. Many companies have opted for a blended approach to learning – using
different training methodologies in addition to e-learning, such as self-paced learning
packs and traditional class-room training.
11.7 Electronic performance support systems (EPSS)

One particular e-learning intervention which has the potential to dramatically transform
corporate training, is an EPSS. According to Barras-Baker and Steyn (1998), EPSS is a
well-constructed computerised tool, systematically integrated at the employee location,
which exploits the diverse capabilities of a computer to improve individual and organisa-
tional performance. This means that an employee receives information from the computer
when he or she experiences a particular problem. It is therefore not necessary for the em-
ployee to attend classroom training, because EPSS provides the just-in-time training, sup-
port and information the employee needs in his or her own working environment.
EPSS has many benefits to organisations:
• There is less emphasis on training, and more on learning and performance. Training
time is thus reduced.
• New employees can perform a task with little or no prior training.
• EPSS provides employees with the knowledge, information and support they need to
perform effectively.
• Close employee supervision is not needed as EPSS fulfils the support function.
• Employees can solve their own problems quicker and more effectively.
• Different learning styles can be accommodated.
• Self-directed learning is promoted. EPSS can log errors, duration of transactions and
other performance data to provide evidence for performance management.
• Whilst traditional training is isolated from task performance, EPSS is integrated into
the workplace.
To make EPSS work, Barras-Baker and Steyn (1998) propose the following guidelines:
• EPSS should be framed in the job context, not within a computing framework.
• The EPSS information must not contain excessive background information, but should
provide specific answers to the user’s questions and problems.
• EPSS must be user-friendly, relevant and stimulating.

• There should be training and support for the use of EPSS.
• The system should be continuously updated to accommodate changes and developments
in the business.
It is therefore clear that EPSS is an effective e-learning system. The implementation pro-
cess for EPSS would be similar to that of e-learning as discussed before.
11.8 Company example: ABSA

The need to train large numbers of employees simultaneously led to the introduction of e-learning at
South Africa’s largest banking group, ABSA, a member of the Barclays Group. By means of decoder
receivers attached to TV sets in the workplace, ABSA employees around the country at the various
branches participate in training programmes. However, the system does make provision for inter-
activity as well and this is supplied with open telephone lines and fax machines so that the employ-
ees at branch level can communicate with the trainer in the studio. In addition, advanced multimedia
methodologies such as CD-ROMs for computer-based training are also used.
E-learning enables ABSA to train up to 40 000 people simultaneously. This is done live for up to
five hours a day. Branches are not closed, because sessions are staggered, thereby not losing pro-
ductive customer time. Costs such as travel and printing costs are dramatically minimised. In fact,
e-learning enables ABSA to deliver training at about one-third of the cost of traditional training.
Moreover, e-learning now generates revenue for ABSA through sales to other companies and edu-
cational institutions. Global Access is an ABSA subsidiary that offers innovative e-learning distance
learning solutions (Financial Mail, 1997).
ABSA focuses on the importance of e-learning from a business perspective. According to Hefer
(1998), it is essential to understand the effect of distance learning on the bottom line of a company.
Valuable time and money are saved when using e-learning, for example, travel and accommodation
costs. Apart from the cost savings of e-learning, the question arises whether effective learning takes
place by means of e-learning. Hefer (1998) points out that 95% of ABSA employees who were
trained by means of e-learning indicated that they have learnt what they need through the implemen-
tation of e-learning. He also notes that 51% of employees regard satellite training as the most effect-
ive e-learning medium, while 37% prefer computer-based training and 12% view on-line reference
as the most effective training method.
Hefer (1998) highlights the following lessons on the implementation of e-learning at ABSA:
• It is imperative to sell the concept of e-learning to line management. If they realise the enormous
cost and time savings, they are likely to support e-learning and bridge the gap between traditional
training and e-learning.
• Each training and development programme must be regarded as a project and should be managed
from a project management perspective. This will ensure that resources are committed and that
the relevant role-players focus on the action plans and strategies needed to make the project work.
• Different forms of technology must be integrated into the learning environment. This does not
mean that traditional training should be discarded, but rather that it should be integrated with
e-learning.
• E-learning can only work if the organisational culture supports it. Not only must there be open-
ness to accept and implement e-learning, but sound relationships must be fostered among the dif-
ferent role-players in the e-learning process.
• Create a passion for management information by making the results of e-learning visible. For
example, since the introduction of e-learning in 1994 the ABSA staff pass rate of the Institute of
Banking examination has improved by more than 20%.
Source: ABSA.
11.9 Conclusion
The rapid development of training technologies over the past decade has dramatically ex-
panded the possibilities for effective learning in the workplace. Whilst instructor-led
classes are still by far the most prevalent training method, some South African companies
are starting to reap the benefits of blending e-learning with their more traditional pro-
gramme delivery. E-learning offers many benefits for an organisation, the most important
being savings in time, resources and costs. Regardless of the complexity of an e-learning
intervention, it is important that the instructions be appropriately designed and managed
on the basis of sound principles of instructional design and HRD. The system must be
well planned, managed and appropriately integrated to meet learning outcomes. By im-
plementing e-learning and accelerating learning in and outside the workplace by means of
m-learning and s-learning, progressive South African organisations can gain a competitive
edge if they deliver to their customers quality products and services better and more
quickly than their competition.
11.10 Case study

Ishikawa Motors is a Japanese car manufacturer and retailer which decided to open a plant in Mid-
delburg. The company is faced with the challenge of training mechanics and salespeople on a soon-
to-be released car. The changing face of the car maintenance environment has presented new training
challenges. The training and development manager, Alpheus Molapo, realises that traditional class-
room training will not meet the imperative of a well-trained workforce within a reasonably short time
frame. Most employees have been recruited from factories in Gauteng and Mpumalanga. These em-
ployees’ training background mainly consists of classroom training at their previous employers. They
were used to this old approach to training. Alpheus is therefore concerned about the potential level
of resistance on the part of the company’s employees and managers. Alpheus can see that the cost to
the training department of obtaining and maintaining such equipment has become a major problem.
Moreover, the problem is also to keep mechanics proficient in complex job skills with less OTJ
practice.
Alpheus was recruited from a car manufacturer in Kwazulu-Natal. His previous company has
found itself having to provide training on expensive, complex and varied items of equipment. This
problem is compounded by the frequent appearance of new products and equipment with shorter
lifespans. The cost to the training department of maintaining this equipment has become a major
problem. Moreover, it is also difficult to keep mechanics proficient in complex job skills with less
OTJ practice. Training would typically provide practice on the basic version of the equipment, with-
out catering for possible different options and configuration. This does not provide realistic practice
because most customers buy special options such as leather seats, sun roof and a range of engines.
Furthermore, over time the mechanics lose skills because of the infrequency with which critical tasks
are performed.
Alpheus felt that it was possible to use simulation as an e-learning technique. He wants to simulate
operations carried out by the mechanics on the car with test equipment. The simulation of oper-
ational tasks includes carrying out standard maintenance procedures and selecting and using main-
tenance tools and job aids to support troubleshooting functions. The next step is to collect all the
available data to build support for the relevant practice. A video tape is used to record a mechanic
performing the required operations. A computer is used to capture data from the test equipment
used. Data is captured with a photo, video and audio equipment.
To reduce the development costs, Alpheus decided to use a standard web browser as user inter-
face with the simulator. He felt that a balance should be reached between working on local informa-
tion that could be on a local disk or on the CD-ROM, and information found on the Internet server.
continued
Alpheus acquired the services of a multimedia expert to ensure that the simulator user interface is
carefully designed. Operation of the simulator consists of two steps. First, the learners select a com-
ponent by touching the image at that point. Then they select an action such as open, remove, unlock,
secure or zoom from the menu in order to learn the appropriate information.
Alpheus is excited about the implementation of e-learning at Ishikawa Motors. However, he is
concerned that he is going to experience difficulty in convincing the instructors of the need for
e-learning and their contribution in making it work.
Questions
1 Suppose you are Alpheus. How would you deal with resistance to the implementation of
e-learning by managers and employees?
2 Develop a training programme that you can use to prepare the training staff for e-learning imple-
mentation.
3 If the CEO is reluctant to commit financial resources to e-learning, how would you convince her
to provide the resources for e-learning?
4 Apart from web-based training, which other types of e-learning methodologies can be considered
at this company and how would you go about implementing them?
5 Indicate the role-players you would involve when planning the design of e-learning at Ishikawa
Motors.
6 Explain the factors that should be taken into consideration when planning the design of e-learning
at this company.
7 Develop a training evaluation system which can be used to measure and evaluate the effective-
ness of e-learning at Ishikawa Motors.

• The benefits of e-learning should be clearly motivated to learners and management.
• Different role-players should be consulted and their inputs used to ensure effective
e-learning.
• A well-planned implementation process is needed to effectively implement e-learning
in the workplace.

1 Define the term “e-learning”.
2 Prepare a presentation for the top management of your organisation to convince them
of the benefits of e-learning to the company.
3 Differentiate between different types of e-learning.
4 Formulate a comprehensive management plan to implement e-learning in an organ-
isation. Your plan should include m-learning and s-learning.
5 Identify the competencies needed to design and implement e-learning.
6 Indicate the parties who should be involved in the design of e-learning as well as
their responsibilities.
7 Describe the factors that should be taken into account when planning and designing
e-learning implementation.
8 Develop a plan that you can use to prepare trainers for e-learning.
9 Define the term “EPSS”.

10 Compare the benefits of EPSS with the benefits of classroom training.
11 Develop a plan for the implementation of EPSS by considering the guidelines for
effective EPSS.
12 Critically evaluate the following statement: “E-learning is the complete answer to a
company’s training needs.”
13 Explain how social media can be used as an option for e-learning.
11.13 References
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Masten D, 1998, “Integrated learning technologies: How JC Penney uses high-tech and
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Belawski LB and Metcalf D, 2003, Blended eLearning: Integrating Knowledge, Perform-
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Boston: Digital.
Carr-Chellman AA (ed), 2005, Global Perspectives on e-Learning: Rhetoric and Reality,
Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
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Town: Oxford.
Driscoll M and Carliner S, 2005, Advanced Web-Based Training Strategies: Unlocking
Instructionally Sound Online Learning, San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
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Mantyla K, 2001, Blending e-Learning, Alexandra: ASTD.
Meyer ICA, 2006, Cost Efficiencies in Online Learning, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Bass/Pfeiffer.
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symp/Overview/CAETI.html
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Global Access: http://www.globalaccess.co.za
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Intranet Journal: http://www.intranetjournal.com
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• A special word of thanks to Johan Moller, ITC Manager at UNISA, for his inputs into
this chapter and for his leadership, support and motivation in driving the myUNISA
online learning management system.
• Jaco du Plessis, Social Media Coach at SABPP and Director of BCore, for his inspira-
tional work and for encouraging us to add social learning to this chapter.
CHAPTER
12
EMPLOYEE ORIENTATION
Georg Knoke
Successful induction will lead to better-motivated employees and
higher productivity within the organisation.
(Carrell et al)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain the importance and benefits of a structured employee orientation programme
• Describe the objectives of employee orientation programmes
• Apply the steps in the on-boarding process according to the national standard
• Indicate the elements of successful employee orientation
• Design an employee orientation programme consisting of various phases
• Compile appropriate orientation checklists and documentation
• Indicate the roles and responsibilities of various role-players
• Evaluate orientation programmes to suggest improvements
12.1 Introduction
Employee orientation or induction is the process of introducing and integrating a new em-
ployee into an organisation and a position. Orientation in this context can be defined as
“the process of introducing new employees to the goals of the organisation, its policies and
procedures, its values, the co-workers as well as the activities of the tasks to be performed
and the equipment to be used” (Carrell et al, 1998:204). Some companies call orientation
“on-boarding” which simply means familiarisation with and adaption to a situation or en-
vironment (Cascio, 2012). A well-defined formal orientation process is recognised world-
wide as one of the cornerstones of organisational investment in human capital.
333
In fact, the process of HRD starts with employee orientation. Although employees enter
organisations with their own set of skills, values, experience and knowledge, they must be
orientated and developed to meet the requirements of a competitive and changing business
environment. It is therefore evident that HRD commences the moment a new employee
joins an organisation, as the employee immediately starts to learn new and unique meth-
ods, values, processes and procedures inherent to the organisation.
All over the world successful organisations embark on formal structured orientation
interventions. A Fortune magazine survey of the most admired organisations in the world,
including American Airlines, Coke and McDonalds, indicates that the single best predic-
tor of overall excellence is an organisation’s ability to attract, motivate and retain talented
people (Fortune, 1998:89). A well-executed orientation programme significantly contrib-
utes to this.
Cadwell (1988:4) regards the goal of orientation as being to capitalise on each new em-
ployee’s enthusiasm, and to keep it alive once the work begins, which results in the new
employee becoming a valued asset to the organisation. According to him, one out of every
five employees resigns from his or her job, with the cost of re-advertising, re-recruiting,
re-orientating and retraining being between $5 000 to $30 000 per person, depending
upon the position in the organisation. Apart from these costs and the negative impression
that is formed about the organisation, the delay in re-appointing a replacement impacts
substantially on customer service, productivity and, in the end, the financial results.
In South Africa, orientation is generally regarded as a weakness of HR and therefore
needs a lot of attention. Organisations expect new employees to become productive and
contribute to the organisation almost immediately, even if the employees have not been
well orientated to understand the policies, procedures and systems of the organisation and
where their jobs fit into the overall business plan. Recently, the National School of Gov-
ernment introduced several structured induction training programmes (NSG, 2012).
But what is employee orientation or on-boarding really? According to the new national
HR professional practice standard on on-boarding developed by SABPP:
On-boarding is the smooth introduction of newly employed or newly transferred employees to the
philosophy, strategy, culture, physical and operating environment of the organisation; the facilita-
tion of understanding of mutual expectations, company rules and regulations, employee responsibil-
ities; and acclimatisation to the new working environment.

On-boarding is an essential bridge between the selection/engagement process and the
employee maintenance processes of learning and development, performance management,
reward management, employment relations management, wellness management and
organisation development (SABPP, 2015). The standard goes on to outline fundamental
requirements for good on-boarding practice (SABPP, 2015):
• Some form of on-boarding should be in place for every employee who is new to the
organisation or any part of it. To the extent appropriate, on-boarding should be done for
new contractors and temporary or fixed term employees.
• On-boarding material should be provided both interactively, and in some form of
file/pack for future reference as the new employee settles in.
Chapter 12: Employee orientation 335
• Whilst on-boarding may include safety training and medicals, it should be far from this
– it needs to include everything a new employee needs in order to achieve targeted per-
formance as quickly as possible.
• On-boarding should be taken seriously and accorded priority over operational require-
ments in the first days/hours of the employee’s work-life.
• On-boarding should be a planned process so that the new employee arrives to a
ready/prepared workplace.
• On-boarding is a socialisation process and should therefore include a strong element of
support in establishing social links with appropriate fellow employees.
• By the end of the on-boarding process, the new employee should be fully equipped to
handle tasks expected in the normal job and to achieve performance targets within a
specified time frame.
• Effective on-boarding requires a partnership approach between line management and
HR.
• Where appropriate to the level of the new employee, encourage a self-directed ap-
proach so that on-boarding is done “with” the new employee, and not “to” them.
• The effectiveness of on-boarding should be monitored, measured and analysed to
enable continuous improvement.
The implementation of the NQF in the workplace will benefit from a well-managed
orientation process. If employees are well-orientated, they become productive in a short
period of time. This will enable the HRD manager to assist employees in further develop-
mental opportunities in order to progress to a higher educational level on the NQF. Well
developed and fit for purpose employee orientation also assists new entrants to the labour
market in bridging the gap between education at school and the workplace.
As far as skills development as part of orientation is concerned, employee orientation
will support the objectives of the Skills Development Act. The process of employee de-
velopment helps an employee to acquire new skills which form the basis for continues
learning in the workplace.
As Carrell et al (1998:4) mention, one of the most stressful life experiences is starting a
new job. Cascio (2012) supports this view, referring to a new job as a “culture shock”.
This is exacerbated when the employee experiences the company as the opposite to what
was portrayed during the interview process.
In order to reduce anxiety and unnecessary stress, the purpose of this chapter is to focus
on strategies that will assist in making the new employee an effective, proud and loyal
staff member in the shortest period of time.
12.2 Objectives of a formal orientation process

Apart from reducing turnover, the main reasons for the implementation of a well-planned
orientation are to:
• Reduce anxiety, uncertainty and possible turnover (the initial job decision of the em-
ployee is positively confirmed and experienced)
• Initiate ongoing development of the employee
• Assist in increasing the employee’s speed to productivity, that is, the employee has a
better understanding of the organisation, its policies, processes and procedures and can
therefore focus his or her efforts on contributing positively to the organisation
• Contribute to a positive image of the organisation as an employer of choice, which leads
to increased loyalty towards the organisation
• Encourage socialisation, and create a feeling of belonging, as well as acceptance by
colleagues.
The above-mentioned benefits are reason enough to arrange a well-planned celebration
when the new employee starts, rather than to have a lavish farewell for employees who
are leaving, in many cases to join the competition (Cadwell, 1988:6). A more proactive
approach is therefore required.
Disney World’s benchmark orientation programme informs new employees that their
job is “to create happiness”. As a result employees demonstrate pride in belonging to the
Disney family and a strong emotional connection exists between employee and organisa-
tion. The connection to a larger purpose is central to Disney World’s ability to motivate
staff to maximise their performance and create “magical moments” for visitors (Training
and Development, 1998:24).
In the end it is important to realise that a well-planned orientation process, although
relatively cost-effective, can be the factor that determines whether employees stay or leave
an organisation. These decisions have serious cost implications for organisations.
12.3 National standard on on-boarding (SABPP)

The HR professional practice standard on on-boarding was developed in 2014. It provides
a clear roadmap for planning and implementing on-boarding effectively. According to the
standard, the process illustrated in Figure 12.1 should be applied to ensure effective on-
boarding (SABPP, 2015):
Figure 12.1 National on-boarding standard for South Africa (SABPP)
Employee arrival – give

induction pack and
welcome (disc, file, app)
Welcome by a senior
member of the company
Preliminary
arrangements/plan General induction Evaluation and feedback
HR induction
Initial contact with
employee – email or
telephonic – offer/letter
Departmental induction

12.4 Phases of planning orientation

A well-planned orientation process leaves a memorable impression, and encourages the
new employee to adapt quickly to the new environment, confirming the professionalism
of the organisation. The following phases are essential:
12.4.1 Interview phase

During the interview phase it is important to provide the candidate with relevant and up to
date information about the organisation.
This information could include some of the following and could be shared with the em-
ployee verbally during a well-planned interview process:
• The vision and mission of the organisation
• The strategic intent of the organisation
• A description of the values and the culture of the organisation
• A role profile/job description for the role the employee applied to and how this fits into
the organisation
• Performance expectations and measurement
• General terms and conditions applicable to employees of the organisation (inclusive of
remuneration details).
All of the above will assist both the candidate and the interviewers in establishing whether
there is a match between the employee and the organisation. A standard checklist which
acts as a guideline will ensure that the process is streamlined, that all bases are covered
and that a positive and professional impression is left with the candidate. Even if the can-
didate is not perfectly suited, a positive impression is created and communicated to a wide
variety of stakeholders.
Successful candidates should be provided with a welcome pack once the contract of
employment has been signed. This pack should include the detailed conditions of employ-
ment, relevant paperwork that must be completed by the new employee, details of the
department and key members of the particular area, copies of the latest organisational
newsletters, annual reports and other relevant information that will assist the employee in
his or her orientation. Cadwell (1988:27) suggests supplying successful new out-of-town
employees with general information about the city, names of reputable estate agents and
employment agencies for the spouse. This will give a clear indication that the employer is
a caring employer.
12.4.2 Pre-employment
Before the employee physically starts, it is important to inform colleagues, superiors and
even customers of the new employee’s start date.
There is nothing more embarrassing for a new employee than to arrive at the new work-
place and experience a situation in which it is evident that most people did not expect him
or her to arrive on that particular day. In the physical sense, the new employee’s office,
desk, IT equipment or other work setting should be arranged well in advance of the first
day. The employees’ stationery, access card, parking or any other equipment the individu-
al will need should also be ready on the first day of joining the organisation.
12.4.3 The first day

Although orientation is to be extended over weeks, the first day is crucial in terms of gen-
erating positive, lasting experiences. A well-planned first day with a written personalised
plan or agenda indicates that care has been taken to genuinely welcome the employee into
the organisation and make the adaptation process run smoothly.
The role of an appointed mentor or supervisor is to expose the new employee to the
immediate surroundings and introduce him or her to colleagues and supervisors (Cascio,
2012). A social get-together with colleagues, be it breakfast, mid-morning tea or lunch,
provides an opportunity for the new employee to network, meet the role-players and
become familiar with the business environment.
Apart from the social side, the new employee has to observe, participate and finalise a
task or assignment. Feedback will indicate the accepted standards of the organisation and
will provide a sense of belonging and achievement.
The role of standardised comprehensive checklists, from the most basic assumptions like
having a desk with stationery to a detailed orientation plan (stretching over several days
or even weeks) is not to be underestimated. Information overload should be prevented, as
the new employee has to adapt to the new environment at an acceptable pace.
At the end of the first day, positive perceptions about the organisation will confirm the
new employee’s initial decision to join the organisation and will obviously be shared with
family and friends.
12.4.4 The first month and beyond

A comprehensive written orientation plan has to be drawn up by the mentor or supervisor.
Finer details have to be discussed and agreed on with the new employee. This plan has to
include the business focus, service standards, dress code, mission, purpose, values, busi-
ness strategy, stakeholders (like customers, the community and shareholders), access to the
electronic media and development activities with time frames. Organisations should strive
to communicate “essential to know” information via pre-prepared multimedia to all em-
ployees so that a holistic overview of the organisation can be gained. New employees need
to realise what contribution to the larger purpose of the organisation they are involved in.
Where required, the new employee should either attend training courses or observe col-
leagues to make him or her fully proficient in the new position. Continuous two-way open
communication, working on assignments towards set targets and standards, meeting chal-
lenges and creating an environment where mistakes lead to learning have to be prerequis-
ites of development so that the new employee can become fully proficient.
Major corporate businesses provide new employees with orientation folders that contain
generic and job-specific details. These are beneficial as additional information and notes
can be added as and when the new employee settles into the position. Although different
employee groups within an organisation require different orientation programmes, generic
fundamentals should form part of each orientation programme.
Part of the mentor’s or supervisor’s orientation duties is to fully explain “how to” infor-
mation, including required job outputs as per detailed job description, development plan
with activities to be completed, and evaluation mechanisms. Time frames and performance
standards should also be included to accelerate productivity. Where applicable, procedural
manuals, Internet or intranet sites and other sources of information should be explained.
This is what we would regard core induction: Where relevant, well-structured orientation
sessions for groups of up to 20 new employees from different departments can be held, as
this encourages cultural diversity, cross-functional bonding, a common purpose and pro-
vides personal and business networking opportunities. Interaction like question or answer
sessions should be encouraged, as well as internalising organisational values.
12.4.5 Monitoring of process

What can be measured can be managed. Constant and ongoing monitoring of performance
progress and adaptation to the work environment is an essential part of the orientation
process. Regular feedback in the first two to four weeks will indicate whether new em-
ployees are becoming active, productive and motivated members of the organisation. This
feedback can be gained via personal interviews, inputs and feedback from new employees,
standardised questionnaires or via productivity measurements. (The orientation process
should be flexible and, as feedback is gained, be adjusted accordingly.)
Disney’s internal research into its successful orientation indicates that new employees
take pride in the organisation because they know that they and their ideas are valued and
that ideas are acted on. There is constant encouragement to participate in problem-solving
and suggest improvements. Feedback is critical in all orientation programmes (Cascio,
2012).
12.4.6 Exit interviews

If large numbers of employees resign within the first three month of joining the organisa-
tion despite formal and structured induction, training and support from his or her mentor
and HR, exit interviews can be used to establish the reasons for resignation. An analysis of
the reasons given will highlight problems and identify challenges and blockages. Human
resources should use the output of the root cause analysis to put remedial action in place
and to ensure that issues are addressed adequately and solutions are presented.
12.5 Elements of successful orientation programmes

Successful orientation programmes require comprehensive planning and organising to en-
sure that these programmes achieve the desired results.
In an article in Training (1998:56), the following elements of a well-planned orientation
process have been identified:
12.5.1 Give new employees what they need

This includes introductions to their colleagues, a fully equipped office, training on the
equipment to be utilised, fully explained job expectations and a real warm welcome. All
of the above are cost-effective and not time-consuming. However, if not professionally
and flawlessly executed, the new employee will find it difficult to adapt.
12.5.2 Allow enough time for orientation

To acquaint new employees with the corporate culture takes time, days or even weeks on
and off the job. Carefully designed and well-timed programmes and exercises should
showcase organisation goals, the mission, purpose and values, and how to resolve prob-
lems.
12.5.3 Provide a bonding experience

The organisation should provide enough opportunities for new employees to connect with
colleagues during and outside working hours. Teamwork, study groups and group assign-
ments lead to internalised “feel good” experiences and bonding, which ensures retention
and building of networks.
12.5.4 Make orientation universal

Orientation should, without exception, be compulsory for all new joiners irrespective of
level division, gender etc. Many organisations tend to invest a lot of resources when orien-
tating senior and professional hires, while they often neglect the orientation of lower level
employees. Often geographic footprint becomes a convenient excuse to not induct em-
ployees. Innovative ways should be used to ensure that employees in even the remotest
parts of the country are inducted if your organisation has branches in different provinces
or countries.
12.5.5 Immediate implementation

As first impressions last, orientation sessions should be held as employees join the organ-
isation, irrespective of the number of people available. Orientation that is conducted weeks
after employees have joined the organisation has been proven to be ineffective and a waste
of time and resources.
12.5.6 Announcing the appointment

The appointment of a new employee can be announced in the local media, Sunday news-
papers, notice boards, memos, newsletters or electronic bulletin boards or even social
media and e-mail to teams and the broader organisation and its stakeholders.
12.5.7 Simplicity
As there are various languages in South Africa, it is essential to ascertain that all orienta-
tion programmes are conducted in an understandable medium, both pertaining to speech
and written material. The type of industry and level of employment will determine how
orientation programmes are to be conducted, for example, the mining versus the banking
industry.
12.5.8 Emotional element

“Engage new employees on an emotional – not just intellectual – level that helps them re-
member and exhibit the behaviours expected of them” says Richard Parks, seminar facili-
tator at Disney World (HR Magazine, 1998:113). “We don’t put people in Disney, we put
Disney in people.” New employees should have the opportunity to internalise what the
heartbeat of the organisation is. Examples of good orientation activities are showing cor-
porate social responsibility DVDs and sharing some of the organisation’s history and per-
sonal anecdotes from senior leaders in the business.
12.5.9 Management involvement

Executive management, senior managers and other prominent role-players in the organ-
isation should actively participate and encourage the orientation process by attending
orientation sessions and connecting with new employees in a formal or informal way. This
will make the new employee feel important and indicate that his or her contribution will
be valued.
12.5.10 Human resource involvement

Apart from recruiting the new employee, HR cannot become complacent and leave the
process for line management to implement. They must spend time in orientation, address-
ing what assistance it can offer to employees in the future. The array of HR services pro-
vided to employees, like career guidance, transformation issues and training, must be
communicated and arranged for new employees (De Cenzo and Robbins, 2007).
Although line management is responsible for employee orientation, HR must provide
the support to assist line management in this function.
12.6 Pitfalls in orientation programmes

The above-mentioned success factors for employee orientation programmes will help
organisations to implement effective orientation to its employees. However, orientation
programmes may be well intended, but if they are not properly managed, various pitfalls
represent themselves that should be avoided:
• If too many people are responsible for the programme, responsibilities will not be clear
and co-ordination problems will occur.
• It too much information is given to the employee on the first day it will make it diffi-
cult for him or her to absorb this information, which could lead to unnecessary stress.
• Too little information will lead to employee uncertainty and a fear of the unknown.
• If employees are given too many tasks on the first day, they will find it difficult to
adapt to the new work environment.
• An absence of planning checklists will result in gaps and errors in the orientation pro-
cess.
• An overemphasis on “fitting in” or “the way we do things” may send a clear message
that creativity is not encouraged.
• The content of orientation programmes should be balanced and objective. Creating
unrealistic employee expectations and hiding the organisation’s problems and mistakes,
could lead to employee disillusionment and ultimately low productivity and labour
turnover.
Reflect on the orientation programme you have been exposed to when you joined an organisation.
How effective was this orientation? What did you particularly like about the orientation? What were
the shortcomings of the orientation programme? How did it affect your productivity? What would
you have done differently?
12.7 The ABSA case study

12.7.1 Background
The ABSA Group Limited (ABSA), part of the Barclays Group, is one of South Africa’s
largest financial services groups offering a complete range of banking, bancassurance and
wealth management products and services.
ABSA’s business is conducted primarily in South Africa and on the African continent,
where it has equity holdings in banks in Mozambique, Angola and Tanzania.
ABSA is a subsidiary of Barclays Bank PLC, which holds a stake of 56,6% in the
Group. Barclays is an international financial services group engaged in retail and com-
mercial banking, credit card issuing, investment banking, wealth management and invest-
ment management services.
12.7.2 Orientation within ABSA

Staff development, including orientation, is a top priority at ABSA. Not only is this pro-
cess supported and sponsored by senior leaders of the organisation it is also part of the
organisation’s core values, more specifically, the value, “value our people and treat them
with fairness”.
ABSA has a multi-dimensional approach to orientation and all new joiners to the ABSA
group, irrespective of region, business unit or level must participate in the generic orienta-
tion process. Orientation is not restricted to new joiners, it is also extended to internal
transfers and/or promotions with a view to familiarise them with their new role and busi-
ness unit in the shortest possible time, thus increasing their speed to productivity.
Taking the size, geographic spread and diversity of ABSA into account, a generic
(core) orientation process with common themes was developed, cutting across all busi-
ness units and all levels. Functional and role-related orientation is taken care of by the
various business divisions, ensuring that it is customised to serve the purpose and needs
of the business unit.
Orientation is delivered to new joiners/transfers/promotions via a variety of channels
over a period of time. The process as set out below highlights generic yet essential phases
and typical information shared about ABSA during these interventions. The orientation
process starts with recruitment and ends when the employee leaves the employment of the
organisation.
The phases of orientation at ABSA are summarised in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1 Phases of orientation at ABSA
Phases Description of activities

Phase 1: Recruitment and The recruitment process is used to share role-related
on-boarding requirements and expectations, the organisation’s vision,
mission and values with the candidate. It is a good oppor-
tunity for both organisation and candidate to see whether
their goals and values are a match.
Once the candidate accepts the offer, on-boarding starts.
On-boarding is used to ensure that all physical require-
ments such as seating, IT and personal administration
related to employment is completed prior to day one of
employment. A good on-boarding process makes the
employee feel welcome and contribute to settling in
quicker.
continued
Phases Description of activities

Phase 2: Day one: Reception of new New joiners are teamed up with a buddy to help them
employee settle in during the first week. The buddy will show the
employee around the office, introduce them to team
members in the immediate vicinity and help with minor
requests for stationery, where the canteen is, etc.
The new joiner is also informed on this day of the ABSA
orientation process and is provided with an orientation
pack and file covering critical items.
More senior employee will receive an induction agenda on
day one. The induction agenda will outline meetings with
stakeholders, customers, senior leaders or co-workers with
whom the employee would need to spend time. All of this
is done with the focus on settling the employee as quickly
as possible, assist with networking and increase speed to
productivity.
Phase 3: First four weeks and During the first four weeks employees will be introduced
beyond orientation and orientated to ABSA, their function as well as their
role.
A variety of channels are used to orientate the employee.
Whilst core induction takes the form of a presentation,
employees are given information via the employee portal.
All systems, processes, policies and other interesting and
important information are available on the portal and
employees can in their own time work through this.
Mandatory information pertaining to the banking industry
is also published on the portal and employees are obliged
to confirm their understanding of such information.
Phase 4: Monitoring Progress reporting is done at regular intervals. Currently,
reporting on progress is done with both the employee and
the line leader. The progress report serves as a general
“check-in”, measures the progress made and checks
whether the employee has adapted well to their new
environment.
Phase 5: Exit process During the exit process an exit interview is undertaken.
Interview feedback is sent to both the employee and
manager. Conducting of exit interview, with feedback
is channelled to HR.
12.7.3 Further details pertaining to phases one to four

12.7.3.1 Pre-employment activities
Pre-employment activities are highly effective and contribute to a feeling of welcome; in
addition the new joiner’s needs and value that he or she is bringing to the organisation is
recognised. If neglected, the employee will experience his or her first day or weeks as
unstructured and disorganised, which will not only frustrate the employee but also de-
motivate him or her.
12.7.3.2 Functional and role orientation

As mentioned, ABSA has a multi-dimensional approach to Orientation. Generic (Core)
orientation is determined centrally and implementation is compulsory. Functional and role
orientation on the other hand, is customised to reflect the needs of the business unit and
the various roles in the unit.
• During functional orientation the new employee will be introduced to the core business
of the unit, its strategies and targets and any other relevant business-unit-related infor-
mation that will help the employee to adapt and settle in quicker.
• During role orientation the employee’s role and role profile is discussed as well as how
this fits in with the overall group strategy and the business unit strategy. This orientation
session also provides a good opportunity to discuss and agree performance objectives
and expectations.
The multi-dimensional approach makes orientation much more effective and allows for a
good combination of a core “must do’s” and innovation from business unit to business
unit.
12.7.3.3 Monitoring, evaluation and refinement

Orientation is monitored by Learning and Development on an ongoing basis via a variety
of interventions. Electronic follow-up reports are conducted with employees to check pro-
gress and ask for feedback on the process and approach as such. Currently feedback and
follow up occurs four times from the dates of joining and normally ends within four to six
months of joining the organisation.
Output is collated and trends and patterns are identified. This is feedback to the business
and refinement and change takes place where and when required.
12.7.3.4 Checklist
The first three to six months of employment is critical to the success of the employee and
the organisation. During this period the employee will assess whether he or she “fits in”
and identifies with the organisation, its values, work practises, processes, policies and
way of doing things.
Checklists have been developed to assist Line Leaders and HR in the planning of orien-
tation. It allows for planning and structure to the process and will ensure that all bases are
covered.
The checklists are basic guidelines and may be adapted to suit and reflect the needs of
the business unit.
Table 12.2 sets out parts of a checklists for illustrative purposes.
Table 12.2 Example of Line Leader checklist for orientation
Prior to date of appointment
Tasks Yes No N/A

Arrange on-boarding and day-one readiness process with all relevant
departments such as HR Operations, IT, etc
Ensure that the work station is furnished and set up
continued
Tasks Yes No N/A

Order required IT equipment and ensure it is set up for day one
Order stationary and other basic requirements for day one
Appoint a buddy and mentor to take care of the new employee
Brief buddy and mentor on specific outcomes if required
Draft induction agenda with key stakeholders and set up appoint-
ments for week one
Day one of employment
Tasks Yes No N/A

Meet and welcome employee
Tour facility, explain parking and building
Finalise any outstanding employee-related documentation and
information matters
Provide personalised welcome kit
Introduce to mentor and/or buddy
Introduce to team
First week of employment
Tasks Yes No N/A

Conduct functional orientation
Explain reporting channels and structure
Introduce to broader teams and explain work relationships
Conduct role orientation
Start Performance Objective planning
First month of employment
Tasks Yes No N/A

Ensure that the new employee has completed the orientation
questionnaires in his or her personal mailbox memo
Continue with the functional induction
Agree and confirm performance objectives by the end of the fourth
week
12.7.3.5 Accountability for orientation

At ABSA, accountability for the quality and success of orientation rest foremost with Line
Leaders. Line Leaders are supported by the provincial centres for people management
who will assist with implementation, monitoring and evaluation.
The generic (core) orientation programme is continuously evaluated and enhanced by

the learning and development in conjunction with the internal communications depart-
ments to ensure that the objectives of the orientation process have been achieved.
12.8 Conclusion
The geographic footprint, size and diversity of ABSA necessitated a multi-dimensional
orientation process.
Orientation takes place at three levels:
• Organisational level – generic/core orientation
• Team level – functional orientation
• Individual level – role orientation.
This approach helps the organisation achieve the value “value our people and treat them
with fairness”. It also greatly increases speed to productivity, provides clarity and direction
on what is required and how things are done and recognises the employee as a valuable
asset to the organisation. Apart from reducing turnover and increasing organisation loyalty,
the new employee feels that he or she made the right choice – it therefore contributes to
ABSA’s employer of choice strategy.
In summary, this chapter emphasises the importance of employee orientation as the first
phase of HRD. The HR professional practice standard on on-boarding provides a useful
guideline for effective employee orientation. By having formalised employee orientation
programmes, the new employee is effectively introduced to the organisation, speed to
productivity is increased and it contributes to workplace learning and business perfor-
mance.
12.9 Case study

You are the newly appointed human resources manager in a medium-sized computer training college.
As it is the beginning of the year, ten newly appointed staff members will be joining the present
staff of 35 in two weeks’ time. These include six lecturers, two secretaries, one filing clerk and one
driver.
The rector is very concerned about the orientation of these new employees, as previously no pro-
cess was in place and most new staff resigned after three months. He has requested you to provide
him with a detailed orientation plan before implementing any activities. The students arrive one
week after the new staff have commenced with their duties.
Questions
1 What main orientation activities would you plan for:
• the day of job commencement?
• the first month?
2 How would you orientate employees from different occupations, as in the provided case study?
Motivate your answer.
3 What would you do to make the orientation programme memorable for all new staff?
4 Discuss the roles of your colleagues in assisting you in implementing a successful orientation
programme.
continued
5 Provide a checklist that indicates activities to be included during the first day or first month.
6 How would you monitor the progress of all new employees in the first two months in regard to
adaptation and productivity?
7 How can the SABPP national standard on on-onboarding assist you in getting on-boarding right
at the company?

1 Explain how you would implement an orientation programme in your work situation,
with specific reference to:
• The different phases to be considered
• The roles of all personnel involved in the orientation process (from human resources
to senior management) and the contribution of each
• Elements that would make orientation memorable in your organisation
• Provide an example of a checklist utilised during your orientation process
• Discuss any changes you would implement to enhance your current orientation pro-
gramme and give reasons why.
2 What is the best way to ascertain whether your orientation programme is successful?
3 Why do top organisations put so much energy into orientation programmes?
4 Discuss the role of accountabilities for the success of orientation programmes.
5 Explain the elements of the national HR professional practice standard on on-
boarding.
12.11 References
Anon, “Building a better orientation programme”, HR Magazine, November 1996.
Anon, “Creative orientation”, Executive Excellence, January 1998.
Anon, “Disney Institute”, Training and Development, December 1998.
Anon, “Elements of a great orientation”, Training Magazine, March 1988.
Anon, “Leadership: Lessons from the Magic Kingdom”, Training and Development, July
1998.
Anon, “Show and tell”, HR Magazine, April 1998.
Anon, “Take new employee orientation off the back burner”, HR Magazine, May 1998.
Anon, “What makes an organisation great?”, Fortune, October 1998.
Boase N, 1998, “Induction – introducing new employees to the organisation”, People
Dynamics 15(8).
Cadwell CM, 1988, New Employee Orientation: A Practical Guide for Supervisors,
Lonham: National Network.
Carrell MR, Elbert NF, Hatfield RD, Grobler PA, Marx M and Van Der Schyf S, 1998,
Human Resource Management in South Africa, Johannesburg: Prentice Hall South
Africa.
Cascio WF, 2012, “On-boarding”, paper presented at the 8th Annual International ASTD
Global Network SA Conference, Drakensberg, 14 March.
De Cenzo DA and Robbins SP, 2007, Fundamentals of Human Resource Management,

9th edn, New York: John Wiley.
Palama, 2012, Induction Training: Making Government Work Better, Pretoria: Palama.

Barbazette J, 1994, Successful New-employee Orientation: Assess, Plan, Conduct and
Evaluate Your Program, Amsterdam: Pfeiffer.
Corporate Research Foundation, 1998, The 49 Best Companies to Work for in South
Africa, Halfway House: Zebra.
Fowler A, 1996, Employee Induction: A Good Start, 3rd edn, London: Institute of Person-
nel and Development.
Gerber PD, Nel PS, Van Dyk PS, Sono TS and Werner A, 2001, Human Resources Man-
agement, 5th edn, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Grobler PA, Warnich S, Carrell MR, Elbert F and Hatfield RD, 2002, Human Resource
Management in South Africa, London: Thomson Learning.
Jerris LA, 1993, Effective Employee Orientation, New York: Amacom.
Meighan M, 1995, How to Design and Deliver Induction Training Programmes, London:
Kogan Page.
Meyer M and Kirsten M, 2005, Introduction to Human Resource Management, Cape
Town: New Africa.
Smalley LR, 1994, Effective Induction and Training: A Practical Guide to Enhanced Per-
formance, London: Kogan Page.

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CHAPTER
13
EMPLOYMENT EQUITY AND
DIVERSITY TRAINING
Marius Meyer
Training and development forms the cornerstone of
most successful employment equity initiatives.
(Adèle Thomas and David Robertshaw)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Differentiate between the concepts “equal opportunity”, “employment equity”, “diversity man-
agement” “affirmative action” and “broad-based black economic empowerment”
• Indicate the implications of the Employment Equity Act for HRD
• Compile an employment equity training strategy for an organisation
• Develop a diversity training strategy for an organisation
• Identify the pitfalls of diversity training
• Provide guidelines for successful diversity training
13.1 Introduction
One of the most pertinent challenges facing South African employers in the workplace
today is the implementation of employment equity and black economic empowerment
plans to redress the effects of discrimination in the workplace and South African society
at large. The ultimate goal of the Employment Equity Act is to achieve a diverse workforce
which is representative of the population. The Act makes provision for the elimination of
unfair discrimination and the implementation of affirmative action measures to promote
equity in the workplace.
349
Moreover, the modern business reality of globalisation presents a challenge on how to

deal effectively across multi-national boundaries. With the increasing importance of doing
business across national boundaries comes the realisation that business across cultures has
some serious pitfalls if it is not properly managed. If a South African manager interacts
with a counterpart in a foreign country without prior consideration of cultural differences,
the outcome can be disastrous.
In the process of redressing the effects of discrimination, the importance of education,
training and development cannot be overemphasised. In fact, no form of employment
equity programme can be effectively implemented without the necessary training and de-
velopment interventions. Not only do designated employees need the required training
opportunities, all members of the organisation must be educated and trained to deal with
increasingly diverse workforce and customer profiles. In addition, managers and employ-
ees must be trained to understand and implement the Employment Equity Act and develop
the required employment equity plans and support structures. In fact, the success or failure
of an employment equity strategy will to a large degree depend on the quality of HRD
interventions provided. Furthermore, the NQF and employment equity have an inter-
dependent relationship. The NQF supports the principles of legitimacy, redress, progres-
sion, integration and skills development which are the key features of employment equity.
Employment equity, in turn, will promote education, training and development in the
workplace – all of which are essential components of the NQF.
In this chapter emphasis will be on employment equity training and diversity training as
key components of an employment equity strategy. These two issues should not be seen
as two separate entities, but rather as an integrative system of HRD. Employment equity
training relates to the training interventions instituted to ensure that a company conforms to
the legislative requirements of the Employment Equity Act and implements effective HRD
strategies to achieve competitive advantage. Diversity training can help an organisation to
create an environment in which employment equity can be successfully implemented.
HRD practitioners and line managers are faced with a lot of confusion with regard to
various terms used in relation to employment equity. Employment equity plans can only
be implemented effectively if the various concepts are clearly understood by line managers
and human resource managers alike. The most important concepts in this wide field are
“equal opportunity”, “affirmative action”, “employment equity” and “diversity manage-
ment”. The relationship between these concepts is depicted in Figure 13.1.
Equal opportunity: Equal opportunity means to provide all people with exactly the same
opportunities with regard to employment practices. According to the Employment Equity
Act (1998), every employer must take steps to promote equal opportunities in the work-
place by eliminating unfair discrimination in any employment policy or practice. This
means that there should be no unfair discrimination on the grounds of race, gender, sex,
pregnancy, marital status, family responsibility, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orien-
tation, age, disability, HIV status, conscience, belief, political opinion, culture, language
and birth.
Affirmative action: Affirmative action measures are measures designed to ensure that suit-
ably qualified people from designated groups have equal employment opportunities and
are equitably represented in all occupational categories and levels in the workforce of a
designated employer. Affirmative action includes preferential treatment of designated em-
ployees and the setting of numerical goals (Employment Equity Act, 1998).
Chapter 13: Employment equity and diversity training 351
Figure 13.1 The relationship between equal opportunity, affirmative action, employment equity
and diversity management
Diversity management: Diversity management is a comprehensive and holistic process for

creating and sustaining an environment in which all employees feel comfortable, recog-
nised, valued and appreciated, based on differences such as race, gender, culture, religion,
disability and sexual orientation. Diversity management plays a crucial role in comple-
menting equal opportunity, affirmative action and employment equity by preparing an
environment conducive to a more diverse workforce.
Employment equity: Employment equity is the end-result of equal opportunity, affirmative
action and diversity management, in other words, when real equality is achieved in the
workplace. An organisation will achieve employment equity when its employee profile
reflects that of the population at all organisational levels.
Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment: The Broad-Based Black Economic Empow-
erment Act (South Africa, 2004) defines broad-based black economic empowerment as
the economic empowerment of all black people including women, workers, youth, people with
disabilities and people living in rural areas through diverse but integrated socio-economic
strategies that include, but are not limited to –
(a) increasing the number of black people that manage, own and control enterprises and
productive assets;
(b) facilitating ownership and management of enterprises and productive assets by commu-
nities, workers, cooperatives and other collective enterprises;
(c) human resource and skills development;
(d) achieving equitable representation in all occupational categories and levels in the work-
force;
(e) preferential procurement; and
(f) investment in enterprises that are owned or managed by black people.
13.2 Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment Act

Having now successfully conducted four democratic elections and more than 23 years of a
peaceful democracy, South Africa has much to be proud of. International commentators
have hailed the transition from a white minority government to a black majority govern-
ment as the most successful political transition in world history. However, on the eco-
nomic front we are still faced with gross inequality because economic power is still mainly
in the hands of the white minority group. We may have a stable political democracy, but
the real question is for how long will we be able to sustain the peaceful perpetuation of
inequality, poverty and unemployment.
Against the backdrop of this reality, the government promulgated the Black Economic
Empowerment Act to address the economic inequality that still pervades the South African
economy (South Africa, 2004). This Act fundamentally changed the fabric of South Afri-
can companies in order to make B-BBEE a reality. This time around there are no oppor-
tunities to continue with the window-dressing that characterised B-BBEE attempts in the
first decade of democracy. The Act ensures that B-BBEE is achieved by linking meas-
urement to performance targets and enforcement mechanisms. The B-BBEE score allo-
cated to HRD is 30 points (Jack and Harris, 2007).
The objectives of the B-BBEE Act are to facilitate B-BBEE by:
• Promoting economic transformation in order to enable meaningful participation of black
people in the economy
• Achieving a substantial change in the racial composition of ownership and management
structures and in the skilled occupations of existing and new enterprises
• Increasing the extent to which communities, workers, co-operatives and other collective
enterprises own and manage existing and new enterprises and increasing their access to
economic activities, infrastructure and skills training
• Increasing the extent to which black women own and manage existing and new enter-
prises, and increasing their access to economic activities, infrastructure and skills train-
ing
• Promoting investment programmes that lead to broad-based and meaningful participa-
tion in the economy by black people in order to achieve sustainable development and
general prosperity
• Empowering rural and local communities by enabling access to economic activities,
land, infrastructure, ownership and skills
• Promoting access to finance for black economic empowerment.
Instead of overemphasising the potential drawbacks of B-BBEE, the challenge is to
internalise the benefits of B-BBEE in an organisation. For instance, adherence to B-BBEE
policies puts you in a favourable position for investment and tendering. Failure to abide
by B-BBEE laws will have your organisation facing costly penalties and fines, not to
mention the reality of not obtaining lucrative government contracts as a result of non-
compliance. Furthermore, your image as an employer and supplier may also be adversely
affected if you are not seen as a preferred supplier of products and services.
Example: Financial Services Charter

The Financial Services Charter is one of the first good examples of how B-BBEE can be achieved.
Clear guidelines are set for ownership, shareholding and procurement. For example, each financial
institution will have a minimum target of 20% to 25% black people at senior management level by
2008, 4% black women at senior management level, 30% black people at middle management level,
10% black women at middle management level and 40% to 50% black people at junior management
level and 15% of black women at junior management level by 2008. Just six months after the release
of the Financial Services Charter, ABSA became the first of the big four retail banks to sell the
crucial 10% stake to a black empowerment partner. The deal means that ABSA met its financial
charter four years ahead of time, achieving its black ownership requirement of 25%.
Source: Business Report (2004).
HRD has a huge role to play in supporting B-BBEE. While the need for a transfer of own-
ership and preferential procurement is emphasised, it is through focusing on skills devel-
opment that the true economic empowerment of black people in South Africa can be
achieved (SAQA, 2005).
Various HRD interventions can therefore be used to support and accelerate B-BBEE
(Woolley, 2005; Jack and Harris, 2007):
• Skills training for black employees
• Learnerships
• ABET programmes
• Career development programmes
• Mentoring and coaching
• Supervisory and management development programmes
• Employee retention strategies.
13.3 Employment Equity Act

Before HRD practitioners can start implementing employment equity and diversity train-
ing, they should have a thorough understanding of the Act. The rationale of the Act is to
ensure the implementation of employment equity to redress the effects of discrimination
and to achieve a workforce broadly representative of our people. The content of the Act is
summarised briefly chapter by chapter in the following sections (Employment Equity Act,
1998).
Chapter 1: Definitions, purpose, interpretation and application

The first chapter covers the background information to the Act. The purpose of the Act is
to achieve equity in the workplace by the following two measures:
• Promoting equal opportunity and fair treatment in employment through the elimination
of unfair discrimination
• Implementing affirmative action measures to redress the disadvantages in employment
experienced by designated groups, in order to ensure their equitable representation in
all occupational categories and levels in the workforce.
A designated employer is an employer who employs 50 or more employees, or an em-
ployer who employs fewer than 50 employees, but has a total annual turnover that is equal
to or above the applicable annual turnover of a small business in terms of Schedule 4 to
the Act.
Designated groups are black people (Africans, Coloureds and Indians), women and
people with disabilities. “People with disabilities” means people who have a long-term or
recurring physical or mental impairment which substantially limits their prospects of entry
into, or advancement in, employment.
Chapter 2: Prohibition of unfair discrimination
Chapter 2 deals with the elimination and prohibition of any form of unfair discrimination
based on, for example, race, gender, culture, disability, language and religion. Every em-
ployer must take steps to promote equal opportunity in the workplace by eliminating unfair
discrimination in any employment policy or practice, for example, medical and psycho-
metric testing. It is, however, not unfair discrimination to take affirmative action measures
consistent with the purpose of the Act, or to distinguish, exclude or prefer any person on
the basis of an inherent requirement of a job.
Chapter 3: Affirmative action
The third chapter addresses the affirmative action measures designated employers must
undertake. These include measures designed to further diversity in the workplace based
on equal dignity and respect of all people. Section 15 includes measures to implement
training and development opportunities for designated groups. Other measures are em-
ployment equity plans which will be based on an analysis of the workforce, numerical
goals and timetables.
In terms of the Act, a person may be suitably qualified for a job, even if he or she does
not have the necessary experience, but does possess the capacity to acquire the ability to
do the job. The role of training is therefore critical in supporting affirmative action im-
plementation by assisting designated employees in improving their skills levels.
Chapter 4: Commission for Employment Equity
This chapter deals with the establishment, composition and functions of the Commission
for Employment Equity. The members of the commission consist of eight people nomin-
ated by the four interest groups of NEDLAC (labour, business, state and community). The
commission advises the Minister of Labour on codes of good practice, regulations, policy
and employment equity research.
Chapter 5: Monitoring, enforcement and legal proceedings
Part A covers the monitoring of employment equity by both internal parties (for example,
employees, employers and workplace forums) and external parties (such as labour inspect-
ors, the Director-General of Labour and the Employment Equity Commission). Emphasis
is placed on the role of labour inspectors with specific reference to the issuing of com-
pliance orders to designated employers who do not comply with the requirements of em-
ployment equity plans. In part B, the legal proceedings are outlined when disputes are
referred to the CCMA or labour court. Part C deals with the protection of employee rights
when they exercise any right conferred by the Act. The procedure for disputes regarding
the interpretation or application of part C is also indicated.
Chapter 6: General provisions
This last chapter of the Employment Equity Act discusses various provisions, such as state
contracts, codes of good practice, confidentiality and the liability of employers. It is im-
portant that managers are also trained on this aspect of the Act, as their operations will be
affected by these provisions.
13.4 Implications of employment equity and diversity for HRD

As indicated earlier, employment equity and diversity have major implications for HRD.
White and O’Mara (1999) emphasise the importance of using a diversity change process
to prepare the work environment for employment equity. This approach has been success-
fully implemented by the Canadian company, Royal Bank, for which they have received
various awards.
Figure 13.2 indicates how employment equity training and diversity training should be
integrated for the benefit of the whole organisation. First of all, management commitment
must be obtained so that the employment equity and diversity strategy contribute to the
overall business strategy of the organisation. The role of HRD would be to inform top
management of the business benefits of employment equity and diversity, such as im-
proving the capacity of the company to target the black and female markets. Very often
the human resource department will be requested to support the policy development pro-
cess. This is an ideal opportunity for the HRD manager to indicate the role HRD can play
in facilitating the employment equity process.
Secondly, an employment equity committee is established to initiate and oversee the im-
plementation of employment equity. The HR or HRD manager is usually a key staff mem-
ber of this committee and by providing specific inputs in terms of the services HRD can
offer this person can have a major influence on the employment equity process.
HRD will also play a significant role in terms of employment equity training. Managers
will have to be trained to understand the implementation of employment equity. Some
companies use external consultants to conduct this training. This training should not only
focus on the requirements of the Act, but should also clearly indicate what the manager
must do to implement employment equity on a daily basis. Important aspects are how to
conduct the employment equity analysis and how to compile employment equity plans.
If you preach employment equity, however, you must also implement it. HRD should
therefore ensure that the training companies provide reflects the principles of employment
equity, diversity and inclusiveness. For example, employing HRD practitioners from desig-
nated groups will definitely contribute to a more legitimate HRD function. Furthermore, by
developing strategies to address inequalities in education, HRD can play an important role
in implementing the NQF, QCTO and SAQA requirements. All these components are part
of the process of HRD alignment with employment equity.
Continuous evaluation and monitoring of employment equity training programmes is
also needed to ensure that such programmes contribute to the organisation’s employment
equity plan. Section 13.5 discusses specific employment equity training interventions,
while section 13.6 addresses the phases of a diversity training strategy. It is essential to
realise that diversity training is needed to sensitise people to the differences between
people in order to prepare them for working in an employment equity environment. An
integrated approach is therefore proposed as there is an overlap between and integration
of the two processes of employment equity and diversity training.
13.5 Employment equity training

Education, training and development are essential components of successful employment
equity plans. In fact, without the appropriate training interventions, any employment
equity strategy will fail. First, existing managers need knowledge and skills to implement
employment equity. Second, all current and new employees need skills to function effect-
ively in an employment equity environment.
Figure 13.2 Integrating employment equity and diversity training
Thomas and Robertshaw (1999:93–94) identify three key areas where training is neces-
sary to start correcting competency imbalances among employees:
• Literacy training for illiterate and semi-literate employees
• Skills training to allow semi-skilled and skilled employees to qualify in a specific field
of expertise
• Management training for employees with managerial potential.
Other training interventions to support employment equity are as follows:

• Designing a skills profile of all employees to determine the skills levels and training
needs
• Supervisory and managerial training for talented employees to develop their skills
• Accelerated development opportunities and career planning for designated employees
• Providing career guidance to all employees
• Diversity management training for all employees and managers to create an environ-
ment conducive to employment equity
• Mentorship programmes in which mentors are assigned to mentor and coach employees
from designated groups to develop to their full potential
• Developing recognition of prior learning (RPL) systems to ensure that more people
from designated groups can qualify for more skilled positions
• Training of all managers and supervisors so that they can acquire the knowledge and
skills needed to implement the Employment Equity Act and the employment equity
plans
• Bursaries and financial assistance to designated employees to improve their qualifica-
tions
• Fair competence assessment systems.
These HRD interventions will contribute to the implementation of effective employment
equity plans. When developing an employment equity training plan, it is imperative to
formulate a new training policy based on the principles and requirements of the Employ-
ment Equity Act. A comprehensive employment equity training plan should specify the
objectives of each intervention, activities to be performed as well as the responsibilities of
various staff members.
The training plan should clearly indicate how the training function can contribute to
achieving the company’s employment equity targets.
13.6 Diversity training

While employment equity training focuses primarily on the legal and HR processes in-
volved in employment equity implementation, diversity training addresses the day-to-day
functioning of all employees in a diverse environment. Many managers do not have the
skills to deal with employees, customers and suppliers who are different from themselves.
These managers and employees need training to acquire diversity skills and competence.
“Diversity training” can be defined as training with the goal of raising a personal aware-
ness about individual and group differences and similarities in the workplace. It can help
develop skills to identify, value and utilise these differences and similarities in order to
improve the way people work together and work with customers and suppliers. The ultim-
ate goal is to improve organisational effectiveness.
13.6.1 Pitfalls of diversity training

As a result of South Africa’s history of racial segregation and the institutionalisation of
other forms of discrimination, workplace diversity training is often the first exposure of
many individuals to the reality of diversity issues in a formal way. However, the approach
to diversity training can make or break a diversity management initiative. Therefore, the
process and contents of diversity training can be critical in establishing whether a diver-
sity training programme will be effective in helping an organisation achieve its diversity
management and employment equity goals.
Despite the positive intentions of diversity training, however, certain aspects which
could have a negative impact on training effectiveness and on the overall diversity man-
agement strategy should be taken into account in the implementation of a diversity train-
ing initiative. In essence, given the sensitive nature of diversity training and the historical
divide between different groups, it is essential to mitigate any risks. These aspects are
dealt with in turn.
13.6.1.1 Lack of management commitment

Although management provides the financial resources for diversity training, they do not
always participate in the training sessions themselves. Employees and supervisors will
question their commitment and regard their intentions as “lip service”, if real participation
and action are not visible. The result is the perpetuation of the status quo, in other words,
diversity training does not have the effect of changing the organisational culture.
13.6.1.2 Improper needs identification

A manager or consultant often makes unilateral decisions about the contents of a diversity
training programme. These programmes are very general in approach and are not tailor-
made for the particular company, industry or region. For example, a diversity training
programme presented in the Northern Cape may require a different approach in terms of
content and approach than a programme for Kwazulu-Natal because of language, racial,
cultural and religious differences. If employee needs are not identified through culture
audits or focus groups prior to the training sessions, training effectiveness can be affected
negatively.
13.6.1.3 Political orientation

Diversity training fails when presented from a political point of view. In any given train-
ing group there will be people from different political persuasions and if a certain political
philosophy is portrayed as the “right way”, members who differ from this view will be
negatively inclined to this type of diversity training, which in turn defeats the object. The
training will therefore fall short of success if “political correctness” is the prevailing
atmosphere or if the facilitators have political agendas and support a particular political
interest group, either directly or indirectly, while conducting the training.
One of the easiest traps to fall into in diversity training is preaching. Most trainers who
decide to conduct diversity training have strong feelings about equality, fairness, employ-
ment equity, affirmative action and human rights. By stepping up on to the proverbial
soapbox and “telling it like it ought to be” the trainer no longer facilitates, but becomes
directive and prescriptive in his or her approach. This approach lacks the understanding
and realisation that unlearning decades of inappropriate racial and sexist conditioning and
learning does not happen overnight.
13.6.1.4 Reactive approach

Diversity training lacks legitimacy when it is introduced as a reaction by management to
racial incidents, labour unrest or industrial action in the company. In reality it creates the
impression to the employees of the organisation that diversity training is presented as a
remedy to problems. The staff will feel that they are regarded as incompetent when
handling diversity. Employees will see diversity as a problem and not as a strength. The
level of resistance will therefore be greater.
13.6.1.5 Unbalanced content
Another problem is that the training can be either too superficial or too comprehensive. In
the former instance, diversity is presented from a very simplistic perspective, for example,
an oversimplification of various worldviews of different cultures. This approach tends to
negate other important diversity variables, such as sub-cultures, sexual orientation, dis-
ability, age, religion and individual differences.
Conversely, diversity training is too comprehensive when cultural and other differences
are presented in so much detail that it contributes to further stereotyping and generalisa-
tions based on differences. Whilst cultural differences are a reality, each individual is dif-
ferent irrespective of culture – he or she is a unique product of many possible variables
and influences.
13.6.1.6 Facilitators’ profile
Diversity training is less effective when the diversity profile of the facilitators does not
mirror the principle of representativity. The legacy of racial segregation and the perpetu-
ation of informal separation in the workplace, coupled with the sensitive nature of diver-
sity training, would put an all-black facilitation team or all-white facilitation team in the
awkward position of not being able to relate and provide support to group members who
are different from them. This principle also applies to gender.
13.6.1.7 Participant profile
A diversity training initiative will lack legitimacy if the vast majority of the learners are
from one particular racial group. If the majority of participants are white, they are likely
to feel that they are seen as the problem and their level of resistance will probably be
greater. Black employees will also question the legitimacy of such training. Conversely, if
the majority of the participants are black, the participants will, in all likelihood, see diver-
sity as a “black issue” which can also result in resistance to diversity training. In addition,
if the group consists of employees from different departments, these group members are
isolated on their return to the workplace and find it difficult to gain support for skills
transfer and implementation.
13.6.1.8 Project approach
Some companies run diversity workshops which are not integrated into the strategic plan
of the organisation. There is no clear indication of how diversity training relates to strategic
objectives, such as increasing market share or globalisation. This creates the impression
that diversity training is a “soft” programme which does not contribute to the bottom-line
of the business. Furthermore, the inter-relationship between affirmative action, employ-
ment equity and diversity is not clear, which creates further confusion and an unnecessary
duplication of programmes and activities. As a result, the diversity training intervention is
seen as a short-term project. The ongoing implementation of a comprehensive and holistic
diversity management strategy is therefore not apparent.
13.6.1.9 Inadequate transfer of learning

If well-developed action plans and follow-up activities do not complement the training,
skills transfer will not become a reality. The impact of the training will therefore be very
limited. A lack of support systems, such as counselling and additional learning opportun-
ities, exacerbates the problem.
13.6.1.10 Superficial evaluation
Most diversity training programmes end with a reaction evaluation by the participants of
their perceptions of the programme. This form of evaluation merely focuses on learner
perceptions and does not indicate whether learning and behaviour changes have occurred
as a result of the intervention. Moreover, the most important form of evaluation, namely
the impact of the training on the business in terms of return on investment, is neglected.
13.6.1.11 Lack of change management
In many organisations a lack of change management regarding employment equity and
diversity is evident and manifests itself at two levels. First, at the facilitator-learner level,
the facilitator does not have the necessary knowledge and skills to deal with resistance to
change. By actively trying to avoid, discount or break resistance down, more harm than
good is achieved. In some cases, by using threats and attempts to induce guilt, they may
even evoke more and deeper resistance. Secondly, at the organisational level, diversity
training is introduced as a “quick-fix” approach without considering the importance of
supporting and managing change from an organisation development perspective. Subse-
quently, diversity does not become part of the organisational culture.
13.6.1.12 Consultant liabilities
Some diversity consultants lack the professionalism and thoroughness that a particular situ-
ation requires. Their understanding of business in general or a company in particular may
be deficient in some respects. Consequently, they have difficulty in adapting and inte-
grating their views and perspectives with the business needs of the client organisation. In
addition, they may lack objectivity, flexibility and balance when they want to introduce
and impose a diversity “recipe” in an organisation.
13.6.2 Guidelines for effective diversity training

Although the approach to diversity training may vary from region to region or even from
one company to another, some key elements have emerged that should be integrated into
any diversity training initiative. These guidelines offer potential solutions to the above-
mentioned problems.
13.6.2.1 Obtain visible management support
Managers must be trained first in order to show all members of the organisation that they
are committed to the process of creating an environment conducive to diversity. In add-
ition, managers should champion the diversity initiative by showing their visible support
in the form of resource allocation, employment equity plans and participation in follow-up
programmes and activities.
13.6.2.2 Diversity-needs identification
The particular needs of the organisation, groups and individuals must be identified in order
to tailor diversity training to specific needs and expectations and to the interests of the
whole organisation. Scientific needs analysis instruments, such as diversity audits or focus
groups facilitated by qualified facilitators, should be used for this purpose. Broad consult-
ation is needed to ensure a proper needs analysis. Special interest groups, such as unions,
women’s forums, disability groups, the Black Management Forum, and other groups can
be a valuable source in terms of diversity-needs identification.
13.6.2.3 Integrate into business strategy
Diversity management must be implemented as a positive and proactive business strategy
to enhance organisational performance and productivity. Particular emphasis should be
placed on the diverse profile of the company’s customers. The benefits of diversity man-
agement should be communicated clearly to all employees and managers. Furthermore,
diversity training should form part of a company’s employment equity plan in order to
create an environment conducive to diversity and employment equity implementation.
13.6.2.4 Balanced and objective approach
All aspects of diversity should be emphasised, that is race, gender, disability, culture, sub-
cultures, sexual orientation, religion, age and individual differences. However, this approach
should be used in an objective and balanced manner to prevent the reinforcement of biases
and stereotyping. The programme should be presented in such a manner that it does not
create resentment and cause a backlash.
13.6.2.5 Diverse facilitators
It is suggested that two or more facilitators are used, provided that they are representative
in terms of race and gender. A representative facilitation team is in a better position to
model the contents of a diversity programme and to make all groups feel at ease during
the training sessions. Guest speakers representing minority groups, such as people with
disabilities and homosexuals, could also enrich the diverse nature and perspectives of a
diversity programme.
13.6.2.6 Diverse participants
It is strongly recommended that natural work groups are used where possible, that is,
members of the same work group, so that they have mutual rapport and support when im-
plementing diversity action plans in the workplace. However, participants should, where
possible, be representative in terms of gender, race, disability, age and organisational level
in order to enhance the diversity learning value.
13.6.2.7 Change management
In addition to diversity training, a comprehensive diversity change management strategy
must be developed in collaboration with an HRD or organisation development practitioner.
The change strategy needs to be well-integrated, ensuring that changes occur at personal,
interpersonal and organisational levels. This strategy should be inclusive, which requires
that all stakeholders be consulted and that the necessary support and information systems
be implemented. As far as the facilitator-team interface is concerned, diversity facilitators
must be equipped with the necessary knowledge, skills and values to identify, acknowledge
and constructively deal with all forms of resistance in a positive and sensitive manner.
13.6.2.8 Consultant co-ordination
More time and effort should be put into screening and selecting potential consultants.
Recruit and interview a wide selection of candidates. It is also essential to check ref-
erences of past work, approach, methodology, successes, problems and integrity. Once the
consultant is selected, a productive working relationship needs to be established. The
specific responsibilities of both the consultant and the organisation should be clarified.
Measures for evaluating success must be outlined. Periodic review meetings should be
scheduled to monitor progress, problems and performance.
13.6.2.9 Compile action plans

At the diversity session, participants should be encouraged to develop action plans in order
to ensure the transfer of learning to the workplace. These action plans should be very
specific in terms of planned activities and how the plans can be maintained, reinforced,
monitored and evaluated.
13.6.2.10 Provide support structures

The formation of support structures, such as diversity committees, employee assistance
programmes, regular follow-up, networking and activities should be instituted to ensure
that diversity filters through the organisation. In addition, if diversity management is in-
corporated into the performance management system, ongoing support, reinforcement and
accountability will ensure that employment equity and diversity management is entrenched
in the organisational culture and overall business strategy of the company.
13.6.2.11 Monitoring and evaluation

The diversity training strategy should be monitored on a continuous basis in order to iden-
tify successes, shortcomings and areas for improvement and modification. Any changes to
the training should be the result of consultation with all stakeholders and should be com-
municated to all employees. The most important form of evaluation is the quantifiable
impact the diversity strategy has on the company in terms of business performance and
results.
13.6.3 Diversity training process

Diversity training forms part of the process of HRD. However, diversity training in itself
must be well-managed to ensure that the objectives of diversity training are achieved. As
is the case with other organisation development interventions, a process approach is essen-
tial to ensure effective management and co-ordination. Figure 13.3 indicates the process
approach to diversity training.
Figure 13.3 Process approach to diversity training
Diversity Support and Program-

Diversity Diversity
needs reinforce- me
training facilitation
assessment ment evaluation
design
13.6.3.1 Diversity-needs assessment

A company cannot embark on a diversity training initiative if the particular needs of the
employees and the organisation at large have not been determined. It is therefore essential
to assess the organisation’s diversity climate right from the start. Different types of needs
assessment techniques can be used to ascertain the extent and scope of the required diver-
sity intervention. The most common diversity training needs assessment techniques are as
follows.
Focus groups
Focus groups are small groups of employees, representative of the organisation’s total
population. If homogeneous groups are used, people will tend to be more open and honest
about their true feelings and perceptions. For example, focus groups can be conducted for
the following groups: white male managers, white female managers, black men, black
women, white males, white females, and so on. The focus groups should be facilitated by
someone with sound facilitation skills who is perceived as neutral by all members of the
particular focus groups. In order to ensure an open discussion on sensitive diversity issues,
it is recommended that the facilitators of a particular focus group be representative of that
group, for example, a black man facilitating a focus group consisting of black men, and a
white female facilitating a focus group of white females. This will put the focus group
members at ease when discussing sensitive diversity issues.
Personal interviews
Interviews can also be conducted to determine the perceptions of individuals in the organ-
isation. However, it is essential to ensure that the principle of representativity is adhered
to, in other words, individuals of all diversity groups should be interviewed. Once again,
to prevent social desirability and political correctness in responses, it is suggested that a
person from a particular diversity group interview members of the same group.
Survey questionnaires
Diversity audits in the form of questionnaires can also be used. These questionnaires must
be very well planned and structured. Particular emphasis should be placed on the design
of the questionnaire to prevent social desirability in responses.
Human resource practices data
A well-developed system of human resource practices information may indicate the need
for diversity training, for instance, grievances related to diversity, incidents of racial ten-
sion, gender discrimination or other forms of diversity problems. In addition, a high labour
turnover in certain segments of the workforce, amongst, for example, women, black people
or white people, may indicate a need for diversity training.
Market information
Changing population demographics in the marketplace, for example, an increasing num-
ber of Africans, Coloureds or females in the company’s market may necessitate diversity
training to prepare staff to focus on particular market segments. In addition, companies
are also challenged on how to deal with business partners effectively across multi-national
boundaries, whether they live in the USA, UK, Zambia, Germany, Japan or Botswana. It
is therefore essential that managers should first obtain as much information as is neces-
sary on the cultural preferences of international business partners. Failure to do so could
result in the loss of millions of rands if sound relationships cannot be established and
maintained across cultures.
Special interest groups
Special interest groups, such as unions, disability groups, the Black Management Forum
and other groups, can be a valuable resource in terms of diversity-needs identification.
Often such groups have been in place for some time and know the particular diversity
issues which they have been confronted with. Another important role-player is the com-
pany’s employment equity committee, which could provide useful information on diver-
sity issues from an employment equity viewpoint.
13.6.3.2 Diversity training design

The design and development of a diversity training programme will depend on the size and
nature of the organisation, as well as the needs identified during the process of diversity-
needs analysis. Whilst all these factors are important, the most crucial aspect to the suc-
cess of a diversity training intervention is to establish a direct link between the needs
analysis and training design. Moreover, a broad level of consultation and involvement is
imperative. Line managers, employees, unions, the human resource department and the
external consultant should decide collectively on the appropriate design of the diversity
training intervention. The following steps should be followed when designing diversity
training interventions:
Identify goals and objectives

The goals and techniques of diversity training should be directly linked to the reasons
why organisations conduct diversity training, in other words, what the company wants to
achieve by conducting diversity training. For instance, the overall goal of diversity train-
ing at a particular company may be to equip staff with the necessary knowledge and skills
to serve its diverse customers in order to improve productivity and business competitive-
ness.
The objectives of diversity training are more specific and focus on the short and medium
term. Examples of these objectives are:
• to make staff aware of stereotypes and biases
• to sensitise staff to cultural and other differences
• to equip managers with skills to manage diversity
• to develop behavioural action plans to appreciate and enhance diversity in the work-
place and marketplace.
Select diverse facilitators

A very important decision to make is whether a company should use internal facilitators
or external consultants to conduct the diversity training. The advantage of using internal
facilitators is that they know the culture of the organisation, the people, the history and the
company regulations better than an external consultant. They are also on-site to follow-up
and provide additional support, information, coaching and follow-up if needed. The advan-
tage of using an external facilitator is that such a person has the expert knowledge and
experience gained at other organisations. This person is also likely to have a broader and
more objective viewpoint. Consultants can challenge the organisation culture and rules
with less risk than an internal staff member. Another alternative is to initially use an
external consultant to pilot a diversity programme and then contract with the consultant to
train internal facilitators to continue with the process.
Develop learning material

The next step is to develop the learning material to achieve the diversity training object-
ives. A research project by the Conference Board (1994) indicates that diversity training
interventions can be categorised into the following three types of training:
• Awareness training: This training focuses on creating an understanding of the need for
diversity management in the workplace. The aim is to make participants aware of
diversity issues such as prejudice, stereotyping and inter-cultural communication.
• Skills training: This training focuses on skills to handle diversity in the workplace. Its
aim is to train participants on cultural and other differences so that they know how to
respond to differences in the workplace and the external market. Language courses,
especially African languages and English as a second-language or a foreign language in
the case of a global requirement, can also be conducted as part of skills training inter-
ventions.
• Integrated training: This type of training occurs when diversity concepts are incorpor-
ated into existing learning programmes such as employee orientation or management
development programmes.
The content of a diversity training programme depends on the objectives of the diversity
management initiative. It is, however, important to develop a balanced diversity content
which addresses a wide variety of diversity issues. This means that diversity training
should not only focus on racism and sexism, but should also include aspects such as age,
religion, culture, sexual orientation and language. Most of these issues have never been
formally verbalised in South African organisations before.
The content of a typical diversity training programme will be based on the knowledge,
skills and values related to diversity that an individual needs in order to function effect-
ively in an organisation. These competencies are depicted in Table 13.1. This diversity
competency profile forms a basis for skills development as far as employment equity and
diversity training are concerned.
Table 13.1 Diversity competencies
Knowledge Skills Values

(Understanding of) (Ability to) (Behaviour guided by)
• Constitution of SA • Analyse situations related to • Fairness
• Employment Equity Act and diversity • Openness
Broad-based Black Economic • Communicate with diverse • Inclusiveness
Empowerment Act groups and individuals
• Representativeness
• Employment equity strategies, • Recognise and appreciate
policies and procedures differences • Objectivity
• Sensitivity
• Different cultures • Identify prejudice and stereo-
typing • Respect
• Types of discrimination
• Adapt to change • Empathy
• Individual and group
behaviour and impact • Resolve conflict • Multi-culturalism
• Impact of diversity on busi- • Objectively handle sensitive • Anti-discrimination
ness diversity situations • Continuous learning
• Demographics in company, • Work in diverse teams • Self-awareness
market, region and country • Actively listen to others • Awareness of
• Globalisation and xenophobia • Compile diversity action plans others
• Stereotypes, biases and • Contribute to employment • Equality
prejudice equity plans • Co-operation
• Sexual harassment policy
• Critical thinking
• Honesty and
integrity
• Flexibility
Select training techniques

Once the goals and objectives have been identified, decisions must be made regarding the
most appropriate training techniques. A variety of techniques are used by companies in
educating and training employees about diversity. Most of these techniques are standard
training tools which are adapted to suit the objectives and approaches of diversity training.
These techniques are as follows:
• Lectures: A lecture is a training technique used to present and explain facts, concepts,
principles and other forms of information in a formal way. A lecture can be a useful
diversity training technique when it is used to provide information and facts on issues,
such as changing demographics and client profiles, the benefits of diversity training
and the requirements of the Employment Equity Act. Owing to the sensitive nature of
diversity training, lectures should be used sparingly: participant involvement and open
discussions are key components of successful diversity training interventions.
• Conferences, seminars and workshops: These techniques are very useful diversity train-
ing tools because individuals get the opportunity to learn from experts in the field of
diversity management. Not only is existing knowledge pooled, but individuals can learn
from the experiences of colleagues in other departments and organisations.
• Discussions: Research conducted by the Conference Board (1994:23) in the USA indi-
cated that 87% of diversity training participants rated participative discussions as an
effective diversity training technique. This technique received the highest effectiveness
rating of all the diversity training techniques. By participating in discussions and sharing
experiences and feelings, participants learn from each other in an open and very direct
way.
• DVDs: One of the most frequently used tools in diversity training is DVDs. It has the
potential of reaching a large number of people as it can be used in many training ses-
sions. DVDs should, however, be used in conjunction with some of the other tech-
niques. In addition, an over-reliance on American DVDs of which the content is not
necessarily related to the South African situation, may lead to resistance on the part of
the learners.
• Role-plays: A role-play is a popular diversity training technique where participants get
the opportunity to interact with a person of another diverse group as part of an exercise.
The learning value is usually very high. However, some people are not comfortable with
role-plays.
• Case studies: According to Van Dyk et al (1997:323), a case study is an in-depth group
study of a simulated real life or fictitious situation. This can be very useful in diversity
training when learners are given problem situations which they must resolve, for
example, cases on racial and gender stereotyping and discrimination in the workplace
and marketplace.
• Training games: Research by the Conference Board (1994) indicates that training games
are an effective method of diversity training. This technique is very participative and
participants learn while they are having fun and being entertained. It is especially effect-
ive as an icebreaker after a serious and intense discussion about a sensitive topic, such
as racial discrimination.
• Handouts: Handouts can be given to learners in order to address the problem of limited
training time and to provide them with additional information and learning opportun-
ities. Handouts can be used in three ways:
– Pre-work: Handouts can be given to learners prior to the training session so that
they are better prepared when they come to the training session.
– Coursework: Handouts can be used as part of the learning programme to supple-
ment the session with additional information.
– Post-work: In order to maintain the impact of the training, and the transfer of
knowledge and skills to the workplace, handouts can also be a useful resource for
participants after training.
• Industrial theatre: The use of industrial theatre as a diversity training technique is a new
concept in South Africa, but it does have a lot of potential as an educational method
about diversity. Not only does it lessen the tension in a very entertaining way, it can
also be used as an awareness technique for people at all levels of an organisation. It is
essential, however, that the actors customise its approach towards the particular com-
pany. The plays should be integrated with the organisational culture and the specific
needs of the company.
Compile a training plan

The diversity training plan should specify the objectives of the programme and all the other
logistical aspects pertaining to the programme, for example, the production of learning
guides and handouts, the selection of participants, course administration and the acquisi-
tion of all the necessary resources needed to present the programme.
Apart from a particular diversity training programme, HRD managers should also re-
design other training courses to ensure that the principles of diversity permeate through-
out the training department and the rest of the organisation. Some actions that can be
taken are as follows:
• Check all course materials for language that reflects diversity
• Scrutinise illustrations and graphics of course material to ensure that one particular
group does not dominate the material
• Modify learning support material such as videos and case studies that exclusively reflect
male, white and western scenarios
• Orientate all facilitators so that they correctly pronounce ethnic names
• Provide for religious dietary restrictions when planning course meals and refreshments
• Take religious holidays into account when scheduling training courses.
13.6.3.3 Facilitation
Facilitating a diversity training workshop requires considerable skill and commitment to
diversity management. It is therefore crucial that diversity facilitators exhibit the
knowledge, skills and values highlighted in Table 13.1. These facilitators must be very
open-minded and realise that they need the following characteristics, as suggested by
LaMountainn and Abrahams (1993), when facilitating a diversity session:
• Awareness of their own values, comfort with diversity and feelings
• Acceptance of their own limitations and those of others
• Willingness to learn more about diversity since it is impossible to know everything

about diversity, especially in such a diverse country as South Africa
• Flexibility about dealing with unexpected reactions and resistance by participants
• Willingness to disclose personal information about themselves and their culture.
13.6.3.4 Support and reinforcement

A typical diversity training session can range from half a day to three days. It is very
unlikely that participants will have mastered all the skills needed to handle diversity in the
workplace in such a short period of time. However, for diversity training to be successful,
reinforcement and support for positive changes in behaviour is imperative. Moreover, if
the organisation does not reward those who effectively manage diversity, the training will
have a limited impact. In fact, the commitment of management is crucial in clarifying the
role of diversity training and providing the necessary resources for follow-up and re-
inforcement strategies, such as diversity social functions.
13.6.3.5 Programme evaluation

One of the most important challenges in diversity training is to evaluate the effectiveness
of the intervention. It is not always easy to identify a direct cause-effect relationship
relating to diversity training, primarily because there are so many variables which could
have an impact on diversity training. It is, however, essential to put a lot of emphasis on
evaluation for the following reasons:
• Evaluation can determine whether the goals and objectives of diversity training have
been met
• The evaluation of diversity training is an essential managerial requirement in justifying
the cost incurred by diversity training
• Evaluation can help to determine shortcomings and improvement areas in the process
and content of diversity training.
Kirkpatrick (1998) developed the most widely used framework for the evaluation of a
training programme. His four levels of evaluation can be applied to diversity training as
follows:
Level 1: Reaction evaluation

According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2011) a reaction evaluation indicates how well
the learners liked a particular programme by measuring their feelings. As far as diversity
training is concerned, a number of reaction evaluation techniques can be used, including:
• Focus groups in which the perceptions of participants about the quality of the diversity
training can be ascertained.
• Open discussion about the training at the end of the programme.
• Reaction evaluation questionnaires can be used to measure the perceptions of partici-
pants on the quality of the training, the facilitators and the learning value. Various
dimensions can be analysed by tabulating and quantifying the results.
• Spontaneous evaluation. Diversity training often elicits spontaneous reaction on the part
of the participants, for example, memorandums and electronic mail discussions. These
reactions should be consolidated and used in the evaluation process.
Level 2: Learning evaluation

This form of evaluation seeks to determine whether learning did take place. Two methods
can be used to ascertain the extent of the learning:
• Pre and post-learning exercises. Pre-testing can be used in the form of a checklist at the
beginning of the diversity training programme to test the competency level of partici-
pants at the commencement of the training session. Post-testing can be used at the end
in order to determine whether participants learnt and improved their knowledge of
diversity.
• Projects and case studies can be used during the diversity training session so that the
facilitator can determine whether participants can apply diversity principles in given
situations.
Level 3: Behaviour evaluation

Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2011) refer to behaviour evaluation as assessing a change in
behaviour in the work situation. This implies that reaction evaluation and learning evalu-
ation do not necessarily indicate that the participants will apply their knowledge, skills
and values related to diversity when they return to the workplace. They may be unable or
unwilling to apply diversity, or the work environment may not be conducive to the im-
plementation of diversity. For example, if the participants’ supervisors do not support em-
ployment equity and diversity management, the chances are not good that participants will
apply their knowledge in the job situation.
The following behaviour evaluation techniques can be used:
• Analysis comparing the performance of participants before and after the training
• A control group with which to compare the results and achievements
• Diversity performance assessment by supervisors, subordinates, colleagues and clients
• Self-assessment by the participants.
Level 4: Results evaluation

Here the results achieved in terms of organisational effectiveness are determined. Measures
must be quantifiable, for example, reduced labour turnover, reduced costs, improved prod-
uctivity, reduced grievances related to diversity or an increase in market share related to
diverse customer profiles.
13.7 Company example

South African Breweries: Beer Division has achieved a level of success in the area of employment
equity and diversity management unsurpassed by the majority of companies in South Africa. Human,
Bluen and Davies (1999:135–138) summarise the two main development phases of SAB’s equity
plan:
1 The development of high potential black and female talent is based on the competency acquisi-
tion process (CAP) as part of the career development process:
• High potential candidates are identified for each region by the general manager, assisted by
the human resource consultant.
• Proactive career counselling is provided for employees who are nearing their upper career
limits.
continued
• Workplace assessments are used to assess the current competencies of high potential candi-
dates against the competency standards for targeted jobs.
• Individual development plans are drawn up to bridge competency gaps.
• Learning solutions are introduced to fill the competency gaps.
• Line managers are assessed in respect of their contribution to this process.
2 The second important development area is shop floor upliftment and development which includes
the following programmes:
• Dignity, diversity and equity workshops to address underlying discriminatory attitudes.
• Developing human resources to meet world-class manufacturing standards.
• Supporting the SAQA Act and the Skills Development Act.
• Developing competency standards and workplace assessment documents for all key shop
floor jobs.
• Designing curricula and learning solutions in line with the NQF.
• Training in multi-skilling for shop floor operators.
• Adult basic education and training (ABET) programmes.
SAB’s approach to employment equity clearly shows that HRD plays a significant role at all levels.
Employment equity and diversity training is integrated and forms part of the overall process of HRD.
13.8 Conclusion
In this chapter the requirements of the B-BBEE Act and Employment Equity Act have
been outlined and the role of the HRD function indicated. It is evident that HRD has a
crucial role to play in ensuring that all employees and managers acquire the necessary
knowledge, skills and values to make employment equity work. Employment equity and
diversity training that is not well-planned and professionally developed, presented and
integrated in organisational systems and culture has many pitfalls that can detrimentally
affect employee morale and ultimately organisational performance. However, employment
equity and diversity training that is carefully planned, conducted and transferred to the
workplace will help to create an environment where all employees contribute to an opti-
mum level of performance. Furthermore, employment equity can contribute to the object-
ives of the NQF especially with regard to skills development and the redress of inequality
in the workplace.
The proposed guidelines and integrated process approach to employment equity and
diversity training can help to minimise problems and maximise the success of employment
equity and B-BBEE strategies. The end-result of an effective employment equity training
strategy is not only a more representative and effective workforce, but a more productive
working environment in which business performance can be improved.
13.9 Case study

CFG Motors is a large retailer of motor vehicles in Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and Free
State. The company has decided to launch a diversity management programme to support the im-
plementation of their employment equity plan.
continued
Before embarking on the employment equity plan, the human resource manager, Pragasen Naidoo,
in consultation with the sales director, developed the following table indicating the customer and
employee profile of the company:
African White Indian Coloured

Customer profile 55% 31% 13% 1%
Staff compliment 20% 64% 7% 9%
Managerial profile 5% 82% 7% 6%
The company’s two training officers, Sandra Botha and Joseph Zikalala, were tasked with conducting
diversity training sessions. These sessions consisted of an equal number of black and white employ-
ees. During one training session a number of problems emerged. Two of the participants dominated
the discussion while most of them were very quiet and did not contribute at all. It became clear that
the participants were reluctant to discuss racial and sexist issues in an open forum. It also appeared
as though there was racial tension between the members of different races.
It became evident to Joseph and Sandra that several participants were quite frightened by the level
of emotion being exhibited during the diversity session. Both training officers realised that it was
not going to be easy to conduct diversity training sessions and implement the Employment Equity
Act at CFG Motors.
Questions
1 What is the purpose of a diversity management training session?
2 Indicate the topics that should be addressed during a diversity management training session.
3 How would you handle resistance to the company’s employment equity plan?
4 If you were either Joseph or Sandra, how would you deal with the high level of emotions and
anger exhibited by some of the participants?
5 What role can adult basic education and training (ABET) play in supporting the company’s em-
ployment equity plan?
6 Develop a comprehensive employment equity training programme for the company.

1 Distinguish between the concepts “equal opportunity”, “diversity management”,
“affirmative action” and “employment equity”. Use a diagram to support your answer.
2 Write a memorandum to the managing director of your organisation to explain to the
management team what the implications of the Employment Equity Act are for the
HRD function.
3 Develop an employment equity training plan for your company to ensure that employ-
ment equity is effectively implemented.
4 Suppose you are appointed as an organisation development manager at a large petro-
leum company. You are required to develop a comprehensive diversity training strat-
egy. Develop this strategy and indicate how you are going to ensure that the diversity
training adds value to the company.
5 What advice would you give to a new diversity facilitator in terms of guidelines to fol-
low and pitfalls to avoid?
6 Critically evaluate the following statement: “It is difficult to implement the Employ-
ment Equity Act without the Skills Development Act.”
7 Motivate the role of HRD to support B-BBEE.
13.11 References
Business Report, 7 April 2004.
Carr-Ruffino N, 1996, Managing Diversity: People Skills for a Multicultural Workplace,
Thomson Executive Press.
Conference Board, 1994, Diversity Training: A Research Report, New York: The Con-
ference Board.
Department of Labour, 1998, Employment Equity Act No 55 of 1998, Pretoria: Govern-
ment Printer.
Human L, Bluen S and Davies R, 1999, Baking a New Cake: How to Succeed at Employ-
ment Equity, Randburg: Knowledge Resources.
Kirkpatrick DL and Kirkpatrick J, 2011, Implementing the Four Levels: A Practical
Guide for Effective Evaluation of Training Programmes, New York: Amacom.
LaMountainn D and Abrahams B, 1993, Cultural Diversity: A Workshop for Trainers,
Amherst: HRD Press.
SAQA, 2005, SAQA Update 1(1).
South Africa, 2004, Broad-based Black Economic Empowerment Act 53 of 2003, Pretoria:
Government Gazette No. 25899.
Thomas A and Robertshaw D, 1999, Achieving Employment Equity: An Implementation
Guide, Randburg: Knowledge Resources.
A Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Resource Development in Southern Africa, 2nd
edn, Halfway House: International Thomson.
White L and O’Mara J, 1999, “Building and leveraging a diversity change process”,
ASTD International Conference: Atlanta.
Winterle MJ, 1992, Workforce Diversity: Corporate Challenges, Corporate Responses,
New York: The Conference Board.

Balshaw T and Goldberg J, 2005, Cracking Broad-based Black Economic Empowerment:
Codes and Scorecard Unpacked, Cape Town: Human & Rousseau.
Beamer L and Varner I, 2001, Intercultural Communication in the Global Workplace, 2nd
edn, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Charlton G and Van Niekerk N, 1994, Affirming Action – Beyond 1994, Kenwyn: Juta.
De Beer H, 1999, Development Paradigms: From Paternalism to Managing Diversity,
Commission for Employment Equity, 2016, Annual Report 2015/16, Pretoria: Department
of Labour.
Herbert T, 1994, Affirmative Action in the South African Workplace: Allowing Black
Eagles to Soar, Kuilsriver: Trevor Herbert.
Herholdt R and Marx M, 1999, Employment Equity in South Africa: A Guide to Affirma-
tive Action Success, Johannesburg: Prentice Hall South Africa.
Hinrichs K and Pennington S, 1998, Beyond Legislative Compliance: Implementing Em-
ployment Equity Successfully, Rivonia: SPA.
Human L, 2005, Diversity Management for business success, Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Jack V and Harris K, 2007, Broad-Based BEE: The Complete Guide, Northcliffe: Front-
runner.
Jeffery A, 2014, BEE: Helping or Hurting? Cape Town: Tafelberg.
La Grange J, 1999, “Employment equity plan: A vital business document”, Management
Today Yearbook, 42–43.
Lategan B, 1999, “Diversity: Threat or asset?”, Management Today 15(6).
Levy A, 1999, Implementing Employment Equity: A Practical Guide, Durban: Butter-
worths.
Madi P, 2016, Black Economic Empowerment, Randburg: KR.
Mbigi L and Maree J, 1995, Ubuntu: The Spirit of African Transformation Management,
SABPP, 2014, SABPP 2014 Women’s Report, Johannesburg: SABPP/University of Johan-
nesburg.
nesburg.
nesburg.
Thomas RR, 1991, Beyond Race and Gender: Unleashing the Power of Your Total Work
Force by Managing Diversity, New York: Amacom.
Thomas RR, 1996, Redefining Diversity, New York: Amacom.
Williams JP and Capole DA (eds), 1999, Unfinished Business: The Diversity Promise –
Perspectives on Moving Beyond Diversity Awareness Training, Rockville: BNAC.
Woolley R, 2005, Everyone’s Guide to Black Economic Empowerment, Cape Town: Zebra
Press.

American Institute for Managing Diversity: http://www.aimd.org
Ancor Employment Equity Act Package: http:/www.equityact.co.za
Association for International Practical Training: http://www.aipt.org
Department of Labour: http://www.labour.gov.za
Department of Trade and Industry: http://www.dti.gov.za
Diversity Forum: http://www.diversityforum.com
Journal of Diversity Management: http://www.CluteInstitute.com
Labournet: http://www.labournet.co.za
Statistics South Africa: http://www.statssa.gov.za
Technology Internet help for disabled people: http://www.blindprogramming.com
University of Maryland Diversity Database: http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Topic/
Diversity
USA Equal Employment Opportunity Commission: http://www.eeoc.gov
CHAPTER
14
LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT
STANDARDS
Marius Meyer
The South African National HR Standards and the related HR Auditing program are an
inspiring example of innovation in human resource management.
(Neil McCormick & Chris Andrews, Bond University, Australia)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Define L&D as described in the National HR Standards
• Describe the benefits of HR standards
• Position L&D standards within the overall HR Management System standard
• Explain the hierarchy of L&D standards
• Identify the four L&D HR Professional Practice Standards
• Identify the eight HRD HR Professional Practice Standards
• Develop an implementation strategy for meeting the National HR and L&D standards
• Apply the L&D standards in a case study setting or an organisation
14.1 Introduction
This chapter summarises a historic journey in the development of HR Management, not
only in South Africa, but also world-wide. In 2013, a group of 468 HR managers from all
nine provinces and four other countries (Swaziland, Lesotho, Botswana and Zimbabwe)
participated in a collaborative effort to develop the world’s first set of National HR
Standards for South Africa. The National HR Standards Initiative is managed and owned
375
by the SA Board for People Practices (SABPP), the HR professional and quality assur-
ance body of South Africa (Garrun, 2014).
At a global level, the International Standards Organisation (ISO) have started to devel-
op international standards in HR Management. Some of the first standards developed by
ISO were in the areas of workforce planning, recruitment, HR governance, HR metrics
and human capital reporting. The South African HR standards are ahead of that process,
but continuous alignment and integration will be key to ensure that the local standards are
also globally relevant. In Australia, some good work has been done to start generating
awareness about the need for HR standards. This process is led by McCormick and An-
drews (2016) when they challenge HR professionals to adopt HR standards, HR audits
and big data as key strategic imperatives for advancing the HR profession.
The South African HR standards development project recognised the fact that Learning
and Development (L&D) cannot function in isolation, and it was therefore positioned as
part of a larger more all-encompassing HR system. The overall focus is therefore on
making the overall system (i.e. HR) work together with all the sub-systems (e.g. talent
management, workforce planning and L&D).
14.2 Benefits of HR Standards

The 13 HR Standards developed for South Africa has multiple benefits for the HR profes-
sional community, the main benefits being:
• Standards provide clear guidelines for HR practice;
• Standards reduces inconsistency and therefore promotes consistency in practice;
• Standards provide a clear framework of what reasonable expectations line managers
may have from HR professionals;
• Standards raise the status and credibility of the HR and L&D practitioners implement-
ing them;
• Standards guide the professional behaviour and actions of HR professionals;
• Standards form a foundation for judgement;
• Standards ensure that HR practices are aligned to business objectives;
• Standards inform the outcomes, content and assessment criteria for HR curriculum at
universities and other learning providers;
• Standards form a foundation for monitoring and evaluation;
• Standards are used to audit organisations against and therefore provide a framework for
the independent verification of HR quality;
• Standards set the minimum requirements of excellence, and thus become a useful
guideline in driving innovation and best practices;
• Standards open the door for meaningful benchmarking and future research to improve
current practice;
• Standards set the baseline for continuous improvement of practice.
It is clear from the above list, that formal standards in HR management have significant
benefits, not only for HR and HRD professionals, but also for their organisations. It is
also important to realise that standards evolve and improve over time, hence they are
never cast in stone. Typically, standards are implemented over a period of five years
before they are updated for a next cycle of implementation.
Chapter 14: Learning & Development standards 377
14.3 L&D within the National HR Standards Model

The L&D standard is one of the 13 HR Standards developed as part of the National HR
Management system standards (see Figure 14.1). Although aspects of L&D may feature
under the three “business strategy – HR alignment” standards at the top of the standards
model, it is covered fully as the second standard contained in the “HR functional architec-
ture” (see the shaded area).
Figure 14.1 National HR Management System Standards
Plan
L&D
Implement
Review
Improve

It is important to understand the hierarchy of the L&D Standard and its associated Profes-
sional Practice Standards. The hierarchy consists of two main levels, i.e. the L&D within
the overall HR system standard at the top, and then a set of four L&D HR Professional
Practice Standards at the HR professional practices standards level on the left (see Figure
14.2). The L&D professional practice standards deal directly with the four specific L&D
practices (discussed in more detail throughout in other chapters), i.e. learning needs
analysis (chapter 6), learning design (chapter 7), learning evaluation (chapter 18), as well
as workplace learning to support a learning culture (chapter 4).
On the right there are additional HR Professional practice standards that cover the
broader field of HRD, ranging from career management to performance appraisals. These
HRD practices form part of the HR Professional Practice standards and most of them are
covered in different chapters of this book, e.g. leadership development (chapter 9), on-
boarding (chapter 12), employment equity and diversity (chapter 13) and career manage-
ment (chapter 16).
Figure 14.2 Hierarchy of L&D Standards
LEARNING AND
DEVELOPMENT
STANDARD
L&D PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE HRD PROFESSIONAL PRACTRICE

STANDARDS STANDARDS
(Part of L&D suite of (Set of HRD standards part of
HR Professional Practice Standards) HR Professional Practice Standards)
• Learning needs analysis • Career management
• Learning design • Change management
• Learning evaluation • Leadership development
• Workplace learning to support a • Succession planning
learning culture • On-boarding
• Coaching & mentoring
• Employment equity & diversity
• Performance appraisals
L&D has been defined as follows in the National HR Standards:
Learning and development is the practice of providing occupationally directed and other learning
activities that enable and enhance the knowledge, practical skills and work place experience and
behaviour of individuals and teams based on current and future occupational requirements for
optimal organisational performance and sustainability.

This definition has been useful in making it clear to HR Managers, other HR profession-
als and L&D professionals what the L&D scope and standard of practice is all about. The
reference to occupationally directed activities means that learning should be directed to
helping an employee in doing a better job or growing in the specific occupation as far as
job and career competence is concerned. However, the L&D standard definition goes
further in adding “other learning activities” to provide some flexibility to L&D practition-
ers so as not to limited their focus to occupational learning only. For instance, if learners
can be exposed to new broader business, social, sector or other trends not necessarily
directly linked to their occupations, it could still be relevant to their development. Ulti-
mately, the L&D definition highlights the importance of knowledge acquisition, practical
skills development, as well as workplace experience.
This definition of L&D is therefore compatible with the Quality Council for Trades and
Occupations (QCTO) approach of knowledge, skills and practical application. Further-
more, the L&D standard definition acknowledges not only the importance of individual
competence, but also team development in highlighting overall competence of teams.
Also significant in addition to knowledge and skills is the reference to the right behaviour
expected from learners as individuals and teams. In addition, the definition of L&D also
highlights the importance of considering L&D from both current and future occupational
requirements — in other words, what do employees need now and in the future regarding
their occupational development. Lastly, the definition ends with the need to recognise
optimal organisational performance and sustainability, this transcending the need for
individual performance with a focus on overall organisational performance and business
impact.
As outlined in the National HR Standards (SABPP, 2013), the objectives of the L&D
standard are as follows:
• To create an occupationally competent and engaged workforce which builds organisa-
tional capability, providing employees with opportunities to develop new knowledge
and skills;
• To focus learning and development plans on improving people’s ability to perform to
achieve organisational objectives and provide the means for measuring the impact of
learning and development interventions;
• To support and accelerate skills development and achievement of employment equity
and organisational transformation and limit the impact of skills shortages;
• To create a learning culture and environment that enables optimum individual, team
and organisation learning and growth in both competencies and behaviour;
• To capture and replicate and enhance critical knowledge within the organisation;
• To ensure learning and development is a catalyst for continuous improvement, change
and innovation.
It is very important for L&D departments to have a clear perspective on the objectives for
L&D in the organisation. The six objectives contained in the L&D standard provide a
strong focus on business-driven L&D meeting the needs of the organisation and all its
stakeholders.
14.4 The L&D Application Standard

Each of the 13 National HR Standards consists of three parts, i.e. a definition, objectives
and guidelines for implementation. The guidelines for implementation are contained in
the HR application standards. Therefore, the L&D Standards Development Group created
a full L&D Application Standard specifying step-by-step how the L&D standard should
be implemented in practice. It consists of five main phases with several steps during
application:
1. Scan the L&D environment and based on this analysis, formulate a L&D strategy and
plans for the organisation that are aligned with organisational goals and culture:
The L&D strategy should take care of:
• The primary responsibility of each line manager to ensure the development of individuals in the
team.
• The overall HR strategy in general and the talent management strategy in particular (including
the people and people development philosophies). This will provide the framework for the nature
of the L&D challenge — for example, will the need be for specific technical skills and at what
continued
level (artisan, technician, engineer, researcher). If the talent management strategy requires a
“build” approach, more L&D support will be needed than if the “buy” or “borrow” approach is
to be adopted.
• The type of work of the organisation and the legal requirements relating to that work – for exam-
ple, the mining, medical and banking sectors all have extensive legislation which requires specif-
ic training and competence testing. A risk analysis of the organisation in terms of skills should be
conducted.
• The resources available – for example, whether there is already a well-developed technical train-
ing school; whether the company workplaces are urban or local with learning facilities nearby;
and what percentage of payroll can be allocated to L&D. As a benchmark, in addition to the
Skills Development Levy, the typical range of SA organisations’ L&D expenditure is 2–5%. De-
pending on the resources available, the L&D strategy may be more focused on informal learning
on the job, or formal training at external L&D providers.
• The extent to which L&D support is available within the relevant SETA. Where an organisation
has specific needs in terms of scarce and critical skills, to what extent are SETA resources avail-
able to assist on an industry/sector basis.
• The extent to which it is important to concentrate on formal training governed by skills devel-
opment legislation. This might be important at, for example, operator level, but less important at
management level.
From the strategy, L&D policies and the appropriate procedures should be drawn up to govern how
L&D will happen and what the entitlements and responsibilities are.
Responsibility for the budget for L&D activities should be carefully allocated. It is seldom appro-
priate for an L&D function to hold the whole L&D budget, which should be devolved to line man-
agers. However, for certain strategic L&D activities, or where the cost is spread over various
accounting areas, it may be appropriate for the L&D function to hold the budget.
2. Identify, select and implement in an integrated approach the appropriate L&D interven-
tions to meet the identified organisational need and enable employees to develop new
knowledge and skills.
L&D plans (detailing what L&D activities will take place for whom, where and at what cost) should
be drawn up on an interactive and iterative (bottom up, top down) basis. The following steps should
be followed to draw up the plans. Each step may be simple and fairly informal, or highly structured,
depending on the organisation. Even fairly informal methods should, however, result in written
plans per individual, and the consolidated L&D plan will have to comply with skills development
legislation (the workplace skills plan).
An L&D plan per individual (known often as IDP or PDP) should be agreed between employee
and supervisor and be drawn up based on factors such as:
• Job profiles specifying the required competencies;
• Performance management processes to determine current performance against requirements
(L&D is not always the best way to correct a performance improvement issue, except where the
diagnosed cause of the issue revolves around skills improvement);
• Formal competence assessments;
• Talent review outcomes;
• Career pathways and individual career preferences;
• Continuing Professional Development (CPD) requirements of relevant professional bodies.
Once finalised and approved, the implementation of this plan should be tracked and the plan revised
at regular intervals, at least once annually.
L&D plans should include a variety of L&D methods. Usually a blended learning approach is
recommended, being a combination of the various methods to achieve a specific learning objective.
continued
On-the-job methods may include coaching, mentoring, secondments and job rotation. Off-the-job
methods may include classroom training, self-study, e-learning, webinars, video streaming, smart
phone apps and academic study.
Skills matrices for a department or job family should be in place, specifying the skills and levels
of skills required for that department, and the level of current skills. For this, an annual plan should
be drawn up to ensure the desired levels of skill are available. This would include the job family
academies that are a recent trend.
L&D activities for a whole work team may be planned as part of a productivity or organisation
development programme.
The organisation as a whole, or specific business units, may prioritise some specific L&D inter-
ventions in support, for example, of a culture change strategy, which must be rolled out to all em-
ployees.
Induction/orientation programmes should be available for all new employees so that the organisa-
tion’s expectations, policies and procedures are clear from the outset.
These steps should be consolidated into the draft overall L&D plan. At this stage, the plans will
need to be costed and the total cost compared with the allocated budget. Any adjustments that are
required will need to be made back down to the IDP level.
Line managers’ skills in developing people should be specifically addressed in any L&D plan.
L&D plans should be scrutinised through consultative structures across the organisation. The
statutory workplace skills plan (which may be a sub-set of the L&D plan) must be agreed by the
statutory skills development committee.
3. Ensure the L&D function has the capability to be fully compliant with legislation and in
conformance to appropriate service delivery and quality requirements.
Organisations must obtain expert assistance in applying the skills development legislation. The key
role in interpreting and applying legislation is the Skills Development Facilitator, which position
should be filled by a qualified person. If such expertise is not available in-house, then consult-
ing/contracting assistance should be obtained.
The consolidation of individual L&D plans and tracking of completion, plus the reporting re-
quirements of the SETA and other legislative requirements such as the Occupational Health and
Safety Act, require administrative capability and, in all but the smallest of organisations, an inte-
grated electronic information system is required.
An L&D quality management system should be in place. This will need to be more detailed for
training which falls within the Skills Development Act and must be aligned to the National Qualifi-
cations Framework.
Where formal training is designed and/or delivered in-house, the competence of the designers and
instructors/facilitators should be defined, assessed and continuously developed. Both technical
knowledge in the subject matter and delivery skills based on adult education principles must be
assured.
The management of outsourced training providers requires service level agreements to be put in
place and managed.
Management of programmes such as learnerships, internships and apprenticeships, where interac-
tion with SETAs and other skills institutions is required, must be done by staff knowledgeable about
the legislative requirements for these programmes.
Measurement of the impact of L&D also requires careful planning of the business process to col-
lect the information required, and the allocation of resources where necessary. Measures involving
financial information should be planned and implemented in conjunction with the organisation’s
financial department.
continued
4. Define and implement knowledge management strategies and interventions to distribute

and grow knowledge within the organisation.
The processes by which knowledge supporting the organisation’s sustainability and growth is ac-
quired, used, renewed, transmitted and retained may reside throughout the organisation, but it is
recommended that responsibility for engineering and documenting such processes be allocated to a
particular function, which may be the L&D function.
The L&D function can also support knowledge management through activities such as:
• Training employees in setting up and running communities of practice to share knowledge;
• Training employees in coaching and mentoring skills;
• Sourcing of technology-enabled methods of knowledge sharing;
• Documenting instruction manuals in core skills.
5. Educate the impact of L&D to assess quality, alignment with strategy and impact on or-
ganisational capability.
Evaluation of certain types of learning is straight forward – for instance, legislation may set down
examinations or other competency assessment processes, such as blasting certificates in the mines.
Since such qualifications must be held in order for operations to continue, the impact on the organi-
sation is clear.
For other types of L&D, evaluation of the impact may not be so clear. Therefore a choice should
be made at the planning stage on how the impact of any L&D activity will be evaluated. This may
range from reaction of delegates on a particular formal training course, to measurement of learning,
to measurement of changes in behaviour and/or performance, to business results.
The “line of sight” from the development activity to an individual’s development and to the or-
ganisation’s needs should be clear (stated as objectives) before the development activity is com-
menced. This will make it possible to check after completion whether the objectives were met.
It is likely that some combination of quantitative or quantitative measures will be selected to pro-
vide feedback on the impact of L&D activities. These can be combined into some form of dash-
board for monitoring on a regular basis.
An annual review of the impact of all L&D activities in the organisation should be conducted by
management teams against the strategy and plan, and any possible improvements should be built
into the next planning cycle.
The L&D standard outlined above provides clear guidelines on how to implement a
professional approach to L&D in a typical South African organisation. It provides a
holistic view of the whole L&D function, yet it prioritises key aspects of L&D, adding
value to the organisation, notwithstanding the need for skills development legislation
compliance where necessary. L&D professionals are encouraged to apply the L&D
standard by focusing on the steps and guidelines provided above.

One of the first companies joining the National HR Standards journey since its inception in 2013
was Nedbank. Dean Retief, Executive of People Development at Nedbank, presented a case study
on L&D in support of the SABPP L&D Standard at the launch of the National HR Standards in
Johannesburg.
continued
L&D is strategically positioned at Nedbank, with an explicit people-development philosophy. In

essence, through the implementation of learning academies, people are developed for three reasons:
1. To ensure that they become fully performing in their current role;
2. To prepare them for new, broader or more complex roles;
3. To ensure that they gain exposure for continuous professional development (CPD).
The learning experience of Nedbank consists of a clear strategic intent to meet business goals. The
leadership, management and specialist pipeline ensures that people are developed to execute strate-
gy based on competency profiles. Development assessments are used to determine learning needs
and personal development plans internalise the outcomes of these assessments. The academies pro-
vide formal learning opportunities, while coaching and informal development exposure is optimised
as part of learning curricula. Learning impact and value measurement is done by contracted return
on investment (ROI) and return on stakeholder expectations (ROSE). Together with career man-
agement, a continuous learning cycle is embedded in the L&D system and increased value is de-
rived when enhanced competence contributed to increased performance.
Nedbank was one of the first organisations to tackle the latest approach to learning design that
was coming out of the NQF around 2007. It had such a positive experience that it went on to apply
the new model throughout its 27 000 employees, reaping significant business benefits in the pro-
cess, and simultaneously aligning with government education and training policy.
Driving Nedbank’s adoption of the new approach (commonly referred to as the QCTO Curricu-
lum Methodology) was not a compliance mind-set, but the realisation that the approach actually
resonated so closely to good business practice, that they would have done it even if there was no
compliance incentive.
Back in 2007 there was no certainty that the newly proposed OCTO would actually see the light
of day, opposed as it was traditionalist educationalists who did not understand the unique demands
of workplace learning and who did not feel that it merited its own quality council and sub-
framework within the NQF. While most other employers adopted a “wait and see” attitude as the
QCTO methodology unfolded, long before the QCTO was formally constituted Nedbank decided to
adopt a proactive approach to driving occupational learning.
Nedbank knew the risks involved and forged ahead nonetheless, realising that the new approach
to learning design would drive a more performance-oriented approach to learning in the bank, even
if the establishment of QCTO was hampered or delayed.
In September 2013, the QCTO was validated by the Minister of Higher Education and Training to
operate up to level eight of the NQF (i.e. up to Honours Programmes and Post graduate Diplomas),
falling clearly into the professional band, which is so important to modern workplace learning. The
QCTO is now running its first national roadshows to gain momentum for its unique approach to
learning design.
In the meantime Nedbank has had more than six years of experience at applying the QCTO cur-
riculum methodology within the six business divisions of the bank, likely making it the most ad-
vanced knowledge ecosystem on this approach to learning in the world. As such, it stands uniquely
ready to assist the National Skills Development Strategy to take a more nuanced and responsive
approach to occupational learning (as evidenced in the Department of Higher Education and Train-
ing’s new Occupational Teams approach for the national infrastructure projects), as well as offer its
organisational learning to the wider business community through its partnership with SABPP,
which is the national custodian of HR practice under SAQA and the QCTO.
The SABPP, as part of its HR Standards and Metrics Project, has facilitated a world first by or-
ganising the HR practitioner community to communicate, define and articulate the 13 core standards
underpinning HR competencies in South Africa. In fact, SABPP, together with the inputs from
Nedbank and other lead employers, also developed a Workplace Learning Culture Standard as part
of the same national project, and is drawing extensively on the lessons learned by Nedbank in en-
gaging with the QCTO curriculum design methodology.
continued
The objective of the new standard is to create a common language across South African work-
places for talking about workplace learning with a view to raising the quality and quantity of learn-
ing interventions throughout business. While both government and business evidence the will and
commitment to up-scale learnerships, internships, apprenticeships and other forms of workplace
experience, it is the lack of consistent methodology to workplace learning that most often sets back
potential placements, or limits their effectiveness.
Now for the first time we may finally have the tool we need in this new approach to curriculum
design, to begin to make significant wins against the war on poverty and unemployment. This is
thanks to a proactive mindset amongst early pioneers of the QCTO curriculum methodology who
did not wait for government to solve all their problems, but played an active role in shaping the
solutions. Nedbank now stands ready to share its learning experiences with the wider business,
social and government community of how effective workplace learning occurs.
Nedbank managed to achieve an optimal balance between compliance (i.e. meeting occupational
skills development legal requirements) on the one hand, and the business imperative of performance
on the other hand (i.e. using occupational training to drive business performance and results). Thus,
the Nedbank approach constitutes an alignment and integration of national and government skills
development imperatives with business needs, while simultaneously addressing the professional and
quality requirements of a professional body.
14.6 L&D standard implementation plan

HRD Professionals can use the following guidelines to apply the L&D standard in the
workplace:
• Orientate your L&D team members on the L&D standard.
• Conduct a training session on the L&D standard for all L&D professionals.
• Do a self-assessment against the L&D standard with the L&D team members.
• Identify gaps in current practice against the L&D standard.
• Fill these gaps where necessary.
• When ready, arrange an audit against the standard.
• Ensure continuous improvement of all L&D practices relevant to the standard.
14.7 Conclusion
The development of National HR standards in South Africa has been a historic moment.
The HR standards provided a common framework for HR and HRD managers to imple-
ment sound HR practices based on a common understanding of clearly defined HR stand-
ards. The L&D standard is one of the 13 HR standards and in this chapter we outlined the
definition as well as the detailed application standard for L&D. In addition, phase two of
the HR standards initiative focused on the development of HR professional practice
standards. The HR professional practice standards include four L&D standards and eight
HRD standards. HRD practitioners are encouraged to ensure that their organisations apply
these standards by aligning current practices to the HR and L&D standards.
14.8 Case study

Eatcom is a large diversified food company operating throughout South Africa, Namibia and Bot-
wana. The HR Director of Eatcom, Jonas Nombaca, attended the Annual Knowledge Resources HR
Directors conference, where he was exposed to the National HR standards developed by SABPP.
He immediately started to implement the HR Standards. His goal was to reduce inconsistency in HR
practice and to improve the HR function aligned to the needs of the business. As a strategic deci-
sion, he worked very closely with the management committee of Eatcom to develop appropriate
strategies, plans and policies to implement the first three HR Standards, i.e. Strategic HR Manage-
ment, Talent Management and HR Risk Management.
A consultant was used to identify current gaps against the standards, and skills gaps were identi-
fied as affecting both these three strategic HR standards and the HR-business interface. For in-
stance, building organisational capability in the technical skills area of food manufacturing was key,
as were technological skills to accelerate the automation of the food factories across the country.
Leadership, technology, processing, supply chain and technical skills gaps were not only identified
during a formal learning needs analysis process, but these skills gaps were also recorded in the HR
risk register of the company. In addition, as part of the talent management strategy, senior, middle
and supervisory management development programmes were prioritised to drive the new talent
development plan of Eatcom. A talent pool was created for top performing managers and specialist,
and targeted development programmes were put in place to accelerate the development of talented
employees.
Jonas arranged a meeting with the Group L&D Manager, Thembi Naidoo. He requested Thembi
to ensure that she aligned the L&D strategy of Eatcom to the National L&D standard. Thembi ar-
ranged training in the National HR standards for the whole HR team of Eatcom to ensure that all
HR professionals aligned their HR practices and procedures to the 13 National HR Standards. The
workshop was facilitated by the Head of Standards at SABPP, Dr Shamila Singh. A second work-
shop was conducted on all 23 of the HR professional practice standards, ranging from absenteeism
management through to successful planning. This workshop included the four L&D HR profession-
al practice standards, i.e. workplace learning to support a learning culture, learning needs analysis,
learning design and learning evaluation. The specialised focus on the L&D HR professional practice
standards helped the L&D officers to professionalise all their current practices. For instance, in the
past, training was often arranged without a proper learning needs analysis, and although sound
design principles were embedded in all training programmes, no impact evaluation of the learning
was conducted. This resulted in line management being reluctant to send staff to training when they
were not convinced that training had an impact on the bottom-line. The renewed focus on L&D
professionalism ensured improved practices, as well as better alignment with the needs of the busi-
ness. In addition, some of the other HRD professional practice standards, i.e. career management,
coaching and mentoring and succession planning, were also used to ensure that L&D focused on
broader employee and talent development, and not only on training per se.
The consultant’s analysis revealed that in terms of alignment to the 13 National HR standards,
Eatcom performed very well in reward and recognition, performance management, employment
relations and employee wellness. However, the talent management plan was new and could there-
fore not show sustainable results after six months of implementation. Although pockets of excel-
lence emerged in certain areas, like employee wellness, the different sub-functions were not well
integrated. For instance, poor workforce planning resulted in the right staff with the right skills not
being available at the right times. The recruitment and selection manager then worked with Thembi
in ensuring better workforce planning aligned to L&D provision to fill current gaps in meeting the
needs of business.
After 18 months, Eatcom implemented major improvements in all aspects of its HR and L&D
practices, so much so that Jonas requested the SABPP Audit Unit to audit the HR function of Eat-
com against the National HR standards. The auditors arrived and spent a whole day on site to audit
continued
the HR function. The lead auditor, Mervyn Tshabalala, completed the report and presented the re-
sults to Jonas and Thembi after three weeks. Eatcom managed to achieve favourable audit outcomes
on 11 of the 13 HR standards. The only areas in which they underperformed were HR technology
and HR measurement. Jonas was satisfied with the L&D function achieving the highest scores of all
the HR standards areas, i.e. an average score of 76% against the overall average of 63% for all 13
standards. Jonas thanked Thembi for her commitment to improve the L&D function and for her
support in building the capacity of the other HR practitioners in meeting the national HR standards.
He then developed an action plan to improve in the two under-performing areas against the HR
standards, i.e. HR technology and HR measurement. His goal was to be certified against all 13
national HR standards within the next year.
Questions
1 Explain why Jonas decided to embark on the National HR standards.
2 Identify the three business-HR alignment standards Eatcom focused on when starting with the
process of aligning to the national HR standards.
3 Indicate whether L&D was affected by the HR Risk register of the company.
4 Identify the two L&D standards as part of the HR professional practice standards that Eatcom
initially did not comply with.
5 How did Eatcom perform in the audit against the national HR standards, and in the L&D
standard in particular?
6 What advice would you give to Eatcom going forward over the next two years?

• The National HR Standards provide professional guidelines for sound HR practice.
• A specific standard on L&D has been developed as part of the National HR Manage-
ment System standard model.
• There are four L&D HR professional practice standards and eight HRD professional
practice standards.
• The L&D application standard provide clear steps and guidelines on how the imple-
ment the L&D standard in the workplace.
• A well-planned implementation process is needed to embed the L&D standard into
L&D functions.

1 Motivate the benefits of HR standards for an organisation and the HRD profession at
large.
2 Explain the position of L&D within the National HR Standards Model.
3 List the four L&D standards forming part of the HR professional practice standards.
4 Name the eight other HRD standards forming part of the HR professional practice
standards.
5 Define L&D according to the National HR Standards model.
6 Explain how you can apply the L&D standard in the workplace by following the steps
and guidelines of the L&D application standard.
7 Should you be audited on the L&D standard at your organisation, describe the process
you will follow to prepare yourself for such an audit.
8 Critically evaluate the following statement: L&D cannot function in isolation, it forms
part of the overall HR Management System of an organisation.
14.11 References
Garrun T, 2014, “Human resource sector needs its own system”, The Star Workplace, 3.
McCormick N and Andrews C, 2016, “Innovation in Human Resources: The combination
of HR Standards, HR auditing and big data”, Bond Business School Publications, Paper
924.

Abbott P and Meyer M, 2014, “National HR Standards Phase III”, HR Future, July, 34–
35.
Botha C, 2014, “HR leaves a legacy in Heritage Month”, HR Future, September, 36–37.
Dikgale-Freeman K, 2013, “Review of 2013 HR Standards Initiative”, HR Future, De-
cember, 30–31.
Kaufman B (ed), 2014, The Development of Human Resource Management Across Na-
tions: Unity and Diversity, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Meyer M and Abbott P, 2017, National HR Standards for South Africa: Setting Profes-
sional Standards for HR Practice, Johannesburg: SABPP.
SABPP, 2015, Annual Integrated Report 2015, Johannesburg: SABPP.
SABPP, 2015, HR Audit Tribune, Johannesburg: SABPP.
SABPP, 2016, 2nd Annual HR Audit Tribune, Johannesburg: SABPP.
Steyn L, 2013, “HR service delivery made easy”, HR Future, October, 22–23.

HR Auditing: http://www.hrauditing.com.au
HR Today: http://www.hrtoday.me
Institute of People Management of Zimbabwe: http://www.ipm.co.zw
International Standards Organisation: http://www.iso.org
SA Board for People Practices (SABPP) http://www.sabpp.co.za
South African Bureau of Standards: http: //www.sabs.co.za
A special word of thanks to Dean Retief of Nedbank for the case study provided. Fur-
thermore, the SABPP L&D Committee under the leadership of Mike Stuart is also
acknowledged. The support from Chris Andrews from Bond University in Australia is
also appreciated.
CHAPTER
15
MULTISKILLING
Stan Smith
If you want a year of prosperity grow grain.

If you want 10 years of prosperity grow a tree.
If you want 100 years of prosperity grow people.
(Old Chinese proverb)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Differentiate between the dimensions of multiskilling
• Justify the reasons why organisations should multiskill their employees
• Motivate the need of learners to become multiskilled
• Formulate a policy that would support multiskilling
• Develop a plan to implement multiskilling in your organisation
• Develop support mechanisms to enable multiskilling to take place
• Design documentation that would inform the multiskilling processes
• Evaluate HRD practice in an organisation and propose how this may be adapted to support
multiskilling
15.1 Introduction
Multiskilling is one of the ways organisations can become competitive and remain so in the
next millennium. However, many organisations are finding the challenge of multiskilling
difficult given the isolation most South African companies have experienced
(World Competitiveness Yearbook, 1999(a):5). Furthermore, learners will need to change
389
their mind-sets from thinking about their work in terms of a narrowly defined job, to a
“dejobbed” situation (Bridges, 1995:175). South Africa’s workforce will need to become
more adaptable and flexible to meet the challenges that lie ahead (World Competitiveness
Yearbook, 1999(b):14). The manner in which this can occur is that learners, whether they
are managers or employees, become multiskilled.
At national level, the Skills Development Act is another force which promotes the de-
velopment of skills. Furthermore, the provisions of the South African Qualifications
Authority Act ensure that skills are developed and that credits are obtained for whatever
learning is acquired. The National Qualifications Framework (NQF), with its different
learning pathways and articulation possibilities, supports the implementation of multi-
skilling strategies in the workplace.
From the above, it is clear that organisations and learners need to reconsider their think-
ing on the manner in which they will prepare the organisation to become or remain com-
petitive, and learners to become or remain employable. This chapter gives more detail on
the related issues as well as some ideas as to how this may be achieved.
15.2 Concept and nature of multiskilling

Conceptually, multiskilling suggests that more than one skill is being considered. In some
contexts this also suggests that learners have more than one place where work may be
done, which in itself requires another skills base (Apgar, 1998:121-135; Lazear, 1999:1).
For example, the virtual work environment requires well-developed computer skills,
especially when employees are working from home and are required to submit completed
tasks to their office electronically.
For the purpose of this chapter, the following definition will be relied upon: “Multi-
skilling is a way of organizing work so that people are able to acquire and use a greater
range of skills” (Wood, Bornman and Sass, 1993:1). From this definition it may be im-
plied that multiskilling requires skills acquisition beyond the scope of current jobs. This
could also include the development of skills:
• to do future jobs (Davids 2004:7);
• to do a variety of jobs (Davids 2004:7);
• to develop a flexible workforce (Davids, 2004:7);
• to deal with organisational change (Apgar, 1998, 121-132; Gathercole, 1992:8; Horo-
witz and Franklin, 1996:12-16; Veldsman 1995:1-4);
• to improve performance in terms of service delivery, as per the requirements of a role
(Davids 2004:5); and
• to increase tasks’ variety, reduce errors and fatigue and improve safety performance
and job satisfaction (Davids 2004:7).
Whereas multiskilling is the acquisition of skill beyond the immediate job, it is not an
attempt to train all learners to do everything (Wood, Bornman and Sass, 1993:1).
Multiskilling can take place in the following four dimensions:
• Horizontal multiskilling – takes the complexity of the current job or current skill levels
into consideration. Here the skills base is extended, which allows for a wider range of
tasks to be performed. An example would be a clerk who has done the checking of fig-
ures on a statement, which includes the skill of reconciling of bank statements.
Chapter 15: Multiskilling 391
• Vertical multiskilling – develops the learner’s depth and complexity of skills to include
skill at a higher level. An example here would be a clerk who checks figures as well as
the audits figures as part of the process of balancing the accounts.
• Cross-skilling – while similar to horizontal skilling, this provides skilling of a similar
level of complexity allowing for skills development beyond the boundary of the origi-
nal job (Wood et al, 1993:1). For example, a clerk who has done financial calculations,
where the skills base now includes the selling of goods when not fully occupied.
• Generic working – relates to the creation of new roles that did not exist before and
developing people for these roles (Akhlahi and Mahoney, 1999:1). An example would
be where secretaries have traditionally helped their managers to complete paperwork.
In developing new roles, they would focus more on the managing of information elec-
tronically in the paperless office.
15.3 Factors that support multiskilling

A variety of factors support multiskilling. These factors may be explained from the per-
spective of the organisation as well as the learner.
15.3.1 Factors that support multiskilling from the organisation’s

perspective
Veldsman (1995:1–4) views the success of a multiskilling initiative as part of a strategy to
develop a flexible organisation. This approach enables organisations to survive turbulent
environmental demands. An appropriate organisational design together with an appropri-
ate strategic intent will ensure a future competitive edge. Organisational design has a
significant impact on the competence and capability of an organisation. In this context,
competence is the ability of an organisation to satisfy customers’ needs, and capability is
the ability to deliver what it takes to satisfy those customers’ needs. Thus, it is not only
the structure of the organisation, but also the skills of the people in the organisation, that
need to be designed in a manner that support the satisfaction of customers’ needs. At a
practical level, an advantage of a flexible workforce is that a worker could stand in for
another when needed (Lazear, 1999:1).
Organisations are subject to constant forces of change. Change is generally imposed on
organisations by the need to be competitive (Champy, 1995:28). To become competitive,
many organisations have followed the business re-engineering route (Champy, 1995;
Manganelli and Klein, 1994), which always has an effect on the structures of the organi-
sations and the people populating them. Re-engineering has a further effect on the skill
requirements of the new structures, which in turn has the capability to enable and empow-
er learners in their new roles (Veldsman, 1991:1).
Change in the field of technology also has the potential to impact the skills require-
ments of learners within an organisation. While impacting on technology, strategy and the
values of the organisation, the very technology which is seen as a means to becoming
more competitive, also tends to impact on job creation or reduction. Furthermore, it has
the ability to stimulate or reduce the need for skill (Joubert, 1992:1). Leazaer (1999:1)
reports that where workers are multiskilled, the communication between members of the
team is enhanced, as the learners are able to make contributions to the learning environ-
ment from different fields. He suggests that innovation is also enhanced, as different ideas
from different fields are shared.
The Employment Equity Act requires organisations to employ people with disabilities.
Davidson (1999:2) reports that multiskilling may be used to prepare disabled learners for
alternative employment, though it will require more detailed planning.
15.3.2 Factors that support multiskilling from the learner’s perspective

For the learners to benefit from multiskilling, they would need to change their attitudes to
employment. To remain employed, employers require that learners have a broad range of
skills which would underpin the acquisition of other skills (Carnival, Gainer and Meltzer,
1990:5–16). These are the same skills that are required by individuals out of the work-
place. By possessing these skills, learners will be more equipped to deal with the world, in
which they function and cope. This refers also to the need of learners to develop those
skills to lead a meaningful life. By having the skills required at a particular time, the
learner has some assurance of being employed (Bridges 1995:175–177).
By being multiskilled, learners would be equipping themselves to deal with change. The
workplace requirements, as well as environmental change, will increasingly force learners to
develop skills that enable them to align themselves with those changes that have occurred.
These changes could be political, social or technological in nature (Bridges, 1995:1–3;
Carnival, Gainer and Meltzer, 1990:5–12; Handy, 1989:24–43).
By obtaining a multitude of skills, learners will be able to take charge of their careers
and move into those areas where they identify opportunity. In essence, multiskilling
maintains their ability to be employed and to be employable (Bridges, 1995:196–223;
Bridges, 1997:101–164; Handy, 1989:44–63).
With the development of virtual organisations and alternative work arrangements,
learners will require a cluster of skills that have not been developed in traditional organi-
sations. These skills should include the ability to work independently as well as the ability
to communicate with others elsewhere on assignments related to the outputs to be deliv-
ered. They will have to do things differently and they will need to rely on a broad base of
skills developed formally and informally. To maintain their standing, they will need to
have skills upon which they can build, so as to acquire skills not used before, but which
now require development (Bridges, 1997:101–164; Handy, 1998:210–212).
Learners will need to engage in lifelong learning and recognise that doing so is the only
way that will ensure that they are able to interact meaningfully in a constantly changing
world (Longworth and Davies, 1996).
15.4 Value of multiskilling

Multiskilling programmes can yield significant value to both employers and employees.
Advantages of multiskilling for the learner are varied, according to Longworth and Davies
(1996:82–83), who identify the value of multiskilling in the context of lifelong learning as
follows:
• Multiskilling improves flexible skills.
• Each person has a greater range of personal and practical skills, knowledge and compe-
tencies which may be used when required. The ability to solve problems and make de-
cisions may be transferable and portable to other situations.
• Multiskilling improves job and career opportunities.
• Being multiskilled enables people to be employable, since they learn a variety of skills
and potentially learn how to learn.
• Multiskilling becomes a way of life and thereby enriches personal organisational and
national productivity.
• Multiskilling improves quality of life, as it stimulates the mind and increases personal
opportunities in a variety of areas and subjects.
• Multiskilling helps families to learn – where significant members of a family have a
range of different skills, this serves as an example to the younger members to also be-
come multiskilled.
Reflect on your own level of multiskilling. How multiskilled are you? If your department were to
close down tomorrow, to which department would you go? What skills do you have that can be
transferred to another department? What skills do you have to develop to become more multi-
skilled?
15.5 Generic skills of a multiskilling programme

For meaningful learning to take place, learners require the basics upon which further
learning can take place. Without these basics skills, multiskilling programmes are less
likely to be successful. Consider the views of learning depicted in Table 15.1:
Table 15.1 Views of learning and generic multiskilling skills
Carnevale, Gainer Critical cross-field outcomes as accepted

McGill and Beaty Longworth and Davis
and Melter by SAQA (Van der Horst and McDonald,
(1995:129–167) (1996:62)
(1990:3) 1997:49–50)
• Organisational • Group; working together • Learning to learn • Learners should be able to identify and
effectiveness/ • Interpersonal skill • Putting knowledge into solve problems by using critical and creative
leadership • Listening and attending practice thinking skills
• Interpersonal/ • Reflecting back and • Questioning and • Learners should be able to work effectively
negotiation; questioning reasoning with others as members of a team, group,
teamwork • Disclosure and assertion • Managing oneself and organisation or community
• Self-esteem/ goal • Management of emotion others • Learners should be able to manage
setting – motivation/ • Empathy • Managing information themselves and their activities responsibly
employability – • Giving and receiving • Communication skills and effectively
career development feedback • Teamwork • Learners should be able to collect, analyse,
• Creative • Using “shoulds” • Problem-solving skills organise and critically evaluate information
problem solving and “oughts” • Adaptability and • Learners should be able to communicate
• Communication; • Using generalisations flexibility effectively using visual, mathematical
listening and oral • Specifying actions • Understanding responsi- and/or language skills in the modes of oral
communication bility of updating and and/or written presentation
• 3 R’s (reading, upgrading one’s • Learners should be able to use science and
writing, arithmetic) own competence technology effectively and critically
• Learning to learn showing responsibility towards the
environment and the health of others
• Learners should be able to demonstrate an
understanding of the world as a set of
related systems by recognising that
problem-solving contexts do not exist in
isolation
From an examination of what is required by organisations to enable learning and what is

required in the standards to be generated, it is clear that there are definite similarities
which can be found in four different views of learning. Conceptually, in any multiskilling
programme it is highly desirable to ensure that, in the delivery and design of learning, at
least these basics are attended to.
15.6 Strategies to promote multiskilling

Various strategies can be used by organisations to promote multiskilling in the workplace.
The strategies are as follows:
15.6.1 Job design

The jobs of learners are the vehicles that are used to add value to the goals of the organi-
sation. These jobs can be designed in such a manner that they can promote multiskilling.
Job design as well as the design techniques work to identify the most important needs
of employees and those of the organisation. It also aims to remove that which frustrates
those needs (Ivancevich and Matteson, 1996:241). Mullins (1996:530) supports this view,
indicating that the important contribution of job design also includes the following charac-
teristics:
• it enhances the personal satisfaction which learners derive from their work;
• it contributes to utilise the talents of the learners, which form a valuable resource in the
organisation; and
• it helps to bridge the issues which may hamper effective performance.
To engage in job design, cognisance must be taken of job analysis. In traditional job
analysis, job description (which includes the tasks a job holder performs) and job specifi-
cation (which includes the qualification(s) required to perform a job) are derived (Ivance-
vich and Matteson, 1996:242). These two products of job analysis provide information
about three aspects of a job. These aspects are the job content, job context and job re-
quirements. Job content refers to the activities required of a job holder to do a job success-
fully; job context refers to the physical demands, working conditions, degree of
accountability, responsibility, the amount of supervision and consequences of errors
required. Job requirements refer to the minimum qualifications expected (Ivancevich and
Matteson, 1996:243; Pearn and Kandola, 1993).
The issue of multiskilling comes into its own in the form of job design. This also relates
to specific job characteristics – that is range, depth and relationships. Range refers to the
number of tasks a learner does – a person who performs nine tasks to complete a job has a
wider range than a person who needs to do four tasks to complete a job. Depth refers to
the amount of discretion allowed to complete a job. Job relationships relate to the relation-
ships which jobs have in a formal structure as well as how jobs relate to each other. A
multiskilling approach focussing on depth and job design could therefore indicate the
interpersonal relationships and the need to work in teams (Ivancevich and Matteson,
1996:243-245). Multiskilling requires that jobs at least be redesigned for range and for
depth.
15.6.2 Job rotation

In redesigning jobs for range, approaches which may be utilised are job rotation and job
enlargement. Job rotation includes increasing the range of jobs and also includes variety
in the job content. Learners are therefore rotated among a variety of jobs (Ivancevich and
Matteson, 1996:250). Mullins (1996:530) adds that job rotation may also lead to the
acquisition of additional skills and be used as a form of training. For example, in a team
of three delivering parcels, person A has the job of obtaining the signature for the parcel,
person B drives the delivery vehicle and person C sorts the parcels according to the route
taken on the deliveries. In a job-rotation scheme, these three individuals are able to do one
another’s job and develop different skills in the process. Thus, multiskilling contributes to
the increased skill required to perform the different jobs and to the movement away from
the traditional content of individual jobs done by one person only. In this way, job rota-
tion can be used as a form of multiskilling and could also include the preparation of
learners for new jobs due to changing technology and organisational trends.
15.6.3 Job enlargement

Job enlargement refers to the increase in the number of tasks a learner does (Ivancevich
and Matteson, 1996:251; Mullins, 1996:530). It lengthens the time cycle of activities and
may lead to more variety. To perform the increased jobs, learners need to be multiskilled
to be able to do more than one job. To use the example again, one person is used to drive,
deliver and sort parcels in the job enlargement scenario.
15.6.4 Job enrichment

In the redesign for job depth, the approach is that of job enrichment. This is achieved
through direct changes in job depth (Ivancevich and Matteson, 1996:251). Learners are
provided with developmental opportunities by receiving direct feedback, opportunities for
new experiences and therefore new learning which also relates to OTJ training designs
(Downs, 1995:32). Furthermore, job enrichment aims to give the person greater autonomy
and authority over the planning, execution and control of the activities the learners may be
involved in. It also creates more meaningful work and provides opportunities for intrinsic
satisfaction and psychological growth (Mullins, 1996:531).
Recent development has focused on the context of learning new skills. The context
which appears to be gaining ground is the learning that takes place in self-directed work-
teams. Here job enrichment occurs at group level – the team being empowered to produce
certain outcomes based on procedures which are established within the context of the
group without external direction. The team would typically function in the completion of
task teams, project teams or new venture teams (Ivancevich and Matteson, 1996:254). The
group also then assumes more autonomy and responsibility for effective performance in
the completion of the task. Working in the group provides opportunity for group learning
and direct feedback (Mullins, 1996:540–541).
Multiskilling occurs in the context of the group where group members learn from each
other and members evaluate the performance of individuals as new skills are acquired. At
an individual level, job enrichment may be achieved by:
• allowing learners to undertake a full cycle of activities which may lead to a complete
product or service; and
• providing learners with assignments that challenge their abilities and make fuller use of
their training, expertise and competencies.
15.6.5 Alternative work arrangements

Another development supporting and requiring multiskilling is the movement to alternative
work arrangements, where learners no longer work in the traditional work mode. This could
include working flexitime, where workers have control over the scheduling of their working
time within given limits (Ivancevich and Matteson, 1996:256; Mullins, 1996:541).
Telecommuting involves working at home while having a link to the office via a
computer. This mode emphasises location rather than scheduling. To function in this
environment, multiskilling is required, with learners often working within a diverse
workforce in which wide-ranging skills are required to produce a range of outcomes
(Ivancevich and Matteson, 1996:256; Chang, 1996:18).
15.6.6 Career development

Career development programmes may be employed by organisations as a way of inform-
ing and preparing learners for multiskilling. Schein (1978:4) provides a useful model in
which multiskilling may be used.
An organisation may use two specific mechanisms within the realm of career develop-
ment to support and encourage multiskilling. One mechanism is a total systems approach
to human resource management, which supports the strategy of ETD practices in the
organisation. Another mechanism is the need to multiskill learners who are part of the
system. One way of looking at this could be the following template:
Figure 15.1 A template for career development systems which would support multiskilling
Career development
Performance Competence Education, training

management and development
Recruitment and selection
15.7 Practical implementation of multiskilling

The implementation of multiskilling requires detailed planning and preparation. Introduc-
ing a multiskilling programme and process in an organisation requires at least the follow-
ing elements:
• A strategy, which takes the business need as well as organisational environmental
elements (political, economic, social and technological) into consideration;
• A well-consulted process with all stakeholders, including unions;
• A process in which the organisation assesses itself by means of a skills audit in terms of
where it wants to be as opposed to where it is;
• Access by all potential learners who are to gain from the process to all the resources
and systems in the organisation;
• Regular monitoring of the effectiveness of implementation; and

• Regular alignment of the process with the skills needs as those needs change.
Each of these elements, including the practical aspects thereof, are discussed in more
detail.
15.7.1 Strategy
As part of the strategy, the organisation needs to consider other systems that could benefit
from or be affected by multiskilling, including:
• recruitment and selection;
• career development;
• performance appraisal;
• education, training and development; and
• remuneration.
In short, the organisation needs to have competence at the core of its human resource
systems. The standards to be developed, as required by the SAQA Act, will inform and
affect this process. The standards writing process will give organisations a model from
which they can draw. Furthermore, where multiskilling is focused on entry-level learners,
learning paths will also exist. This will lead to the attainment of qualifications by learners
who have been assessed as having the required level of competence. This will make the
multiskilling process more attractive to learners.
To facilitate the process of multiskilling is to have a model of competence at the centre
of the system, which would service the needs of those systems mentioned above (see
Figure 15.1). A competency model is seen as an alternative model to the standards genera-
tion mentioned above. While the standards process will focus its efforts on where most of
the learners will be affected, the competency model is aimed at ensuring that part of the
organisation not catered for also has a model that will support multiskilling and learning.
It would be useful to have a policy which clearly indicates the intentions of the strategy as
well as the procedural issues.
15.7.2 Consulted process

A strategy should be consulted with the relevant stakeholders in the process, especially
unionised members. The purpose would be, among others, to ensure that the intention of
the strategy to multiskill learners is to enable the organisation to remain competitive. It
may be construed that learners will be expected to perform two jobs, whereas the inten-
tion should be to keep the workforce flexible and employable. As part of the planning for
the consultation process, it would be advisable to consider what the impact of multi-
skilling would be on remuneration. A decision would need to be made as to whether there
would be compensation for skills acquired or skills used.
15.7.3 Skills audit

The organisation needs to assess an “as is” position, and needs to know which skills are
available to it. It also needs to assess which skills are required for the foreseeable future.
This will ensure that multiskilling always has, as its focus, a future perspective and that it
does not focus its efforts on potentially redundant skills. The skills audit should also
support the organisation’s overall plan for skills development in the context of the Skills
Development Act.
For multiskilling to become a reality, learners need to be made aware of the mechanisms
that are available. These mechanisms could take the form of resource centres, where
learners would have access to information that would support them in achieving multiple
skills. This mechanism would also ensure that learners focus their efforts on those skills
required by the organisation. Resources here would typically include:
• Knowledge about how to develop and compile a portfolio of learning;
• Career development centres to aid learners in selecting those skills which need to be
developed; and
• Learning resources and how these may be accessed formally and informally.
15.7.5 Monitoring the process

As the strategy of the organisation is being implemented, the acquisition of skills by the
workforce needs to be monitored to ensure that those skills required by the organisation
are acquired and monitored. Monitoring will also assist in identifying new skills gaps
which come to the fore as changes occur in the environment, business systems and meth-
ods.
15.8 Factors to consider during implementation

Although the abovementioned process for the implementation of a multiskilling pro-
gramme is recommended, there are some factors that need attention. Alklaghi and
Mohoney (1999:4–5) have identified a number of factors which require consideration,
namely:
• For a multiskilling programme to be successful, specific training programmes need to
be offered. Such training should accommodate both complexity and diversity of task
content.
• Training should be integrated with the appropriate level of responsibility.
• Where there will be an overlap with tasks done by others traditionally, the intentions of
the intervention must be communicated with them.
• Where the assumption is made that job satisfaction will increase, it will only be true
where specific situations are addressed to ensure job satisfaction.
• Job titles will be reduced, making mobility across different job areas possible.
• As soon as the initial multiskilling has been completed, job or task rotation is required
to ensure that skill levels are maintained.
• Labour agreements need to support the multiskilling process. There needs to be clarity
on how multiskilling will impact remuneration as well as other areas of the organisa-
tion.
• Mentors need to be appointed to monitor the quality of learning as well as to ensure
that strategic goals are met.
• At the beginning of the process the objectives must be clear and be communicated
clearly to all concerned, with focus on the advantages for the learners.
• The roles and tasks for all learners must be clarified to ensure that the goals are met.
• While it is necessary to have structure, an exchange of ideas is also needed to facilitate
the learning that may be gained in the process.
15.9 Limitations of multiskilling

Davids (2004:7) warns that in some roles, multiskilling may contribute to job content
being a succession of boring and tedious tasks. Multiskilling should rather be a strategy to
develop skills and encourage learning.
Care must be taken that the range of new skills makes a meaningful contribution to
overall performance of individuals in the particular role. Multiskilling should be consid-
ered as a means of enhancing job performance, rather that adding to stress levels of
incumbents and a short-term approach to saving costs. Where the skills added may con-
fuse and distract the individual because of an increased mental workload, concentration
and vigilance are likely to be negatively influenced, which may contribute to unsafe work
behaviour (Kroemer, 2009:239).
Specialist roles, requiring a particular focus. Are not suitable for consideration for
multiskilling initiatives. These roles often have particular responsibilities that cannot be
shared among others in a work team and have legal requirements and implications. The
roles are often repetitive, requiring concentration and focus on tasks for extended periods.
Here multiskilling may be seen as a solution, but it is not – the solution lies in the careful
management of human factors and ergonomics (Helander 2006:341).
15.10 Developing a competency model

To be able to develop the required competencies for the purpose of multiskilling employ-
ees, Champion, Fink, Ruggeberg, Carr, Phillips and Odman (2011:225–262 provide the
following helpful guidelines.
15.10.1 Consider the organisational context

The compactly model should be developed and designed to reflect the organisation where
the model reflects the context of the job and competencies required. The context includes
all the factors that are likely to influence and improve work performance, including
organisational culture, market customers, employee relations, union representation, and
challenges in management. The competency must be aligned to the strategy and promote
performance.
15.10.2 Link the model to organisational goals and objectives

Competencies must be linked to organisational goals and objectives by identifying the
knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAO) required to achieve the goals
and objectives.
15.10.3 Use job-analysis methods to develop competencies

Ideally, multiple methods should be used to gather valid and reliable information for this
purpose. A variety of methods should include subject matter expert (SME) interviews,
brain storming methods, focus groups and behavioural events interviews to gather infor-
mation.
15.10.4 Consider what it is that is to be achieved through multiskilling

Develop a model that will reflect what is required in the future, while considering any
challenges that may present themselves in the process. Consider what will change, what
will be different from what is done at this stage and what is required to enable the learner
to perform successfully. Have a view as to what will shape the job, what would the influ-
ence be of the developments suggested by strategy and what would be required to perform
in future. Align to the KSAOs already developed and identified. Work with a purpose in
mind for the position. Identify the main outputs for the position to which the competencies
will be linked.
15.10.5 Define the anatomy of a competency

Describe the competencies thoroughly by (a) providing a deceptive label or title; (b)
developing a definition, usually by a description on the job in behavioural terms; and (c) a
detailed description of the levels of proficiency on the competency. The more detail the
easier it is to find applications for the model.
15.10.6 Include generic and job-specific competencies

Where a rigorous analysis has been done, both generic and job-specific competencies will
emerge and should be included in the model.
15.10.7 An example of a competency model

Description of the elements and
Elements questions to elicit the required Example
information
The position This would be the potential position Secretary
that could be included in the
programme
Future forces What are the future forces that are This position is likely to be impacted upon
likely to impact on a position by the development of computer
This could be described as the technology; people being able to use their
technology, social issues etc. own personal computers; the changes in the
alternative work arrangements of people;
the electronic paperless office; the need to
provide superior service
Purpose The reason for a position; how can it To provide a service to the managers in the
be justified in terms of the strategy of form of diary management and making
the organisation travel arrangements
Performance What are the services or products Outputs are:
outputs required in this position; what needs • managed diary
to be delivered • arranged domestic trips
Knowledge This includes the underpinning For the output “managed diary”:
knowledge required to produce the • managers’ requirements
output • compute scheduling system
continued
Description of the elements and

Elements questions to elicit the required Example
information
Skill The skill required to produce the For the output “managed diary”:
output • scheduling skill
• computer literate or numerate skill
• time management
Attributes The attitudes or values required in the For the output: “managed diary”:
delivery of the output • service orientation
Other abilities Abilities that are typical difficult to For the output “managed diary”:
develop or not previously described none
To ensure the user friendliness of the profiles, behavioural indicators are added to de-
scribe the KSAOs in behavioural terms. These then become the criteria for the assessment
of learners in the process. For example:
Knowledge element Behavioural indicators

Knowledge Manager’s requirements • Arranges meetings after 9h00 in the
morning
• Arranges meetings after 12h00 if the
manager has been away on a trip
The assessment criteria in the standards that will be generated will have similar intentions,
but will be in a different format. They will also be more encompassing than the behav-
ioural indicators suggested here.
In the design of the learning programme, it is the performance in terms of behavioural
indicators that needs to be met to ensure satisfactory performance by the learner.
15.11 Developing a structured learning programme

At some level in the organisation it is often useful to include a structured programme so as
to monitor the progress learners make in the acquisition of new skills. This information
may then be aligned to the strategic needs of the organisation as well as the skills audit
within the organisation on a regular basis. One would expect that the development of
skills in the organisation would also provide information that would be useful in the
evaluation of formal programmes.
The programme design should indicate the following:
• outputs;
• customer requirements to be met per output; and
• knowledge skill or attribute and other abilities for each output.
Using the information generated in the model above, the following programme could be
developed:
LEARNING PROGRAMME
Learner’s name
Date
Output: managed diary
Customer Knowledge Skills Attributes Behavioural indicators
requirement required required required
• Schedule • Manager’s • Scheduling • Service Knowledge
appointments requirements skill orientation • Arranges meeting after
after 9h00 in the • Computer • Computer 9h00 in the morning
morning scheduling literate • Arranges meeting after
• No appointment system ornumerate 12h00 when the manager
for the first three • Time has been away on business
hours of the management Skill
morning after
• Schedule meetings to meet
manager
returning from a the need of the particular
trip appointments
• Uses the system on the
• Include time to computer to schedule
drive to out-of- meetings
office
• Co-ordinates written diary
appointments as
part of the with system diary
schedule • Writes accurate, detailed
notes for the manager as a
reminder of appointments
made on their behalf
• Allows time for the
manager to get to
appointments
Attitude
• Ask if there are any
appointments the manager
has made independently
• Updates diary or
co-ordinated diaries before
leaving in the afternoon
• Reminds the manager of
important appointments
Comments
Which criteria has been demonstrated by the learner?
[For inclusion in learning portfolio]
Which criteria require further development?
continued
Delivery of training
How or what knowledge or skills or Resources required or budget Time scale
attitudes will be transferred?
Agreed way ahead

[Date for next dialogue]
[Profile to form basis of development]
Progress on the programme would be an input into the skills audit that would follow, and
this would be compared and aligned to the needs of the organisation.
As part of the portfolio development, learners could include any other material that
would support their learning. The portfolio would also serve as evidence of the learner’s
competence. Ideally, the information captured in the portfolio should be captured in a
central system to enable the organisation to monitor the development of learners and to
have accessible information regarding skills in the organisation.
15.12 Documentation of a multiskilling programme

To ensure that multiskilling is implemented effectively, it is essential to design appropri-
ate documentation to use as a monitoring device when implementing a multiskilling
programme. To encourage a critical approach to skills development, the following ques-
tions may be used:
Multiskilling programme: Individual reflection and planning

Name:________________________
Date: ________________________
Training programme : __________________________
1 What can I do differently in my job once I have completed this programme?
2 In what other areas can the competence that I have acquired here be applied?
3 What is it that I can do now that I could not do before?
4 What do I need to do to link the skills that I have learned here to skills that I have acquired in
previous programmes?
5 How will I apply the skills that I have learned here?
6 Where do I see application for what I already can do?
15.13 Maintaining skill levels

Once skills have been developed, skill levels require maintenance, especially those skills that
are applied less frequently or those skills that are complex and detailed. Re-training of skills
on a regular basis is critical and in roles where certain skill sets are used less often, it is also
advisable to maintain skill levels in learners (Yentis, 2005).
15.14 Conclusion
The rate of change in the knowledge economy requires that organisations and individual
learners realise the importance of multiskilling in the workplace. By becoming
multiskilled, employees and managers will be in a better position to add value to the
activities of the organisation. However, multiskilling does not happen automatically – it
must be properly planned and managed to ensure its success. A process approach has been
outlined to contribute to the effective implementation of a multiskilling strategy. These
programmes help organisations to develop their human resources and improve the produc-
tive utilisation of employees to enhance business performance.
15.15 Case study

A company is in the timber and publishing industry. It has for many years done business locally.
Through a process of mergers and acquisitions, the company has grown into a major player at the
national level. With the organisation having outgrown its “local shoes”, it started considering op-
portunities at the international level. It acquires investments, which immediately grows its asset
base. It also realises that it needs capital to finance further investments. It finds that the South Afri-
can market cannot support its need for further expansion. It then applies for a listing on the New
York Stock Exchange.
With the listing on the New York Stock Exchange, fund managers monitor the progress of its
stock. Whereas in the past financial reporting was done annually, now it is done on a quarterly
basis. Management of the company is now keen to justify good quarterly results on a constant basis
so as to attract the interest in the shares as well as other investors. The company is also vulnerable
to mistakes made in ignorance that affect the results and are soon reflected in the quarterly perfor-
mance reports.
The managing director is concerned that people are not aware of the impact that they could have
on the performance of the company. Other strategies are in place after benchmarking the compa-
ny’s performance with similar organisations. She instructs you as an ETD practitioner to come up
with a solution to the problem, using multiskilling as a strategy. She also instructs you to take the
long-term view and not to adopt a quick-fix approach.
Questions
1 Identify the issues you need to take into consideration before embarking on the multiskilling
programme.
2 Who would you consult with to ensure that you have communicated the intentions of multi-
skilling effectively?
3 What other human resource management systems are likely to be impacted by using the multi-
skilling strategy and approach?
4 Imagine you need to make a presentation to the board. You are allowed 10 minutes. What
would you include in the overhead slides that you would prepare for the presentation to get
your part of the ETD budget to implement multiskilling in the organisation?
5 How would you implement multiskilling in the organisation?
6 What are your views on the need for skills development at the national level? What national
structures would support your initiative?

1 What is the thinking behind multiskilling? Why is it necessary?
2 What is the value of multiskilling to the organisation?
3 What is the value of multiskilling to the individual? What are the potential conse-
quences of not being multiskilled?
4 When should multiskilling not be considered?
5 In what ways could an organisation introduce multiskilling without formal (class-

room training) being required?
6 How does multiskilling and the concept of lifelong learning relate to each other?
7 What design issues need to be considered in the design of multiskilling programmes
to ensure that the “building blocks” of learning are accommodated?
8 Consider an entry-level learner into a work area where the learner has rudimentary
skills only. What are the different interventions one could consider in the manage-
ment or delivery of a multiskilling programme?
9 Design a structured learning programme for a school leaver that would enable them
to acquire the generic skills required to be accommodated in your organisation.
10 How would the concepts and issues mentioned impact on your organisation in terms
of structure, working in teams and remaining employable?
11 How can you apply the concepts to your working environment to ensure that you
remain employable and flexible to face the challenges in your field as well as in the
business world?
15.17 References
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management within the UK National Health Service”, http://www.shu.ac.uk/schools/
urs/ufmr/ed153-4a.htm.
Apgar M, 1998, “The alternative workplace: Changing where and how people work”,
Harvard Business Review May–June.
Baird I, Scheiner CE and Laird D, 1983, The Training and Development Sourcebook
Massachusetts: Amburst.
Bridges W, 1995. Jobshift – How to Prosper in the Workplace Without Jobs, London:
Allen and Unwin.
Bridges W, 1997, Creating You and Co: Learn to Think like the CEO of Your Own Ca-
reer, London: Nicholas Brealey.
Carnevale AP, Gainer LJ and Meltzer AS, 1990, Workplace Basics: The Essential Skills
Employers Want, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Campion MA, Fink AA, Ruggeberg BJ, Carr L, Phillips GM & Odman RB, 2011,Doing
competencies well: Best practices in competency modelling”, Personnel Psychology 64:
225–262.
Champy J, 1995, Re-engineering Management: The Mandate for New Leadership Lon-
don: Harper Collins.
Chang RY, 1996, Capitalizing on Workplace Diversity: A Practical Guide to Organiza-
tional Success Through Diversity, Irvine: Richard Chang.
Davids Z, 2004, Aspects of multi-skilling contributing to quality service provision within
academic libraries unpublished M Bibl dissertation: University of the Western Cape.
Davidson G 1999 “Multiskilling business workers” http://www.endevour.com.au/
Programms%2.../multiskilling%20Business%20Workers.
Downs S, 1995, Learning at Work: Effective Strategies for Making Things Happen Lon-
don: Kogan Page.
Helander H, 2006, A Guide to Human Factors and Ergonomics, 2nd edn, Broca Raton:
CRC.
Ivancevich JM and Matteson MT 1996 Organizational Behavior and Management, 4th
edn, Chicago: Irwin.
Kroemer KHE, 2009, Fitting the Human: Introduction to Ergonomics, 6th edn, Broca
Raton: CRC.
Lazaer H, 1999, http://www.genesco.edu/~stone/personnel/lec7.htm.
Longworth N and Davies WK, 1996, Lifelong Learning: New Vision, New Implications,
New Roles for People Organizations, Nations and Communities, London: Kogan Page.
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com.
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Educational Development, 2nd edn, London: Kogan Page.
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Institute for Personnel Management.
Schein EH, 1978, Career Dynamics: Matching Individual and Organizational Needs,
Reading, Massachusetts: Addison Wesley.
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Manual, Pretoria: Kagiso.
Veldsman T, 1991, “Multiskilling: Creating lean organizations”, Human Resource Man-
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Fact Sheet 240, People Dynamics.
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/crr_pdf/2001/crr01328.pdf
CHAPTER
16
CAREER MANAGEMENT
AND PERFORMANCE
Heinz Schenk
People expect more from work than a simple exchange of payment from their employer for
services delivered. Work plays a central part in most people’s lives and society, and conse-
quently it is important to understand what people think about their working lives and careers
and the things that matter to them.
(CIPD 2016)
Career survival in the twenty-first century requires, inter alia, commitment to skills
development and perpetual learning, which may be the only guarantee for employment.
(Schreuder & Coetzee 2016)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Understand the meaning of work and careers in the new world of work
• Discuss the impact of changes in the complex modern workplace on employment relationships,
the new psychological contract and career development practices
• Contextualise career management practices within the framework of integrated talent manage-
ment and strategic HRM systems
• Distinguish between the different roles and responsibilities in career development
• Motivate the selection of career development interventions appropriate to particular career stages
• Develop an action plan for the effective implementation of an orientation and socialisation pro-
gramme, a 360-degree feedback programme and a mentoring programme
• Discuss the importance of performance management to career development
• Relate the concept of integrated talent management to the various career development practices
focused on attracting, developing and retaining skilled employees towards achieving organisa-
tional goals
• Develop a strategy for designing and aligning a comprehensive career development programme
appropriate to new business strategies
407
16.1 Introduction
The introductory quotations illustrate the uncertainty and continuous changing nature of
the modern working environment that employees are faced with. Indeed, very few entrants
into the current world of work will have any illusions about things like long-term job
security, life-time employment with one organisation, a clearly defined path of progress-
ing through the ranks of the organisation and stability of required skills and competencies
in their chosen occupation. Yet less than two decades ago such expectations would have
been implicit for new job entrants and organisations readily took charge of managing the
unfolding career paths of their employees. What has happened in the world of work that a
virtual role reversal between employees and employers is taking place regarding the re-
sponsibility for career development?
A multitude of social, demographic and economic factors have caused the growing
demise of “regular jobs” and linear mobility up the career ladder within a single organisa-
tion. In this chapter some of these transformational changes that require the individual to
be increasingly self-reliant in their careers will be explored. However, even in an age of
unpredictability, rapid skills obsolescence, flat organisational structures with fewer work
opportunities and individuals being in charge of their own employability, employers and
the HRD professional have an important but changed role to play in supporting effective
career development that will enhance organisational learning and reaching strategic goals.
Closely linked to this role is the current emphasis of the importance of integrated talent
management as a primary driver of business success. We will briefly explore the linkage
between the concepts of career management, talent management and performance man-
agement to contextualise the often seemingly similar HR techniques utilised to align
organisational and individual outcomes in an employment relationship.
Whilst the field of career development is much too broad to cover within the scope of this
chapter, the applied practical orientation of the book determines the following focus areas:
• The exploration of the contemporary role of the HRD practitioner in career development
and what approaches and techniques are appropriate thereto.
• The linkage to talent management and organisational performance and individual
career success as outcomes of career development processes will also receive attention.
William Shakespeare wrote in his play As You Like It:
All the World’s a stage
And all the men and women merely players
They have their exits and entrances
And one man in his time plays many parts . . .
Indeed, the many organisational entrances, exits and roles to be played seem to define
modern so-called boundaryless, protean, and post-corporate careers, which manifest in
“entrances and exits” between jobs, companies, occupations and countries (Schreuder and
Coetzee, 2016: 55). This inherent mobility and turbulence is summed up by Kuran et al
(2016: 356) that it is a given “that contemporary careers emphasise the need for career
actors to play an active role in shaping their careers, and to be adaptive across organisa-
tional boundaries”. In order to make sense of the complexities of modern career manage-
ment, we set the stage with Figure 16.1, which is a visual representation of the concepts
discussed in this chapter and how they are interconnected in a framework of career theory.
As you progress through the chapter, the diagram should become the central frame of
reference for orienting yourself as a prospective or existing career actor in the HRM/HRD
profession.
Chapter 16: Career management and performance 409
Figure 16.1 A framework for contemporary career management
The principal themes in contemporary career theories and definitions of careers (see sec-
tion 16.2.1) are development over time, the relationship between the individual and the
organisation, and the internal or subjective approach (Coetzee and Schreuder, 2016;
Greenhaus et al, 2010).
The framework in Figure 16.1 specifically reflects the first two principal dimensions:
• The horizontal continuum of unique and shared responsibilities between employee
and the organisation in effectively managing the individual’s career (section 16.2.4).
• The vertical dimension of time progression. In career theory a well-established per-
spective is the conceptualisation of life-cycle and career-cycle models. Such models
propose a sequential progression through age-related phases and career stages, each de-
fined by a unique set of developmental tasks, relationships and issues to be confronted
(section 16.3).
Career development stages

The stages of entry, development or mastery and exit are traditionally linked to correspond-
ing phases of the adult life-cycle. However, modern trends of occupational and organisa-
tional mobility cause many individuals to experience such stages repeatedly during their
work life, multiple cycles of exploration, trial, establishment and mastery, wherein
they acquire new skills and competencies. Such career patterns are often called spiral and
transitory, where individuals make frequent lateral changes into new fields or occupations
(Hay, 2002: 54; Schreuder et al, 2016:311). Consequently, such career events are no
longer necessarily age-related and can be seen as distinct “interfaces” between the indi-
vidual and any organisation that is joined and left in the course of one’s working life
(section 16.4).
Career development processes

Career development helps individuals to realise their career objectives and includes indi-
vidual career-planning processes and organisational interventions focused on facilitating
the achievement of career plans (section 16.5).
Environment
Career development and performance management does not happen in a social vacuum
and the dynamics of an ever-changing world of work and tensions in the work-life bal-
ance will continuously influence these processes (section 16.2).
Outcomes of career development

The very reason for integrated career development is to maximise individual potential in
order for employees to contribute to organisational success. For the individual, outcomes
include career success, job satisfaction, personal fulfilment, organisational rewards and
stress, whereas desirable outcomes for the organisation would include the realisation of its
integrated talent management objectives, including performance/productivity, employee
engagement, talent retention, establishing a talent pool for succession planning, innova-
tion, organisational commitment and organisational learning (sections 16.2.2 and 16.8).
16.2 Career development in a changing world of work

Society in the new millennium is characterised by an ever-increasing pace of change in all
spheres of life. Global realities include burgeoning digital technology; a growing contin-
gent workforce; demographic upheavals, such as ageing work forces, uncontrollable
migration patterns and multi-generational workplaces; outsourcing of non-core activities;
mega-mergers and acquisitions; change from production-oriented to service-oriented
business; globalisation involving commerce that makes national borders almost meaning-
less; and huge staff reductions resulting from economic downturns and restructuring of
organisations (Bersin et al, 2016; Kaye and Smith, 2012; Nilsson and Ellström, 2012).
Well-known South African realities include workforce changes, skill shortages, employ-
ment equity drives, high unemployment levels, labour legislation, social unrest regarding
service delivery and education crises and rampant HIV/AIDS infection rates (Coetzee,
Roythorne-Jacobs and Mensele, 2016). Whilst for the individual these and many other
factors translate essentially into concerns about the availability of job opportunities and
career prospects, the continued currency of skills, loss of job security and promotional
opportunities, the questions for us are: how is the HRD practitioner affected by such trends
and what new practices are appropriate to guide effective career development and talent
management strategies.
16.2.1 The meaning of work and the new psychological contract

Although work still remains central to the economic well-being of most people, career
researchers concur that an evolving shift in the perception of work as a central life interest
has influenced contemporary career development theory to focus on how work fits into
peoples’ holistic life, what meaning they attach to their different work-life roles, and the
perceived value of outcomes or rewards of work (whether paid or unpaid) relative to the
outcomes of other life roles (Brown, 2016; de Vos and van der Heijden, 2015; Schreuder
and Coetzee, 2016). The meaning of work is influenced by different culture and world
views, and may vary from individual to individual according to their specific work and
career values. Such values represent the orientations of individuals regarding what out-
comes they desire from work and what specific preferences they have about job attributes.
(see also the concept of ‘career anchors’ in section 16.5.1).
Common work values found to influence the meaning of work for individuals include
advancement, material rewards, autonomy, social values and status, achievement, work-
place spirituality, meaning, relationships and work-life balance (Schreuder et al 2016:16;
Brown, 2016:56).
Surveys are regularly conducted by large consultancy firms to measure trends on what
people value most in their work environment in order to advise employers on appropriate
HR and reward strategies supportive of talent management goals and creating work
environments that are likely to attract and retain the best possible talent. See, for example,
the box ‘Why people work’ below.
Why People Work

Research by Deloitte found that talent retention and engagement is currently one of the most press-
ing concerns of global business leaders and an increasing investment is made in analytics to deter-
mine reasons for employees leaving and creating a work environment that is both attractive to high
value talent and supportive of creating high levels of performance and passion for reaching organi-
sation goals. Their 2015 research report on which a new model of fostering employee engagement is
based, identified five central elements and 20 supportive HR practices for creating an “irresistible”
working environment. The five elements and practices that are HRD/career management related are:
• Meaningful work;
• Hands-on management (clear goalsetting, coaching, modern performance management);
• Positive work environment (flexible work, inclusive and diverse work environment);
• Growth opportunity (training and support, facilitated talent mobility, self-directed learning); and
• Trust in leadership (mission and purpose, continuous investment in people).
Similarly the CIPD found in their 2016 Employee Outlook survey on employee views on working
life and their careers, the following ranking of top factors (breakdowns according to age, gender and
sector are addressed in the report):
• Job satisfaction;
• Work-life balance;
• People I work with;
• Meaning/purpose; and
• Wealth.
What about South Africa?

Career researchers recognise that career behaviour adapts to changing social, political and economic
contexts. Hence career concepts relevant to circumstances typical to Western countries may not be
directly transferable to the contexts of emerging markets (Arulmani et al, 2014; Horwitz et al,
2015). Post-apartheid South Africa has experienced significant political, social and economic
continued
change, and contextual aspects such as high unemployment, low GDP figures, social unrest, poverty
and inequality, positive discrimination laws, challenges in the entire education sector etc., create a
uniqueness of individual careers in South Africa (Horwitz et al, 2015:257). Some recent research
findings (Parry et al, 2015) suggest distinct differences between career transitions and desired out-
comes between older and younger generations affected by apartheid laws:
Young workers:
• Career transitions driven by job challenges, development opportunities, extrinsic rewards;
• Desired outcomes aimed at intrinsic rewards, such as work-life balance, knowledge and discon-
nect to family and community expectations;
• Higher levels of networking and mobility willingness.
Older workers:
• Cautious career transitions to access new opportunities in their current work environment due to
limited formal education;
• Desired outcomes aimed at gaining work, task and relational knowledge to compensate for lack
of formal qualifications;
• Maintaining loyalty and positive employer relationships for gaining and keeping jobs.
(Sources: Arulmani et al, 2014; Deloitte Review, 2015(16); CIPD Employee Outlook, 2016; Hor-
witz et al,2015, see references for full details)
The new work environment as discussed in section 16.2 is characterised by constant

change, uncertainty, and the lack of employment security and pre-defined traditional
career paths. It demands increasingly that employees assume responsibility for their own
jobs and careers and their own definition of career success as desired outcome of their
career behaviour.
From the employer’s perspective, the desired outcomes of investing in human capital
and its career development — i.e. organisational performance and learning, growth,
societal impact, sustainability., effective talent management and establishing a career
development culture in an organisation — requires the recognition of the challenges to
balance the needs and interests of the organisation and those of the individual employees.
The maintenance of such a balancing act in the 21st century employment relationship
requires a constant negotiation process and partnership arrangement that is not only
defined by written legal employment contracts and collective bargaining agreements, but
increasingly by the psychological contract.
Psychological contracts constitute the subjective and unwritten understandings and in-
formal obligations between an employer and its employees regarding their mutual expec-
tations about respective inputs and outcomes of how each will perform their respective
roles. Its essence is related by Schreuder et al (2016:84) as: “employee’s perceptions of
entitlements or expectations (what they think the company owes them) and obligations
(what employees think they owe to the employer)”.
Although the concept of the psychological contract was already described and advanced
by organisation theorists such as Edgar Schein and Chris Argyris in the 1960’s, renewed
current interest was stimulated by concerns about increasing job insecurity and impacts of
global trends, such as the ‘War for talent’ and turbulent business environments, on attract-
ing and retaining the best talent.
Its increased relevance in today’s workplace relationships is informed by constant

changes and uncertainties in contemporary business environments, making it difficult for
employers to make future promises to their employees and hence, frequent revisiting of
the psychological contract is required.
Research indicates that a positive psychological contract supports employee’s job satis-
faction, commitment, trust in the employer, level of engagement and intention to remain,
psychological well-being and ‘over-and-above’ organisational citizenship behaviour
(Schreuder et al, 2016).
A perceived violation of the psychological contract on the other hand is likely to impact
negatively on levels of job satisfaction, employee engagement, well-being and employee
turnover.
Establishing a positive psychological contract demands from employers to ensure that
trust is maintained and actions are taken to communicate and clarify what is on offer, to
ensure that commitments are met, to regularly monitor employee attitudes and respond
relevantly and in the event of a breach, to explain what went wrong and what remedial
action is being taken (CIPD, 2016 b).
16.2.2 Defining the “new” career

Careers have been studied from many theoretical perspectives and different meanings are
often assigned to the concept. Scholarly views on the ‘traditional career’ that is character-
ised by long-term tenure in a single or a small number of organisations, linear upward
career advancement and employees exchanging their commitment and loyalty for job
security, have shifted to a paradigm of “new careers” that exhibit high levels of mobility,
short-term career horizons and employees exchanging their efforts for the organisation’s
investment in their individual employability (Kuron et al, 2015).
Contemporary literature (Brown, 2016:8; Schreuder and Coetzee, 2016:60; Swanepoel
et al, 2015:399) appears to agree that the most useful way of defining the concept of
career is to view it as “the evolving sequence or pattern of a person’s work experiences
and the meaning the person attaches to these experiences during the course of a lifetime”.
This definition is broad enough to cover elements of today’s career realities.
• Lateral rather than upward career moves have become more prevalent as a result
because of:
– there being fewer hierarchical levels limiting promotional opportunities;
– re-engineering and retrenchments that increase competition for fewer jobs;
– technological changes requiring frequent re-skilling;
– the increasingly collaborative nature of work which takes place in a greater range of
locations (central offices versus remote locations); and
– technological changes requiring frequent re-skilling.
• Career success is defined in objective terms (e.g. rewards, progression, status) as well
as in subjective terms, which are equated more with inner fulfilment, attainment of
marketable skills and amount of learning achieved.
• Employability is replacing employment as the source of security. Individuals need to
enhance, broaden and update their skills continually in order to remain valuable to their
employer or to be marketable for new jobs with their current employer or with new
organisations in the event of restructuring.
• Individuals have to take ownership of their own careers and development, with em-
ployers empowering them by providing resources, a supportive environment and en-
couragement. This process, through which the individual rather than the organisation is
shaping his or her career and redirecting it from time to time to meet own needs even
across organisations and different occupational fields, has been termed by (Hall and
Mirvis, 1995:333) a protean career.1 Such careers are self-directed and driven by the
individual’s own values.
• Any work that is pursued over an extended period of time, regardless of whether one is
paid or unpaid or performs the work as a core employee or as part of a growing contin-
gent workforce (contract, temporary or casual), can constitute a career. The increasing
use of project-team and cross-functional-team approaches has, together with the in-
creasing number of tasks being contracted to contingent workers, given rise to the no-
tion of portfolio careers in which individuals develop a portfolio of skills that they sell
to a range of clients.2
16.2.3 Talent management: the strategic context for career development

In keeping with the strategic focus of the book, we need to briefly look at the place of
career management in the context of overall strategic HRM systems. The need for inte-
grating HRM systems with the strategic direction of an organisation is generally accepted
and career management as one of these HRM systems needs to be embedded in HRM
strategy in support of overall organisational effectiveness (Greenhaus et al, 2010:382–
384). This view is also adopted in the South African National Standards for HRM, with
the clear linkage of career management practices to the framework of Talent Manage-
ment, which in the SABPP HRM System Standards Model is defined under standard
element2 as:
“the proactive design and implementation of an integrated talent-driven organisa-
tional strategy directed to attracting, deploying, developing, retaining and opti-
mising the appropriate talent requirements as identified in the workforce plan to
ensure a sustainable organisation.” (SABPP, 2013)
The visual representation of the SABPP strategic talent management process provides the
orientation for where typical career management practices would be contextualised in a
talent management system.
________________________
1 Named after Proteus, the Greek god who could change shape at will.
2 For overview of trends in changes in the workplace and career landscape see, for example, Schreuder
and Coetzee, 2016, chapter 2, and Greenhaus et al, 2010, pp 4–18.
Figure 16.2 SABPP Strategic Talent Management Process
Talent Leadership & Talent needs

Management Labour Long term talent
key analysis (from
philosophy, market demand/supply
competencies Workforce
principles & analysis forecast
frameworks Plan)
approach
Talent review
Long term talent
(what have we got Gap analysis
demand/supply
and will talent be
forecast
ready in time?)
Talent management Talent management

System Interventions Strategic Talent
Gap analysis (Job profiles, skills audits, development (how/where to source, Management
plans, succession plans, career pathing, on-boarding, accelerated
talent reviews, communication strategy) development, links to
performance
management and reward)
Source: (SABPP, 2013)

In essence, it is argued by HR managers that HRM systems of workforce planning and
staffing, performance management, learning and development, employee relations, and
organisation development should focus on using the organisation’s human talent for com-
petitive advantage.
In our new knowledge society organisations increasingly find their competitive advan-
tage in the creativity and talent of their human assets. We often see and hear the reference
to a “war for talent” and surveys show that HR executives consistently highlight their
single greatest challenge as creating and maintaining their companies’ ability to compete
for talent.
Limited consensus exists about the single definition of the concept of talent manage-
ment, but from a comprehensive literature review on behalf of the SHRM Foundation,
Tarique and Schuler (2012:10) identified two dimensions representative of a common
focus of talent management:
• Employees with high and/or critical levels of talent (e.g., knowledge, skills, and abili-
ties) that add value to the organisation; and
• Complementary international human resource management policies and practices that
are used to manage employees with such high and/or critical levels of talent.
Based on this insight and the broad SABPP definition, the following roles are to be
performed by HR in the talent management process (Armstrong, 2014:269; Tarique and
Schuler, 2010:21):
• Attracting: HR policies and practices that ensure recruiting and selecting good quality
talent;
• Developing: HR policies and practices that provide opportunities for growth and
career-related competencies to talented individuals.
• Rewarding: HR policies and practices that assist attraction and retention and recognis-
ing excellence and achievement;
• Retention: HR practices that prevent talented individuals from leaving the organisation;
• Mobilising: HR practices that facilitate the movement of talented individuals across

regions or countries).
Fulfilling these roles requires supporting systems, and the linkage of talent management
objectives to career development practices will become evident in the next sections.
Figure 16.3 Process of career management (adapted from Armstrong, 2014:272)
HRMHRM
Strategy
Strategyand
and Career Management
Career Management PoliciesPolicies
(How
(How HRMand
HRM systems systems
policies areand policies
integrated to ensureare
that Integrated to the
the organisation has ensure that
flow of talent
the organisation has the for itsflow
needs) of talent for its needs)
Demand/Supply
Demand / Supply
Forecasts
Forecasts Talent Audits
Talent Audits
Performance and
Performance and
Potential
Potential CareerPlanning
Planning
Assessment
Assessment Career
Succession
Succession
Planning
Planning Development Processes
Development Processes
and
andProgrammes
Programmes
After having been attracted to join an organisation through aspects of reward levels,
perceived opportunities, benefits, working environment, etc, an employee’s decision to
remain or leave the organisation will typically be related to career possibilities as well as
how he or she can become better prepared to move to other opportunities. The aim of
career management within a talent management perspective is thus to plan and shape the
progression of the employee within the organisation in accordance with, firstly, the organ-
isational needs and goals and, secondly, the employee’s performance potential and per-
sonal preferences and aspirations. Figure 16.3 illustrates the process of career management
as an integral part of key strategic HRM processes.
16.2.4 The new meaning of career development

Despite the shift in ultimate responsibility for career development, the value of investing
in comprehensive career development processes is still widely recognised by organisations
and informed by talent management needs such as to attract and retain high performing
employees, the need to instil a mind-set of continuous learning and to improve employee
satisfaction with opportunities for career growth.
Kaye and Smith (2012) state that for such companies career development is not a pro-
gramme but a process that integrates and supports ongoing activities, maximising the value
of on-the-job experiences with training and development opportunities. Career develop-
ment expands career options through challenging job assignments combined with educa-
tion and training and involves employees by getting their input on their career interests
and expectations. Empowerment and placement are focused on maximising potential and
providing opportunities to contribute to the company’s success for as long as possible.

Success is determined by attracting, retaining and fully utilising talented and innovative
employees while simultaneously satisfying their personal agendas.
Whilst there is a strong linkage between the concept of career development and employee
training and development, the former focuses more on the long-term effectiveness and
success of employees and also addresses the dynamic changes that will take place over
time (De Cenzo , Robbins and Verhulst, 2016:196).
Food for thought for career development in South Africa

The following are excerpts from reported dynamics in the SA working environment. What chal-
lenges arise for the HRD practitioner from these?
Blocking the graduate talent pipeline?

Raging debates and social unrest on the issues of free university education are currently pitting
various sectors of South African society against each other and compel the country’s leadership to
find solutions to structural problems and inefficiencies related to addressing issues of inequality,
funding, sustainability and governance of the SA education sector.
Statistics presented in a cover story by the Financial Mail on the issue indicated a 4% success rate
on the ‘pipeline’ of students entering school and graduating from university.
4 complete a degree within 6 years of matric

6 get some undergraduate qualification
12 access university (9 immediately, 3 go later)
37 pass matric (14 with bachelor

passes & 13 with diploma passes)
60 write matric (grade 12)

100 start school
(Source: Financial Mail “Free university education”, 2016, October 13, p.20)
Careers in Career Development

In response to (1) recognising that the field of career development in SA is currently ‘weakly pro-
fessionalised’ and (2) a greater awareness of the potential of career development services in alleviat-
ing labour market challenges related to the transition from school and university to the workforce
and unemployment, the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) published in 2015
the Competency Framework for Career Development Practitioners in South Africa. This forms part
of policy makers’ envisaged framework to establish quality career development services in all sec-
tors and industries.
The DHET recognises that “currently in South Africa, as in many other countries, career develop-
ment services are provided by practitioners with varying levels of skills and knowledge to a broad
range of client groups in diverse settings such as schools, tertiary institutions, government services
and community organisations”.
continued
Although there is no registered qualification for Career Development Practitioners yet, it is

acknowledged that “Career development as a profession has linkages into other occupations. Profes-
sionals in these related occupations may wish to register as a CDP and to specialise in the area of
skill that they already possess. This would require them to demonstrate the core competencies and
then receive recognition for the areas that they wish to specialise in provided they have a related
qualification or experience, whichever is applicable. In some cases a CDP may wish to specialise in
a field unrelated to their current field of work or expertise and in such cases they will need to ac-
quire the necessary skills, knowledge, attitudes and values.” (DHET, 2015:12)
Talent management for people living with disabilities?

Accommodating people with disabilities in the workplace has been a slow process and greater effort
should be made to develop a more diverse, inclusive workforce in South Africa. According to Exec-
uTrain, ‘[d]isability awareness in the South African workplace is poor, with both employees and
employers not doing enough to cater for the needs and sensitivities of the disabled’. The term dis-
ability is just another in a long list of words that can be used to box people and separate them from
the rest of society. Along with race, culture and gender, disabilities differentiate people and often
place them at the back of the line in terms of recruitment.”(C Payle, 2016)
The Association of Persons with Disabilities in Port Elizabeth estimates the employable population
of persons with disabilities (age and ability-wise) to be at approximately 50% — this estimates the
employable percentage to be approximately 2.8% of the population. Why then is the number of
people with disabilities employed 0.8%? Regarding the statistics on people with disabilities in the
country and the workplace, Isaac added:
“The statistics on persons with disabilities are not comprehensive, as most of them do not focus on
all the types of disabilities. Relying on Census 2011: Profile of Persons with Disabilities in South
Africa by Statistics South Africa, 7.5% of the country’s population live with either seeing, hearing,
communication, remembering/concentrating, walking or self-care disabilities.
Of this 7.5%, persons with physical disabilities constitute 2.5% – this is inclusive of people from the
age of 5 to 85 years and above. In the labour market, only 19% of people with disabilities were
employed while 35% of persons without disabilities were economically active.” (Career Guidance
for People with Disabilities, Hippo, 2016)
Despite attempts to integrate disability into the broader policy arena, there is currently no national
policy on disability to guide education and training institutions in the post-school domain. The man-
agement of disability in post-school education remains fragmented and separate to that of existing
transformation and diversity programmes at the institutional level. Individual institutions determine
unique ways in which to address disability, and resourcing is allocated within each institution ac-
cording to their programmes. Levels of commitment toward people with disability vary considera-
bly between institutions, as do the resources allocated to addressing disability issues. TVET
colleges in particular lack the capacity, or even the policies, to cater for students and staff with
disabilities. (DHET, 2013)
(Sources: http://www.skillsportal.co.za/content/employees-disabilities-strengthen-companies;
Career Guidance for People with Disabilities blog Posted by Hippo on 3 February 2016
www.hippo.co.za; http://www.skillsportal.co.za/content/25-population-disabilities-are-employable);
DHET, 2013, White Paper for Post-school Education and Training www.dhet.gov.za)
16.2.5 Responsibilities in career development

Who then are the role-players in this new process and what respective parts do they play?
Even though the move to self-reliance appears to diminish the responsibility of the organ-
isation in career development, both the manager or supervisor and the organisation (and
by implication the HRD professional) have important roles to play in the support for
employees to continually improve or add to their skills and knowledge. Table 16.1 sum-
marises some of the roles in progressive career development.
Table 16.1 Roles in career development
Different responsibilities in career development

Individual Manager Organisation
• Accept ownership for career • Understand employees’ • Create an environment
development goals and support their where continuous learning is
• Know yourself and under- development responsibilities valued and rewarded
stand the factors that shape • Establish and communicate • Provide professional HRD
and influence career choices job requirements and resources and specialist
• Help to establish and meet responsibilities expertise for development
performance objectives of • Match team members’ programmes, training and
the current job competency profiles to task education
• Keep knowledge and skills requirements and create • Provide realistic job pre-
current, particularly those opportunities for varied and views, performance appraisal
that are transferable across challenging on-the-job and feedback mechanisms,
organisations experiences and flexible career paths
• Become versatile by • Coach employees by listen- • Provide a clear and thorough
balancing specialist and ing, clarifying and defining succession plan for managers
generalist competencies their career concerns and other key positions
• Build and maintain a net- • Clarify performance • Communicate business
work of contacts, including standards and provide mission, objectives and
social media platforms honest ongoing performance future strategies so that
(eg, LinkedIn, Tribe.net, feedback employees can realistically
Facebook) • Conduct career development plan to share in that future
• Communicate career discussions, provide realistic • Ensure integration of career
interests and developmental feedback on career development components
needs with the manager aspirations and refer with comprehensive HR
employees to available systems
• Make maximum use of organisational resources
feedback, developmental • Allow time and provide
opportunities and support resources to enable em-
programmes ployees to learn
• Enhance employability • Train managers in coaching,
through teamwork- mentoring and performance
orientation and own image management skills
management • Give employees the oppor-
tunity to transfer to other
office locations domestic or
international
• Retraining of displaced
workers in event of down-
sizing
Source: Based on De Cenzo et al (2016); Greenhaus et al (2010); Bohlander and Snell (2013:199).
16.3 Career stages

Career development is commonly viewed as a series of stages that individuals pass through
in the course of their working life. This perspective draws from a wealth of research on
adult development and departs from the assumption that career events can be related to
chronological age. Generally, there are four distinct career stages, each with its unique
concerns, needs and challenges, related to three adult life stages (see Figure 16.3).
These career stages, namely establishment, advancement, maintenance and disengage-

ment, are distinguished through psychological factors that, together with social factors,
are usually typical of certain times of one’s life. Traditional linear career models tie the
four career stages to chronological age, but current thinking recognises that career changes
and events can take place at any point throughout an individual’s life (Schreuder and
Coetzee, 2016: 239).
From a practical perspective an understanding of career stages can help both the em-
ployee and the organisation to anticipate likely challenges and crises and thus plan pro-
actively towards interventions that can resolve or minimise them in a way that will both
meet the individual’s and the organisation’s needs and goals.
The HRD practitioner needs to understand that the progression through stages is only
by approximation and any group of employees you may target for a developmental inter-
vention in either the entry, mastery or exit interfaces, may have a mix covering the full
spectrum of adult life stages. For example, a counselling or orientation workshop may
include 20-year-old first-time work entrants as well as seasoned veterans that have been
active in a number of occupations and organisations.
This is mostly connected to trends related to the changing world of work (see section
16.3).
• Many individuals change their occupations in the course of their working life.
• Career success and achievement is defined in terms of level of preparation for the next
job or career, sense of personal fulfilment and balance between work and personal life.
• Individuals may enter through the career stages several times.
Figure 16.3 Relationship between career stages and life stages
Establishment Advancement Maintenance/ Late-career/

Developing ideas Increasing Mid-career Disengagement/
about field of competence and Maintaining Decline
occupational choice accepting productivity and Remaining
Selecting appropriate challenging established position productive
first job assignments in the face of Maintaining health
Coping with competition from and emotional well-
Learning job, others
organisational rules conflicting work and being
Career stage
and norms family pressures Reaffirm or modify Adjusting to

(socialisation) Pursuing the “dream” career goals changes concerning
Developing (major life goals) Keeping up with one’s spouse
self-reliance and change or adapting to Preparing for
Making an impact on new tasks and
identity one’s environment effective retirement
activities
Developing Dealing with socio-
Establishing worklife emotional losses
awareness of career
balance
anchor
Coping with “midlife
crisis” issues
Sustaining
employability
Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late adulthood
Life stage
(18–39) (40–60) (60+)
Source: Nelson and Quick (2006); De Cenzoet al (2016); Schreuder and Coetzee (2016).
16.4 Linking career stages to development interventions

For the HRD practitioner practical relevance of career stage knowledge is found in the
linkage to appropriate interventions. This is an essential component for a full integration of
career development into the broad HR system (see section 16.9 for a practical example).
Table 16.2 Linkage of development interventions to career stages
Intervention Description and purpose Career stage

Self-assessment
tools
Career-planning Individual and/or group activities aimed at self-assessment Establishment
workshops experiences and getting to know one’s own skills, interests, Advancement
values, preferences, decision-making styles and goals.
Information can be used by individuals to discover infor-
Self-paced mation on “who am I” questions to make their own assess-
workbooks ment on realistic career planning.
One-on-one counselling by managers, HRD professionals All stages
or external counsellors provides support, feedback and
advice to individuals on significant career events that
Individual require some action from them, for example pre-retirement
counselling counselling and outplacement counselling for retrenchees. Establishment
Internal staffing Activities and material (for example, videos) aimed at
Realistic job providing accurate information (positive and negative) on
preview work requirements to prevent unrealistic expectations All stages
Job postings Organisation publishes information on all vacant or new
positions on internal media bulletin boards, intranet, etc
to attract internal applicants and convey the message that Advancement
careers are open to all. Maintenance
Skills inventory Usually a computerised database containing employee’s
details relevant to internal employment opportunities.
On-boarding / Used for forecasting skill imbalances in the organisation Establishment
Induction and matching competencies with job requirements for Advancement
assembling effective cross-functional teams.
Career path Providing members with carefully designed sequence of All stages
planning and work assignments leading to career objectives or target
fast tracking positions.
Performance Continuous joint planning of performance goals, evaluation
management and providing knowledge about member’s career progress
and work effectiveness.
360-degree Process of multi-rater assessment (self, manager, peers, and
feedback direct subordinates) providing confidential feedback on gap
analysis between self-perception and perception of others.
Coaching Process of analysing performance and conditions under Establishment
which it occurs and communication between member and Advancement
supervisor to solve problems and empower employee
towards effective performance.
Multi-exercise process of evaluation by group of trained
assessors to select and develop members mainly for
managerial jobs.
continued
Intervention Description and purpose Career stage

Organisational Exercises include simulations, interviews, psychometric Establishment
potential assess- tests and group discussions to assess potential for advance- Advancement
ment ment.
Assessment centres Process of rating members on their likelihood of being suc- Establishment
cessful in jobs requiring skills they may not yet use. Results Advancement
are not made known to member.
Promotability Potential evaluation and “grooming” processes aimed at Advancement
forecasts senior management positions. Maintenance
Succession
planning
Developmental Provision of training and education opportunities that help Establishment
programmes members achieve their career goals. Advancement
Developmental
training
Mentoring Linking of a less-experienced protégé with an experienced Maintenance
mentor for the development and career support of the Establishment
protégé.
Job rotation and Interventions of providing access to new and more Advancement
multi-tasking challenging work experiences in other jobs or project teams Maintenance
that enable members to expand their repertoire of skills and
experience.
Tuition Programmes of financial support and time-off for members Advancement
reimbursement to pursue usually work-related learning experiences and Maintenance
and educational additional formal qualifications. Some large organisations
assistance have their own corporate universities.
Dual-career Interventions aimed at the particular problems of dual- All stages
programmes career members towards assisting them in finding satisfying Advancement
assignments, for example, relocation assistance and Maintenance
employment assistance for spouses during transfers,
family day-care centres and flexible working hours.
Employee assistance Programmes of professional psychological, social and All stages
programmes (EAP) counselling services aimed at preventive and remedial
interventions for dysfunctional career events. These can
range from stress management to treating substance
dependencies.
Pre-retirement Programmes that help members prepare for the transition Maintenance
workshops from work to non-work. Disengagement
Phased retirement Programme of part-time work for older members to Disengagement

gradually devote less time to the organisation and more
to leisure pursuits.
All stages
Support in getting a job somewhere else, resumé prepara-
Outplacement
tion, providing outplacement consultant services
Source: Adapted and expanded from Cummings and Worley (2014); Werner and De Simone (2011).
16.5 Organisation entry

The entry stage is typically the point where an individual starts a new job. Irrespective of
whether it is the first time round for the young inexperienced worker or a repeat entrant who
has made a radical transition, both will face similar challenges and unrealistic expectations
in the new organisational environment and both will have to be socialised in becoming
effective members. Before we explore socialisation and orientation as entry stage HRD
challenges, a quick glance is made at the concept of career choice. Even though it techni-
cally falls in the pre-entry phase, the trend of radical career changes and rapid technological
obsolescence makes it necessary for the HRD practitioner to be conversant with interven-
tions related to career choice processes.
16.5.1 Career choice

The concept of career choice addresses the career orientations, preferences and decisions
of people over their working lifespan, and the match between their individual characteris-
tics (e.g. personality traits, aptitudes) and aspects of work (Coetzee and Schreuder,
2016:474).
De Cenzo et al (2016) describe the best career choice as the one that results in a se-
quence of positions that give the individual opportunities for good performance, high
work satisfaction and a desire for maintaining a commitment to the field.
What options are available to facilitate the process of making this “best choice” for a
career in which the individual will fit?
The most important prerequisite for making an effective decision for yourself or some-
one else, is the gathering of as much information as possible about the person’s interests,
aptitudes, values and skills. A multitude of standardised psychometric assessment instru-
ments are available for this purpose, including:
• Aptitude tests that measure specific skills and proficiencies or the ability to acquire a
certain proficiency
• Achievement tests that assess present levels of developed abilities
• Interest inventories such as the Strong Interest Inventory, Kuder Occupational Interest
Survey and the popular Self-Directed Search (SDS) based on Holland’s theory of career
development
• Personality inventories with the Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF) and the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) probably being the most widely used
• Values inventories that measure work values and values associated with broader aspects
of lifestyle
• Career maturity inventories that measure an individual’s career development and evalu-
ate the effectiveness of career education programmes
• Computer-assisted career guidance typically comprising on-line self-assessment instru-
ments.
(For a full discussion of the application of these instruments in career choice see, for
example, Zunker, 2016 chapter 6, chapters 4 and 6 of Schreuder and Coetzee, 2016, and
Greenhaus et al, 2010.)
The utilisation of psychometric instruments typically falls in the domain of the profes-
sionally trained and certified psychologist or HRD practitioner.
One further concept that finds common application in career planning is that of career
anchors. Edgar Schein describes career anchors as an occupational self-concept that de-
velops through a continuing process of discovery and learning about one’s talents, abilities,
motives, needs, attitudes and values. The dominant career anchor is that pivot around
which a person’s career swings and the central value that one will not give up if a choice
is to be made (Schein: 1996).
The anchors are identified as: autonomy, security or stability, technical-functional com-
petence, general managerial competence, entrepreneurial creativity, service or dedication
to a cause, pure challenge and lifestyle.
Once the process of identifying and organising your skills, interests and values is com-
pleted, this information needs to be converted into general career fields and specific job
goals to narrow it down to a limited set of occupations that interest you the most.
Finally, these career possibilities need to be tested against the realities in your organisa-
tion or the general job market.
16.5.2 Organisational socialisation

Organisation entry means that a newcomer has to make the transition from outsider to
effectively functioning insider. Naturally such a transition is stressful to any individual
and support mechanisms are necessary for successful entry.
Organisational socialisation entails the achievement of full membership through the
understanding of the organisation’s policies and procedures and sharing of its major
values.
Managing the process begins even before the first day at work through the recruitment
and selection process. In order to prevent the common “reality shock” that newcomers ex-
perience as a result of unmet or unrealistic expectations, realistic job previews, providing
accurate information about the job and the conditions under which it is to be performed,
should be provided.
Newcomers to an organisation typically undergo a formal orientation or induction pro-
gramme (the term “onboarding” has become popular in this context) to familiarise them
with company policies, rules and procedures and with their job duties, responsibilities and
performance expectations (see chapter 12). Other suggested organisational actions (see
Noe et al, 2015:332; Greenhaus et al, 2010: 207–215) towards effective orientation
programmes are:
• the inclusion of sufficient informal on-the-job interaction with experienced colleagues
• early opportunities for learning about other areas of the organisation and enabling the
development of networks
• providing early job challenges
• establishing formal mentoring relationships
• encouraging employees to ask questions
• giving new employees’ supervisors the responsibility for orientation and providing them
with guidelines and checklists on steps to follow in the process
• providing information on both technical and social aspects of the job and about the
organisation’s products, services and customers
• providing frequent and constructive feedback.
16.6 Development or mastery

The mastery stage comprises the separate stages of advancement and maintenance. The
advancement stage has traditionally been associated with achievement and success meas-
ured in terms of the level of advancement up the corporate hierarchy. On the other hand,
the maintenance stage typically involved a period of reassessment of one’s career, often
reaching a plateau from which the likelihood for increased responsibility was diminished.
These stages can no longer be clearly associated with any specific age, since phenomena
such as plateauing and skills obsolescence (see section 16.6.5) frequently occur much
earlier, and the rung of the career ladder no longer defines success.
From the organisation’s perspective the mastery stage is all about maximising perform-
ance and continuous learning as the single source of competitive advantage. The main
avenues for facilitating employee performance and progress are thus to provide appropriate
developmental experiences and effective career programmes that expand on the definitions
of advancement and offer diverse sets of career paths. For example, without vertical mobil-
ity due to flatter organisation structures employees need lateral experiences that promise
challenge and growth (Athey, 2007).
Let us now explore some of the developmental interventions that reflect current best
practices.
16.6.1 Performance management and 360-degree feedback

Performance appraisal has been established as one of the most widely used management
tools3 Performance management is aimed at fostering mutual understanding between
managers and employees about what is required from the employees and providing
feedback on how well the expected job goals have been achieved. A multitude of different
appraisal systems and formats have evolved in pursuit of greater effectiveness.
Over the past few years multi-rater 360-degree feedback systems have become common
for providing individuals with a clear view of their performance at work. Opinions are
gathered from the person being assessed and from his or her peers, subordinates and man-
ager and grouped together to give a full picture covering different aspects of expected per-
formance factors. Some of the benefits of 360-degree feedback systems are:
• that individuals receive feedback from a range of people at different levels
• the confidentiality of ratings, which encourages feedback providers to give honest feed-
back
• that feedback is provided against a competency standard or questionnaire as opposed to
a vague set of guidelines
• that they reveal information not normally captured by other methods
• that they can provide a strong incentive for self-directed learning and development
• that they are often the top-level manager’s only source of feedback.
Disadvantages of these systems include the complexity and cost in time and effort of in-
volving a large number of people and the possibility that some respondents may be
________________________
3 In the South African context the 2010 Cranet/Unisa survey indicated that whilst formal performance
appraisal systems are a widely used HR practice (80% of respondent companies), only about 20% of
these had some form of multi-rater or 360-degree systems in place (Grobler and Wärnich, 2010).
encouraged by their anonymity to contribute malicious and undefended negative ratings

(Price, 2011:424).
16.6.2 Mentoring and coaching

Unlike traditional forms of training that focus on the general transfer of knowledge and
skills, mentoring and coaching focus on the unique skills, capabilities and learning style
of an individual. As such, mentoring and coaching provide a “just-in-time” approach to
learning aimed at boosting performance and employee commitment (Athey, 2007).
Mentors are typically experienced and knowledgeable senior employees who take an
active role in guiding another, less experienced individual (protégé). Mentoring can be
either voluntary and informal or involuntary and formal. Both approaches have been
shown to have beneficial effects in individuals’ careers, but research seems to suggest that
informal mentoring yields more benefits than formal mentoring programmes (Gomez-
Mejia et al, 2010: 317; Greenhaus et al, 2010:213).
However, the quality of the relationship is the critical factor in determining success.
Cascio (2013:386) emphasises that mentoring relationships have a greater impact on
career attitudes than whether the mentoring was formal or informal. His assertion that bad
mentoring may be worse than no mentoring at all, should compel organisations with
formal programmes to create mechanisms that allow for the development of mutually
supportive bonds between mentors and protégés.
A mentor’s role is twofold: first, providing career development behaviours such as
coaching, challenging assignments, sponsoring advancement and fostering the protégé’s
visibility; and secondly, providing psycho-social support such as counselling, friendship
and role modelling.
Mentoring is, however, not an all-or-nothing relationship, nor is it static in nature. Some
or all of the roles may be provided and they change since the purpose of the relationship is
to enable the protégé to acquire new knowledge, skills and standards of competence.
Typically there are four phases in a mentoring relationship (Aldag and Kuzuhara, 2002):
• Initiation, a period of 6 to 12 months where the relationship begins to take on import-
ance for both individuals and where the mentor coaches, provides challenging work
and visibility
• Cultivation, a phase of 2 to 5 years where the mentor emphasises career-related and
psycho-social functions
• Separation, a phase that starts once the protégé asserts autonomy and independence or
external circumstances such as promotion or transfers lead to the relationship becoming
a less central part of their work lives
• Redefinition, a phase characterised by friendship on more equal footing and continued
informal contact and mutual support.
Coaching is a term often used almost synonymously with mentoring. Both concepts entail
developmental relationships that may use similar skills and techniques, but they may be
broadly distinguished in terms of scope and duration (McBain, 2004). Mentoring focuses
on longer term development and typically covers a wider territory, whereas coaching is
seen as focusing on current performance improvement and the development of definable
skills. Coaching is a form of on-the-job training, using work to provide planned opportu-
nities for learning under the guidance of a line manager or an external third party such as
a consultant or executive coach. Meyer and Fourie (2004:5) identify the following key
components of coaching:
• It is a systematic and planned process of guiding individuals towards goal achievement
• Direct guidance is provided by the coach
• Specific skills are developed
• Skills are applied and implemented in the workplace
• Clearly defined performance outcomes need to be achieved over a short period of time
Executive coaching as an intervention to help senior managers achieve higher levels of
performance is a growing international trend that is also being adopted in South Africa
(Naude, 2002). Such interventions are usually done by professional mentors and coaches
who help top executives create their own insights and self-awareness. The role of the
coach is to help interpret feedback from 360-degree appraisals and assist the executive in
devising strategies to overcome developmental gaps and achieve desired changes in
behaviour (Schreuder and Coetzee, 2016:436).
Challenges of Mentoring Programmes in South Africa

In a recent review of mentoring programmes Abbott and Beck found that mentoring is not always
living up to expectations due to some flaws in the design and implementation of the programme,
resulting in mentoring not being widespread, perceptions of programmes not really working and
lacking top management support and programmes simply fading away.
In their assessment the authors conclude that most flaws can be addressed by assuring that pro-
grammes address the important requirements related to the following six International Standards for
Mentoring Programmes in Employment (ISMPE 2009):
1. Clarity of purpose of the programme;
2. Stakeholder training and briefing;
3. Process for selection and matching mentors and mentees;
4. Process for measurement and review of programme results/outcomes;
5. Maintaining high standards of ethics;
6. Recognising the critical role of programme coordinators in administration and support.
On their experiences of stakeholder training the authors relate:
“The critical stakeholders in a mentoring programme are the mentors and mentees. Yet, most often,
they are not trained in mentoring skills. This results in mentees not understanding what mentoring is all
about and how to take responsibility; and so they remain passive recipients in the mentoring process.
Mentors also complain about mentees with a ‘victim mentality’ and an ‘I want’ attitude. The reality
here is that this further reinforces the already serious levels of dependency and highlights the potential
from the mentor’s perspective of operating out of a deficit thinking attitude.”
What are your views on addressing such a scenario in the workplace?
(Sources: Abbott, P and Beck, P 2016, Why are Mentoring Programmes in South Africa not Deliv-
ering? http://www.humancapitalreview.org/; Abbott et al 2010, see references)
16.6.3 Succession planning

Succession planning is focused on the selection, development and promotion of the organ-
isation’s future leaders in order to ensure availability and continuity of high-talent man-
agers that can meet the business challenges ahead. Succession planning can range from
fairly simple systems to highly sophisticated and comprehensive systems of collating and
maintaining documented data on the management hierarchy and tracking the implementa-
tion of succession plans.
Traditionally succession planning involved the steps of defining succession requirements,

keeping an inventory of talent, assessing capabilities and development needs, planning for
succession and development actions and the implementation of these plans. More recently,
however, the process of developing the organisation’s future leadership in changing and
turbulent times has been refocused to become more integrated, focused on various pos-
sible positions and aligned with team concepts. Thus, the new emphasis is on talent pools,
dual career paths (specialist versus generalist) and cross-functional competencies rather
than positional requirements. The seven critical cross-field outcomes of the NQF clearly
support this notion.
16.6.4 Career-planning workshops

Career-planning workshops are probably the most popular form of employer-sponsored
career-support programmes. They usually involve individuals actively in the processes of
individual assessment (through psychometric instruments and self-paced workbooks),
work-related environmental assessment, reality-testing of acquired perceptions in group
discussions, goal-setting exercises and developing action plans (Schreuder and Coetzee,
2016:445–450).
16.6.5 Interventions dealing with plateauing and stress

An individual has reached a career plateau when the likelihood of opportunities to progress
further up the organisational hierarchy are limited. With the trend towards flat organisa-
tional structures plateauing confronts the vast majority of employees at some point in their
career. This limitation on further advancement may not be due to lack of potential or per-
formance but for reasons beyond the individual’s control (Schreuder and Coetzee, 2016:
332). In the South African context a relevant example is the effect that affirmative action
policies may have on the career advancement of white males.
The reaching of a plateau may be due to a variety of factors, such as lack of ability or
training, low need for achievement, individual needs and preferences, stress and burnout,
or slow organisational growth limiting developmental opportunities.
Plateauing only becomes dysfunctional if the individual perceives it as an obstacle to
further personal growth and such frustration leads to poor attitudes and diminished per-
formance.
Appropriate interventions would depend on the underlying cause of the plateau and
could thus range from career counselling, training and re-skilling to job rotation.
Where the underlying cause may be related to stress and burnout, interventions such as
preventive stress management, role clarification, supportive relations and health and fit-
ness interventions would be appropriate.
A further career issue that limits career advancement and indeed employability is the
phenomenon of obsolescence. This refers to the lack of appropriate skills to remain an
effective performer in either current or future jobs. Technological changes and process
re-engineering increase the risk of obsolescence and the only viable remedy is the continu-
ous learning of both individuals and organisations.
16.7 Organisation exit

Job termination is the characteristic of the organisation exit stage. It can be a planned
permanent disengagement from work life on reaching retirement age, or a temporary
voluntary exit at any time in one’s career when an appointment in a new organisation is
taken up.
Termination of employment is currently more often than not due to reasons other than
poor performance or discipline. Job loss, as involuntary withdrawal from the workforce,
increasingly results from poor economic circumstances and downsizing due to corporate
restructuring, takeovers and mergers.
Job losses are often traumatic events that have a major effect on the emotional well-
being of the affected individual and their families. The impact of staff reductions through
layoffs is twofold from a career development perspective: not only is support and assist-
ance necessary for those who have lost their jobs, but interventions are also required for
the ensuring of continued performance and commitment of those that remain. For the latter
group, it would be appropriate to engage in comprehensive communication campaigns to
provide “survivors” with realistic information about their future in the organisation.
In preparation of retrenchments, outplacement services should be provided, including:
• Prior warning and explanation of the reasons for retrenchments
• Psychological, career and financial counselling
• Skill and interest assessment
• Interview training
• Assistance in job-hunting and résumé writing skills.
Changing demographics such as an aging workforce and a declining economy that causes
many people to see their savings and pensions disappear with their retirement dreams,
keeps employees longer in the workforce than predicted. Adjusting learning strategies and
career interventions to a larger component of older workers is thus being required De Vos
et al (2015:274) state in this regard that people living in healthy conditions for 80–90
years, as data on longevity and health improvement is suggesting, are likely to require a
re-definition of working life-seasons and career steps, blending education, work, parent-
ing and leisure across a longer period of life.
16.8 Dealing with flexible work practices

In response to forces such as globalisation, economic volatility and new technology, many
contemporary organisations have sought to remain competitive by flexibly adjusting
available internal and external labour resources to market supply and demand with min-
imal disruption to the production process.
At the moment a debate is raging in the South African labour market about appropriate
regulatory reform, with labour organisations advocating a traditional employment structure
favouring permanent full-time employment and the abolition of labour-broking and organ-
ised business supporting an increase in flexible work patterns (self-employment or casual,
contract or short-term work).
Whilst labour market flexibility remains a controversial topic (it is a given that many
organisations now have three types of employees, namely core, contract and temporary).
As Thite (2001:314) notes, it is clear that the career needs of these employees will vary
widely. Core employees may primarily look for employability and a stable career environ-
ment, whereas professional contract employees may prefer to have opportunities to work
with emerging technologies and be remunerated at a premium. For temporary employees
the emphasis may fall on flexible hours and opportunities for permanent employment. The
point for organisations is that although all three classes of employees have a common
need for developing “employable skills” no single approach of career development will
satisfy the divergent needs.
Other changes in the modern workplace also put pressure on employers to provide flex-
ibility in the structuring of the traditional employment relationship. Such changes result in
a blurring of the line between work and non-work time, creating stress and personal con-
flict and leading to increasing demands for a work/life balance that will allow for time to
fulfil personal commitments to spouses, children, parents, friends and community roles.
Examples of such changes include:
• Change in the nature of work itself, for example, rise of service sector and decline of
manufacturing jobs, work having to be carried out faster, employees of global firms that
operate across many time zones being “on call” for colleagues and customers virtually
for 24 hours a day
• dual-career couples and two-breadwinner families becoming the norm rather than the
exception in our modern society
• technological changes in digital communication, social media platforms and IT allow-
ing people the flexibility to work anytime from any place (but also making it difficult
to escape from a constant connectivity)
• increasing congestion of transport facilities creating commuting nightmares.
It is anticipated that organisations that fail to assist their employees in achieving work/life
balance will be less able to attract and retain the most capable and motivated talent.
Responsive employers have devised various flexible work practices (non-traditional
work arrangements) that include examples such as flexible working hours, part-time work,
working from home, job sharing, part year employment and career breaks.
Work/Life Balance Programme at Telkom

In 2005 Telkom pioneered and implemented a full lifestyle management centre called Telkom
Touch. Telkom Touch is an innovative work/life balance programme, which facilitates a compre-
hensive lifestyle management service for employees at every level within the company. The pro-
gramme offers Telkom employees a virtual “personal assistant” via the call centre, internet or
intranet that can facilitate any service request to assist Telkom employees to maintain a work/life
balance and to manage their day-to-day family and work responsibilities.
The value proposition of the programme relates to amongst others:
• Productivity gains, as employees can focus on their jobs and do not have to take time off to at-
tend to personal matters;
• Attraction and retention, by offering desirable lifestyle benefits such as flexible work arrange-
ments and the freedom to use social media at work that are focused particularly on new genera-
tion employees (X,Y, Millennials); and
• Enhanced motivation to work for a caring employer.
In 2012 the programme gave employees access to 10 types of services, including financial/debt
counselling and legal assistance, as approximately 12% op employees had garnishing orders against
them. This is augmented by a financial management training course which employees are now able
to attend to help them manage their own financial situation.
(Sources: Telkom Integrated Annual Report 2012 www.telkom.co.za; http://www.ee.co.za/article/
telkom-work-life-balance-boosts-productivity-and-employee-relations.html)
16.9 Designing and aligning a comprehensive career development

system
The fundamental requirement for an effective comprehensive employee and career devel-
opment system is close alignment with the organisation’s overall business strategy and
goals. Such a system needs to provide separate but integrated processes for driving indi-
vidual performance as well as the short-term and long-term development of all em-
ployees. It also needs to help employees adapt to increasing change and to create a culture
of continuous learning.
Furthermore, career management programmes need to be integrated with other HR
management systems forming part of an overarching talent management strategy that will
ensure the unrestricted flow of appropriately qualified and experienced employees from a
diverse talent pool. Kaye and Smith (2012:55) stress the need for such an integrated pro-
gramme:
If a well-designed career development effort is seen as central, it can give deeper meaning to
the variety of talent management activities in the organisation, thus strengthening the human
resource links within the organisation. An integrated effort between the organisation and the
employee can go a long way toward achieving the partnership. By understanding the expect-
ation of the enterprise, employees can be encouraged to be creative and assertive in how they
apply their strengths and subsequent development. Furthermore, by understanding the position
of the employee, the organisation can leverage the skills, desires and passions that the em-
ployee is looking to unleash in ways that directly support the strategic goals.
The application of “best practice” design principles is illustrated in section 16.10.

The following two examples illustrate how different organisational strategies in different
sectors have been translated into progressive career management systems. The two exam-
ples are in respect of two companies that consistently feature in the list of Top Companies
to Work For, derived from the annual survey conducted by the international Top Em-
ployers Institute.
Unilever South Africa is one of the largest FMCG companies in South Africa, with over 3500 em-
ployees based across two offices and five manufacturing locations.
At the 2015/16 Awards, Antoinette Irvine, Human Resources Vice President – South and Southern
Africa, enthused:
“Being certified the 2015/16 Top Employer in South Africa and Africa, for three and two years respec-
tively, further demonstrates that Unilever provides an environment where our employees can thrive and
achieve great things. Unilever has some of the best HR practises and as an organisation we pride our-
selves in providing current and prospective employees with an employee value proposition that differ-
entiates us and attracts talent.”
Interventions that contribute to the success of the organisation include:
• Creating optimal employee conditions to ensure that employees develop themselves personally
and professionally;
• Offering employees flexible and agile working patterns;
• Employees enjoy international careers;
continued
• Mentorship programmes;
– A highly-regarded graduate recruitment programme;
– Driving the gender and racial balance agenda across the business; and
– Offering a world class leadership development curriculum.
Of particular note is Unilever’s Graduate Programme, which is designed to develop business leaders
of tomorrow. The Unilever’s Future Leaders programme (UFLP) aims to provide the graduates with
on-the-job training and includes rotations within and across functions in an accelerated learning
environment. This includes international stints, extended leadership engagement, mentoring, formal
training and professional development.
Rotations in the HR function comprise:
Rotation in Business Partnering:
help create and implement HR strategies that are aligned to key business initiatives. This includes
talent management, driving a performance culture and capability building.
Rotation in HR Services:
understand HR policies, systems and operations. Monitor and manage service levels to ensure cus-
tomer expectations are met.
Rotation in Expertise:
gain an in-depth understanding of Talent, Learning, Organisational effectiveness and Reward.
Rotation in Factory HR:
help implement HR strategy that’s always aligned to Unilever’s business strategy while gaining
experience in employee and industrial relations. This also includes talent and performance man-
agement and capability building.
(Sources: Unilever is #1 top employer in Africa again, press release, www.unilever.co.za/
news/press-releases/2016/; Unilever Future Leaders Program https://www.unilever.com/careers/
graduates/uflp)
The career management system at Microsoft SA is integrated into a comprehensive talent

management and illustrated as follows:
The software giant Microsoft was rated the best employer in South Africa for 2011/12 in the annual
Best Employers Certification Index.
Microsoft’s stated mission is to make great software and help businesses and people to realise
their potential. Its greatest advantage is seen as its ability to attract high-quality, smart people, who
are passionate about their work. On the other hand Microsoft is highly demanding of its people and
the environment is challenging with a rigorous performance culture. Its People Value Proposition
contains five elements, that is, Performance Management; Reward Opportunity; Career Develop-
ment; Management Excellence and Enhanced Workplace.
Jabulani Ndlovhu, HR Director of Microsoft SA, said that “Our people and their potential are key
to our vision. We look for people who are extremely passionate about technology and its ability to
change the way the world lives and works. We have been incredibly successful in keeping our
people vigorously engaged in this purpose” (2012).
• In attracting talent a long-term view is maintained: ‘we don’t recruit for the immediate job, we
recruit for the next three jobs’.
• The management career model includes a dual career path, that is, a professional (individual con-
tributor) path and a managerial path. Capitalising on its IT prowess, a sophisticated online tool
(“career campus”) enables staff to explore their own competencies. Furthermore, an “exploring
management programme” is offered, after completion of which staff can opt in or out of the
management path.
continued
• The integrated talent management cycle is closely linked to performance management and re-
ward and recognition practices. The annual cycle comprises an annual performance review dis-
cussion and a mid-year career discussion.
• Microsoft has a competency-based entry process and, depending on their level, employees
undergo career development inductions to focus on the period ahead.
On talent management Theresa McHenry, Microsoft’s acting HR director, stated that
In difficult economic conditions making bad recruitment and retention decisions might be the
difference between success and failure. Effective talent management needs to embrace a core
set of principles;
• Know your business strategy and align your talent development strategy to it
• Get your hiring right, the right skills for now, the right potential for the future
• Maximise career opportunities
• Give people the best managers you can
• Measure and reward great people managers
• Be an ‘authentic’ employer.
(Sources: Top Employers Institute www.topemployers.com, 2012; “Microsoft rated as SA’s best
employer for 2011”, www.bizcommunity.com; McHenry T, 2008, “Talent management: Upwards is
not the only way forward”, 17 October 2008, www.bizcommunity.com.
16.11 Conclusion
Career management today is vastly different from the practice that was appropriate a gen-
eration ago. South African companies need to adapt to an increasingly competitive busi-
ness environment and unique national trends and workplace dynamics. Some of these
challenges and their implications for comprehensive career development need to be ex-
plored fundamentally before sound practice can be established and the proactive HRD
practitioner will need to create new knowledge and technologies in contributing to the full
realisation of human potential in the workplace. Some of the evolving challenges to be
addressed include the alignment of continuous learning and career development to the
emerging NQF, extending appropriate development programmes to increasingly diverse
and contingent sectors of the organisation’s workforce and to build internationally com-
petitive capacity in a competency-starved national human resource.
In this chapter the redefined roles and career development responsibilities in employ-
ment relationships and how contemporary best practices in career development can be
made relevant to the different stages of employees’ careers have been explored. The align-
ment of interventions into comprehensive systems together with the centrality of perform-
ance and continuous learning have been presented as the golden thread that links the
achievement of individual career goals to organisational strategic objectives and talent
management in progressive companies.
How does your career as an HRD professional fit into this new scenario? Koonce (1998:
14) offers this perspective on the issue:
The good news is that there’s likely to be an escalating demand for your services. That’s be-
cause training and knowledge transfer are part and parcel of continuous learning and success-
ful reengineering and restructuring efforts in any organisation. The downside is that you must
assume more responsibility for upgrading your skills and competencies than did previous gen-
erations of HRD professionals. You’ll need to reinvent your role and redirect your career tra-
jectory every few years as your job’s skill requirements change, as the demands and definition
of training changes, and as your organisation goes through change.
16.12 Case study

Career management in the Public Service was a severely neglected Human Resource practice and
consequently it has been given specific prominence in legislation and national policies relating to
HRM in the Public Service. According to section 13.1 of the White Paper on the Transformation of
the Public Service, the development of effective and life-long career development paths for all pub-
lic servants should be undertaken as part of a strategic framework for effective HRD. The White
Paper on Human Resource Management in the Public Service furthermore provides that career man-
agement procedures, linked to a performance management system, should be developed on the basis
of specific principles.
Given this imperative, the Public Service Commission conducted an investigation into existing
career management practices. The 26 national departments and eight provincial administrations
were investigated and the findings were tabled in the 2000 Report on Career Management in the
Public Service. The findings were not encouraging and reflected the true state of previous neglect.
Only three national departments, the SA National Defence Force, SA Police Service and the Depart-
ment of Public Works were found to have implemented formal career management programmes.
Reported reasons for the non-existence of career management programmes included high work
pressure, backlogs in work, high number of vacancies, lack of expertise, career management not
being considered as a priority, outdated organisational structures, lack of a unified policy framework
and even resistance from line management.
How then were careers being managed in the absence of formal programmes? The following
practices were reported:
• by employees themselves
• by managers in an informal manner
• as part of systems designed to enhance competency and evaluate potential
• as part of a mentor or protégé programme
• by completing and signing career path agreements prior to employees attending courses
• career counselling provided by the HRD component.
The few departments that had formalised their career management programmes reported the exist-
ence of the following supportive practices:
• a departmental training and development policy or strategy
• performance management
• job descriptions
• affirmative action objectives
• the use of a pro-forma instrument to facilitate career management.
The report concludes with the remark that “organisations, including public services, are expecting
employees to assume greater responsibility for their own future as well as for their organisation’s
success” (54).
In March 2011 the Department of Public Service and Administration (DPSA) released the draft
Guide on the Practice of Career Management in the Public Service for comments. This guide aims
to provide departments with practical guidance on the implementation of career management; and to
sensitise employees, supervisors and managers on their roles and responsibilities pertaining to
career management.
Sources: Report on Career Management in the Public Service (2000);
www.dpsa.gov.za/dpsa2g/documents/ep/2011/15_04_2011_guide.pdf
continued
Questions
1 Critically motivate whether you think that a single uniform career management programme
would be suitable for all national departments.
2 A number of practices supportive to career management were found at the three departments
that had implemented formal programmes. Give reasons why you think such practices may
facilitate career development. What other prerequisites are there for implementing a successful
career development programme?
3 Download the Practice Guide from www.dpsa.gov.za/dpsa2g/documents/ep/2011/15 04 2011
guide.pdf. What comments would you provide to the DPSA after critically evaluating the guide-
lines against best career management practices?
4 The DPSA invites you as an HRD consultant to a strategic planning retreat to make a submis-
sion on macro-environmental changes in the working environment that may impact on public
service delivery. Write the outline of the main points you would include in your presentation.
5 Do you think that successful career management practices in the public service would be differ-
ent from those in organisations in the private sector? Motivate your views.
6 You are tasked with addressing a group of new public service recruits during a formal orienta-
tion session on career development practices and how they fit together into a comprehensive and
integrated whole. Provide an outline of your presentation and a schematic diagram that can serve
as a handout to the newcomers.
16.13 Learning points

• A career is the evolving sequence or pattern of a person’s work experiences during the
course of a lifetime.
• The responsibility for managing a career belongs mainly to the individual. The organ-
isation’s role is to provide resources, information, developmental opportunities, a sup-
portive environment and encouragement to the employee.
• The reason for career development is to maximise individual potential in order for em-
ployees to contribute to organisational success. For the individual career development
practices create career success, job satisfaction, personal fulfilment and organisational
rewards. For the organisation, career development practices facilitate performance and
productivity, availability of needed talent, higher employee morale, organisational com-
mitment and organisational learning.
• The aim of career management within a talent management perspective is to plan and
shape the progression of the employee within the organisation in accordance with, firstly,
the organisational needs and goals and, secondly, the employee’s performance potential
and personal preferences and aspirations.
• A career generally progresses through the four distinct stages of establishment, advance-
ment, maintenance and disengagement, which can normally be linked to adult life stages.
• Optimal career choices are those that result in a sequence of positions that give the
individual opportunities for good performance, high work satisfaction and a desire for
maintaining a commitment to the field. Career choice can be facilitated by a variety of
psychometric tests and knowledge of one’s career anchor.
• The main difference between career development and employee training and develop-
ment interventions lies in their time frames. Career development focuses on long-range
career effectiveness and the success of organisational talent.
• Mentoring and coaching entail developmental relationships that may use similar skills
and techniques, but are differentiated in terms of scope and duration. Mentoring focuses
on longer term development, whereas coaching focuses on current performance im-
provement and the development of definable skills.
• A career plateau refers to a limitation on further vertical advancement for organisational
or personal and performance reasons. Plateauing only becomes dysfunctional if the
individual perceives it as an obstacle to further personal growth and such frustration
leads to poor attitudes and diminished work performance.
• Work/life balance and flexibility in the workplace become important career concerns.
Organisational responses include flexible work practices, which refer to non-traditional
work arrangements that allow employees to remain productive and match their needs
with those of the organisation.
• An effective comprehensive career development system must be closely aligned with
the organisation’s overall business strategy and goals. It needs to provide separate but
integrated processes for driving individual performance as well as the short-term and
long-term development of all employees. It also needs to help employees adapt to in-
creasing change and to create a culture of continuous learning.

1 Describe the role of the HRD practitioner in contemporary career development prac-
tice.
2 Discuss the new meaning of career development. What macro-environmental influ-
ences have shaped new career patterns and how do they relate to talent management?
3 Who are the different stakeholders in career development? Contrast their respective
roles.
4 At what stage are you in your own career? Discuss the most appropriate interventions
if you had to design your own career development plan.
5 Your company has never had a formal orientation programme for new recruits. Make
a written proposal to the HR director on the benefits of such a programme and how it
could be implemented effectively.
6 Develop a plan on how to replace your company’s old performance appraisal system
with a 360-degree feedback programme.
7 How can mentoring and coaching benefit South African organisations?
8 Prepare a presentation to top management on how to design and implement a pro-
gressive career development programme for your organisation.
9 What do you think will be the impact of the NQF on career development in South
African organisations?
10 What challenges do flexible work patterns pose for career development programmes?
16.15 References
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360-degree Feedback: http://360-degreefeedback.com
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CHAPTER
17
HUMAN RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Marius Meyer
TQM offers a significant opportunity to HRD departments in many organisations.
(Elaine Biech)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Interpret the principles of quality management
• Differentiate between traditional management and quality management
• Develop a quality management implementation strategy
• Indicate how the HRD function should align itself with a quality management strategy
• Examine the role of quality assurance and HRD in relation to the NQF
• Demonstrate an understanding of quality assurance in terms of the QCTO
• Develop a quality management system for training in an organisation
17.1 Introduction
Any organisation that changes from traditional management to a quality management phil-
osophy is embarking on a road to organisational transformation. This fundamental form
of transformation requires the creation of a new organisational culture, one that will be
significantly different from the way things have been done before. If quality becomes the
focus of the way things are done, then continuous improvement will form the cornerstone
of the new management system. Improvement means change, and change is effected by
acquiring and applying new knowledge, skills and values. The role of training is therefore
441
indispensable, specifically to support the company’s quality management strategy by cre-

ating organisation-wide competence and commitment in this area.
Quality management for the purposes of HRD can be approached from two perspect-
ives. Firstly, whatever the legislative environment, HRD can learn from the quality pro-
cesses and systems typical of a production or service approach in an organisation striving
to achieve quality for its customers. Secondly, there are several statutory requirements in
terms of HRD quality as prescribed in skills development legislation and in particular by
the three quality councils, Umalusi, Council on Higher Education, and the Quality Coun-
cil for Trades and Occupations (QCTO). Thus, there are four approaches to quality man-
agement:
• The traditional production approach focuses on building quality into all phases of the
production or service process until a quality product is delivered that is controlled prior
to release to the customer.
• International standards are globally accepted standards that have become the norm
world-wide, normally through a global standards-generation process by a standards body,
such as the International Standards Organisation (ISO).
• National HR standards are specific standards generated for the HR function of a country,
such as the standards developed by SABPP used by South Africa, Zimbabwe and Swazi-
land (see full set in chapter 14).
• HRD quality refers to a formal quality management approach for a country’s HRD
system used within economic sectors, occupations or within organisations. The QCTO
system used in South Africa is a good example of HRD quality.
For the purpose of creating a quality management system, this chapter will focus predomi-
nantly on the HRD quality approach, while integrating this approach with the other three
paradigms, thereby ensuring that a holistic and integrated approach to HRD quality is
achieved.
Up until now SETAs have been responsible for the quality assurance of providers and
have used clear quality assurance mechanisms for the monitoring of providers. For in-
stance, SETAs and other quality assurance bodies, such as the Pharmacy Council and
SABPP, have clear criteria for monitoring providers. In future, the QCTO is expected to
play a stronger role in driving quality assurance in different occupational fields and sectors.
This chapter discusses how this change in HRD quality can be effected. A process-
approach to implementing a quality management strategy will be postulated. Particular
emphasis is placed on the role of the HRD function in contributing to quality management
in accordance with NQF, SAQA and QCTO quality principles, guidelines and regulations.
17.2 Principles of quality management

A quality management system is a system designed to manage the continuous improve-
ment of all processes in an organisation in order to meet customer expectations. Quality
cannot be achieved on a company-wide basis if it is left to the experts such as quality con-
trollers, engineers and production managers. Traditionally, quality has been regarded as
being the responsibility of the quality control department. South African companies have
not yet recognised that many quality problems originate in the administrative and service
departments, such as the human resource or administrative departments.
Chapter 17: Human Resource Development quality management 443
Various terms have been used to denote the notion of quality management, such as total
quality management (TQM), continuous improvement, and business process re-engineering
(BPR). At the core of all these systems is the principle of quality. For the purpose of sim-
plification, the term “quality management” will be used in this chapter.
Quality management encompasses a number of essential principles that are interde-
pendent and must be integrated in a holistic manner to optimise organisational perform-
ance. These principles can be summarised as follows:
• All processes focus on delivering quality products and services to meet customer ex-
pectations, both internally and externally.
• Processes and sub-processes are continuously improved.
• There is an active search for the root causes of problems in the system with an empha-
sis being placed on preventing these problems. The aim is zero defect.
• Decision-making at all levels is based on an analysis of data using statistical measure-
ment techniques.
• All people are empowered and developed to play an active role in delivering quality
products and services.
• A high-performance organisational culture emerges from teamwork, inter-departmental
co-operation and a flat organisational structure. Vertical and functional boundaries are
thus eroded. This requires sound customer-supplier relationships which are both internal
and external to the organisation. Everyone is a customer as well as and a supplier both
inside and outside the company, depending on one’s particular role at a given time.
• There is a strategy in place to actively pursue local and international best practices.
From the above principles, it can be deduced that South African companies need to radic-
ally rethink the way in which they conduct business. When managers move from man-
aging people to managing quality, their whole perspective changes. They realise that their
function is to manage and improve processes, and not to control people. Instead, they focus
on how work flows through the organisation to deliver quality outputs that customers will
value. Table 17.1 summarises the differences between traditional management and quality
management.
Table 17.1 Differences between traditional management and quality management
Traditional management Quality management

• Bottom-line driven • Customer driven
• Measuring individuals • Measuring processes
• Management controls workers • Self-control
• Quality is the responsibility of production • Quality applies at all levels of the company
managers and quality controllers
• Individuals are concerned about doing their • Individuals work in teams to make the total
own jobs process function in a better way
• A competitive organisational culture • A quality organisational culture reinforces
reinforces individualism both individual and group contributions
• Maintaining the status quo • Continuous improvement
continued
Traditional management Quality management

• React to problems when crises occur • Preventative
• Maintained by the power, position and status • Maintained by a documented quality system
of management (ISO 9000)
• Emphasis on management-subordinate • Emphasis on customer-supplier and
relationships management-employee relationships
• Employees are blamed for errors • Errors are part of the process and the
system to be corrected
• Functional departments promote their own • Inter-departmental co-operation focuses on
interests quality products and services
• Vertical and horizontal boundaries • All barriers to performance are eliminated
• Employees satisfy management needs • Employees satisfy customer needs
• Adversarial industrial relations • Collaboration and constructive industrial
relations
Source: Meyer (1998).
From the above table, it is clear that quality management requires a paradigm shift in the
way companies are managed. HRD practitioners need to take cognisance of quality man-
agement principles in their day-to-day operations. This will not only help them promote
quality in their organisations but also assist them in ensuring that training strategies meet
the requirements of SAQA and the QCTO.
17.3 Implementation strategy

A strategy to implement quality management is part of the strategic management of an
organisation. It is therefore important to view quality management from a strategic point
of view, because quality management should be linked to the long-term objectives of a
company. A comprehensive process approach to implement quality management is there-
fore provided in Figure 17.1.
Figure 17.1 Implementation plan for a quality management strategy
Management Meeting
Management Training
Strategic Planning P
R
E
P
A
Form Quality Council R
I
N
G
Culture Assessment
F
O
R
Communication Strategy Q
U
A
L
Organisation Wide Training I
T
Y
Form Quality Teams
Training of Teams I
M
P
L
E
Problem Identification and Improvement Techniques M
E
N
T
Change Management I
N
G
T
Audits and Reviews Q
M
17.3.1 Phase one: management meeting

A management meeting must be convened in which a decision is taken to implement a
quality management system. The benefits of this system for the company should be clearly
indicated, for example, increased business performance as a result of customer satisfac-
tion and process improvement strategies. The CEO must reassure management that com-
prehensive training and support will be provided to ensure that quality management is
successfully implemented. This will mean that HRD staff should be well-trained to assist
in this important intervention.
17.3.2 Phase two: management training

The implementation of a quality management strategy starts at the top and filters down
the organisation. The same approach applies to quality training. The senior management
of a company must learn about quality and how to implement and lead improvement
strategies. After all, they cannot drive quality systems if they do not have the required
knowledge and skills. The purpose of top management training is to provide senior man-
agers with the opportunity to learn about quality so that they will be able to prepare and
assist the rest of the organisation in implementing quality management. This training will
help them to develop a quality policy and system and to develop quality objectives, strat-
egies and plans.
The training of senior management often poses some problems. Sometimes senior man-
agers resist training because of their high level in the organisation. Senior managers
believe that they are successful and well-educated, and they are therefore reluctant to
receive training. The planning of a quality training intervention is thus vital. The follow-
ing guidelines can be followed when planning senior management quality training:
• Select a consultant who is an expert in facilitating quality management interventions to
conduct the training and to facilitate the quality management process implementation.
• If the company has a quality manager and quality controllers, involve them in all aspects
of the planning in order to ensure a holistic approach to training.
• Invite additional speakers in the field of quality management who are specialists on
selected quality management subjects such as process improvement and quality manage-
ment systems.
• The objectives of the training intervention should be stated in clear, tangible and results-
driven outcomes, for example, to create a quality vision to improve customer satisfac-
tion and competitiveness.
• Plan an experiential learning approach whereby quality concepts are discussed followed
by real-life application, for example, developing a quality policy.
• Liaise with the marketing or sales manager and production manager to obtain infor-
mation on the company’s competitive position, customer satisfaction levels, costs of
non-conformance and employee satisfaction. This information can be used to obtain
management buy-in and commitment to a quality management system.
• Collect thought-provoking articles about other companies where quality management
has been successfully implemented and disseminate this information to managers as
pre-work for the training session. This will stimulate their thinking about the import-
ance of quality to the company in a competitive business world.
The training of managers should, however, not be restricted to senior managers. Middle
managers will be responsible for the day-to-day implementation of quality management
strategies in their departments. The training intervention should equip them with knowledge
so that they will embrace the quality philosophy and strategy and commence with the pro-
cess of continuous improvement in their departments.
Managers are often educated and trained in the traditional control management style, as
indicated in Table 17.1. They therefore lack skills to manage a quality management
system in which employee empowerment and teamwork pose a perceived threat to their
traditional position of authority. It is therefore imperative that the training intervention
addresses their concerns and expectations and obtains their understanding and commit-
ment.
A team approach to the design and presentation of the training can contribute to the suc-
cess of middle management training. The team should consist of one or two senior man-
agers, other line managers, the quality manager, as well as the quality consultant. Middle
managers need to hear directly from top management about their commitment to the
quality management system.
The content of middle management training should focus on an understanding of quality
principles, quality strategies and process improvement techniques. The vision and object-
ives of the company in terms of the quality system should also be covered during the
training session. The session should be concluded with the development of specific action
plans for implementing quality management in the workplace.
17.3.3 Phase three: strategic planning

If quality management is implemented as a quick-fix approach, it will definitely fail.
Rather, a planned and purposeful approach is needed, in other words, a strategic manage-
ment perspective. Quality management must be integrated in the strategy of the organisa-
tion in order to ensure long-term sustainability and cultural change. Oakland’s (1995:323–
329) seven steps for integrating quality management into the strategy of a business can be
used for this purpose.
• Gain commitment through organisation of the top team A broad review of the organ-
isation and the changes required by the management team is imperative. This can be
done by promulgating a policy statement on quality management, indicating the need
for quality management, the approach to be followed as well as the responsibilities of
the various role-players.
• Develop a shared vision of the change required A quality management vision must be
created by top management. This vision should focus on regarding the organisation as a
system and managing the system to improve the quality of the organisation’s processes,
products and structure in order to satisfy customer needs. The management team needs
to brainstorm in order to develop a mission and vision that support the overall vision of
top management.
• Define measurable objectives Measurable objectives must be set so that the success of
the mission statement can be determined, for example:
Element of mission Objectives
To provide quality training To improve training techniques
To satisfy customer needs To do regular customer surveys
• Develop critical success factors (CSFs) The mission and objectives must be trans-
ferred into sub-goals. Managers must brainstorm to define the CSFs needed to achieve
the mission. Examples of CSFs for quality management are as follows:
– We must have quality personnel with appropriate skills.
– We must have creative, empowered employees.
– We must have quality suppliers.
– We must improve our services to satisfy customers.
– We must improve inter-departmental communication.
• Breakdown of CSFs into critical processes CSFs must be broken down into sub-
processes. The actions to be taken should be indicated. For example, the organisation
needs a creative workforce, therefore, a seminar on creativity can be used to encourage
creativity and empowerment. The conducting of this seminar is therefore a critical pro-
cess.
• Breakdown of critical processes into sub-processes, activities, tasks People need to
develop skills to get an understanding of how the new process will work in practice. To
train employees in quality management techniques or tools may mean that a training-
needs analysis should be conducted to ascertain what techniques can be used. Process
teams can be formed at shop floor level to conduct a needs analysis. Individuals from
different departments could form part of this team. Other tasks that need to be carried
out are: quality management training manuals need to be compiled, a training pro-
gramme must be compiled, and a training evaluation system needs to be developed.
• Monitor and adjust process alignment As discussed in chapter 4, an organisation
should become a “learning” organisation in order to compete in the global business
environment. This means that the organisation should continuously strive to adapt to
changing circumstances in the environment. Feedback and follow-up workshops are
needed to monitor and evaluate the implementation of quality management. It is there-
fore essential that the management team commit themselves to continuously provide
feedback on all phases of the quality management process. People need to be actively
involved in the process, so that they will experience the benefits thereof.
17.3.4 Phase four: form quality council

According to Oakland (1995: 258), a quality council should be formed within an organ-
isation to facilitate the implementation of quality management. The aim of the quality
council is to ensure that the culture and systems of the organisation are changed to ensure
quality management implementation. The council should have at least six members drawn
from all levels of the organisation: management, middle management and other employ-
ees. As many departments as possible should be represented to promote organisation-wide
commitment. The roles of the council include:
• adjusting the strategic management process to support quality management
• implementing change management
• facilitating team development
• developing plans for quality management implementation.
The quality council should meet at least bimonthly to review the quality management pro-
cess. A secretary should document motions and discussions and ensure dissemination of
these documents to all employees.
17.3.5 Phase five: culture assessment

Before the organisation can start implementing improvement programmes, an assessment
must first be done of the current organisational culture. Not only will a culture assessment
indicate the readiness for quality management, but it will also highlight problem areas that
need to be addressed prior to quality management implementation.
One instrument that can be used is the inventory developed by Sashkin and Kiser (1993).
This instrument is called the total quality management assessment inventory. This quality
management inventory has three main dimensions, namely culture, techniques and cus-
tomer quality. The instrument assesses the extent to which an organisation’s existing cul-
ture supports quality management principles:
• The techniques dimension measures the potential integration of quality management
tools and techniques.
• The customer dimension assesses how well concern for quality is built into the organ-
isation’s operations.
• The cultural dimension measures eight elements in encouraging and maintaining a
quality movement: measurement for improvement, authority equal to responsibility, re-
wards for results, teamwork, secure jobs, fairness, pay equity and ownership.
HRD managers in South Africa could help quality managers in designing similar quality
culture assessment instruments. These instruments should cover all the important dimen-
sions of quality management in order to ascertain organisational readiness for quality man-
agement implementation. Moreover, the results of these surveys will clearly indicate the
role HRD can play in assisting in the implementation of quality management. The items
depicted in Table 17.1 provide a good starting point for developing such an instrument.
17.3.6 Phase six: communications strategy

The most effective means of developing commitment to quality management is to ensure
that people know what is going on. A company-wide information session can be organ-
ised in which the CEO shares the company’s quality policy with the entire organisation.
The purpose of this session is to help people understand the need for a quality manage-
ment system. It is also an attempt to get employee commitment to quality improvement.
The reason for quality improvement, the management quality vision and plan, as well as
the principles of quality management should be highlighted. In addition, this session
should make it very clear to individuals how they will be affected by the quality manage-
ment system and the role each individual has to fulfil in making quality improvement a
reality in the organisation. The main benefits of quality management, which indicates how
quality management will improve the business, should be emphasised during the informa-
tion session.
Apart from the company-wide information session, an organisation can use the follow-
ing specific communication techniques to disseminate the quality message to all its em-
ployees, customers and suppliers.
• Meetings Supervisors must have regular meetings with subordinates to discuss quality-
related matters.
• Groups Quality improvement teams can be used to discuss quality-related matters in
the work group.
• Cross functional teams These can be established to ensure that there is more co-
operation and synergy between departments on the quality process.
• Seminars These can be organised internally or by outside institutions such as the SA

Society for Quality.
• Magazines Articles on quality management can appear in the company’s internal
magazine. This will show the company’s commitment to quality management and
spread the quality message.
• Posters Quality management posters can be used to remind all employees of the quality
approach to work. A competition can also be organised to ask employees to design
their own posters. This would help generate enthusiasm for quality management and
encourage workers at all levels to become “owners” of quality management.
• DVDs A DVD on quality management can be shown to employees.
• Notice boards The latest information on quality management, for example, charts
showing the latest progress, should be provided to keep staff up-to-date with trends and
developments.
• Information packs The quality manager or HRD professional should compile an infor-
mation pack of general information on the quality programme which can be displayed
around the building.
• Industrial theatre By making use of role-plays on quality management matters, quality
will become a reality to all members of the organisation and not merely an abstract
management concept. It will also promote understanding, communication and involve-
ment.
• Electronic means The company’s intranet, technology systems and electronic mail can
also be used as communication tools to facilitate on-line discussions and the availabil-
ity of quality procedures and tools for all users.
• Social media The speed, interactive ability and instant communication power of social
media makes it possible for HRD and quality managers to leverage these powerful en-
gagement platforms to interact with all stakeholders around quality on a daily basis.
17.3.7 Phase seven: organisation-wide training

The whole organisation, which includes all its members at all levels of the organisation,
must be trained in quality. A quality management system will never be implemented suc-
cessfully if all employees do not become part of the quality improvement process. All em-
ployees should, therefore, be trained to understand and implement quality improvement
on a daily basis. It is the responsibility of every employee to identify new and better ways
of improving work processes and systems. This requires breaking old habits of doing
things, which, in turn, necessitates skills to implement continuous improvement.
To obtain employee understanding and commitment, the training should focus on the
importance of quality and the reasons for implementing a quality strategy. Employees also
need to be trained to understand the role they have to play in implementing quality im-
provement in their work situation.
Cocheu (1993) proposes a modular approach to employee training in quality. Not only
does it minimise employees being away from work for an extended period, but it also
gives people the opportunity to apply what they have learnt before moving on to the next
quality module. Once again, both internal and external facilitators can be used to conduct
the training. A train-the-trainer approach can also be used whereby internal trainers are
identified and trained to accelerate the training process and assist in the day-to-day imple-
mentation of acquired skills and knowledge.
The following training programmes can be purchased, developed and presented to en-
sure that all employees acquire the knowledge and skills to contribute to quality improve-
ment:
Customer service training

As customer satisfaction is a key element of a quality management system, employees
need the skills to improve the quality of products and services to satisfy customer needs.
Various customer service training programmes are available in South Africa, or a training
department can develop its own programmes.
Quality management system training

The objective of quality management system training is to equip employees with skills to
deploy the quality system in the company. It could be presented by an external consultant
or an internal person who has been certified as a quality system auditor.
The most widely used internationally accepted quality management system is the ISO
9000 system, developed by the International Standards Organisation of Geneva in Switzer-
land. According to this system, a supplier must be successfully audited against the ISO
9000 quality standards by a registered external auditing organisation to be certified as an
ISO 9000 supplier. The purpose of a quality management system training intervention is
therefore to equip employees with the knowledge and skills to implement ISO 9000.
The reason for quality management system training is that people need to understand
what a quality management system is and how it benefits the organisation. The reasons
why the company embarked on the quality system route should be indicated, for example,
the necessity to adapt to global business standards required by international companies.
Course participants in quality management systems training can be given copies of the
ISO 9000 documents to use in team exercises.
Quality system auditing training

To expedite the implementation of the quality management system, individuals need to be
identified to be trained as quality system auditors. They can provide ongoing support and
training to ensure the effective implementation of the quality system. This training is best
conducted by a registered external agency, such as the South African Bureau for Stand-
ards (SABS) or by an outside consultant.
The following areas are typically covered in courses for ISO 9000 team members:
• introduction to quality system auditing
• ISO 9000 series requirements
• quality terminology
• auditing principles and techniques
• the quality auditing system
• quality system implementation planning
• alignment of quality system documentation
• preparation and scheduling for self-assessment
• non-compliance forms or corrective action reports
• verification of corrective action
• preparation for external audit

• maintenance of the system for ongoing third-party surveillance.
The quality system auditing training provided by external consultants is usually practical
and application-oriented. The presentation of each major concept is followed by workshops
in which participants work in small groups to apply what they have learnt to realistic work-
related case studies. Participants also get the opportunity to write an examination in order
to be certified as quality auditors.
Quality techniques training

Quality techniques are those techniques that help individuals and teams to identify prob-
lems, causes of problems as well as developing solutions to these problems. The most
commonly used quality techniques are brainstorming, check sheets, histograms, Pareto
analysis, scatter diagrams, and cause-and-effect analysis. Training people to use quality
techniques should be done on a just-in-time basis, in other words, they should acquire
these skills as the need to use them arises to ensure the effective transfer of training to the
workplace.
Statistical process control

Continuous improvement can only be achieved if business processes are improved. Statis-
tical process control (SPC) is at the heart of product improvements throughout the world.
The most effective SPC trainer is usually a person who has hands-on experience in im-
proving processes. Alternatively, an internal SPC specialist can be used in conjunction
with an external consultant who has experience implementing SPC at other companies.
SPC is used to detect variation in processes. Cocheu (1993) describes variation as the
“enemy of quality”. SPC can, however, be used to control variation. In South Africa,
resistance to SPC training is quite high owing to the statistical and mathematical nature of
SPC. Unfortunately, given the poor education system and inadequate mathematics educa-
tion in particular, most South African employees are not very skilled in mathematics.
Before an SPC training programme can be embarked upon, employees need to go on
courses to improve their mathematical skills such as calculating percentages and averages.
Fortunately, advanced computer packages can also assist in doing SPC calculations.
17.3.8 Phase eight: form quality teams

Teamwork forms the basis of any quality management initiative. Process improvement
teams and quality circles are two types of teamwork interventions which can be used.
Process improvement teams

Cross-functional teams, called process improvement teams, can be formed to improve
current processes. People with knowledge, skills and experience are brought together to
tackle particular problems. For instance, if we want to improve the quality of middle man-
agement training, we can form a process improvement team, consisting of members of the
middle management training centre, the junior management training centre, the research
and development section, a production manager, the human resource department as well
as a psychologist. The teams should record data, analyse it and take appropriate action to
improve processes.
Quality circles
Quality circles should also be used to improve quality. Reynolds (1994: 44) defines a
quality circle as a small group of members who normally work together on similar or
identical tasks. All work groups at the organisation can form quality circles to identify
problems, analyse them and find solutions.
17.3.9 Phase nine: training of teams

Effective teamwork does not happen automatically. All teams need to be trained in effect-
ive teamwork. Employees and supervisors need to master team skills first in order to opti-
mise the contribution of team members to process improvement strategies. The advantages
of teamwork, as outlined by Oakland (1995:269), should be emphasised:
• more complex problems may be tackled by pooling expertise
• problems are solved efficiently because a greater variety of knowledge, skills and
experience are utilised
• it improves the morale of team members because they participate in decision-making
• the quality of group decisions in good teams is better than individual decisions.
17.3.10 Phase ten: problem identification and improvement techniques

Information and numbers form the basis for problem-solving, decisions and activities in
the process of continuous improvement. It is therefore essential to have a well-developed
data gathering and monitoring system. This will assist the organisation in implementing
quality management by means of rational decision-making, based on facts and objective
measurement.
Various authors, such as Oakland (1995) and Sashkin and Kiser (1993), identify tech-
niques for quality improvement. These tools can help the organisation to identify and solve
problems in order to improve quality. These tools are as follows:
• Activity-based costing (ABC) ABC is based on the activities being identified and costs
traced to them. Activity-based costing uses cost drivers, which reflect the demands
placed on activities.
• Cost of quality measurement The cost of quality can be rationalised into the cost of
conformance (COC) and the cost of non-conformance (CONC). The cost of quality =
COC + CONC at each process stage. The CONC should be prioritised for improve-
ments. For example, the training department of an organisation may calculate the cost
of non-conformance in terms of labour and material costs by producing a defect trans-
parency to be used in a training session.
• Benchmarking This means to continuously measure one’s products and processes
against other organisations which are acknowledged as leaders in their sectors. In other
words, the organisation needs to observe, study and compare best practices in outside
organisations and integrate them in the organisation. The end-result is superior perform-
ance as a result of continuous improvements. For example, if the organisation wants to
benchmark its training department, a benchmarking organisation must be selected. Five
phases can be followed during this process, namely planning, analysing, developing,
improving and reviewing (Oakland, 1995:182).
• Brainstorming This technique is used to generate a large number of ideas quickly. The
first phase constitutes the development of ideas. Then, ideas are evaluated. Ideas
are discussed, discarded and developed. Eventually the best ideas are opened up. By
the end of the session, solutions will have been created for further investigation.
• Quality circles These groups should be established at all levels in all departments in
an organisation. The quality circles will identify problems and should be empowered to
implement solutions where possible.
• Process flowcharts The charts give a visual outline of the specific inputs and steps in
a process. They are helpful for understanding what is done and then determining how
to improve that process.
• Histograms This tool gives a picture of the frequency of values, for example, the num-
ber of complaints by customers on the quality of training programmes over the past 12
months. Variations can be seen. People working together can see the results of their
work and identify problem areas for improvement.
• Scatter diagrams They indicate relationships between factors or parameters, that is
strong, weak, positive or negative correlation. For example, these diagrams can indicate
whether there is a correlation between attending a training programme and employee
performance.
• Check sheets These charts are used to record the measurements of events or incidents,
for example, the number of defects in a given week.
• Pareto analysis These charts display the number of defects of various types over a
period of time. Pareto analysis is based on the principle that 80% of all problems can
be traced to only 20% of all the varied possible causes. In other words, Pareto charts
help to identify the relatively few categories of causes that account for most problems.
• Cause-and-effect analysis This diagram looks like a fishbone with the problem
defined as the “head”. On the “bones” growing out of the “spine” one lists causes of
problems. By identifying problem causes, one could start the process of problem-
solving by brainstorming.
• Control charts These charts provide a visual means of observing whether a product is
within normal specifications. Most data points are either above or below the average
line. If the process is out of control the chart helps to identify what is causing these
conditions so that it can be corrected.
• Run charts These charts are used to display measurements made over specific periods,
for example, a week or month. Their major use is to determine whether there are crit-
ical times that problems of various types occur.
• Force field analysis This is used to discuss the forces that either encourage or dis-
courage a change intervention. One should overcome restraining forces at the organisa-
tion (for example, autocratic management), whilst increasing driving forces (for
example, change agents) when implementing quality management.
• Quality function deployment If an organisation lacks customer focus, quality function
deployment can assist in considering the needs of customers before products and ser-
vices are finalised. Systems and documentation methods are used to meet design re-
quirements.
• Departmental purpose analysis (DPA) The departmental purpose analysis technique
helps to define the real purpose of each department, with the objective of improving
performance (Oakland, 1995: 266). It encourages an understanding of the key processes
of each workgroup in the organisation. The department or section can liaise with its
suppliers and customers to identify problem areas. Group discussions during the DPA
process yield good ideas for improvements. The following phases are suggested:
– group lists all the main tasks and objectives
– identifies customers and suppliers
– compiles a questionnaire to determine customer satisfaction
– reviews results
– brainstorms how improvements can be realised
– implements improvements
– reviews progress and repeats the departmental purpose analysis.
17.3.11 Phase eleven: change management

Effective change management plays an indispensable role in implementing quality man-
agement in an organisation, especially when a fundamental change in organisational cul-
ture is required. The quality management co-ordinator and HRD manager should work
closely to ensure that a comprehensive change management strategy is implemented to
ensure that the organisational culture becomes quality-oriented. They should analyse the
differences between the current and future organisational states. Strategies and tactics for
change should be developed. Quality management improvement techniques must be im-
plemented, and the process of change management must be institutionalised by means of
continuous training and facilitation. Both results and the process of change should be
evaluated.
17.3.12 Phase twelve: audit and reviews

Audits and reviews are needed to ensure that a well-documented system is in place to
manage quality. This can be done internally and externally. ISO 9000 is a set of worldwide
standards that establish requirements for the management of quality. The purpose of ISO
9000 is to ensure that a certified company has a quality system in place that will enable it
to meet its published quality standards (Ross, 1995:360). An independent third-party audit
takes place.
There are three basic steps to the registration process:
• appraisal of the organisation’s quality manual
• evaluation of conformance to documented procedures
• presentation of findings, with recommendations for corrective action.
From the above implementation process it is evident that HRD can play a very active and
important part in quality management implementation. HRD can facilitate certain pro-
cesses, while their services are indeed required to train and develop all members of an
organisation to implement quality management.
17.4 Aligning HRD with quality management

Not only can HRD facilitate quality management implementation, it also has to ensure
that it practices what it preaches. HRD should align its own processes and systems to im-
prove its products and services to customers. In fact, HRD will have little credibility if it
wants to facilitate quality management without implementing it internally. The following
strategies can be used to align HRD processes with quality management.
17.4.1 Customer focus

A quality management approach requires a customer-oriented strategy which is directly
linked to achieving the company’s strategic objectives. To achieve success in implement-
ing quality management, it is therefore essential for a training department to focus on cus-
tomer requirements when designing and implementing training interventions.
The question now arises: who is HRD’s customer? HRD has many customers which
include anyone who is next in line for HRD’s product or service. Examples of HRD’s
customers are as follows:
• the departments to whom HRD provides training products and services
• individuals to whom HRD provides training and career development services
• line managers and supervisors who will utilise the trained employees
• top management who require a trained workforce to achieve its strategic objectives
• external companies who make use of HRD’s products and services
• employees of the HRD function whose needs must also be satisfied.
On the other hand, people who provide products or services to the HRD department are its
suppliers. The customer-supplier relationship will shift back and forth depending on the
stage the process is in. For example, when HRD is developing a training course at the
request of the sales department, the sales manager may provide information about what
should be taught, such as techniques to increase sales. At that point HRD is the customer
(receiving information from the sales department) and the sales department is the supplier
(providing information to HRD).
Once the training course is designed and HRD delivers it, the employees and managers
of the sales department are the customers. It is therefore important to think of your cus-
tomers as suppliers first in order to establish a relationship to obtain the necessary infor-
mation. Only then will HRD be in a position to supply the products or services that meet
its customers’ needs.
HRD can apply the following guidelines to ensure that the needs of customers are satis-
fied:
• implement the suggestions of clients obtained through needs analysis methods, such as
interviews, questionnaires and focus groups
• ensure regular contact with customers by visiting them in their workplaces and getting
to know their problems and successes
• actively evaluate training and implement improvements
• develop action plans to exceed customer expectations, for example, providing more
courses, sooner, faster and better
• do not cover up customer complaints and criticism but see this as an opportunity for
improvement
• include customers in meetings and planning sessions; they can provide a valuable out-
side perspective that internal staff members cannot always provide
• keep customers informed of programmes and plans, as well as changes
• study journals and documents about the business to keep abreast of what is going on in
the business at large
• train staff members to be customer-oriented.
17.4.2 Problem-solving and quality techniques

HRD should use quality techniques in order to identify problems and create opportunities
for continuous improvement. The quality techniques can be applied as follows in the HRD
department:
• HRD flowcharts should be developed and continuously updated, for example, flow-
charts for the processes of needs analysis, outsourcing, design and evaluation.
• Various types of check sheets can be used, for example, why people withdraw nomin-
ations, types of questions asked about a training programme and types of problems that
occur during a training session.
• Pareto analysis could provide an HRD manager with the “vital few” error types on tests,
training design problems, errors made on transparencies, etc.
• Cause-and-effect analysis can be used to find out why training is not perceived to be
effective, reasons why training materials do not meet standards and reasons why pro-
grammes are cancelled.
• Scatter diagrams may be used to analyse the relationship between the number of course
registration errors and days of the week.
• Histograms can be used to indicate the number of problems mentioned in reaction
evaluation forms, the types of errors in training materials, etc.
• Run charts may indicate the trends over time, for example, the number of minutes a
training session starts late and the number of cancellations.
• Control charts could be used to track time of producing training materials, the cost to
design new courses, errors that occurred during travel arrangements.
The application of these quality tools in the HRD department can have a significant effect
on quality improvement in terms of the products and services provided by HRD to the rest
of the organisation.
17.4.3 Process improvement

According to Biech (1994:36), a process is a series of steps that when combined produce
a result. Every process has inputs that come from a supplier and outputs that go to a cus-
tomer. A process-oriented focus has multiple benefits for an organisation:
• it provides a clear picture of the system you work in with its processes and sub-
processes
• it helps you to focus holistically on problems and more easily identify root causes of
problems and solutions
• it supports methods to satisfy customer needs, but all processes start with the customer
in mind
• it improves communication between departments
• it provides opportunities for continuous improvement.
The training department has hundreds of processes that it depends on to achieve its object-
ives. This means that there are ample opportunities for process improvement. Some of
these processes are as follows:
• analysing training needs
• designing training programmes
• acquiring resources for training

• maintaining training equipment
• analysing training trends and developments
• presenting training programmes
• selecting outsourcers
• aligning training with SAQA and QCTO requirements
• administering training courses
• evaluating training programmes.
HRD departments should assess these processes with the help of their customers to find out
how effective these processes are and whether these processes add value to the company.
The end-result should be actions which focus on the improvement of these processes.
17.4.4 Benchmarking
With the increasing emphasis on globalisation, coupled with the speed and complexity of
the business environment, comes the realisation that HRD departments which remain
internally focused will not survive over the long term. An external focus is therefore
required. HRD departments should actively become involved in external benchmarking
projects and networking in order to keep abreast of the latest developments in HRD. The
following guidelines can be used to become actively involved in benchmarking projects:
• set up a benchmarking team to plan benchmarking visits to other companies
• liaise with companies that are known for best practices in HRD
• participate actively in NQF bodies and forums
• attend meetings and seminars of professional associations
• participate in benchmarking studies
• analyse all benchmarking data collected
• decide on action plans to improve HRD performance
• implement improvement action plans
• continuously monitor and evaluate action plans.
17.4.5 Quality management system

To meet the requirements of SAQA and the QCTO, training providers have to document
their quality management systems. The establishment of effective quality management
systems is therefore a prerequisite for the implementation of the NQF. The NQF Act,
Skills Development Act and the QCTO regulations provide the enabling and regulatory
framework for implementing the quality-assurance mechanisms required by the NQF.
Assessment quality partners (AQPs) will monitor and audit the processes through which
learners are to receive formal recognition for achieving NQF qualifications and standards.
A quality management system provides a feedback loop in which:
• policies define purposes and set the standards which the organisation wants to meet
• procedures are implemented to put these policies into practice
• policies and procedures are reviewed to make sure that organisations are actively im-
proving their effectiveness and efficiency.
In the light of the above, it is clear that a quality management system can help a training
provider to deliver quality training products and services to meet the needs of customers.
According to Coetzee (2002) quality assurance in respect of the NQF refers to the moni-
toring and auditing of learner achievements in terms of specified registered standards and
qualifications. This means that the standard-generating bodies will register standards for
ETD. AQPs will ensure that these standards and their implementation conform to the
QCTO quality criteria. For example, assessors who are registered with a relevant AQP
can be deregistered if they do not comply with the relevant AQP requirements.
Another important quality-assurance mechanism in assessment is the notion of moder-
ation. Moderation ensures that people who are being assessed are assessed in a consistent,
accurate and well-designed manner. AQPs accredited with responsibility for quality-
assuring the delivery of unit standards and qualifications have to establish moderation
systems and procedures for the providers they accredit (QCTO, 2011).
An important component of any quality management system is quality documentation
and records. According to Coetzee (2002) appropriate quality system documentation in-
cludes the following:
Quality manual
The quality manual includes the following items:
• the quality policy
• the quality objectives
• the structure of the organisation, including responsibilities
• a description of the quality system, including all elements and provisions that form part
of it
• the quality practices of the organisation
• the structure and distribution of the quality system documentation.
Quality plan
The quality plan describes the specific quality practices, resources and the sequence of
activities relevant to a particular service.
Quality procedures
These are written statements which specify the scope of activities in the service organisa-
tion to meet customer needs. These statements define how the activities are to be con-
ducted, controlled and recorded. Clear procedures are indicated.
Quality records
These records should be verified as correct and provide information on the following:
• the degree of achievement of quality objectives
• the level of customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction with the service
• the results of the quality system for review and improvement of service
• for analysis to identify quality trends
• for corrective action and its effectiveness
• on appropriate sub-contractors’ performance
• on the skills and training of staff
• on competitive comparisons.
The following policies and procedures must be specified (Coetzee, 2002):

• learning-programme design, development, delivery and evaluation
• learning materials development
• learning services and responsibilities
• learner support
• language of teaching and learning assessment
• finances, fees and payment regulations
• collaboration and partnerships
• management and administration
• marketing
• evaluation and research
• internal quality-assurance mechanisms and reviews
• quality-assurance reviews and accreditation
• managing off-site practical or work-site components
• management of assessment
• appeals procedures
• AQP and customer reporting procedures
• learner records.
17.5 Quality assurance in terms of the QCTO

The Skills Development Act and NQF Act ushered in a new quality-assurance regime in
South Africa. The QCTO is responsible for the following functions (QCTO, 2011):
(a) establishing and maintaining the occupational standards and qualifications;
(b) the quality assurance of occupational standards and qualifications and learning in and
for the workplace;
(c) designing and developing occupational standards and qualifications and submitting them
to the SAQA for registration on the NQF;
(d) ensuring the quality of occupational standards and qualifications and learning in and for
the workplace;
(e) promoting the objectives of the NQF;
(f) liaising with the National Skills Authority on suitability and adequacy of occupational
qualifications standards and qualifications and on the quality of learning in and for the
workplace;
(g) liaising with the SAQA, other Quality Councils and professional bodies responsible for
establishing standards and quality assurance of standards and qualifications.
The bodies to which the QCTO delegates functions are called development quality part-
ners (DQPs) and assessment quality partners (AQPs).
17.5.1 Functions of an assessment quality partner

The assessment quality partner must, in respect of the occupations specified in the service-
level agreement,
(a) develop, maintain and apply a national data-bank of instruments for external assessment;
(b) develop and publish exemplars of external assessments;
(c) coordinate and manage external assessment processes;

(d) develop and maintain a national database of registered assessors and moderators from
which assessors/moderators for the external summative assessments will be selected;
(e) record learner achievements;
(f) develop criteria for the accreditation of assessment centres or the approval of assessment
sites;
(g) recommend to the QCTO assessment centres for registration;
(h) make recommendations to the QCTO on the withdrawal of accreditation of an assessment
centre;
(i) recommend to the QCTO the accreditation of skills development providers for the
knowledge and/or practical skills component using criteria and guidelines provided by
the QCTO;
(j) verify the SETA workplace approval systems meet the standards set in the workplace
experience curriculum component against the criteria and guidelines provided by the
QCTO;
(k) implement an appeals policy as guided by an assessment policy;
(l) upload learner assessment achievements to the QCTO;
(m) recommend the certification of learners to the QCTO;
(n) ensure systems are in place to detect and address irregularities;
(o) conduct learner tracer studies;
(p) advise the QCTO as to the recognition of qualifications and part qualifications from
other sub frameworks [sic];
(q) promote continuous professional development [CPD] of AQP associated practitioners;
(r) report to the QCTO on the performance of its functions in the form and manner required
by the QCTO;
(s) collaborate with QCTO on the evaluation of the assessment and moderation processes;
and
(t) moderate at least 10% of learner assessments;
AQPs must also:
5.2 Recognise part qualifications as/towards the achievement of one or more of the curricu-
lum components.
5.3 Provide for RPL assessment to enable learners to achieve a full or part recognition for
one or more of the curriculum components and where full recognition is given then
enable the learners to access the final summative assessment.
17.5.2 Criteria for the approval of an assessment quality partner

A party seeking to perform the functions of an AQP must:
(a) . . . be recommended to the QCTO by the relevant CEP [community of expert practi-
tioners] within the DQP occupational development process at a point when they submit
an occupational profile;
(b) have access to communities of expert practitioners in the occupation/s concerned;
(c) have standing in the occupation or occupations concerned;
(d) have access to assessors and other human resources necessary to perform the AQP func-
tions using criteria and guidelines provided by the QCTO;
(e) have access to a reliable information management system in the format required by the
QCTO;
(f) have the financial resources necessary to establish the AQP function and implement
effective, efficient and transparent financial management and internal control systems,
verified by means of a written commitment by its relevant authority;
(g) have a proposed fee structure funding model to maintain the delivery of AQP services
for a minimum of five years aligned to the QCTO Fee Structure Policy;
(h) be willing to sign the QCTO Code of Conduct . . . if delegation is approved;
(i) have research capacity even if through a third party arrangement; and
(j) submit a valid tax clearance certificate where appropriate.
17.5.3 The QCTO’s obligations in respect of assessment quality partners

The QCTO will meet the following obligations in dealing with AQPs:
(a) evaluate the APQ’s application and revert to the applicant as specified in the operational
procedures;
(b) ensure that QCTO national standards are met through monitoring and evaluation of the
execution of functions by the AQP;
(c) evaluate criteria for the accreditation of assessment centres or the approval of assessment
sites developed by AQP;
(d) publish criteria and guidelines for the accreditation of skills development providers and
for workplace approval systems;
(e) accredit or provisionally accredit skills development provider programmes on the advice
of the relevant AQP;
(f) accredit or provisionally accredit assessment centres and register or provisionally regis-
ter assessment sites on the advice of the relevant AQP;
(g) establish and publish timeframes for the processing of recommendations to register assess-
ment centres;
(h) publish and update fee guidelines annually;
(i) maintain a database of accredited and provisionally accredited skills development pro-
viders, assessment centres and registered and provisionally registered assessment sites;
(j) evaluate and monitor integrated QMS policy for quality management as developed by
AQP;
(k) evaluate and monitor integrated MIS as developed by an AQP;
(l) evaluate the assessment and moderation processes;
(m) monitor adherence to the QCTO Code of Conduct for AQPs;
(n) issue certificates for occupational qualifications or part qualifications.
17.5.4 Practical guidelines for HRD practitioners

While the QCTO system is being set up, HRD practitioners can use the following prac-
tical guidelines not only to meet the compliance requirements of the QCTO but also to
ensure a highly skilled occupational workforce:
• Study all the relevant policies and guidelines of the QCTO (see www.qcto.org.za).
• Keep abreast of other relevant quality-assurance mechanisms of Umalusi and the Centre
for Higher Education (CHE) affecting your organisation.
• Work with your SETA and identify relevant DQPs and AQPs in your sector and get in
touch with them in order to determine relevant occupational development opportunities
in your sector.
• Ensure that your HRD staff have been oriented about and trained in the new skills
development and quality-assurance system.
• Match the occupations at your company with the Organising Framework for Occupa-
tions and identify relevant learning programmes for occupational skills development.
• Ensure that your training function has a quality management system with explicit quality
procedures and mechanisms.
• Keep proper records of learner achievements and of the impact of learning programmes
on occupational skills development and on the organisation.
• Identify opportunities for continuous improvement and implement these improvements
to improve quality of learning.

Denel Aviation, a division of Denel, realised that it was imperative to achieve ISO 9000 registration
in order to compete in the international arena. One of the business units, Tactical Aircraft Support,
consists of 640 employees. The quality manager of this business unit decided to present a one-day
basic ISO 9000 awareness course to the quality-assurance department. They also included represen-
tatives from the company’s biggest customer, the South African Air Force. Feedback on this course
revealed that it was a great success. However, it was felt that all employees must be trained in order
to ensure the effective implementation of ISO 9000. This training was subsequently presented by
the quality manager and a quality-assurance representative. Delegates consisted of a combination of
line management, foremen, office staff, cleaners and technical staff. The course objectives were
identified as follows:
• to impart knowledge and understanding of the principles of quality management, the content of
ISO 9000 and ISO 9001 and basic principles of internal quality audits
• to improve quality awareness
• to communicate
• to encourage participation and make the learning an enjoyable experience, in order to give a
feeling of ownership to the delegates.
The courses were continuously improved from one session to another by implementing the sugges-
tions provided on the course evaluation forms. In order to further evaluate the course from different
perspectives, guests and customers were also invited on the course. Their inputs were also included
in the course review reports. As the quality awareness training programme progressed, personnel
were beginning to understand the benefits of ISO 9000. Personnel participation increased and the
task of the quality department became easier. Quality management was thus internalised in the cul-
ture of the organisation. In fact, Denel Aviation was awarded the South African National Quality
Award (Award Level Silver) in 1996. This award was achieved with the contribution of dedicated
personnel committed to quality and intensive training strategies.
Source: Adapted from Jansen van Rensburg, Smit and Van der Wal (1997).
17.7 Conclusion
This chapter emphasises a process implementation strategy for implementing quality
management in an organisation and for occupational quality management within sectors
according to the QCTO. The aim is to make quality management and continuous im-
provement a way of life. The HRD function has a crucial role to play in ensuring that its
internal processes meet quality requirements. In addition, SAQA requires that training
providers have quality management systems in place. Moreover, HRD is in an ideal pos-
ition to support the rest of the organisation in its quality management efforts by providing
the required education, training and development services. Active participation in quality
management provides HRD with an opportunity to add value to the organisation.
17.8 Case study

Dryco is a wholly owned subsidiary of an Australian public listed company and has 927 employees.
Dryco manufactures rotary clothes dryers, various outdoor and indoor drying devices and a range of
garden and industrial sprayers.
When managing director, Chris Warne, arrived from Australia in June 2015 to head the South
African subsidiary, he found its management hierarchical in style, with senior managers involved in
decisions that should be delegated to subordinates. As a young and dynamic Australian businessman
with an MBA degree, and exposed to Japanese quality systems and management philosophy, he
wanted to change to a more informal, team-based approach.
There is great sensitivity within Dryco to the quality of the sprayers produced. In fact, customer
dissatisfaction with poorly performing products is so bad that the products are returned in great
quantities. Consequently, Dryco suffered a significant loss of market share. Operators complained
that they do not have the authority to stop the line when they detect a problem of some sort with the
process. The end-result is that defects are only detected when it is too late.
Management decided to make use of the service of a management consultant to deal with the above
problems. The consultant conducted an investigation into the problems. She used focus groups and
questionnaires in order to identify the root causes of the problems. The survey revealed, among other
things, that 88% of staff do not believe that the company understands and measures process capabil-
ities. In addition, 77% of respondents believe that the system, procedures and processes are not
capable of meeting customer requirements.
Whilst employees are dissatisfied with the way in which the company is run, management feels
that workers are lazy and that they show no commitment to business goals. Accidents occur regu-
larly and absenteeism is higher than the industry standard. Furthermore, there is very limited inter-
departmental co-operation within the company.
After a three-day work session with management facilitated by the consultant, it was decided that
the management strategy “total quality management” (TQM) should be implemented. TQM consti-
tutes a system of continuous improvement of all processes in order to satisfy customer needs. In
addition, great emphasis is placed on the prevention of errors and problem-analysis by means of
statistical measurement techniques.
At the same time, Chris and his team were required to introduce the parent company’s system of
just-in-time (JIT) management. They also saw the quality-assurance standard framework ISO 9000,
an international system of business standards, as a business necessity for the future. These systems
are well aligned to support TQM implementation. Also, Chris also approved conformance to the
National HR Standards of SABPP, thereby ensuring a strong HR function in strengthening the qual-
ity management system of the company.
Questions
1 As a training manager, how would you deal with resistance to the new management philosophy?
2 The managing director asks you to play the role of internal consultant. He tells you that he wants
the problem to be solved within two months. Indicate how you would respond to his request.
3 For the change to TQM to be successful, do all employees, supervisors and managers need
training? Explain your answer.
4 You are required to make decisions in regard to quality training interventions. Briefly indicate
the types of courses you envisage, as well as the target populations.
5 Explain how you would evaluate the impact of your training programmes on the business.
6 Indicate how the National HR Standards contributes to quality management at Dryco.

• A quality management approach to HRD is needed in the new national skills develop-
ment system.
• HRD should be conducted according to quality principles.
• An HRD quality management strategy is required to ensure that HRD is aligned with
quality principles.
• HRD professionals and providers need to take cognisance of the quality criteria of the
QCTO.

1 Compare the differences between traditional management and quality management
from an HRD perspective. Generate examples to support your answer.
2 Suppose you are appointed as an organisation development manager at a national re-
tailer that wants to embark on a quality management system. Develop an implementa-
tion plan for quality management.
3 Compile a table with the various types of training courses required to implement a
quality management system. The table should specify the name of the course, the
objectives, summary of content, target population and duration.
4 Explain how HRD should align itself with a quality management system.
5 Critically evaluate the following statement: “It is unrealistic to expect a training depart-
ment to adopt a philosophy of zero defects.”
6 Prepare an outline of how an HRD department can apply quality tools and techniques.
Generate your own examples to support your answer.
7 Indicate the relationship between quality management implementation and the QCTO
requirements for training providers and AQPs.
17.11 References
Biech E, 1994, Quality Management for Training, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Cocheu T, 1993, Making Quality Happen: How Training Can Turn Strategy into Real Im-
provement, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Coetzee M, 2002, Getting and Keeping your Accreditation: The Quality Assurance and
Assessment Guide for Education, Training and Development Providers, Pretoria: Van
Schaik.
Jansen van Rensburg NE, Smit BR and Van der Wal RWE, 1997, “Case study: The train-
ing implications for the successful implementation of ISO 9000 in a company”, Quality
News, 11–13.
Meyer M, 1998, “Quality management: The essential component is teamwork”, People
Dynamics 16(4): 30–35.
Oakland JS, 1995, Total Quality Management: Text and Cases, Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
PSETA, 2009, Monitoring of Providers, Pretoria: PSETA.
QCTO, 2011, Policy on Delegation to DQPs and AQPs, Johannesburg: QCTO.

Reynolds L, 1994, Beyond Total Quality Management, London: Sheldon.
Ross J, 1995, Total Quality Management: Text, Cases and Readings, St Lucie.
Sashkin M and Kiser KJ, 1993, Putting Total Quality Management to Work, San Fran-
cisco: Berrett-Koehler.

Bounds GM, Dobbins GH and Fowler OS, 1995, Management: A Total Quality Perspect-
ive, Ohio: South-Western.
Costin H, 1996, Management Development and Training: A TQM Approach, Fort Worth:
Dryden.
Meyer M and Orpen M, 2012, Occupationally-directed Education, Training and Develop-
Nel JP, 2010, Establishing a Positive Quality Culture in Education, Training and Develop-
ment, Pretoria: Mentornet.
Oakland JS, 1993, Total Quality Management: The Route to Improving Performance,
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
SAQA, 2012, “Key readings: The South African NQF 1995–2011”, February SAQA Bul-
letin 12(2), Pretoria: South African Qualifications Authority.
Scholtz H, 1997, “Can your company measure its business excellence?”, Management
Today 13(6): 44–46.
Thomas B, 1992, Total Quality Training: The Quality Culture and Quality Trainer,
London: McGraw-Hill.
Van Adelsberg D and Trolley EA, 1999, Running Training Like a Business: Delivering
Unmistakable Value, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Van Rooyen M and Lategan A (eds), 1998, “Quality assurance of qualifications”, Cutting
Edge 1(3): 11–16.
Vorster T, 1998, “Moderation for quality assurance of assessors”, People Dynamics 16(8).

American Society for Quality: http://www.asq.org
Association for Quality and Participation: http://www.aqp.org
Baldrige National Quality Program: http://www.baldrige.org
Council on Higher Education: http://www.che.ac.za
Equality Solutions: http://www.equalitysolutions.co.za
German Association for the Certification of Management Systems: http://www.dps.co.za
Integral Quality Management: http://www.iqm.co.za
ISO 9000 Support Group: http://www.isogroup.iserv.net/newpage.html

National Institute of Standards and Technology (USA): http://www.quality.nist.gov
NQF Gateway: http://www.nqf.org.za
Philip Crosby’s Site: http://www.philipcrosby.com
Productivity SA: http://www.productivitysa.co.za
Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO): http://www.qcto.org.za
Quality Focus Services: http://www.iso2000.co.za
Quality Management Training: Benchmarking, Process Improvement:
http://www.promaxconsulting.com
South African Bureau for Standards (SABS): http://www.sabs.co.za
South African Society for Quality: http://www.quality.org.za
The Juran Institute: http://www.juran.com
The QA Dude’s Site: http://www.dcez.com/-qadude
Umalusi: http://www.umalusi.org.za
W Edwards Deming Institute: http://www.deming.org
The following individuals are thanked for their contribution to this chapter:
• Bebe Oyegun, Chairperson: SABPP Quality Assurance Committee and SABPP Board
member;
• Naren Vassan, Head: Learning & Quality Assurance: SABPP;
• Ronel Coetzee, Quality Manager: SABPP.
CHAPTER
18
ASSESSMENT AND
EVALUATION
Robyn Wolfson and Marius Meyer
Assessment and the quality of assessment should be a passion
with the people responsible for assessment in the organisation.
(Antoinette Marais)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain the concepts of assessment and evaluation
• Indicate the purpose and importance of evaluation and assessment within the functions of
training and development
• Distinguish between different evaluation models and methods
• Identify various methods of gathering data for the purpose of conducting an evaluation and
compare the efficacy of each
• Identify certain key stakeholders who should be involved in evaluating training and assessing
learners, give reasons for their selection and suggest other possible stakeholders
• Critically evaluate which would be the most appropriate evaluation technique in a variety of
situations
• Develop and conduct an evaluation of a learning intervention in the work situation using one or
more techniques such as ROI measurement
• Develop a competence-based assessment system for an organisation meeting the new QCTO
requirements
469
18.1 Introduction
Assessment and evaluation have often in the past been the most neglected dimensions of
companies’ HRD strategy. However, they have come to prominence in recent times, with
the development and growth of the NQF in South Africa. The focus of the NQF, as
articulated in SAQA’s document on quality assurance, is to produce a learning framework
that is driven by quality. In this document, Isaacs (2000:13) states that one of SAQA’s
main objectives is in fact to ensure that learners “awarded NQF qualifications and stand-
ards are able to demonstrate the related learning outcomes in accordance with the criteria
and requirements specified in those standards and qualifications”. This implies assessment
of learners to determine whether they demonstrate the required outcomes. In addition, the
correct outputs can be expected only if the inputs are adequate and appropriate. Achieving
quality learning and its implementation requires both assessment of learners and evalua-
tion of inputs. The quality process has two main focuses, namely assessment and evalua-
tion. It is therefore not an overstatement to say that without assessment and evaluation the
quality goals of the NQF could not be achieved or maintained.
But, what does this mean for companies? In simple terms, it means that in order to
adhere to the legislative requirements of skills development, companies need to ensure that
they provide quality learning that stands up to the evaluation process. In addition, it means
that assessment to determine whether learning has been internalised and is demonstrable
is essential for recognition of learning. Further, it is clear that the objective of SAQA, to
ensure that outcomes are demonstrated is a huge requirement for organisations. Both
assessment and evaluation are required to determine whether learning has been translated
into work performance and therefore if it is making an impact on the achievement of the
company’s strategic objectives and thus on the bottom line. Assessment and evaluation are
therefore no longer optional extras in HRD, they are now the greatest tests of the validity
of HRD for the organisation and are the chief methods for showing HRD’s value to the
successful functioning of the organisation.
The implication is that along with needs analysis (chapter 6), which is used to determine
the real business-related needs of the organisation, evaluation is essential for the design
and improvement of any education, training and development intervention. Without it, the
true impact of learning cannot be determined or communicated to the business and align-
ment between business objectives and interventions cannot be appraised. Yet, whilst most
HRD practitioners carry out detailed needs analyses, especially in the light of the require-
ment of skills development legislation that organisations determine exactly what learning
is needed to meet their objectives, it is recognised that there is a widespread reluctance to
devote the same amount of time and energy to evaluating the results of learning pro-
grammes. In many organisations it still appears to be blindly accepted that training is a
good thing to do and must produce results; therefore, it is not considered necessary to
evaluate and quantify the effects of training. Phillips (1997:5) relates that IBM, which
some years ago was spending $2 billion on education and training, was not able to measure
the value of these activities and consequently downsized the education division with
budget reductions. Similarly, learning in many organisations has lost legitimacy because
of a lack of assessable outcomes translated into the learner’s work environment.
In this chapter we discuss these two key processes, evaluation of training and assessment
of learners against the backdrop of recent socio-political developments in South Africa
and addresses the “what, why, how, who and when” questions relating to both.
Chapter 18: Assessment and evaluation 471

Before we begin, we need to clarify and define concepts. A review of the literature reveals
much confusion and disagreement about definitions, and the terms “assessment” and
“evaluation” are often used interchangeably. The principle applied in this chapter is that
assessment focuses on the individual. The goal of assessment is to compare the individual
to a specific standard or set of outcomes. Evaluation, in contrast, focuses on a programme
or process. The goal of evaluation is to compare the programme with its goals, its impact
on a system or its impact on the greater environment. Simply put, both assessment and
evaluation focus on the collection of evidence so that decisions can be made, about the
learner, in the case of assessment, and the learning programme, in the case of evaluation.
To put it differently, assessment is about competence and evaluation is about impact.
18.2.1 Definitions
Assessment is defined by Bellis (1998:123) as a way of linking “learning with the out-
comes of learning and the evidence of that learning”. This definition implies a link be-
tween learning and growth, development and high performance on the part of the learner.
A narrower definition is derived from the NQF environment. Here, assessment has be-
come a means of “measuring the achievement of specified National Qualifications Frame-
work standards and qualifications” (Bellis, 1998:123). In other words, assessment is used
to “identify progress towards the described competence” and “to determine if the learner
. . . is competent or not yet competent as defined” (Bellis, 2000:2).
In SAQA terminology, “assessment” is generally used in relation to the procedures for
judging the achievements of the learner, and is defined as “the structured evaluation of a
person’s ability to demonstrate the acquisition and application of the outcomes of a pro-
gramme of learning, leading to the award of a qualification” (SAQA, 1998:2). Evaluation,
in terms of SAQA terminology, refers to the process of implementing quality assurance of
the assessment and moderation procedures to ensure that they are fair, reliable and valid.
Rae (1997:2) quotes the following definition:
Evaluation is determining “. . . the total value of the training system, training course or pro-
gramme in social as well as financial terms. Evaluation . . . attempts to measure the overall
cost benefit of the course or programme and not just the achievement of its laid down object-
ives. The term is also used in the general judgmental sense of the continual monitoring of a
programme or of the training function as a whole.”
Hamblin (quoted in Rae, 1997:3) defines evaluation as “any attempt to obtain information
(feedback) on the effects of a training programme and to assess the value of training in the
light of that information”. Rothwell and Sredl (1992:411) define evaluation as “the pro-
cess of appraising something carefully to determine its value”. Stated differently, “[i]n
HRD evaluation involves, judging the worth of planned learning experiences”.
In the SABPP HR Professional Practice Standard, evaluation is defined as follows:
Evaluation is a continuous process to assess/measure the change/impact and quality of the learning
interventions/learning experience, application of knowledge/skills and change in behaviour against
specified outcomes/outputs.

18.2.2 Formative and summative evaluation and assessment

There are two main types of evaluation, namely formative and summative evaluations.
Formative evaluation
The learner’s performance is evaluated to:
• determine the extent to which the course was mastered
• provide feedback to the students
• assist the students in correcting errors and improving learning performance.
Considerations include cost versus benefit, revisions to learning material needed, whether
the material meets the learner’s needs and whether it fits company requirements?
Summative evaluation
Summative evaluation is also described as product evaluation. Summative evaluation is
the sum of all the effects of instruction for evaluation purposes. To conduct such an evalu-
ation, the HRD practitioner must:
• Examine all the learning materials after they have been revised in the light of the for-
mative evaluation.
• Observe the delivery of the material.
• Administer a post-test to measure learners’ achievement of objectives.
• Administer an attitude survey.
• Compare subsequent job performance.
SAQA (1999:10–11) defines formative assessment as “assessment that takes place during
the process of learning and teaching. Its purpose is to diagnose learner strengths and weak-
nesses, provide feedback to learners on their progress (or lack thereof), assist both the
learner and the practitioner/assessor in making decisions regarding the readiness of the
learner to do a summative assessment”. Summative assessment, by contrast is “assessment
for making decisions about achievement”. The goal is for credits to be “given, recorded
and reported”.
Sutherland and Peckham (1998:99) summarise three broad uses of assessment in higher
education (see Table 18.1).
Table 18.1 Purposes of assessment in higher education
Diagnostic Formative Summative

Aim Prediction Improving the quality of Accreditation of
learning – developmental knowledge
Motivation Administrative reasons Intrinsically motivated – Externally motivated –
serves the needs of the serves the needs of the
learner external world
End-result Remediation Tests effectiveness of Educational decision-
learning outcomes making
Example Alternative admission Learning journals Formal tests and
strategies, foundation examinations
courses
18.3 Why is evaluation necessary?

It is clear that the context in which HRD takes place has changed dramatically in the recent
past. The economic climate has created an atmosphere of intense competition where mer-
gers and acquisitions are becoming the norm and where companies are under intense pres-
sure to maintain their competitive advantage and remain profitable. This environment has
some serious implications for all parts of an organisation including HRD. Added to these
internationally applicable pressures are some that are specific to the South African context.
These include the need to show the value that HRD brings in addressing the skills deficit
in this country and in increasing our ability to compete in the global arena. For HRD to
have a future in this environment, it is essential for evaluation to take place. This section
therefore examines the importance of evaluation within our organisational context, particu-
larly in South Africa. To provide this understanding, the following will be examined, the:
• goal of evaluation in organisations
• role of evaluation in the achievement of results-based HRD
• importance of evaluation in achieving the government’s goals for education and devel-
opment
• impact of evaluation on the individual.
18.3.1 Rationale for the evaluation of training in organisations

One of the key roles of measurement and evaluation is to transform HRD into a true
business partner with the organisation. He stresses the need for HRD to become more
accountable and to measure its contribution. For this to take place, it must:
• Be integrated into the overall strategic and operational framework of the organisation.
It cannot be an isolated, event-based activity unrelated to the mainstream functions of
the business.
• Ensure that partnerships are developed with key operating managers.
• Implement a comprehensive measurement and evaluation process to capture the contri-
bution of HRD. This must become “routine” in the organisation.
While it is clear that companies are recognising the importance of points one and two, an
analysis of current trends shows that there has been little emphasis on evaluation and
measurement.
Evaluation has an important role to play in helping HRD to be able to meet the organ-
isation’s strategic needs in conjunction with key line management partners. This, in turn,
helps it to adapt to and pre-empt the changes taking place in the environment in which an
organisation functions.
The answer to the question of why evaluation should be done, will depend on a number
of factors. These include:
• The way that the organisation views HRD.
• The strategic link between HRD and achieving company goals and objectives.
• Line management’s involvement in and commitment to the training process.
• How accountable the HRD department is for the costs of training.
• The company’s culture with regard to training.
• How results are used within the company.
18.3.2 Why people do not evaluate

In order to determine why we evaluate, we first need to ask why people do not evaluate.
To do so, some common myths related to evaluation will be focused on. Then the impact
of not evaluating (resultant problems) and, finally, the benefits inherent in the evaluation
process will be looked at. Phillips (1997:2–5) outlines several myths which have kept
HRD professionals from evaluating their programmes (see Table 18.2).
Table 18.2 Myths related to evaluation
Myth Challenge
I cannot measure This myth is being challenged by the new organisational focus on quality
the results of my management (also a SAQA requirement). The primary decision is now not
training effort whether results should be measured, but how to identify an appropriate
method.
I do not know what If the programme is properly designed and has precise and measurable
information to objectives, there should be some idea about what type of information to
collect collect to ascertain whether the programme worked. The possibility of
gathering data improves if the programme intends to improve performance.
Evaluation would Evaluation represents only a small part of the overall cost of a programme.
probably cost too If integrated into the programme conception, design, development and
much delivery, the evaluation process can be quick and inexpensive. If evaluation
is necessary to determine a payoff from training, how can the department
afford not to allocate expenses for evaluation?
If I cannot calculate Determining the return on investment (ROI) should be the priority of every
the return on HRD programme. However, the ROI of a training effort is usually based on
investment, then it a few subjective premises and, consequently, its calculation may not be as
is useless to specific as the ROI of a capital expenditure. In addition, there may be
evaluate the reasons that are not economic for running a programme. It is also
programme noteworthy that in some instances, it is not economically viable to measure
the programme and a brief, subjective programme is more appropriate.
Measurement is Accountability focuses on all functional areas of business. This includes
only effective in the HRD.
production and
financial arenas
My CEO does not This is an easy trap with many potential problems. These include:
require evaluation • The CEO suddenly asking the HRD department to justify its existence.
so why should I do
• The company getting a new CEO who does require measurement.
it?
• Most importantly, without realistic evaluation data, the CEO may draw
erroneous conclusions about the HRD department.
There are too many The reality is that there will always be intervening variables impacting on
variables affecting behaviour and learning. These include:
the behaviour • The participant’s self-motivation.
change for me to
• Work environment.
evaluate the impact
of training • Commitment and reinforcement (or lack thereof) from line
management.
• Peer pressure.
continued
Myth Challenge
But, while these factors are beyond the control of the HRD department, this
does not mean that evaluation cannot take place. Studies have shown that it is
possible for HRD staff to isolate those variables over which they have primary
control, namely those related to the learning process. This is particularly true
when other variables remain constant. Although measurement of change may
not be precise, it is better than no measurement at all.
Evaluation will lead It is a reality that not all comments and feedback will be positive,
to criticism particularly when reactions or observations are requested. The organisation
must accept such criticism if it is to evaluate.
I do not need to While individuals may be performing excellently and may not need to
justify my justify their existence, there is an ongoing need for HRD departments to be
existence, I have a accountable and responsible for ensuring that their activities add value to
proven track record the company.
Measuring progress This is considered inadequate in today’s competitive environment.
towards learning Evaluation strategies must include the impact of the programme measured in
objectives is an terms of organisational change, ultimate outcomes or business results. In
adequate evaluation addition, measurements of on-the-job impact are an important part of the
strategy evaluation process.
18.3.3 Consequences of not evaluating or assessing

A neglect of evaluation and assessment can bring about the following common problems
(Rae, 1997:6):
• Failure of the training managers to judge the performance of their training staff effect-
ively.
• Failure of the trainers to judge their performance level effectively.
• The efficiency and effectiveness of the training event cannot be assessed accurately.
• The views of the participants cannot be recorded.
• Learners have no mechanism to help them assess their own progress in an objective
manner. This also implies an inability to judge when an individual is competent and able
to achieve recognition for the learning.
• There is no way that any change in knowledge, skill or attitude can be attributed to the
training or that training is indeed having an impact on the achievement of the company’s
strategic objectives.
• The trainers, line managers or organisation cannot assess how far learning is imple-
mented, or if it is implemented at all.
• The value of learning cannot be approximated in cost terms.
• Learning cannot lead to nationally recognised, portable qualifications.
18.4 Why people should evaluate

Avoiding the negative consequences of neglecting evaluation is not the only reason for
measuring. Some of the applications and benefits associated with evaluation are detailed
below. In summary, these include:
• Assessing inputs.
• Assessing outputs.
• Use of measurement for management of people.

• Aligning HRD efforts with strategic objectives.
• Development of a partnership between HRD and line management in the training exer-
cise.
18.4.1 Focus on inputs

For Rothwell and Sredl (1992:415) and Phillips (1997:26), evaluation has the following
uses. It helps to:
• Verify that HRD efforts are the best way to meet a need to address performance im-
provement opportunities or solve human performance problems.
• Determine whether the programme was designed for the right target audience.
• Identify strengths and weaknesses in the HRD process.
• Determine whether the programme is the appropriate solution for a specific need.
• Determine whether the programme is accomplishing its objectives – verify that achiev-
ing the learning objectives will enable the participants in HRD efforts to perform as
desired.
• Test the clarity and validity of assessments, case studies and exercises.
• Improve the content and methods of an instructional package before widespread use.
• Ensure, as HRD efforts are carried out, that the instruction or facilitation methods are
used effectively.
• Assess how well pre-established learning objectives are achieved by participants.
18.4.2 Focus on outputs

Output focused purposes, identified by Phillips (1997:26), are to:
• Determine the cost or benefit analysis of an HRD intervention
• Assist in marketing the HRD programme(s) in the future
• Establish a database which can assist in making decisions about programmes
• Demonstrate the value of the HRD efforts to managers and other stakeholders outside
the HRD department
• Judge the economic impact of the HRD efforts on the organisation and on increasing
the value of the human “capital” or “inventory”.
Note that the purpose for which evaluation is used (which is linked to the organisation’s
view of evaluation) should be considered prior to developing the evaluation plan because,
“purposes will often determine the scope of the evaluation, the types of instruments used,
and the type of data collected . . . for most programmes, multiple evaluation purposes are
pursued”.
18.4.3 Focus on managing what is measured

Bassi and Cheney (1997:60) stress the importance of measuring the effect of training.
They emphasise that “what gets measured gets managed. If workplace learning initiatives
aren’t measured sufficiently, it’s unlikely that they will be well managed . . . it has too
often been ignored that measurement is a component of good management and essential
for continuous improvement”. Measurement therefore contributes to sound management.
18.4.4 Focus on strategy

It is imperative to understand the link between organisational strategy and evaluation. There
are two important questions for managers and trainers to ask related to training. These are
about effectiveness and value. Effectiveness and value must be judged within the context
of the organisation with its goals and objectives. To understand the effectiveness and value
of a learning programme, it therefore needs to be judged within the parameters of the
organisation in which it operates. Proper strategising can help to ensure that your HRD
programme and the results of evaluation help to enhance the goals and objectives of the
organisation. If HRD is most valuable when it is linked to the goals and objectives of an
organisation, then it is vital for training providers to pinpoint the underlying values and
objectives of the organisation along with its actual drivers when creating training strategies
and when evaluating. In addition, the HRD practitioner needs to determine how these stra-
tegic objectives differ through the layers of the organisation. For example, there is often a
difference between the focus of the board of directors and that of line management. All of
these factors need to be taken into account. Determining this link and how strategy is oper-
ationalised through organisational targets and goals is essential for the development of the
organisation’s workplace skills plan. Equally, understanding the connection between learn-
ing and achievement of company objectives and establishing the link through the evaluation
process should increasingly reinforce the position of HRD in organisational functioning.
18.4.5 Applications
The goal for HRD practitioners is therefore to ensure that their training strategies match the
overall company objectives (be these overt or not) and to evaluate whether or not training
is meeting organisational goals. For Newby (1992:10), if these are lacking, training
becomes a “luxurious overhead which can reasonably be presumed unnecessary”.
An emphasis on strategy ensures that the design and delivery of learning activities match
real business needs. Evaluation is concerned with judgements about the correctness of the
strategy (including the means adopted) and particularly upon the outcomes that the strategy
delivers. Effective training is grounded in a market-driven diagnostic process that responds
to strategic imperatives and which allows the evaluation process simply to certify the
quality of training outputs.
These are the fundamental values that should be inherent in strategically defined and
implemented evaluation.
18.5 Results-based HRD

The approach to HRD within an organisation will undoubtedly affect or even determine
the way that evaluation is carried out. Two specific views of HRD, discussed in this topic,
are training as an activity and training for results (results-based HRD).
18.5.1 What is results-based HRD?

The following are characteristics of results-based HRD (Phillips, 1997:35–36):
• HRD programmes are not usually undertaken unless tangible results can be measured.
This highlights the current importance given to “beginning with the end in mind”.
• The programme design includes at least one method of evaluation. This evaluation
strategy is usually determined when programme objectives are established. With a
results- based HRD philosophy, the evaluation strategy is placed on a level of equal
importance with the programme’s content, objectives, delivery system and co-ordination.
• Management is involved in all phases of the HRD process. There is recognition in this
view of HRD that management’s involvement throughout the process is critical to its
success. This should be active with management assisting in the identification of needs,
planning of interventions, implementation and (very importantly) in their evaluation.
• The organisation is working proactively to increase management’s commitment to the
HRD effort. This becomes both an objective and one of the uses of evaluation. Obtain-
ing results and communicating them effectively can increase management support,
which in turn, improves results.
• A comprehensive evaluation and measurement plan is in place. This brings a systematic
approach to measurement and evaluation and consistency across programmes. The plan
will often involve targets, goals and objectives for the process and decisions about the
level at which interventions will be evaluated.
• Participants understand their role in achieving the desired results. The expectations of
the programme and the results that it will give the learners are communicated at critical
points in the programme.
• Programmes are connected to strategic initiatives. Each programme is related to major
strategic goals, objectives and initiatives. In a direct or supporting role, each programme
should enhance the contribution of training and development to the organisation’s stra-
tegic direction and effectiveness.
18.5.2 Activity-based HRD

In contrast to results-based HRD, the focus of much of the training in the past was, accord-
ing to Phillips (1997:5), on training for activity. The author states that over time there has
been a dramatic shift in thinking from a focus on training for activity to a focus on train-
ing for bottom line results. This can be seen in Table 18.3.
Table 18.3 Comparison of results-based and activity-based HRD
Comparing Training for activity Training for results

Relation to business need No business need for the Programme specifically linked
programme to business need
Assessment of performance No assessment Assessment takes place
effectiveness
Measurable objectives for None Specific objectives and
behaviour and business impact outcomes
Expectation of results No effort to prepare learners Results expectations
to achieve results communicated to learners
Preparation of work environment No preparation Work environment prepared to
for transfer support transfer
Partnerships with key managers No efforts to build Partnerships established with
partnerships key managers and clients
Measurement of results or None conducted Measurement takes place
costs/benefits analysis
Planning and reporting on Input focused Output focused
evaluation
A study of the features in the “Training for results” column in Table 18.3 will indicate that
they are linked very closely to the principles of the NQF and the philosophy of high-impact
workplace learning.
The questions that need to be asked are, how much impact does this new paradigm really
have on organisations? Are they still assessing training as an activity and the effectiveness
of inputs, or are they assessing results?
18.6 The role of evaluation in South Africa

Evaluation is not important only because it ensures that HRD shows value in an organisa-
tion, nor is it exclusively focused on reinforcing a results-based HRD philosophy. It is
essential for facilitating the philosophy and practices of the NQF.
Definitions and models of evaluation outlined in the remainder of this chapter divide
evaluation into a number of core focus areas which include evaluation of inputs (that is, the
training event), outputs (which includes learning, behaviour change and OTJ applications)
and results. The new education and training system reinforces these types of evaluation,
particularly those related to learning and behaviour change. In the new system learners
will be assessed according to defined specifications. Only those training programmes that
can produce outputs in accordance with defined unit standards will be accredited.
Quality assurance will be provided by the quality councils (QCTO, Umalusi and CHE)
whose functions include accrediting providers in terms of quality management and regis-
tering trained assessors within industries. Quality assurance overseen by quality councils
introduces a new dimension to the evaluation process which should serve to bring consist-
ency to interventions and ensure that learning programmes accomplish the required devel-
opment of our human resources.
18.7 Evaluation and the individual

The NQF Act and Skills Development Act emphasise the individual and the importance of
ensuring that he or she is developed through lifelong learning in accordance with his or her
own personal needs, the needs of the industry in which he or she works and the needs of
the country. The result of this new focus is that evaluation of training must now include
evaluation of the impact of that training on individuals. The Skills Development Act 97 of
1998 provides for the establishment of sector education and training authorities (SETAs) to
oversee the education and training needs of employees and employers in various national
economic sectors.
The purpose of the legislation is to provide a fully integrated education and training
system covering a wide range of occupations, unlike the previous apprenticeship system
which focused mainly on manual trades such as carpenters, fitters, turners and hairdressers.
The SETAs are required to establish “learnerships” that:
• consist of a structured learning component
• include practical work experience of a specified nature and duration
• lead to a qualification registered and related to an occupation driven by the Quality
Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO).
Such intended learnerships must be registered in the prescribed manner.
An important principle of the NQF and applicable to the individual is the concept of rec-
ognition of prior learning (RPL). This provides that any education and training programme
leading to a recognised qualification should, through assessment, give credit for prior
learning acquired through formal, non-formal or informal learning. Assessment could be
done by testing, portfolios (including work samples) or observation by trained and certi-
fied assessors, to demonstrate the learner’s level of competence.
18.8 Key role-players in evaluation

In chapter 6 the key players in the needs analysis process were introduced and the roles
that they play in ensuring that the interventions implemented within the organisation are
reflective of the needs of both internal and external role-players. These role-players are
also essential in evaluation and assessment. For evaluation and assessment to be effective,
these players must be included in both its development and implementation. This is essen-
tial for a number of reasons.
• For evaluation and assessment to be legitimate, it must be promoted and endorsed by
these role-players. In short, their “buy-in” must be achieved.
• With the implementation of the NQF, assessment has been transformed from an exclu-
sively “classroom-based” activity to an ongoing process. Increasingly, line management
are becoming more involved in the process of assessment, either as workplace assessors
or as Evidence Collection Facilitators. Inclusion of the line manager has become essen-
tial to assess applied learning and to ensure that transfer of training does occur and line
managers are often best positioned to gather evidence of learning and its integration
into the work environment. Since these roles cannot be forced onto managers in a “top-
down” manner, it is vital for them to be involved in the process from the planning stage
to ensure that it operates effectively in the workplace.
• Evaluations and assessments can be a fundamental tool for the targeted development of
staff and to enhance the performance management process of the organisation. To
achieve the maximum benefit from these tools, the commitment of key role-players
must be sought.
• Line managers are increasingly being required to account for the cost and time associ-
ated with learning programmes. It is therefore essential for them to participate in return
on investment evaluation to ensure that the maximum benefit is achieved.
• The achievement of qualifications and credits has a remuneration implication in many
organisations. It is therefore essential for line management to be intimately involved in
assessment and management of learning to ensure that the right skills are developed
and rewarded in the workplace.
• Defined unit standards with their associated criteria for competence provide clear guide-
lines for mastery of subject matter and for the recognition of prior learning. For this pro-
cess to be effective and legitimate, the involvement of unions and staff representatives
is essential.
• As industries become more competitive, so the requirements of customers become in-
creasingly important. As a result, many companies are using their clients to help them
evaluate their staff member’s performance. Certainly, the requirements of these custom-
ers about what constitutes competent performance cannot be ignored when creating an
evaluation programme.
Finally, as the focus of development activities moves increasingly to one of lifelong learn-
ing, the input of learners must be sought to ensure that evaluation meets their needs and
requirements.
18.9 Models of evaluation

There are surprisingly few accepted models of evaluation and those in existence have
been present in the HRD environment for many years. The models that we will examine
in this chapter are three global models and two South African models:
• Kirkpatrick’s model;
• Warr, Bird and Rackham’s CIRO model;
• Phillips’ return on investment (ROI) model;
• South African ROI model;
• Learning evaluation standard model (SABPP).
18.9.1 Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick’s model is the most recognised and widely used evaluation model within the
HRD environment. He introduced it 60 years ago and it seems to have stood the test of
time as a sound conceptual framework for the evaluation of training in an organisational
context.
The model identifies four levels at which evaluation must take place. These are:
Level One: Reaction
Level Two: Learning
Level Three: Behaviour
Level Four: Results.
He stresses that these levels represent a sequence of ways to evaluate programmes where
you move from one level to the next. These levels are defined in Table 18.4.
Although this model is used extensively in organisational training, it is not without its
critics. Abernathy (1999:60) quotes Bernthal as saying
Kirkpatrick’s model has weathered well. But it has also limited our thinking regarding evalu-
ation and possibly hindered our ability to conduct meaningful evaluations. The simplicity and
common sense of Kirkpatrick’s model imply that conducting an evaluation is a standardised,
prepackaged process. But other options are not spelled out in the model.
In his defence, Kirkpatrick encourages trainers to “borrow” evaluation forms, procedures,
techniques and methods from other people. He also stresses the difference between evi-
dence and proof when evaluating at the four levels, “evidence is much easier to obtain than
proof. In some cases, proof is impractical and almost impossible to get” (Kirkpatrick,
1994:68).
But, despite the model’s popularity and widespread use, how much training is actually
evaluated at the higher levels? Bassi and Van Buren in the 1999 State of the Industry Re-
port (1999:23), provide statistics on the use of evaluation methods by the Benchmarking
Forum of the Association for Talent Development. This forum consists of a select group
of world-class companies that engage in a reciprocal and open annual benchmarking
process.
The report reveals that of all training courses presented by these companies in 1997,
89% were evaluated at level one, 29% at level two, 11% at level three and only 2% at level
four. The forum companies report that conducting evaluations at levels two and three,
and especially at level four can be exceedingly difficult to do well. As a result, some
organisations avoid collecting more than level one measures when possible and collect
level four results only rarely.
Table 18.4 Kirkpatrick’s four levels
Level Definition
Level One: Evaluation on this level measures how those who participate in the programme
Reaction react to it. Reaction is an important measure of customer satisfaction. For Kirk-
patrick it is not only important to get a reaction, it is important to get a positive
reaction. “Positive reactions may not ensure learning, but negative reactions
almost certainly reduce the possibility of its occurring.” Evaluation at this level is
usually by a questionnaire or reactionnaire administered immediately after the
learning event.
Level Two: Learning is defined by Kirkpatrick as “the extent to which participants change
Learning attitudes, improve knowledge, and/or increase skill as a result of attending the
programme”. Learning has taken place when attitudes are changed, knowledge is
increased and/or skill is improved. This can be measured by the administration of
post-event tests or exercises.
Level Three: Behaviour can be defined as the extent to which a change in behaviour has occur-
Behaviour red because the participant attended the training programme. Kirkpatrick stresses
that in order for change to occur, four conditions must be present, the person must:
• have a desire to change
• know what to do and how to do it
• work in the right climate
• be rewarded for changing.
To ensure that change takes place, it is important for the trainer to know the type
of climate that the participant will face when returning from the training pro-
gramme. Trainers must ensure that the climate is neutral or better. Without this
there is little chance that the programme will accomplish changes on levels three
and four. Evaluation at this level can be done through behaviour observation.
Level Four: Results can be defined as the final results that occurred because the learners
Results attended the programme. The final results can include increased production, im-
proved quality, decreased costs, reduced frequency and/or severity of accidents,
increased sales, reduced turnover, and higher profits and return on investment.
These, according to Kirkpatrick, are the reason for having training programmes
and the final objectives of the training programme must be stated in these
quantifiable terms.
Source: Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006).
In America considerable emphasis is being placed on the evaluation and measurement of

training. The Association for Talent Development (ATD) has been the international
champion for ROI measurement. The ATD ROI Network has been very active in promot-
ing good measurement and evaluation practices. The four level evaluation framework
developed by Donald Kirkpatrick has been used for decades as the ATD benchmark for
training evaluation, supplemented by the ROI process of Jack Phillips. ASTD South
Africa recently conducted the fourth annual state of the South African industry training
and HR study. A total of 293 training and HR managers contributed to the study. The
South African results are compared with those of the United States in Figure 18.1.
Figure 18.1 Training Evaluation Levels
Source: ASTD State of the South African Training Industry Report (2010).
The above figure indicates that many South African organisations are applying the Kirk-
patrick levels to some extent, while results evaluation and ROI measurement has increased
significantly over the past two years.
18.9.2 Warr, Bird and Rackham

These authors developed what has become known as the CIRO model and, as with other
approaches, there are four general categories of evaluation. These form the letters CIRO
(Phillips, 1997:40):
• Context evaluation
• Input evaluation
• Reaction evaluation
• Outcome evaluation.
Table 18.5 The CIRO categories of evaluation
Category Explanation
Context This process involves obtaining and using information about the current
evaluation situation (or context) to determine whether training is needed and if so, the
training needs and objectives. Three types of objectives are evaluated:
• Ultimate objectives: the organisational deficiency the training will improve
• Intermediate objectives: the change in employees’ behaviour that is neces-
sary for the ultimate objectives to be achieved
• Immediate objectives: the new knowledge, skills or attitudes the em-
ployees must acquire to change their behaviour in order to reach the inter-
mediate objectives
continued
Category Explanation
Input evaluation This involves the collection of information about resources available for the
training needed and choosing between the alternatives to ensure the maximum
chance of achieving the objectives identified in the previous process.
Reaction Similar to Kirkpatrick’s first level, this step involves collecting and using
evaluation information about participants’ reaction to the learning event to improve the
HRD process.
Outcome This process involves obtaining and using information about the results of the
evaluation HRD programme at the three levels of objectives identified in the first step,
immediate, intermediate and ultimate. There are four stages of outcome
evaluation, namely:
• definition of the training objectives
• selecting or construction of the measures of these objectives
• measuring at the appropriate time
• review of the results and using them to improve later programmes.
Source: Phillips (1997).
The last category, outcome evaluation, also links to the philosophy and assessment prac-
tice of outcomes-based education, training and development.
18.9.3 Phillips’s five-level ROI framework

Kirkpatrick’s four-level model had been in widespread use for more than 40 years when
Phillips proposed adding a fifth level, return on investment (ROI) (Phillips, 1997:9–10,
42–43). Phillips’s model is set out in Table 18.6.
Table 18.6 Phillips five-level ROI framework
Level Description Comment

1 Reaction and planned action: Measures While this level is important as a customer
participant’s reaction to the programme satisfaction measure, a favourable reaction
and outlines specific plans for does not guarantee that participants have
implementation. learnt new skills or knowledge.
2 Learning: Measures skills, knowledge A learning check is helpful to ensure that
or attitude changes. learners have absorbed the material and
know how to use it. It does not guarantee,
however, that material will be used on the
job.
3 Job applications: Measures change in Here frequency and use of skills are import-
behaviour on the job and specific appli- ant measures. Again, success at this level
cations of the training material. does not guarantee a positive impact on the
organisation.
4 Business results: Measures the business Here measures include outputs, quality,
impact of the programme – actual costs, time and customer satisfaction.
results. Although there is a measurable business
impact, there is still a concern that the
programme may have cost too much.
continued
Level Description Comment

5 Return on investment: Measures the This completes the evaluation cycle. While
monetary value of the results and costs ROI evaluation is essential, it is designed to
for the programme. This is usually build on levels one to four, not replace them.
expressed as a percentage.
Phillips (1997:xiii) lists some of the drivers of a move towards return on investment (ROI)
evaluation. Pressure from clients and senior managers to show the return on their training
investment is probably the most influential. Competitive economic pressures are causing
intense scrutiny of all expenditures, including all training and development costs. Total
quality management, re-engineering and continuous process improvement have created a
renewed interest in measurement and evaluation, including measuring the effectiveness of
training (see chapter 17).
There is much debate in academic and business circles about which models to use. It is
clear that no one method is able to provide the results required on all occasions. However,
it is also apparent that the method of evaluation chosen will be determined by factors such
as:
• The organisation’s understanding of HRD.
• Whether or not the company views HRD as being a strategy for accomplishing their
strategic objectives.
• Management involvement (both through participation and endorsement) in HRD.
• Whether or not HRD practitioners are required to account for amounts spent on their
programmes.
The key to effective evaluation is to choose the right method to ensure that the organisa-
tion’s goals and objectives are met.
South African Breweries (SAB) is a division of SABMiller, one of the largest beer manufacturers in
the world. Its HRD vision espouses that HRD wants to be valued as strategic partners in enhancing
human performance. Furthermore, HRD seeks to enhance and facilitate effective learning across the
value chain of SAB, through provision of world-class facilities and enablers within which dynamic
training and knowledge transfer are delivered. Ultimately, HRD wants to be regarded as an inter-
national benchmark for the value of their contribution to business performance.
In 2005 SAB introduced the Sales Way, an electronic learning solution and best operating prac-
tice repository. It can be accessed by all sales representatives at any location, 24 hours a day. The
Sales Way paved the way to a reduced lead time to competence of a sales representative. The reduc-
tion from 12 months to 9 months is achieved by three interventions, namely on-line induction, one-
line pre-academy orientation and post-academy task support. Apart from being a training tool, the
Sales Way allows for rapid and mass communication to the sales forces of detailed process changes,
product launches and new activities.
The Sales Way yielded many quantitative and qualitative business benefits for SAB. The most no-
table being the reduction of turnover within the sales force from 25% to 14%. When calculating the
potential impact of this reduction, one must consider that the approximate direct cost to company of
losing a sales representative during the first 18 months of tenure is R300 000. When extrapolated,
the impact of this reduction amounts to approximately R25 million. The total project cost impact on
the business was R10 million. If one includes the injection of 50 additional heads of R13 million
(not actual project cost) the reduction in turnover alone provides for a positive return on investment
(ROI). In a related project, an SAP R3 enterprise was used, with a particular focus on the outsourcing
continued
of training. Each new learner completes an online assessment and obtains the 80% pass mark to
apply for SAP access and completes an assessment during formal classroom training. Learners are
assessed on the policy and trouble-shooting ability in a simulated environment. An actual ROI cal-
culation was done and a positive ROI of 284% measured. This has paved the way and secured fund-
ing for the development and implementation of the next 14 SAP learning solutions.
18.9.4 South African ROI model

A South African ROI model was developed in 2003. The model builds on the previous
models mentioned, but ensures that local needs are also integrated. Meyer et al (2003) pro-
vide the following guidelines for the effective implementation of ROI in an organisation:
• Build capacity for ROI by doing thorough research and benchmarking.
• Train training staff to understand ROI.
• Quantify information before the training in order to obtain a baseline (for example,
number of accidents, customer complaints, etc).
• Set specific targets for evaluation at all levels (Kirkpatrick 1994).
• Decide on specific measurements.
• Allocate resources for ROI.
• Integrate ROI with performance management to ensure that skills gaps are addressed.
• Develop a culture of measurement and accountability among training staff.
• Start with only one course as a pilot programme to practise ROI skills.
• Focus on individual programmes to simplify the process.
• Communicate results to training staff and the whole organisation.
• Celebrate ROI success stories in a visible way.
• Design improvement plans for training programmes in order to increase ROI.
• Once ROI results are available, use the data to market future learning programmes.
Having read the previous parts of this chapter you should have a clear understanding of
the different phases of implementing ROI. However, to make it even easier for you to go
ahead and apply the principles and practices of ROI at your work, we are providing you
with a step-by-step implementation process that you can adapt to meet your own needs in
your organisation. Figure 18.2 illustrates the ROI implementation process each step of
which is discussed below.
Step 1: Measurement awareness

The first step in the ROI implementation process is that an awareness needs to be created
about the significance of measurement. This usually happens when an HRD manager real-
ises the importance of measuring ROI for training. Sometimes HRD managers are pres-
surised by line managers to show the value of training, and this also leads to an awareness
of ROI. Other ways of becoming aware of the need for ROI is to attend seminars and con-
ferences at which training managers and consultants from different industries discuss the
need and importance of ROI. For example, a large South African cellphone company made
use of a workshop to inform their whole training department about ROI.
In addition, forming constructive relationships with line managers is a crucial element
of ROI awareness. If line management can experience real commitment on the part of the
training department to measure ROI, they will become more supportive of training, and
indeed the training department. Having their support will not only make it easier to im-
plement the training, they may even make a more direct contribution to ensuring that the
maximum ROI is achieved by supporting the transfer of learning to the learner to apply
the newly acquired knowledge in the workplace that will ultimately result in improved per-
formance.
Figure 18.2 ROI implementation process
Measurement Awareness
• Original ROI focus ROI
• ROI training
Strategic ROI Planning

• Strategic business plan Training Improvement Plan
• Training measurement strategy
Gap/Performance Analysis
• Training-needs analysis Communicate ROI Results
• Performance management
Training Plan/Workplace Skills Plan

Evaluate Training Impact
• Decide on training interventions
Determine Cost of Learning

Calculate ROI
• Input costs
• Facilitation, assessment, etc. • ROI ratios: CBR/ROI
Conduct Training Assessment of Learning

• Training sessions • Competency levels
• Workplace application
Source: Adapted from Meyer, Opperman and Dyrbye (2003).
Step 2: Strategic ROI planning

The second step in the ROI implementation process is to conduct a strategic ROI planning
session. This session is of paramount importance, because ROI will fundamentally change
the way training is delivered and measured. A commitment to ROI means that training is
no longer conducted for the sake of training, but to add value. This paradigm shift in the
approach towards training requires a new strategic focus – an emphasis on providing train-
ing that improves service delivery and services, and ultimately productivity in the organ-
isation. In fact, it means that training is no longer run like a “department”, but more like a
business that must control cost, on the one hand, and make a profit, on the other. The bet-
ter the ROI, the better the HRD function is performing.
A strategic ROI planning session should be conducted by involving the entire training
staff and a few line managers. By inviting line managers, they will in all likelihood be im-
pressed with the business focus of the training department, and therefore play a construc-
tive role in providing the necessary support and resources to help with the overall ROI
implementation process.
The strategic planning session should include a clear role clarification of the various
role-players. For example, staff responsible for the design of learning programmes can
provide specific inputs into the design cost of training programmes. Training administra-
tion staff can provide inputs on all the logistical costs associated with training. Not only
will this inclusive approach assist the training manager in gaining maximum support for
ROI implementation, he or she will also be able to make his or her staff more cost sen-
sitive so that they will be less likely to waste unnecessary resources on training that is not
necessarily cost-effective. An inclusive approach will also lead to an environment condu-
cive to suggestions for more effective and efficient training.
The outcome of the ROI strategic planning session should be a roll-out plan for the im-
plementation of ROI: in other words, what must happen, by whom, when and how. Using
the following steps as a basic framework will definitely assist in the compilation of the
strategic ROI plan.
Step 3: Gap/performance analysis
The HRD process starts with an analysis of a performance problem or development oppor-
tunity identified during the gap analysis. The gap analysis clearly indicates the discrepancy
between ideal performance and current performance. A proper learning needs analysis
using all the necessary analysis methods, such as skills audits, questionnaires or focus
groups can be used to ascertain the exact training need. The more accurately the gaps are
identified, the more accurate the eventual ROI calculation will be.
The process of performance management can also be used as a system to analyse per-
formance problems or development opportunities.
Step 4: Training plan/workplace skills plan
Your training or workplace skills plan in accordance with the Skills Development Act,
indicates clearly how you plan to fill the skills gaps identified in step 3. Major skills de-
velopment priorities are outlined, as well as the learning programmes that are planned to
improve the skills level of the workforce.
Step 5: Determine the cost of learning
The fifth step in the ROI implementation process is to determine the cost of learning. This
means that you identify all the different cost items needed to execute the training or work-
place skills plan as indicated in step 4. Typical cost items are design costs, facilitation
costs, catering, accommodation, equipment costs, loss of productivity, etc. It is simply a
matter of adding all these cost items up to obtain a total.
Step 6: Conduct training

Training can either occur on-the-job, in a classroom or through e-learning, depending on
the preference of the particular organisation. Training programmes are conducted to trans-
fer knowledge and skills to learners so that the necessary skills gaps can be addressed, as
discussed in step 2.
Step 7: Assessment of learning
When training is completed, the important questions to answer are: Did the training make
a difference? Have the learners reached the required levels of competence? Are they
doing their jobs better? These questions can only be answered if an assessment has been
done to determine whether learners can be declared competent.
Step 8: Calculate ROI
An assessment of learner competence is followed by the primary measurement of the ROI
cycle, namely calculating your ROI ratios. This is done by determining the costs and
benefits of the training conducted by using the formula indicated earlier. Table 18.7 pro-
vides examples of typical measurements that can be used to convert the benefits of train-
ing to a rand value.
Table 18.7 Typical measurements
Quality Quantity Costs Time

• Scrap • Units produced • Unit costs • Late orders
• Rework • Phone calls answered • Overhead cost • Lost time days
• Waste • Money collected • Project cost • Repair time
• Rejects • Sales savings • Learning time
• Defects • Forms processed • Accident costs • On-time delivery
• Shortages • Loans approved • Sales expenses • Overtime
• Error rates • Tasks completed • Absenteeism • Equipment
• Deviation • New accounts cost downtime
• Correct tasks generated • Number of cost • Work stoppages
• Clients visited reductions • Efficiency
• Number of
accidents • Applications • Operating costs • Supervisory time
processed • Fixed costs
• Output per day • Variable costs
Source: Adapted from Phillips (2003).
Once these benefits have been converted to a rand value, the ROI formula is used to cal-
culate the return on the training investment presented as a percentage. A ROI of, say, 87%
would mean that the training added value to the organisation. However, if other factors
contributed to the improvement in performance (e.g. the business cycle, process improve-
ment, organisational culture change), the ROI may be adjusted to account for the impact
of these non-training variables.
Step 9: Evaluate the impact of training
Evaluating the impact of training means taking the results of the ROI calculations and de-
ciding how they can be used by the organisation. A ROI report must be written, in which
the ROI figures are interpreted and conclusions are drawn, as well as recommendations
made to management.
Evaluating the training impact will have both a positive and negative side. Achieving
good ROI ratios is an achievement, but when ROI is not that favourable, the process of
evaluation assists the training manager in making decisions about the improvement of
particular training programmes. Careful analysis is needed to determine the root causes of
some learning programmes not achieving the desired results, while others do. Specific
action plans for improvement can then be determined and implemented.
Step 10: Communicate ROI results

The process of measuring ROI is such a rewarding experience, that once the ROI results
are available, they must be communicated. Of course, positive ROI figures must be cele-
brated, something we do not do enough in South African organisations. Various commu-
nication media can be used to communicate ROI results:
• Write memoranda to line managers thanking them for their support in terms of making
staff available and then give them the ROI figures.
• Place the ROI results on the Intranet for all staff to see.
• Use training meetings to share the ROI results and lessons learned.
• Inform the skills development facilitator of the ROI results.
• Report the ROI results in the company newsletter and notice boards.
• Award prizes for the best ROI figures reported.
• Indicate the ROI figures on brochures used when marketing future training programmes.
• Write articles about ROI success stories and lessons.
• Send e-mails to learners informing them of ROI data.
• Include ROI data in training reports.
• Do presentations to line managers on ROI.
Step 11: Develop and implement the training improvement plan

Using the ROI process can help training staff to identify opportunities for improvements
to training programmes. Training courses with a low or negative ROI ratio can be re-
designed, improved or scrapped. ROI measurement is, however, so useful that doing
another ROI calculation will assist a training team in determining whether the programme
has improved. The ROI has to be calculated after every training programme and the results
compared with previous ROI results.
18.9.5 Learning evaluation standard model (SABPP)

In 2014 under the auspices of SABPP, a group of South African HR and HRD Managers
developed an HR Professional Practice Standard on learning evaluation as part of the
National HR Standards model. The model seeks to integrate the above global models, but
with a focus on South Africanising it to local conditions in the South African business and
learning environment. Furthermore, the learning evaluation standard addresses evaluation
before, during and after the training intervention, while considering key aspects of evalua-
tion integrated with the other phases of the L&D process, such as learning needs analysis
(as discussed in chapter 6) and learning design (see chapter 7). The learning evaluation
standard is therefore very useful from a HRD systems perspective, in as much as it targets
the different building blocks of the HRD system. The learning evaluation model is depict-
ed in Figure 18.1 below.
Figure 18.1 Learning evaluation standard model (SABPP)
Learning needs analysis

PRE-COURSE
Learning Design
Learning needs
APPROPRIATE ALIGNMENT TO LEGISLATION

Learning design
Communication
AND ORGANISATION COMPLIANCE

Planning/organising
COURSE INTERVENTION
Pre/post/formative/summative
Assessment – results/outcomes
+ Annual Review
Basic course administration
Learner reaction forms
Facilitator feedback
POST-COURSE
Learner feedback
Facilitator evaluation
Budgeted vs actual DESIRED
+ =
IMPACT
Learner support
Stakeholder communication
As can be seen from Figure 18.1, the South African learning evaluation standard devel-
oped by SABPP provides a holistic and integrated approach to learning evaluation,
aligned to the skills development legislative requirements. The learning evaluation stand-
ard specifies the following fundamental requirements for good learning evaluation prac-
tice:
• Learning evaluation should involve key stakeholders throughout the process from
needs analysis, outcomes specification and analysis of results.
• The intended outcomes of the learning intervention must be specified right upfront in
both quantitative and qualitative terms.
• Quantitative outcomes should enable a return on investment to be calculated.
• Qualitative outcomes should enable a return on expectation to be determined.
• Learning evaluation should be conducted against the intended outcomes.
• Whilst financial or productivity outcomes should be specified wherever possible, it is
also acceptable to specify “soft” outcomes, such as improved customer satisfaction
(which should lead to a financial outcome, but appropriate measures may not be in
place).
• Learning evaluation should recognise the different levels of learning outcomes, as set
out in for example Kirkpatrick’s levels of learning evaluation: participant reaction,
learning achieved (post-test), change of behaviour achieved, business results achieved.
• The evaluation report should lead to action where improved results could be obtained,
and should inform key stakeholders on what to focus on to achieve future performance
improvement.
18.10 Methods of evaluation

This section focuses on some of the many additional methods of evaluation. In it, each
method will be examined to determine:
• how it works
• when it should be used
• how to use it
• how methods can be matched to the model of evaluation used.
The techniques most commonly used by evaluators when evaluating learning are as
follows:
• open-ended comments or reactions
• objective questions or surveys
• task performance measures such as simulations and role-plays
• multiple choice or similar tests
• participant self-assessments.
This section briefly outlines some of these methods along with their applications. It must
be stressed that no method is value free or theory free. Instead, the use of a method will be
determined by the model that the organisation uses. So, at all times while discussing
methods, one should question applications and whether the method is most useful for
evaluating training as an activity or if it shows synergy with a results-based paradigm of
HRD.
The type of method chosen depends on the model of evaluation that the HRD specialist
is using, the level at which he or she wants to evaluate and the needs analysis process that
has been carried out. It is also important to note that some methods are suited to formative
evaluation and others to summative evaluation. Some of the methods briefly discussed in
this section include:
• the questionnaire
• the reactionnaire
• the interview
• critical incident review
• action planning
• written tests or computer-based testing
• practical tests
• behaviour analysis
• cost-benefit analysis and return on investment evaluation.
One should ask the following questions before beginning an evaluation project.
• Who is the client of the evaluation project?
• What HRD activity is to be evaluated?
• What are the objectives of the evaluation?
• Who is likely to have the relevant information?
• What is the best technique to use to get the information that you require?
• At what point in the HRD programme should evaluation take place?
• How does the evaluation contribute to NQF alignment?
• How does the evaluation address the critical and specific outcomes of the NQF?
• What methods of assessment are being used?
As mentioned previously, the method to use will depend on the purpose of the evaluation,
the level at which it is taking place and the point in the process that evaluation will be
carried out. Table 18.8 provides guidance when deciding which method to use.
Table 18.8 Guidelines for deciding on evaluation methods
When does
Goal of evaluation Methods to use
evaluation occur?
During the Judgement about the quality of the Sessional reactionnaires
training event learner’s experience during Event reactionnaires
learning Group discussion
Individual comment
Judgement of learning Written tests
Behavioural observation
Repertory grid
Practical tests
Video-audio recording
Computer-based training
Measures of change during training Pre- or post-tests
Behavioural observation
Practical tests
Repertory grid
Assessment of terminal Test
competence Behavioural observation
In the workplace Did training meet needs or goals Questionnaires
Performance appraisal reviews
Evaluation interviews
Application of learning in the Action planning
workplace Behavioural observation
Critical incident analysis
Evaluation interviews
Questionnaires
Performance appraisal reviews
Participant observation
Pre- or post-sampling of work
continued
When does
Goal of evaluation Methods to use
evaluation occur?
Organisational Changes in organisational Analyses of performance indices –
effectiveness performance operational measures such as output
quality or quantity, sales volume,
wastage, expressed customer
satisfaction, financial measures such
as cost; return on investment
Cost-effectiveness of training Costing
Cost/benefit analysis
Cost-effectiveness analysis
Congruence of training and Interview
organisational vision Content analysis of formal and
operative policies
Social or Contribution of training to national Cost-benefit analysis
cultural goals and objectives, Values analysis
SAQA critical cross-field outcomes Surveys
SAQA/NQF philosophy or methods
Source: Adapted from Newby (1992).
18.10.1 Questionnaires
Chapter 6 discussed the use of questionnaires in relation to needs analysis and the ques-
tionnaire is probably the most common form of programme evaluation instrument. Ques-
tionnaires are most often used to evaluate reaction, learning and behaviour changes (levels
one to three). However, Bassi and Cheney (1997:34) report on research that suggests that
well-designed questionnaires can yield potential level four results. When designing
questionnaires it is essential that the requirements of validity and reliability be adhered to.
18.10.2 Reactionnaires
Reactionnaires are the easiest instrument to construct and are used to obtain level one feed-
back. They are questionnaires designed to get feedback on (Newby, 1992:143)
• the learner’s subjective experience of the event and how well they felt that the learning
methods worked
• how well the presenter performed
• whether the course met the formal and individual objectives and expectations that were
set.
Reactionnaires are commonly administered at the end of an event. They are based on sub-
jective perceptions and are often known as “happy” sheets. They can be useful in providing
information about the effectiveness of training in
• meeting its objectives
• meeting the needs of the learner and the overt needs of the organisation
• achieving the right mix of topics and assigning the appropriate importance to each
• communicating a message through the appropriate medium.
However, reactionnaires have many restrictions, such as that they do not reliably assess
the relevance of the course to the participant’s job, give a limited perspective on whether
transfer of learning will take place and do not provide measures of knowledge acquisition
or behaviour change. Nor do they provide any useful information in terms of return on
investment.
18.10.3 Interviews
Whilst questionnaires and reactionnaires are relatively quick and inexpensive to adminis-
ter, they have their limitations. To obtain more reliable information one could employ the
interview. Interviews can be used for the following purposes:
• Exploration of the learner’s response to training designs and methods.
• Assessing the extent to which training objectives and content are perceived to be rele-
vant for the learner.
• Determining how applicable the content is in the work environment.
• Identifying workplace factors which affect the extent of learning transfer.
• Gaining information about the learner’s feelings and attitudes.
• Comparing the congruence between organisational vision and the learning programme.
Interviews are important tools for yielding high quality information and data. They can be
structured or unstructured or semi-structured. The problem with interviews, however, is
that they are often costly and time-consuming.
Interviews can be used for probing to uncover specific applications and are therefore
appropriate for level three data.
18.10.4 Critical incident review

Newby (1992:120) states that the critical incident review is, “a procedure for collecting
direct observations of workplace behaviour in situations which have special significance
for the people concerned, hence situations which are ‘critical’ to them. What critical inci-
dent analysis yields is a description of observable behaviours that are of key importance
to effective performance in a specified task or role. The incident must happen in a situation
where what the person does, and the consequences that follow, whether positive or nega-
tive, can be identified as directly influencing job performance”.
Methods of collecting this data are interviews, group discussions, questionnaires, diaries
and performance appraisals. Note that, as with other evaluations, this method will provide
more credible findings if the analysis is combined with appropriate controls and pre- or
post-assessments of change. This method would be suitable for evaluating the results, at
levels two, three and four, of industrial relations training, for example, the handling of
post-training disciplinary hearings by supervisors can be analysed to evaluate whether the
learners have reached the desired competency level.
18.10.5 Written and computer-based tests

Written and computer-based tests assess the knowledge that the learner has gained. If well-
designed and used throughout the training process, they are useful for:
• formative assessment during the learning to identify areas where improvement is required
• summative assessment to determine the learner’s progress as a result of the training
session
• identifying persistent problematic areas

• certification of competence.
Tests can either take the form of objective items, such as multiple choice, which are usu-
ally high on reliability and validity and are easy to mark but may not be effective for
assessing applications, and higher order cognitive skills such as analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. Essay, case studies and short-answer questions may be more effective for
higher level applications but they are more time-consuming to mark and problems can be
experienced because of marker subjectivity.
Rae (1997:35) stresses that you need to ask questions such as:
• What is the range of knowledge to be tested?
• What questions should be asked? What form must these take?
• What answers are required? In what form?
• What percentage of accuracy is required?
• Who will assess the answers?
• What should the environment be?
18.10.6 Practical tests

Practical tests can be used as a means of formative evaluation during the learning event.
They are also useful diagnostic tools. Increasingly, however, they are becoming part of the
post-training process where learners are required to demonstrate their skills in a controlled
environment back in the workplace. They are, according to Newby (1992:180), useful for
the following reasons:
• they have high validity
• they reinforce learning by providing additional practice in the skill
• practical applications encourage the transfer of learning into the workplace
• there is rapid feedback to the trainer about the extent of skill mastery.
Problems, however, include the difficulty with scoring reliability and the time intensity of
such interventions.
18.10.7 Focus groups

These are conducted to determine the degree to which a group of participants have been
able to apply an intervention to their job situation (Phillips, 1997:28). Focus groups are
appropriate for compiling level three data, and an appropriate application would be to
evaluate the outcomes of a diversity training intervention.
18.10.8 Action planning

Action planning is designed to ensure that transfer of learning does take place in the work
environment. Action planning is important because it both facilitates the application of
learning in the workplace and provides a job-related evaluation tool.
Action planning involves the learners in identifying ways of applying what they are
learning back in the workplace. The importance of finding these applications is identified
from the start of the programme. The trainer stresses the relevance of the training to the
learner’s work from the start. Through the course of the programme, the learner is required
to write down applications. Blank pieces of paper (of a specific colour, for example, yel-
low) are handed out to the learner at the beginning of the course. These can be used to
write down relevant applications as the training proceeds.
The pages are used for:
• A brief wrap-up session at the end of each day’s session. Learners are required to dis-
cuss the ideas written on their pages.
• For the creation of a formal action plan. Learners must use the ideas that they have
noted to identify personal action targets, decide on individual priorities and analyse
obstacles and resources which relate to their priority targets.
This method provides a focus for two important elements of evaluation; namely, transfer
of learning and measuring job performance. The trainer can assess the action targets set
by learners and how effectively learners meet them. This provides both a means of asses-
sing training transfer and a way to determine how well the training course met its object-
ives and the needs of the learners.
The ideal way of ensuring that an action plan will work is to include the employee’s
line manager. A copy of the action plan can be sent to the learner’s manager along with an
invitation to discuss the content. Alternatively, the learner can include his or her manager
in the preparation of the action plan.
18.10.9 Behavioural analysis

Behavioural analysis is particularly valuable when training in activities related to interper-
sonal skills. The learner can be assessed before and after the learning event to determine
the behavioural change. Such techniques can also be used for formative assessments and
for group-based evaluations. In addition, behavioural analysis can form the basis of assess-
ment for certification and also for follow-up workplace assessments. This observation can
be performed during a role-play, through video recordings or through a participant ob-
server.
This method will only work if:
• observers are trained
• criteria to be assessed during observation is standardised
• there is inter-rater reliability (that is, consistency between observers observing the same
behaviour)
• there is test and retest reliability
• an adequate range of behaviours are tested
• observers:
– are aware that their presence may cause participants to act in specific ways. For this
reason, it is sometimes better for observation to take place on an ongoing, less con-
spicuous basis within the work environment. For Rae (1997:37), unnaturally perfect
performance resulting from the observation may occur for the initial period only.
Once the individual becomes involved in the task, natural reactions are more likely
to occur.
– avoid the halo effect (not rating various aspects independently).
– do not allow personal reactions to the learner to impact on their assessments.
– are aware of their own personal frame of reference and how that influences the way
that they rate the behaviour of those that they observe.
18.10.10 Cost-benefit analysis and ROI

Training is often seen as a cost to the organisation because HRD does not show how they
can add value to the business (Unger et al, 1999). When doing a cost-benefit analysis, the
HRD practitioner must compare costs to benefits. To determine costs, first isolate which
type of funding is in operation in the industry. There are two common types of funding,
namely (Newby, 1992:217):
• Overhead systems, where the training budget is an indirect cost for the whole organisa-
tion. This approach has a long-term view of organisational training needs and lessen the
tendency towards “fire-fighting” activities. But, these systems tend to create inertia in
the training activities and there is a strong temptation for the HRD department to run a
menu of courses instead of being responsive to real organisational needs.
• Recharging systems where the training department operates as a separate, self-contained
business, a profit centre. The training unit sells its services to the organisation and its
success in doing this determines its survival. This system increases line management
interest in the process of training. In addition, there is an opportunity for managers to be
educated in the process of determining needs, designing programmes, evaluating and
reinforcing learning in the workplace.
The method of analysis chosen must be compatible with the type of funding used in the
organisation. The HRD practitioner must now determine the costs of inputs and the mon-
etary value of anticipated outcomes related to training.
Inputs include fixed capital, working capital, administrative and personnel costs, costs
of providing training instructors or tutors, costs of training development (R&D), costs of
giving instruction and costs arising from learners’ attendance of the course.
In the case of on-the-job (OTJ) inputs or coaching, these inputs may be more difficult
to quantify.
Outputs, or benefits, include reduced training time to master task skills (reduced training
costs, reduced wastage and higher output), improved time usage, improved quality of out-
put (reduced quality control costs and less wastage), sales volume increases, increased
outputs of products and services, lower accident rates, reduced turnover of employees
(improved output, reduced recruitment and selection costs, increased public and customer
confidence leading to more sales), reduced absenteeism and industrial conflict, greater
resource utilisation, and improvements in organisational culture and climate.
Admittedly, many of the benefits are difficult to quantify in monetary terms and a com-
parison of results with any control group will help to make the evaluation more realistic.
If a control group is used, it is important to be aware of contamination. Should a control
group of sales staff be concerned with the same product industry as the group being
trained, it is possible that during assessment, the control group’s product may have im-
proved and thus become more saleable. This would be an intervening variable and would
thus contaminate the results of the evaluation.
The result of this analysis is expressed in the following a ratio:
Programme benefits
CBR =
Programme costs
Therefore, if the costs of the input can be measured at R150 000 and the benefit can be
quantified at R300 000, the cost-benefit ratio is 2:1.
A variation of this method, based on Phillip’s five level ROI model, is to express the
measurable financial return on training as a percentage, for example:
Net programme benefits

ROI% = × 100
Programme costs
where net programme benefits are programme benefits minus programme costs.
Phillips (1997:153) quotes the example of a company which conducted an 18 week lit-
eracy programme for electrical and mechanical assemblers. The annualised value of im-
proved productivity and quality after the programme was calculated at $321 600 compared
with the programme cost of $38 233. Using the above formula, the ROI is 841% which
means that every $1 invested produced a return of $8.41.
Table 18.9 shows the ROI evaluation process that can be used when an ROI exercise is
conducted (Phillips, 1997:25–34). The result of the ROI exercise is the production of
much-valued return on investment information for the company to use in determining the
effectiveness of an HRD intervention.
Table 18.9 Stage of ROI evaluation
Stage Description
1 Gathering of preliminary evaluation information regarding the purpose of evaluation,
instrument(s) to be used, timing and levels
2 Collection of post-programme data
3 Isolating the effects of training
4 Conversion of data to monetary value
5 Tabulation of the costs of the programme
6 Calculation of the return on investment
7 Identification of intangible benefits of training
18.11 Competence-based assessment according to QCTO

requirements
The NQF system of assessment under the QCTO policy is essentially a competence-based
assessment system focusing on occupational competence. This type of assessment means
that evidence must be collected and judgements made in terms of agreed standards on
whether assessment criteria have been met. An assessment system should be developed to
facilitate this process.
Occupational qualifications consist of knowledge unit standards, practical unit standards
and work experience unit standards (QCTO, 2011). An assessment system consists of the
following elements:
• A full set of agreed qualifications and standards for all the relevant occupations in the
industry based on the QCTO requirements.
• Trained and registered internal and/or external assessors and moderators for all areas of
work in the industry.
• An administrative system to book assessment opportunities, record and store assessment
information and submit it to the relevant national bodies.
• A moderation system consisting of moderators who can assure the technical quality of
the assessment.
• A review system to review standards and assessment tools based on the input of candi-
dates, assessors and line staff.
• A sound information management system, custom-designed for the relevant QCTO in-
formation.
In addition, organisations should have an assessment strategy operationalised through an
assessment policy, process and procedure. An assessment policy is a critical element in
the quality management system required by the QCTO for all training providers seeking
to obtain or maintain provider accreditation.
From the above, it is evident that a new approach to assessment is required. It is, how-
ever, a reality that many ETD practitioners have not been trained in this new form of
assessment. It is therefore essential that they obtain an understanding of the new way of
assessing learner achievement. Table 18.10 provides a framework for understanding the
differences between traditional assessment and outcomes-based assessment.
Table 18.10 Differences between traditional and competence-based assessment
Traditional assessment Competence-based assessment

Training objectives form the basis of assessment Outcomes form the basis of assessment
Assessment usually occurs at the end of a Assessment is continuous and integrated into all
learning event learning programmes
Tests are used to assess learner performance A variety of assessment methods are used to
assess learner competence (portfolios, self-
assessment, peer assessment, simulations, etc)
The learner is perceived not to be able to assess Self-assessment is an essential component of
his or her own performance competence-based assessment
Assessment criteria are not defined or specified Assessment criteria are defined and clearly
specified for the learners
There is usually only one assessor conducting Multiple assessors are used, including
the assessment of a particular learning event workplace assessors
Assessment is used to test the theoretical Assessment is used to assess what the learner is
knowledge of the learner able to do in a real-life situation (knowledge +
practice + workplace application)
There is more emphasis on the role of the There is more emphasis on the role of the
assessor than on the learner learner than on the assessor
Assessment focuses only on subject-related Assessment focuses on the competencies the
objectives learners should possess when applying theory
The assessment is very subjective and often The assessment is more objective as clearly
influenced by the level of leniency or strictness specified assessment criteria and the require-
of the assessor or other assessment errors ment of evidence for achievement or outcomes
limits subjective assessment
Learners have to repeat subjects they have failed Learners get an opportunity to be reassessed on
particular areas where they need to obtain the
required standard of competence
continued
Traditional assessment Competence-based assessment

No national standards for assessment exist National standards and criteria for assessment
exist
Assessors are subject specialists but not trained Assessors are subject specialists and trained
assessors assessors approved by an assessment quality
partner (AQP)
Appeal procedures do not exist in some cases Appeal procedures are in place and are
accessible to the learners
The assessment system does not recognise the The assessment system makes provision for
learner’s previous achievements recognition of prior learning*
The assessment system is rigid and does not The assessment system evolves and changes as
change often new unit standard and assessment criteria are
developed
* Recognition of prior learning recognises and credits learning that has been attained by a learner through
a variety of methods, both formal and informal. RPL examines what a person knows and is able to do
regardless of how and when learning took place. This knowledge and skill is measured against relevant
unit standards.
Table 18.10 shows that a significant paradigm shift is needed to bridge the gap between
traditional assessment and competence-based assessment. This means that organisations
will be required to develop new strategies for assessment including developing those line
managers/supervisors who are best equipped to assess technical skills as evidence collec-
tion facilitators or assessors. In addition, companies need to develop moderators to ensure
that assessment is applied in a valid and reliable way across the organisation.
The following guidelines for competence-based assessment were developed by Lategan
and Van Rooyen (1998:3–4).
• The method for assessment used must be flexible, clear to anyone using it, and valid
and reliable.
• Assessment criteria are provided to assess all outcome statements.
• Alternative forms of assessment, such as simulations, tests, work-based projects or
assignments, are provided where this will help to increase access to the qualification.
• Where workplace assessment is not possible, performance is demonstrated and assessed
under conditions as close as possible to those under which it would normally be prac-
tised.
• Assessment methods provide the opportunity for learners to demonstrate full compe-
tence against the standards.
• A reliable system exists for recording evidence of competence across the full range of
circumstances in which the skills and knowledge must be applied.
• The assessment system includes a method for recording standards and outcomes
achieved as a result of the assessment to provide for credit accumulation and transfer.
An assessment system should be well-developed, planned and managed to ensure appropri-
ate methods of assessment, as well as reliability and validity.
Lategan and Van Rooyen (1998) propose the following five stages of assessment plan-
ning for an organisation.
• Initial planning
Initial planning includes the following activities:
– Disseminating information.
– Identifying individuals to be assessed as well as the standards for assessment.
– Accessing assessors capable of doing the assessment.
– Developing action plans for the learners to be assessed and others involved in the
assessment process.
– Liaising with skills development providers to ensure the availability of additional
training.
• Collecting evidence
Evidence must be provided to assess the learner’s claim for competence against the
standards. The evidence of the candidate is assessed to ensure the following:
– The evidence meets the broad requirements of the standards.
– The activity is being or has been performed safely.
– The evidence meets the criteria and range of variables.
– The evidence covers the entire range of competencies the candidate needs.
• Judging the evidence
The evidence is judged according to the following principles of assessment. It must be:
– valid – the evidence achieves the outcomes described in the standards.
– authentic – it describes what the candidate did.
– current – it describes skills and knowledge the candidate has and what the candidate
can do at the time of the assessment.
– sufficient – it covers the full range of assessment criteria and range of variables.
– reliable – it meets the specifications of the standards, no matter who the assessors
are or how many times the evidence is assessed.
– fair – the candidate is not unfairly affected by the assessment method being used.
Note that when moderation takes place, the same principles of assessment must be evi-
denced in the assessment process.
• The assessor’s recommendation
Based on the evidence collected, the assessor determines whether the candidate is com-
petent or not yet competent against the list of competencies. If the learner is assessed not
yet competent, he or she must provide further evidence at a later stage until competence
is achieved.
• Feedback and further development needs
Following the assessment process, further development needs may be identified for the
candidate such as follow-up training, more responsibilities in the workplace or special
projects. In addition, evaluation can determine development requirements for the assess-
ment process. These may include evaluation of the relevance of standards for the
workplace, applicability of assessment records, assessment methods and skill levels of
assessors.
Marais (1999:18) proposes the following critical roles in the assessment process:
• The evidence collection facilitator who assists the learner in gathering the evidence re-
quired for assessment. This role is especially important for recognition of prior learning.
• The assessor who collects the evidence and physically conducts the assessment. The
assessor plans the assessment process, prepares the learner, conducts the assessment,
makes decisions regarding whether the learner is competent or not yet competent and
provides feedback to the learner and other parties involved.
• The assessment designer and developer is responsible for determining the assessment
strategy and designing and developing the assessment method to be used, as well as
establishing the quality of the assessment procedure and methods in terms of reliability
and validity.
• The moderator is responsible for the quality and legal conformity of the assessment pro-
cess and management systems and of the appeals system. The moderator also liaises
with the relevant AQP and provides assessment information to the assessment designer
and developer and to the content assessor.
But how will the QCTO assessment system work in practice? Knowledge, practical skills
and work experience will be assessed by accredited skills development providers and
approved workplaces in accordance with the criteria outlined in the various curriculum com-
ponents. This assessment is called an internal assessment or assessment against curricu-
lum components and culminates in statements of results by accredited skills development
providers. For work experience, statements of work experience will be issued by approved
workplaces (QCTO, 2011:8).
External summative assessment or assessment against the occupational qualification or
part-qualification results in a QCTO certification (QCTO, 2011:10). The purpose of this
assessment is to promote the consistency and credibility of the occupational qualifications
or to promote articulation of part-qualifications issued. The criteria for this assessment are
specified in the assessment specifications document and are also captured in the occu-
pational qualifications document (QCTO, 2011). However, assessment of the individual
components is not sufficient to confirm competence to perform an occupation and the
associated occupational tasks. Assessment of occupational competence is conducted by
registered assessors applying nationally standardised assessment instruments and pro-
cedures at accredited assessment centres or registered sites (QCTO, 2011). The assess-
ment may also be required for part-qualifications not leading to occupational competence.
Interestingly, skills development providers may apply for accreditation or registration
to conduct the external summative assessments. In order to qualify for an external assess-
ment, learners must provide proof of completion of all required components by means of
statements of results and work experience (QCTO, 2011:9). The AQPs will develop stand-
ardised assessment instruments for external summative assessment and to manage external
assessment. For instance, in a recent QCTO pilot project on the assessment of occupational
trainers, a task team consisting of Merseta, SA Board for People Practices (SABPP) and
various specialists worked together to develop an assessment strategy and instrument to
assess the competence of occupational trainers. SABPP fulfilled the role of AQP, and
various assessors were used to assess the training skills of the occupational trainers.
Ultimately, the QCTO will ensure that a single agent is responsible for helping learners
navigate through all three learning components (knowledge, practical, workplace) of
occupational qualifications. In addition, the QCTO will see to it that occupational learners
have access to the external summative assessment. It will also issue certificates for all
external summative assessments of occupational qualifications or part-qualifications

(QCTO, 2011:9).
18.12 Methods of assessment

There are many different methods of assessment. This chapter highlights some of the more
commonly used methods of competence-based assessment used in the NQF environment.
18.12.1 Oral assessments

SAQA (1999:14–15) identifies oral assessments as the method used for “generating evi-
dence on learners’ ability to listen, interpret, communicate ideas and sustain conversation
in the given language of assessment”. In addition, these forms of assessments can be used
in assessment when the learner “has been observed carrying out a task competently but
knowledge and understanding associated with the task must also be assessed”.
18.12.2 Case studies

Case studies, according to SAQA (1999:14), “consist of a description of an event con-
cerning a real life or simulated situation, usually in the form of a paragraph of text, video,
a picture or a role play exercise”. The learner is then required to “analyse the situation
presented, drawing conclusions and making decisions about suggested courses of action”.
18.12.3 Examinations and written tests

Examinations and written tests were the most common form of assessment in the past.
They are used, according to SAQA (1999:14), to “assess recall and understanding of fac-
tual information”. They can also be used for the assessment of “other cognitive skills such
as problem solving or analysis”.
18.12.4 Portfolios
A portfolio is, according to SAQA (1999:15),
a collection of different types of evidence which relates to the work being assessed. It can in-
clude a variety of work samples. They may include evidence from the learner’s day to day
work, from previous work situations or learning and other experiences and pursuits. They are
useful for the assessment of prior learning and experience and in situations where direct obser-
vation of the learner may be difficult.
18.12.5 Role plays

In role plays, according to SAQA (1999:16), “learners are presented with a situation, to
which they then have to respond, by assuming a particular role . . . [S]uch assessment can
be used to assess a wide range of behavioural and inter-personal skills”.
18.12.6 Simulations
Simulations, according to SAQA (1999:16),
mirror actual activities or conditions. They are suitable for assessment that need to be done
through demonstration and observation to provide reliable and valid results which, however,
for a number of reasons, are difficult or not practicable to assess through demonstration or
observation under actual conditions.
18.13 Conclusion
This chapter highlights the importance of evaluation and assessment to the future of HRD
within organisations. To do so, it emphasises the role that evaluation plays in showing the
legitimacy of HRD and ensuring that it is meaningful to the organisation in both qualita-
tive and quantitative terms. Of particular importance are evaluation systems that focus on
the return of investment of HRD interventions. Further, it demonstrated the role of assess-
ment as the driving mechanism behind the successful implementation of the NQF. Indeed,
without evaluation and assessment, the new education and training system could not be
consistently and effectively implemented and the goal of quality would not be reached.
It is therefore essential for organisations and HRD practitioners to ensure that evaluation
and assessment are an integral part of their HRD interventions, promote effective HRD,
provide the necessary accountability and facilitate the implementation of the NQF in South
Africa. The new assessment system based on the QCTO Curriculum and Assessment Pol-
icy will affect everyone involved in the HRD field and bring assessment closer to the
workplace by aligning and integrating different forms of assessment.

1 Assess the various definitions of evaluation and assessment and decide which of the
definitions you agree with most.
2 Using the most important elements of the definitions, write your own definitions for
evaluation and assessment.
3 Choose any intervention referred to in chapters 7, 12 or 13 and plan an appropriate
evaluation method to determine the results of the intervention.
4 Discuss the importance of evaluation in supporting a results-oriented approach to HRD.
5 How would you use evaluation to transform your HRD department from an activity-
based focus to a results-based focus?
6 For each of the levels of Kirkpatrick’s model, do the following:
• Write a paragraph on when you would use this level of evaluation.
• Which methods of evaluation apply to this level of Kirkpatrick’s model?
7 Create a model reactionnaire to evaluate the reaction of learners to an intervention.
8 Write a paragraph to explain the unique parts of the ROI model.
9 Explain the importance of assessment in relation to the recognition of prior learning
and how it could be carried out.
10 Which levels of Kirkpatrick’s model are most important in supporting the system of
learnerships as defined by the Skills Development Act?
11 Explain how you would create an ROI evaluation strategy.
12 Describe how you would conduct learning evaluation according to the learning
evaluation standard of SABPP.
13 Choose two evaluation and two assessment methods and explain the following:
• Under what circumstances would you use this method?
• What model of evaluation or assessment does it support best?
• What are its benefits?
• What are the limitations of this method?
14 Evaluate the following statement: the quality of assessment is crucial to outcomes-

based education.
15 Explain how you will plan to conduct assessment according to the new QCTO re-
quirements.
18.15 Case study

Interline Cargo is a road hauler company responsible for moving cargo through a specific leg of a
transportation chain. Recent trends in the freight operator industry, in which this hauler company
operates, have brought new pressures to bear on the company. The clients of freight operators are
now requiring a “one stop buy” from the companies in this industry. This means that instead of
focusing exclusively on moving cargo for one part of the transportation leg, they are now required to
provide multiple services and products to their clients. This has provided many challenges for the
company, especially its marketing staff.
To meet these new market requirements, Interline Cargo has introduced a brand new risk control
product to their clients. The specifications of this product were carefully outlined and a road show
was put together to inform marketing staff about the product and what it will give their clients. While
the product was explained to staff, no formal training was given regarding its specifications, what
impact it would have on the client’s business, its benefits and how to apply it to the specifics of each
of their customers’ needs. In fact, HRD was not included in the launch of the product in any capacity.
Management projected that by the end of year one, 10% of their clients would have purchased this
new risk control product as part of their overall package. But, when the product take-up rate was
assessed at the end of year one, it was found to be only 2.5%.
Management asked the HRD department to evaluate why the take-up rate was so low. The findings
were as follows:
• Marketing staff did not fully understand the product or the concepts of risk control. They were
concerned that they did not have enough knowledge to be able to explain it to the client or sell its
benefits. As a result, they would avoid mentioning it to clients unless it was specifically requested.
• This lack of understanding of the product made them feel that they would jeopardise their cred-
ibility with the client if they tried to sell it.
• Marketing staff also felt that the product had been designed by management without their input or
“buy-in”. They were thus not interested in making sure that the product sold successfully.
• Although marketing staff were evaluated and incentivised for their sale of transportation to cargo
owners, there was no incentive for them to sell this new product. Sale of the risk control product
was also not included in their performance appraisals. As a result, staff felt that it was a waste of
their scarce time to develop techniques for selling this new product.
At the end of this exercise, the HRD department recommended a training intervention to help equip
the sales staff to understand the various applications and benefits of the risk control product and
assist them in selling it to their clients. They also recommended that the sale of this product be incen-
tivised and incorporated into the job descriptions and performance appraisals of sales staff.
Questions
1 Using Kirkpatrick’s four levels decide how you will evaluate these interventions.
2 How will you measure the ROI of these interventions?
3 Critically analyse the value of the Kirkpatrick model in relation to the above case study.
4 How can this intervention and the results of the evaluation be used to justify the importance of
HRD to the organisation?
5 How can this organisation move to a competence-based assessment system?
6 What contribution can the new learning evaluation standard make to ensure a professional ap-
proach to learning evaluation at Interline Cargo?
18.16 References
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53(5).
ASTD Global Network South Africa/SABPP, 2010, Eighth Annual ASTD State of the
South African Training Industry Report, Johannesburg: ASTD Global Network South
Africa/SABPP.
Bassi LJ and Cheney S, 1997, “Benchmarking the best”, Training and Development
51(11).
Bassi LJ and Cheney S, 1997, “Training industry trends”, Training and Development
51(11).
Bassi LJ and Van Buren ME, 1999, “The 1999 ASTD State of the Industry Report”, Sup-
plement to Training and Development 53(5).
Davies IK, 1978, Objectives in Curriculum Design, Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill.
Erasmus BJ and Van Dyk PS, 1999, Training Management in South Africa, 2nd edn, Half-
way House: International Thomson.
Kirkpatrick DL, 1994, Evaluating Training Programs, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Kirkpatrick DL and Kirkpatrick JD, 2006, Evaluating Training Programs: The Four
Levels, 3rd edn, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Lategan A and Van Rooyen M, 1998, “How to implement outcomes-based assessment”,
Cutting Edge 1(2).
Marais A, 1999, “Sharpening up assessment in your organisation”, People Dynamics
17(5).
Meyer M and Schenk H, 1998, Report on the 1998 ASTD International Conference and
Exposition, Florida: Technikon SA.
Meyer M, Opperman C and Dyrbye C, 2003, Measuring the Return on Investment in
Training: A Practical Implementation Guide, Randburg: Knowledge Resources.
Newby AC, 1992, Training Evaluation Handbook, Aldershot: Gower.
Philips JJ, 1997, Handbook of Training Evaluation and Measurement Methods, Houston:
Gulf.
Philips JJ, 1997, Return on Investment, Houston: Gulf.
QCTO, 2011, QCTO Curriculum and Assessment Policy, Johannesburg: QCTO.
Rae L, 1997, How to Measure Training Effectiveness, Aldershot: Gower.
Rothwell WJ and Sredl HJ, 1992, The ASTD Reference Guide to Professional Human
Resource Development Roles and Competencies, Amherst: ASTD.
SAQA, 1999, “Guidelines for the assessment of NQF registered unit standards and quali-
fications”.
SAQA, 2000, “The National Qualifications Framework and quality assurance” Pretoria:
SAQA.
Sutherland L and Peackham G, 1998, “A reappraisal of assessment practices in the light
of the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) Act”, South African Journal of
Higher Education 12(2).
Ungerer Z, Rutter A and Yardley R, 1999, “Strategic training evaluation management: An

integrated multimedia approach to return-on-investment”, ASTD International Con-
ference, Atlanta.

Boudreau, J, 2010, Retooling HR: Using Proven Business Tools to Make Better Decisions
About Talent, Boston: Harvard Business Press.
Bramley P, 1991, Evaluating Training Effectiveness, Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill.
Broad ML and Newstrom JW, 1992, Transfer of Training, Reading, Mass: Addison-
Wesley.
Fitz-Enz J, 2010, The New HR Analytics: Predicting the Economic Value of Your Com-
pany’s Human Capital Investments, New York: Amacom.
Holcomb J, 1994, Making Training Worth Every Penny, Pfeiffer: San Diego.
Kirkpatrick DL and Kirkpatrick J, 2006, Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels,
3rd edn, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Kirkpatrick DL and Kirkpatrick J, 2011, Implementing the Four Levels: A Practical Guide
for Effective Evaluation of Training Programmes, New York: Amacom.
Kirkpatrick DL and Kirkpatrick J, 2011, Transferring Learning to Behavior, New York:
Amacom.
Kirkpatrick J and Kirkpatrick WK, 2010, Training on Trial: How Workplace Learning
Must Reinvent Itself to Remain Relevant, New York: Amacom.
Lawler III EE and Boudreau JW, 2009, Achieving Excellence in Human Resource Man-
agement: An Assessment of Human Resource Functions, Stanford: Stanford Business
Books.
Lee GJ, 2011, HR Metrics: Strategic and Quantitative Tools for People Management,
Mankin, D, 2009, Human Resource Development, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Meyer M, 2007, Measuring the ROI in Mentoring and Coaching, Randburg: Knowledge
Resources.
Meyer M and Orpen M, 2012, Occupationally-directed Education, Training and Develop-
Mokhobo-Nomvete S, 1999, “Assessment in an outcomes-based education and training
system: An overview”, SAQA Bulletin 2(3).
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Evaluation, Randburg: Knowledge Resources.

Assessment College of South Africa: http://www.assess.co.za
ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation: http://erica.net
Evaluation and Training Institute: http://otan.dni.us/webfarm/edu
Institute of Educational Technology: http://iet.open.ac.uk
Merseta: http://www.merseta.org.za
Network for the Evaluation of Education and Training Technologies:
http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/srnet/evnet.htm
Profitwise: http://www.profitwise.info
QCTO: http://www.qcto.org.za
Questionmark: http://www.questionmark.com
ROI Online: http://www.roionline.co.za
South African Qualifications Authority: http: www.saqa.org.za
Strategic Training Evaluation Management: http://www.stemevaluation.com
Think Performance: http://www.thinkperformance.co.za
UK Evaluation Society: http://www.evaluation.org.uk
We would like to thank the following individuals for their contribution to this chapter:
• Ken Lancaster, assessor at UNISA, for his contribution to the first draft chapter pub-
lished in the first and second editions of this book.
• Naren Vassan, Head of Learning and Quality Assurance at SABPP, for his input on the
Merseta/SABPP QCTO project.
• Rob van der Schyff, former HRD Manager of SABMiller, for the case study he provided
for the chapter.
CHAPTER
19
INTERNATIONAL HUMAN
Marius Meyer
If the T & D professionals desire de facto to become strategic partners in creating
competitive advantage for their companies they will have to position themselves at
the forefront of global business development.
(Cesar Souza)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Compare international training and development models and strategies
• Select options for international training and development strategies
• Synthesise international best practices in training and development
• Demonstrate the impact of globalisation on HRD
• Develop a global training and development strategy
• Formulate action plans to develop global HRD competence
• Monitor and review the effectiveness of international HRD strategies
19.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the reality of globalisation and international HRD. Globalisation
has dramatically changed the workplace and human resources of organisations. It has cre-
ated a borderless global economy that allows unhindered movement of finance, products,
services, information, and people (Mankin, 2009). The demands of globalisation require
a workforce that is flexible and open to change and the realities of an international mar-
ketplace. Companies no longer operate in an exclusively local community consisting of a
511
local client and labour market. The reality of globalisation means that clients, suppliers and
employees are scattered across the globe. This new paradigm requires a new skills frame-
work, one in which local employees are equipped with the knowledge and skills to oper-
ate in the global marketplace. Moreover, companies often send staff members to foreign
countries to work for a period at an overseas branch. These staff members also need an
additional set of skills to function effectively in other countries. Also, given the explosion
of digital business and innovative technologies, such as social media, even local organisa-
tions, such as municipalities or small manufacturing firms, are no longer local only.
Employees using social media are connected with other people all over the globe, and this
means that all employees are, in essence, global employees. Not only does the new global
employee present more opportunities for business such as new ideas about products or
services, they could also pose more risks, such as uncertainty and a lack of cultural intel-
ligence.
Companies like Sappi, Sasol, MTN, AngloPlatinum and Old Mutual operate their busi-
nesses in the global marketplace. This increasing trend towards globalisation and interna-
tionalisation inevitably results in a greater interface between South Africa and international
companies. South Africans are clients of international companies or they are our clients;
we have branches in other countries or our companies are extensions of international
companies; we have workers from other countries working side by side with us, and some
of us spend some time working overseas. This brings about a far greater interaction
between South Africans and people from other countries. To be able to interact and co-
operate effectively, we clearly need to have a greater understanding of what is required
and greater tolerance towards different perspectives and ways of doing things.
If we want to survive we need to interact with the external environment; if we want to
grow and prosper we need to meet the challenges posed by this environment. This is
especially critical for South Africans, who were isolated from free international inter-
action for about two decades before the 1994 elections. Internationalisation is not a luxury
in modern economies. Growth through cross-border expansion is no longer an optional
extra: it is imperative for survival and business growth. For example, the fast-food com-
pany Steers operates in more than fifty countries and Naspers in more than a hundred.
International competitiveness will in future be determined by how effectively you man-
age your knowledge assets, and this requires a fundamental shift in business practices. To
improve their competitiveness, organisations will have to learn to optimise their knowledge
resources and put them to work. A global approach to talent management is imperative
(Ludike, 2011; Seroke, 2011). An international HRD strategy should thus focus on develop-
ing the capacity of the organisation to be a knowledge-creating company. The companies
that learn fastest from the international marketplace are those that will be successful.
19.2 Globalisation and HRD

Subsequent World Competitiveness Reports have identified the lack of people develop-
ment as one of the major stumbling blocks for the South African economy to compete in
the global marketplace. No country can sustain economic development and international
competitiveness if its human resources are not developed to contribute significantly to the
economy.
International HRD can therefore be defined as the development and implementation of
an HRD strategy beyond the borders of one country in order to support a company’s over-
all globalisation strategy.
Chapter 19: International Human Resource Development 513
South African organisations have to determine the impact of globalisation on HRD prac-
tice and more particularly on the learning strategies designed to prepare companies to meet
the challenges of globalisation. Globalisation impacts on HRD in a number of ways:
• Our employees and managers must be prepared to function effectively in different en-
vironments when posted overseas.
• Our staff must be prepared to deal with foreign delegations when visiting our com-
panies locally.
• Our employees and managers will need to be equipped to interrelate effectively with
employees from different countries.
• Intangible products such as ideas, knowledge and information are replacing tangible
manufactured goods in the creation of global wealth.
• Knowledgeable employees who can apply and adapt their skills across cultures, time
zones and functional differences will be essential for global competitiveness.
• Companies must be equipped to manage their critical resources, which may now be
spread over the globe. South African companies such as MTN, Naspers, Sasol, Bidvest,
Standard Bank, Investec, Shoprite, Sanlam, Didata, Nandos, Netcare, and Sappi are
already important global players.
• Technological and virtual communication platforms have become the cheapest and most
effective means of global interaction. Employees will have to become more techno-
logically savvy to work and interact globally.
• Globalisation requires an increase in cross-cultural knowledge and skills.
In line with the performance improvement approach to HRD as discussed in chapter 5,
globalisation requires HRD functions to become strategic business partners. Table 19.1
clearly shows this inter-relationship and the role of HRD in contributing to international
business strategy.
Table 19.1 Global competitiveness and HRD
Global business challenge HRD challenge

• Customer responsiveness • People who are empowered and agile
• Risk-taking and profitability • People who are innovative risk-takers
• New ways of doing business • People who understand the global business
• Capability to change the company rapidly context
• New product competitiveness • People who see change as opportunity
• Transfer learning • People who can deal with rapidly changing
technology
• Flexible corporate cultures
• People who can create a knowledge
management system
• People who can adopt new values,
behaviours, management systems and
processes for the future
Source: Adapted from Rhinesmith (2000).
In line with the business role of HRD as indicated in Table 19.1 we will explore the im-
pact of globalisation on HRD practice in the following areas:
19.2.1 International HRD practices

Since 1994 South Africa has been part of the international world. South African companies
that do not meet international standards will slowly disappear as international competition
increases. If your products or services do not meet international standards, the customers
will simply purchase products from other companies.
The importance of meeting international standards is equally applicable to HRD prac-
tices. Judging from advertisements in the newspapers, globalisation has brought a flood of
international providers into our country, giving our customers an expanded menu to pick
from. Companies like McDonalds, IBM, and Microsoft are global companies that are
active in South Africa. These companies have global HRD strategies in place in order to
ensure that they optimally develop our local human resources in order to achieve their
global business objectives.
The increasing emphasis on global business strategy increases the need for benchmark-
ing. Benchmarking is an ongoing investigation and learning experience ensuring that best
industry practices are uncovered, analysed, adopted and implemented. It is essential for
local companies to implement the best practices in the field of HRD strategies as indi-
cated in the previous chapters of this book.
19.2.2 Global competencies

Globalisation requires a new set of competencies for staff involved in globalisation strat-
egies. The high cost of cross-border postings and the high failure rate confirm the need for
employees to be adequately prepared to function in foreign environments. This preparation
is often inadequate because it is limited to developing a high level of technical expertise.
Consider, for instance, MTN’s move to other African countries and the Middle East. These
are new and unknown markets, so thorough research is needed to assess the feasibility of
the venture, and HRD could assist in the development of new skills and competencies that
will be essential to optimise a business strategy in a foreign market. The following state-
ment is therefore very important for companies to consider in any globalisation business
strategy.
The single most important issues nominated by experienced executives to explain their failures
abroad point to the ‘soft side’ of business. Cultural misfits . . . are at the roots of several problems.
Parties fail to recognize each other’s agendas beyond the strict business transaction.
(Souza, 1999)
It is indeed interesting to recognise the importance of the “soft” issues of a globalisation

strategy. In fact, failure to appreciate and plan for cultural alignment could easily jeopard-
ise a cross-border business venture. It is therefore essential to do your homework before
attempting to expand abroad. The following are the competencies identified by experts as
necessary to operating successfully across borders (Avallone and Fetzer, 1999; Coghill,
Beery and Muijzers, 1999; Mankin, 2009; Moles, 1999; Evans, Pucik and Barsoux, 2006;
Goldsmith, Greenberg, Robertson and Hu-Chan, 2003):
• Language proficiency
• Communication skills
• Global mindset
• Ability to see the big picture
• Respect for the values and practices of others
• Tolerance for ambiguity
• Adaptability
• Flexibility
• Attitude that views change and complexity should be seen as opportunities
• Emotional resilience
• Strong sense of self and self-management
• Persistence
• Ability to deal with stress
• Attitude that values diversity and teamwork
• Openness to new ways of seeing and thinking.
The reality of globalisation will require HRD to develop leaders from all over the world.
A company like Proctor & Gamble offers overseas employees country-specific informa-
tion, language and cross-cultural training as well as corporate culture training (Jackson
and Schuler, 2000).
The responsibility of HRD practitioners is to empower our companies to function effect-
ively in cross-border environments and to ensure that our own practices are compatible
with other environments when we undertake HRD activities with members from other
cultures. Preparation for such assignments should include logistical aspects such as ensur-
ing the availability and compatibility of technical equipment and identifying the appropri-
ate dress code, but it needs to go further. It requires a multi-level approach that includes
the development of technical, cross-cultural leadership and interpersonal and personal
competencies. Some of the most important areas to include are global team skills, cross-
cultural awareness, cross-cultural conflict resolution, creative problem-solving and inno-
vation, self-awareness, change and transition management (Coghill et al, 1999).
Development programmes should be interlinked with the selection process by forming
a combined team to monitor the progress of candidates throughout the programme.
Avallone and Fetzer (1999) recommend the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Cross-
Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) as useful in identifying the profile of persons suit-
able for cross-border placement.
HRD strategies should be focused on reducing cross-cultural conflict and assisting the
company in using diversity as a source of strength in the global context.
A broadening of mindset is required, starting with the recognition that different cultures
adhere to different paradigms regarding aspects such as power, degree of individualism
versus collectivism, time orientation, equality versus inequality, and emphasis on people,
ideas or action (Souza, 1999). Even feedback is laden with cultural differences. Whereas
some Western cultures appreciate feedback that is direct and to the point, in many Asian
cultures negative feedback causes a loss of face (Rosensweig, 1992:624). Therefore it is
important to find out the appropriate ways of handling feedback and other ways of dealing
with business issues.
19.3 Regional and country diversity

One of the most important implications of globalisation on international HRD is regional
and country diversity. When planning an international HRD strategy, HRD practitioners
need to be aware of these differences as there is no universal approach to training across
the world. Table 19.2 clearly depicts some of the cultural differences between various
groups.
More specific examples of these regional and country differences are provided below.
This discussion is by no means exhaustive; it merely provides some of the main differences
and the implications for HRD. As HRD practitioner you need to do an in-depth study of
the country to which employees will be sent. It is also important to be sensitive and guard
against stereotyping. Within these countries there will be individuals who are different
from the general cultural grouping. For example, not all Americans are individualistic and
competitive.
Table 19.2 International cultural differences
Distance behaviour
Close distance/space (20–35 cm) Distant/space (40–60 cm)
Arab world Most Asians
Latin America Central Europeans
Latin Europe Eastern Europeans
Mediterranean region Northern Europeans
North Americans
Eye contact
Indirect Firm to moderate Intense
Most of Asia Korea Arab world
North America Latin Americans
Northern Europe Latin Europeans
Mediterranean region
Handshake
Nationality Variation
Arabs Repeated and lingering
British Moderate
French Light, quick, frequent
Germans Firm, brisk, frequent
Koreans Moderately firm
Latin Americans Firm and frequent
Most Asians Very gentle, infrequent
North Americans Firm and infrequent
South Asians Gentle, often lingering
Source: Adapted from Glaser and Hoy (2000).
19.3.1 Asia
Doing training in Asia is very different from doing training in Western countries. Mankin
(2009) highlights the different nature of HRD in countries like China and India. In fact, a
lack of sensitivity to Asian culture and learning style will inevitably lead to training with
limited or no impact in Asian countries. Wengrow (1999) mentions that the learning style
in Asia is based on relationships. It is therefore essential to use a lot of analogies, word
pictures and issues pertaining to relationships as part of the learning material and presen-
tation. The relationship of a particular part of the content to the content as a whole must
be emphasised as part of the training design. It is also important to indicate why certain
concepts are covered and why they are important to the learners. In addition, a connection
to the past is also considered important in Asian cultures. The facilitation style should
therefore be learner-focused.
Wengrow (1999) describes the typical learner profile in Asian countries as young and
ambitious. There is a high level of academic development and intellectual curiosity and
most learners are technologically literate. Guidelines for working in Asia are as follows:
• Learn about the culture and customs
• Consider the learning styles of the learners
• Build relationships wherever you go
• Be very polite and rather formal than informal
• Avoid humour, especially if you are not sure how it will be interpreted
• Rather make suggestions than to criticise learners
• Never laugh at learners, rather laugh with them
• Never embarrass a learner
• Avoid politics and religion as this may be a very sensitive topic
• Use analogies and word pictures
• Case studies can be used very effectively, as learners like stories
• Glossaries are very well received
• Stretch the training process, rather slower than too fast.
19.3.2 Middle East

The continuing globalisation of business has created a highly competitive international
market in the Middle East. In fact, some organisations in the Middle East are advertising
for human resource and other positions to be filled by South Africans. For instance, the
South African expatriate community in the United Arab Emirates has already grown to
over 50 000. The response of the HRD community should be to position HRD internally
as strategic organisational players in the Middle East. According to Moorhead (2000) the
following cultural issues are crucial to HRD practitioners in the Middle East:
• In some Arab countries it is essential to wear the right clothes
• Beware of jargon, idioms, sports references, slang and humour
• Avoid expressing frustration with “family style” business
• Avoid discussions about religion, sex and politics
• Do not attempt to promote gender equality
• Respect religious days (the business week runs from Saturday to Wednesday or Thurs-
day and/or Friday, the Muslim day of rest and worship)
• Respect values, customs and family life
• Adhere to the eating and drinking protocol.
19.3.3 South America

According to DeVaney (2000) Latin Americans as a whole are more visually oriented in
the process of acquiring knowledge. HRD practitioners should therefore ensure that learn-
ing material includes graphic designs in order to support this inclination. Visual objects
such as models could also enhance the learning process. In addition, Salvador (2000) iden-
tifies the following top trends in the field of training and development in South America:
coaching or mentoring systems, knowledge sharing systems, self-instruction using the
Internet, packages for computer-based training and job rotation. In a country such as Brazil
there has been remarkable growth in the accessibility and use of the Internet, which has led
to an increase in e-learning. Almost half of all training in South America is outsourced.
Wengrow (1999) mentions that the learning style in South America (like Southern
Europe) is based on deductive reasoning, in other words focusing on logic and concepts.
19.3.4 United States

According to Wengrow (1999) the learning style in the USA (like Northern Europe) is
based on inductive reasoning. HRD practitioners should therefore make sure that there are
many facts included in both the learning manuals and the facilitated sessions. According
to Mondejar and Swanson (2000) the dynamics of American business culture must be
considered by HRD practitioners. These dynamics are as follows:
• Direct communication (to the point, short sentences, direct eye contact)
• Results orientation (benefits must be indicated as well as results, especially financial
results)
• Professional image (efficiency, productivity, competence, effectiveness, timeliness, cost
containment, qualitative measures)
• Time (now and the future, time is money, not wasting time)
• Business environment (status is given to achievement, looking for opportunities).
19.4 Problems experienced by expatriate employees

International employees often experience frustration when they struggle to adapt to the
work and lifestyle in another country. The following are some of the most common prob-
lems experienced by expatriate employees (Moorehead, 2000):
• Management focuses only on business needs and complexities, neglecting vital cultural
issues that influence day-to-day operations. Employees and/or their spouses and family
members may struggle to adjust to a different physical and cultural situation.
• If certain family members stay behind, this may also create feelings of loneliness and
isolation.
• An overseas assignment is stretching a person’s emotional security and ability to stay
motivated in a foreign country.
• Inappropriate training techniques are used for a specific cultural group.
• Multi-cultural misunderstanding leads to unnecessary stress and clashes.

• Companies create frustration when they only provide an unrealistically positive picture
about a country, city or company.
19.5 Guidelines for international HRD

International HRD programmes are more complex owing to the nature of international
business operations. It is therefore essential to plan international HRD carefully.
The following guidelines can be used to implement effective international HRD pro-
grammes:
• Study the market to learn about the business realities in the particular country or region.
• Obtain information about the cultural norms and values in that country.
• Develop training programmes to address all the new knowledge and skills that will be
required.
• Give a comprehensive briefing session to expatriates so that they can be prepared
before they leave.
• Provide reliable information about a country balancing both positive and negative fac-
tors.
• Use technology-based solutions as well as they are the quickest way to gather and dis-
seminate information in the global marketplace. Adequate communication is essential.
• Only send people who have a global mindset and are very adaptable in different situ-
ations and who are emotionally very stable.
• Train managers and employees who stay behind to value the globalisation strategy of
the company so that they will provide the necessary support to the expatriates.
• Orientate and prepare HRD staff so that they can play a more meaningful role to sup-
port globalisation.
• Use experienced international managers as mentors for managers who must still go
abroad.
• To retain the global employee it is essential to have a progressive career development
system in place. Find the appropriate balance between the needs of the employee and
the needs of the company.
• Assign a mentor from headquarters who will stay in touch with the manager throughout
the posting.
• Continuously align the international HRD strategy for improvement.
19.6 International HRD strategy

Dealing with the realities of globalisation requires an international HRD strategy. Careful
planning of this strategy is essential, especially if one considers all the things that can go
wrong in a remote location. Figure 19.1 presents a suggested process approach.
Figure 19.1 International HRD strategy process
Review globalisation
strategy
Develop HRD
strategy
Expatriate training
Repatriate training
HRD global
alignment
19.6.1 Review globalisation strategy

One of the most important aspects of a global business strategy is that it forces the HRD
practitioner to align HRD systems and processes with the overall business strategy. In
other words, all HRD interventions flowing from a globalisation strategy, if well-planned
and co-ordinated, can add significant value to a company. For example, if a South African
company plans to open a branch in South America, that company must prepare its human
resources to optimise the business opportunity to achieve the business objectives of the
venture. It is therefore imperative that HRD makes sure that it understands the intended
globalisation strategy. Important questions to ask are: What are the objectives of the busi-
ness strategy? What are the new market realities? How can profits be increased? How
many countries are affected? What is the scope of the globalisation strategy?
19.6.2 Develop HRD strategy

Once the global business plan has been reviewed and HRD understands the business case
of the venture, it is time to develop an international HRD strategy. This phase therefore
encompasses the formulation of HRD interventions to assist the company in achieving the
global business goals. It could therefore include a strategic global HRD plan specifying
the mission and role of HRD in the international context. It will also include the formula-
tion of HRD objectives and action plans for the particular country. Important questions to
answer are as follows: How many staff will be needed? What will the balance be between
host country and expatriate staff? What skills will be needed? Is language training neces-
sary? How can diversity training help? What other types of HRD interventions are needed
and who will provide the training?
19.6.3 Expatriate training

Expatriates are people who live and work outside their own countries. Once the correct
expatriates have been identified, it is time to provide them with the necessary training in
order to prepare them for the overseas assignment. This training will include everything the
expatriate should know with regard to the country, its people, laws and the business
operations in that country. Some companies even include the spouse in this training to
ensure optimum support and adaptation of all parties concerned.
19.6.4 Repatriate training

According to Orkin (1999) a repatriate is a professional returning home from a global
assignment. Although such an employee is in most cases very happy to be back, most of
them experience some problems in re-adapting to their previous work situation. Repatriates
may feel that they have lost some ground in terms of the local business and therefore need
to catch up. The first step is to schedule a meeting with the immediate manager and then
with other members of the team. Repatriate training may also be necessary to inform the
repatriate of new laws or new company policies, strategies and procedures, for example.
Arrange special events such as welcome-back parties to ensure a smooth resocialisation
process. Networking with other repatriates may also accelerate resocialising. In addition,
career planning is crucial for repatriate retention as repatriates have developed global skills
that make them more marketable.
19.6.5 HRD global alignment

Every global HRD plan will be a learning experience in itself. Accurate record-keeping of
all incidents, experiences and learning points is essential. The repatriate brings a wealth of
knowledge back to the company. This knowledge must be captured and utilised for future
use when other employees are sent on similar ventures. The lessons learned can be used to
improve the current HRD international strategy to ensure a greater fit between the overall
global business strategy and the international HRD strategy.
19.7 Company example: IBM

IBM, with 90 years’ experience in overseas markets, reversed its human resource policy
to deal with the new global mindset and a new business strategy. IBM applies its compe-
tency framework to a broader staff base and conducts its skills gap analysis every six
months. Business strategists in every strategic business unit define a plan for each market
and, working with human resource specialists, determine the skills required to succeed in
it. Competencies are graded against five proficiency levels. Managers and functional
experts are responsible for checking the database to compare their capabilities against the
relevant skills profiles and to determine whether they need additional training. Their
assessments are reviewed, discussed and validated by each executive’s boss, and then put
into the database. Once the gaps are identified, the question for human resources is whether
there is time to develop the necessary people or whether they have to be headhunted from
outside.
19.8 Conclusion
To be able to succeed, we need to understand the world of work in the international en-
vironment so that we can empower employees to function effectively in it. International
learning strategies should be designed to guide learners through a continuous learning
curve to prepare them for operating in the international arena and at the same time to
develop the competencies that will be critical for meeting future challenges. On the one
hand, more South African companies venture into the rest of Africa and other markets.
Likewise, more global companies enter South Africa, like the acquisition of Massmart by
Walmart. Increased globalisation of business will require major HRD global alignment of
strategy and practice.
This is indeed a challenging responsibility, made even more daunting by the need to
harmonise our national and international learning strategies. We will have to redress the
serious imbalances in our skills profiles to overturn the discrepancies of the past, while
preparing employees to compete in a fiercely competitive international environment. The
contribution of the HRD profession to the international goals of our companies will be
measured by how effective we are in empowering the workforce to meet the challenges of
a global marketplace.
19.9 Case study

You are the senior HRD manager for Prince Manufacturers, a producer of chemical products. The
company’s head office is in Rosebank, Johannesburg and its six plants are located in Welkom,
Secunda, Rustenburg, Polokwane, Honeydew and East London. In 2017, after the managing dir-
ector, Peter Magoba, visited several European, American, Australasian, African and east and south-
east Asian countries, it was decided that the company would embark on a globalisation strategy in
order to compete in the international marketplace. Prince took over several companies and estab-
lished new plants in the following cities and countries:
Employees
South African Host country Total
City Country from other
employees employees employees
countries
Sydney Australia 7 126 12 145
Kuala Lumpur Malaysia 10 200 3 213
Eindhoven Netherlands 5 281 60 346
Lagos Nigeria 25 92 4 121
Prague Czech Republic 0 67 19 86
Beijing China 15 402 34 451
Madrid Spain 7 370 0 377
Dallas USA 42 655 85 782
Basel Switzerland 3 90 2 95
Boston USA 24 588 27 639
Toronto Canada 13 427 22 462
Munich Germany 2 1 235 98 1 334
Windhoek Namibia 186 750 24 960
Tokyo Japan 102 1 133 7 1 242
Select three countries from the above list: one Western country, one African country and
one east or south-east Asian country. Do background research on each country, and de-
velop a comprehensive HRD globalisation strategy for Prince in these three countries.

1 Describe the impact of globalisation on HRD.
2 Identify some of the major challenges for international HRD.
3 Suppose your company is opening a plant in China. What would the implications for
HRD be?
4 Indicate companies needed to function in the global business world.
5 Synthesise international best practices in HRD (in one page).
6 Critically evaluate the following statement: “Globalisation requires HRD practitioners
with a new set of skills, competencies and values.”
7 Identify reasons why expatriates struggle to adapt to a new country.
8 Design a checklist that can be used for training an employee who will work in Japan
for the next three years.
19.11 References
Avallone AA and Fetzer C, 1999, “Finding the best for international assignments”, ASTD
International Conference, Atlanta.
Avallone AA and Fetzer C, 2000, “Global HRD leaders: Competencies, best practices,
job tools & lessons learned”, ASTD International Conference, Dallas.
Coghill CC, Beery CE and Muijzers T, 1999, “Beyond international leadership competen-
cies”, ASTD International Conference, Atlanta.
DeVaney C, Parada DL, Jusidman M and Salvador A, 2000, “Training in Latin America:
What you need to know”, ASTD International Conference, Dallas.
Evans P, Pucik V and Barsoux J, 2006, The Global Challenge: Frameworks for Inter-
national Human Resource Management, Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Goldsmith M, Greenberg CL, Robertson A and Hu-Chan M, 2003, Global Leadership –
The Next Generation, Upper Saddle River: FT Pearson Education.
Glaser R and Hoy G, 2000, “Identifying effective cross-cultural leadership behavior”,
ASTD International Conference, Dallas.
Ludike, J, 2011, “A comprehensive talent management framework”, in I Boninelli and
T Meyer (eds), Human Capital Trends: Building A Sustainable Organisation, Rand-
burg: Knowres.
Moles S and Myers L, 1999, “Using on-the-job training to build intercultural competen-
cies”, ASTD International Conference, Atlanta.
Mondejar M and Swanson P, 2000, “New immigrant executives & entrepreneurs in Silicon
Valley”, ASTD International Conference, Dallas.
Mondejar M, Swanson P, Balbirer M and Tamura S, 2000, “Leveraging culture coaching
in managing global teams”, ASTD International Conference, Dallas.
Moorhead C, 2000, “Developing training models for international engagements: A Middle
East study”, ASTD International Conference, Dallas.
Orkin NS, 1999, “Successful repatriate training”, ASTD International Conference, Atlanta.
Quelch JA and Bloom H, 2001, “Ten steps to a global human resource strategy”, in Best
Practices in International Business, Orlando: Harcourt.
Rhinesmith SH, 2000, “Leading across borders”, ASTD International Conference, Dallas.
Salvador AS, 2000, “T&D trends in South America”, ASTD International Conference,
Dallas.
Seroke, M, 2011, “Talent management within a global company”, in I Boninelli and
T Meyer (eds), Human Capital Trends: Building A Sustainable Organisation, Rand-
burg: Knowres.
Wengrow I, 1999, “75 (and counting) lessons learned on the business of training in Asia”,
ASTD International Conference, Atlanta.

Beamer L and Varner I, 2001, Intercultural Communication in the Global Workplace, 2nd
edn, New York: McGraw-Hill.
De la Torre J, Doz Y and Devinney T, 2001, Managing the Global Corporation: Case
Studies in Strategy and Management, 2nd edn, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Dlabay L and Scott JC, 2001, International Business, 2nd edn, Cincinnati: South-Western.
Engel DW, 1993, Global HRD, New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs.
Edwards T and Rees C, 2006, International Human Resource Management: Globalization,
National Systems and Multinational Companies, Harlow: Prentice Hall Financial Times/
Pearson.
Hill C, 2001, Global Business Today, 2nd edn, New York: McGraw-Hill.
ing Markets, Cheltenham: Elgar.
Hough J and Neuland EW, 2000, Global Business Environments and Strategies: Managing
for Global Competitive Advantage, Cape Town: Oxford.
Kaufman B (ed), 2014, The Development of Human Resource Management Across
Nations: Unity and Diversity, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Krempl SF and Pace RW, 2001, Training Across Multiple Locations: Designing a System
that Works, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Larsen HH and Mayrhofer W (eds), 2006, Managing HR in Europe: A Thematic
Approach, New York: Routledge.
Luiz J (ed), 2006, Managing Business in Africa: Practical Management Theory for an
Emerging Market, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Makura M, 2012, Going Global: Insights from South Africa’s Top Companies, Johannes-
burg: MME Media.
Micklethwait J and Wooldridge A, 2000, A Future Perfect: The Challenge and Hidden
Promise of Globalisation, London: Random House.
Shelley S, 2004, Doing Business in Africa: A Practical Guide for Investors, Entrepreneurs
and Expatriate Managers, Cape Town: Zebra.
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London and New York: Routledge/CIPD.
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Association for Talent Development (ATD): http://www.atd.org
Association for International Practical Training: http://www.aipt.org
Coghill Beery International: http://www.coghillbeery.com
Global Alliance for Transnational Education: http://www.edugate.org
Global Training Systems: http://www.globaltrainingsystems.com
HRD Press: http://www.hrdpress.com
HRDQ: http://www.hrdq.com
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Investors in People Standard: http://www.iipuk.co.uk
Sheikh Mohammed Centre for Cultural Understanding: http://www.cultures.ae
United Nations Institute for Training and Research: http://www.unitar.org
CHAPTER
20
CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Moira Katz
Continuing education, voluntary or mandatory, is a requirement
likely to become universal within the next decade.
(Williams and Huntley)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Appreciate the need for and show commitment to continued professional development
• Take ownership for and manage career progression, identify and set realistic and achievable career
goals, develop a strategy and identify resources
• Identify and develop ways to improve continuing growth and employability through CPD and
structure a variety of different approaches to CPD to fill HR skills gaps
• Demonstrate an insight into the transferable nature of new skills to the work environment
• Comment on the fact that CPD can add value to the role of the individual as well as the organisa-
tion at all levels
• Investigate and benchmark international best CPD practices
• Identify the problems facing human resource managers and providers when faced with the need
for CPD and recommend solutions
• Design and implement a plan for your own development
527
20.1 Introduction
The acquisition of professional skills used to be straightforward. First there was a period of learn-
ing and training, mixed with on-the-job experience and exams to secure qualifications. Once equip-
ped with the vital “licence to practice” the subsequent career path was clearly marked and visible
for years ahead. Not any more. Today this once familiar arrangement has been changed by change
itself.
It is tempting to dismiss the idea of continuing development as a piece of jargon, one of those
management inspired fads for a fancy phrase where a single word would suffice.
But the catch-all word, “training”, good enough for generations of employers, is no longer
adequate for those who draw a distinction between the systematic tuition of skills and career-long
learning that keeps abreast of changing work demands.
Richard Donkin (www.RichardDonkin.com)
Mike Cannell, adviser on learning to the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development
(CIPD) in the United Kingdom, has said that “Training is what they do to you whereas
CPD is something you do all the time for yourself”. CPD is critical for HRD practitioners
because they often spend hours, days, weeks, months and even years developing other
people at the expense of their own self-development. CPD can be used to improve the pro-
fessional practice of HRD (Gold, Holden, Iles, Stewart and Beardwell, 2010) and forms a
key element of the work of any professional body and the professionals it represents.
Several factors influence CPD choices. First, the range of CPD options is fluid as is the
marketplace in which they are set. The amount, type and subjects of CPD available to the
profession often change, as do the providers. Secondly, recent legislative initiatives such
as the new BBBEE codes and NQF Act bring new tasks and challenges and require new
information skills to be learned. Thirdly, the government may one day promulgate an Act
for the HR profession which will inevitably affect the way CPD is undertaken by that pro-
fession.
An exciting development in South Africa is that professional bodies have been recog-
nised as key players in the higher-education, skills development and quality-assurance sys-
tem as an imperative of the National Qualifications Framework Act of 2008 (RSA, 2009).
According to this Act, SAQA has been empowered to develop policy and criteria for
recognising professional bodies and registering professional designations for the purposes
of the Act (RSA, 2009). The HR professional body, the SA Board for People Practices
(SABPP), was one of the first eight professional bodies for registering professionals to be
recognised by SAQA. This means that HR professionals are among the first professionals
nationwide to be uploaded on the National Learner’s Records Database at SAQA. The HR
professional designations ranging from HRT to HRA, HRP, CHRP and MHRP were
uploaded for the first time in 2012.
There are many writers on the subject of CPD, and it is apparent that the topic may be
interpreted and practised in many different ways. This chapter focuses on HR profession-
als and their CPD needs within the South African context.
20.2 Historic development of CPD

The concept of CPD is not new. Formalised systems for CPD began to emerge in the
1960s. The first clear signal of the new view was a publication in 1962 of a conceptual
scheme for the lifelong learning of physicians. It was not until the 1970s that CPD became
Chapter 20: Continuing professional development 529
de rigueur, initially as a basis for recertification rather than improvement. By the 1980s
organised programmes were widespread among the longer established professions.
According to a career service study, when it comes to company perks, employees are
passing-up gym membership offers and are instead putting their hands up for develop-
ment programmes to boost their skills.
The turbulent times experienced by business over recent years has prompted employees
to seek out company perks that aid their career development, according to the Lee Hecht
Harrison (LHH) study.
The study involved 1 680 US employees and compared the results with those from a
similar study four years ago. People are now increasingly looking beyond their current job
roles and access to development programmes is a high priority, says LHH national direc-
tor Diane Willis.
Similar trends were present in Australia and wise employers should hone in on this
demand, Willis said. “One smart way organisations are doing this is through talent pro-
grams which show a direct correlation between development and return on investment,”
she said. Australian companies were responding to development demands by giving em-
ployees a set budget from which they can select their own career management or develop-
ment programmes.
The past few years have been a time of repositioning for the HR profession. Expect-
ations of HR are shifting throughout the public and private sector and the roles of HR pro-
fessionals have to transform to keep in line.
Today HRD has a key role to play and expectations regarding what HRD can or should
deliver are increasing at a swift pace. Demands being made mean that the traditional HRD
expertise must be combined with an understanding of how the HRD function can assist
the achievement of strategic business goals. For example through:
• understanding the business
• providing people solutions, in the language of business
• facilitating change within the organisation
• aligning HR activity with delivery
• using HR data to support decision-making and action to drive performance improve-
ment (as discussed in chapter 5).
Skills analysis of HR professionals shows that these are all areas which need some signifi-
cant development. Interestingly, in both the private and public sectors, studies have been
done to develop competency frameworks for HR practitioners. A significant focus is
placed on HRD as part of the overall HR competency framework.
20.3 What is CPD?

CPD is a concept that concentrates on the needs for a structured and disciplined approach
to private study. In the past, ad hoc reading of trade/professional journals was considered
useful in updating basic knowledge, but only to a limited extent. At this time CPD was
measured in hours. In the light of the move to outcomes-based thinking, this evolved into
being measured by the outcomes and benefits obtained from involvement in CPD. This
approach changed the emphasis from the quantity of CPD that a person was involved in,
to the quality. A qualitative leap!
CPD is the process of continuously maintaining and developing knowledge skills and
competence to improve performance at work. A commitment to effective CPD ensures
that professionals keep up to date and stay at the forefront of the profession.
CPD refers to activities that:
• relate to a job or profession
• assist the individual in their job performance
• are in addition to the individual’s normal job function
• a person chooses as relevant to their job function or future career progression in their
chosen field.
CPD is a personal commitment to keeping professional knowledge up-to-date and im-
proving capabilities. It focuses on what people learn and how they develop through their
careers. They may already be doing it, but by formally recording their learning they show
that they’re actively committed to the development of their careers. This is especially im-
portant in the field of HRD, because of the rapid changes experienced in workplace learn-
ing over the past five years.
20.4 What is CPD not?

Admittedly, there are some misconceptions about CPD. CPD is not:
• something extra you have to do just to be a member of a professional body
• just formal training courses
• something you always have to take time away from work for
• an activity that results in learning which has no bearing on work or career development
• a requirement for an academic qualification.
20.5 Why CPD?

Most professional bodies have been asking for evidence of continuing professional devel-
opment as a basic requirement of their members for many years now. The rationale is that:
Nobody expects a doctor, accountant or lawyer to rely for decades solely on the knowledge,
understanding and approach which was available at the time when they began their career.
Good professionals are engaged in a journey of self-improvement, always ready to reflect on
their own practice in the light of other approaches and to contribute to the development of
others by sharing their best practice and insights (David Blunkett, 2000).
CPD is as much about updating existing skills as developing new ones. Both areas are im-
portant. It is up to the individual to identify personal learning needs.
Regardless of job title and responsibilities every professional whether employed by an
organisation, or self-employed, has a responsibility to stay up-to-date as the profession,
technology and society change. Such up-to-dateness encompasses knowledge, skills and
attitude – in other words, the entire spectrum of educational achievement. This is an all-
embracing responsibility that extends throughout the duration of work life. Just consider
the previous 19 chapters of this book – being able to apply all these chapters in HRD
practice requires considerable professional development and commitment to personal
growth.
Research by Engineers Ireland states that it has been consistently demonstrated that an
integrated approach to CPD in business yields the following measurable benefits.
Organisational
• Maximising the potential of employees
• Sustaining the company within the knowledge economy
• Optimising payback from learning and development expenditures
• Creating an innovative and dynamic culture
• Better alignment of business goals with annual plans and personal development
• Supports career planning and promotion procedures
• Improved recruitment and retention of staff
• Raising the profile of the organisation
• Benchmarking against best industry practice
Individual
• The tools to identify the skills and knowledge that you may need in the future to further
your career
• The process to plan how you are going to acquire them
• The guidance on how to capture and reflect on your learning experience
• The ability to assess the extent to which you have achieved your learning outcomes
Being actively committed to CPD will:
• enhance a CV
• confirm professional recognition
• showcase achievements
• accelerate career prospects
• enable a person to command a better salary and benefits
• ensure greater job satisfaction.
Central to the argument is competence: competence is both a right and an expectation by
each client/customer. Competition is very real, and very cut-throat, and knowledge is
leverage.
Personal development is achieved in a variety of ways:
• Intuitive – through the natural process of absorption of information
• Incidental – by chance from activities that make us review what we normally do
• Retrospective – reviewing previous activities and highlighting what was gained
• Prospective – planning a development activity and then reviewing it.
In practice, gaining new knowledge and skills or developing those we already have can
take place at work and ‘on-the-job’. Clearly some ways are more beneficial than others.
The best results are achieved if development is approached in a structured, conscious man-
ner which allows you to gain as much as possible from the activity. Nevertheless, recog-
nise that all personal development activities should have some benefit.
CPD ensures that your professional credibility is maintained in order to adapt to new
ideas, concepts and practical tools which are constantly being developed.
CPD will provide you with:
• the ability to update your knowledge and skills on existing and new areas of practice
• the opportunity to raise your profile and career prospects through certification and net-
working
• the tools to identify the skills and knowledge that you may need in the future to further
your career
• the process to plan how you are going to acquire them
• the guidance on how to capture and reflect on your learning experience
• the ability to assess the extent to which you have achieved your learning objectives.
In summary, CPD will provide you with the framework to manage your own development
and to improve performance above and beyond the requirements of your present position.
20.6 Comparability with other countries

In case you think CPD is a South African idea being imposed on HR people, here is some
information from the Australian AHRI (Australian Human Resources Institute) and the
British CIPD.
20.6.1 AHRI (Australia)

When individuals become professional members of the Australian Human Resources In-
stitute (AHRI) they undertake to model excellence in the workplace and keep professional
skills current by committing to continuous professional development (CPD).
CPD is a commitment to keeping up-to-date and continuously seeking to improve. It is
the key to optimising career opportunities, both today and into the future. Commitment to
CPD ensures individuals routinely reflect on learning, and enables them to review their
current knowledge and skill level to draw conclusions that will guide and focus their on-
going professional development plan.
AHRI supports the following key principles of CPD:
• Professional development is a continuous process that applies throughout the working
life of professionals.
• Individuals are responsible for controlling, managing and recording their own develop-
ment.
• Individuals should decide for themselves what their learning needs are and how to ful-
fil them.
• Learning targets should be clearly articulated and reflect the needs of employers and
clients, as well as practitioners’ individual goals.
• Learning is most effective when it is acknowledged as an integral part of all work
activity.
• CPD should comprise a balanced mix of activities which include work-based activities,
courses, seminars, conferences, and self-directed informal learning.
CPD assists AHRI professional members to:
• enhance their credibility as HR professionals
• accelerate their career prospects
• negotiate better salaries and benefits
• attain greater job satisfaction
• showcase their achievements.
The AHRI CPD programme requires individual members to complete 90 hours of CPD
every three years to maintain their professional membership status. It recognises seven
learning activity types:
1 Formal education
2 Learning activities
3 Conferences/seminars
4 Presentation of papers
5 Industry involvement
6 Service to the HR profession
7 Informal learning.
20.6.2 CIPD (UK)

The CIPD in the UK has been a champion for CPD for some time.
• CPD is a requirement for all full members.
• All members are expected to structure their learning and keep a record of their CPD.
• It is a requirement that all professional qualified members provide evidence of CPD
when applying to upgrade their membership.
The essential principles
• Development should be continuous in the sense that the professional should always be
actively seeking improved performance.
• Development should be owned and managed by the individual but administered by the
professional body.
• CPD is a personal matter and the effective person knows what he or she needs to learn.
Development should begin from the individual’s current learning state.
• Learning outcomes should be clear and whenever possible should serve the organisa-
tion’s or the client’s needs as well as individual goals.
• Regular investment of time and learning should be seen as an essential part of profes-
sional life, not as an optional extra.
Performance indicators
Practitioners must demonstrate that they are able to:
1 Manage their own continuing personal and professional development systematically,
using appropriate strategies, frameworks and techniques.
2 Provide evidence of this self-managed CPD process, in a format of their choice.
3 Reflect and learn from their work and professional experience, as well as from formal
and informal learning opportunities.
4 Identify personal improvement or development needs and translate these into learning
objectives and personal development plans.
Knowledge indicators
Practitioners should also understand and be able to explain:
1 The self-managed CPD process
• Philosophies, principles and practices of continuing personal and professional de-
velopment (CPD) and life-long learning.
• CIPD policies.
• Techniques and strategies for the self-managed CPD process.
2 Presenting CPD evidence
Different ways to present evidence of the CPD process.
3 Learning opportunities and reflection
• The range of learning opportunities, formal and informal, work-related and personal,
that are available to individuals (and are all recognised as appropriate by the CIPD).
• How to develop reflection skills, alone or by sharing learning with others.
• The value of reflection in terms of personal learning and helping others to learn and
develop.
4 Personal development plans
• How to balance individual/work goals and objectives.
• Support networks available to the professional.
CPD is a requirement for all full members
The overall aims are:
• to teach planned CPD
• to show that it is a valuable activity
• that it should be an integral part of CIPD membership
• that CPD develops and is reflective of a person’s skills, and that by learning you learn
to learn
• the learning opportunities are wide-ranging and can be taught and be a part of the real
work environment
• you will become a thinking performer and reflective practitioner
• CPD will develop management skill plan(s), and enable you to reflect and manage
yourself.
The overall objectives:
• CPD principles and practices will ensure you meet work objectives
• you demonstrate management skills, show how you plan, reflect and manage yourself
• to ensure that all learning and development is captured, which is not always shown on a
CV
• to provide additional support to a CV.
The overall achievements are:
• CPD shows that you have learnt
• CPD is evidence you have reflected on your experience
• CPD shows you have thought about where you are going next
• CPD means that you should continually bring new ideas and approaches to the work
environment
• CPD shows that you can work professionally under changing circumstances
• CPD shows that you can continue to learn, develop and utilise a range of methods to
learn, thereby developing personally and professionally.
The skills achieved are:
• shared learning
• recognising personal skills and achievements within your organisation within your
business role and how CPD plays a part in that development
• commitment to on-going development
• the management of your own business learning and development
Apart from the above general HR CPD models, various other international bodies also
provide opportunities for professional development in the field of HRD. For example, the
Association for Talent Development (ATD) has been a champion for professional HRD
practices throughout the world.
20.7 What counts as CPD?

In theory anything can count towards evidence of CPD if you can demonstrate that you
have learnt something from the activity. If you have a new skill or new knowledge, if you
intend to do something differently because of a learning experience, then this can count as
evidence of your CPD. It is the outcome and how this impacts on your professional role
that is important.
In some countries CPD is not only informal learning, it can also be very structured and
has unit standards and certification as an end result. In other countries the approach is far
more relaxed.
20.8 Who does CPD affect?

CPD embraces:
• Individuals
That all individuals keep their CPD up-to-date so that their value is retained in a rapidly
changing marketplace
• Organisations
That employers facilitate the professional development of their employees by providing
support in accordance with business goals.
• Professions
CPD driven by professional bodies ensures that the professionals practising in a field
are kept up to date and that they continuously develop according to new trends, skills
and competencies required, thereby maintaining the status and credibility of profes-
sionals.
• Overall economy
That the CPD programme contributes to the improvement of the country’s national com-
petitiveness by helping to upgrade the skills and knowledge base of the country.
While CPD is ultimately the individual’s personal responsibility, its widespread and effect-
ive practice requires the co-operation, encouragement and support of employers, academic
institutions, government agencies, professional bodies and other relevant structures. It
should be the wish of every person involved in CPD to stimulate lifelong learning in line
with best international practice. That is the reason why some universities like the Univer-
sity of South Africa encourage HR graduates to register as HR professionals with the
SABPP. Even when their formal studies have been completed, these individuals are
expected to engage in their own professional development.
20.9 The variety of approaches to CPD

20.9.1 Formal courses
Formal courses may be offered by colleges and universities, technical schools, and private
vendors/industries. They may extend across a term/semester or involve some combination
of evenings and week-ends. Some formal courses may be considered as CPD if the intent
is the updating of professional abilities outside of enrolling in a degree programme. Some-
times professional bodies may approve certain courses.
20.9.2 Workshops and seminars

Educational events that are short-term in nature, from one to five days, fall into this cat-
egory. A workshop typically involves some experiential learning, such as role playing or
scenario-based discussions. Both formal courses and workshops/seminars may be offered
in two primary venues:
• Classroom When facilitators and learners gather in a single physical location. In this
venue, there may be a mix of degree-seeking and continuing education students. It is
the intent of the student that defines the educational context.
• Distance education When the facilitator and the learners are separated by time and/or
distance. Distance education is a broad term that covers a variety of possible venues,
including correspondence, video or audio teleconferencing, web-based instruction, re-
search, e-learning, and so on. The list of options changes as new technologies emerge.
20.9.3 Conferences
The gathering of professionals in a conference venue provides opportunities for CPD. Par-
ticipants can select from workshops, general sessions, specific streams, as well as settings
for social interaction and personal networking. Conferences offer a broad spectrum of for-
mal and informal educational events and the social context is tempting to many. However,
not all conference happenings are acceptable for CPD, for example, a breakfast session
followed by a brief 30 minute talk is not necessarily sufficient for the purpose of CPD.
20.9.4 Tutorials
Sometimes confused with “independent study,” the tutorial includes both the face-to-face
and electronic interaction – plus whatever research, reading and/or study is done by the
student in preparation for that interaction.
20.9.5 Independent study and reading

The “independent study” involves work that is done entirely by the student, without any
input from a lecturer or facilitator. Such study may be of short or long-term duration and
needs to be carefully documented if presented as evidence of CPD.
20.9.6 Presentations and publishing

Delivering a paper, or writing an article, chapter or book involves considerable research
and study although it is not always recognised as CPD.
20.9.7 Mentoring and coaching

Being mentored or coached by another professional can also offer valuable opportunities
for CPD, especially if these relationships are well-structured and supportive with clear
documentation and action plans for development (see chapter 10).
Activities undertaken as CPD must be relevant to the work situation. For example, if the
person plans to set up an accounting practice in France, learning to speak French would
count as CPD, however, if the person has no intention of working in France, but is learn-
ing French for fun it is not counted as CPD.
20.10 Learning options for CPD

20.10.1 Structured
Examples are interactive and highly participative training courses and seminars; branch
and regional meetings with formal lectures; active participation in a SETA board or com-
mittee and supporting standards development and implementation; the research, prepar-
ation and delivery of lectures; publishing articles; and forms of open and distance learning
leading towards a new qualification or formal assessment.
20.10.2 Semi-structured
These are non-interactive lectures; talks; informal branch and regional meetings of a more
social nature. These may be accepted as CPD if approved as relevant.
20.10.3 Unstructured
Typical examples are distance and open learning study which is not assessed and does not
lead to a qualification; the reading of professional and technical journals; books and other
publications; relevant aspects of on-the-job training where specific outcomes have been
planned and identified.
20.11 Core competencies of the thinking performer

The latest thinking about employees is that they should be “thinking performers”. This
means that they define the qualities the SA Board for People Practices (SABPP) expects:
1 They have personal drive and effectiveness, as well as a positive, ‘can-do’ mentality.
They are anxious to find ways around obstacles and are willing to exploit all the avail-
able resources in order to accomplish their objectives.
2 They set out their own professional objectives with a prioritised plan for managing
time.
3 They establish priorities, tasks and work schedules in advance so as to maximise effi-
ciency and added-value effectiveness and, above all, to ensure making time to get
advice, and guidance so as to meet the needs of senior management, line managers and
employees generally.
4 They monitor progress and take remedial action as necessary.
5 They anticipate resource problems and seek to resolve them proactively.
6 They identify their own motivators and strengths, and use these to drive their personal
performance.
Essentially, this means that the HRD practitioner is expected to apply these skills over
and above their normal functional HRD knowledge. Thus, the HRD practitioner should be
able to analyse problems and find solutions in a professional and amicable way.
In 2012 the HR professional body of South Africa, the SABPP, launched a national HR
competency model at its HR Excellence in Gauteng Provincial Summit. The SABPP is
not only an HR professional body – it is also a statutory quality-assurance body for HR
learning provision mandated by SAQA. In addition, the SABPP also accredits higher edu-
cation curricula in HR management and industrial psychology.
A competency model is an important component for any profession as it clearly ex-
presses what professionals in that field should be able to deliver. An HR Competency
Model provides a foundation for the continuous professional development (CPD) of HR
professionals.
The competency model builds on the previous SABPP model published in 1990. Over
the last three decades a multitude of HR competency models evolved, mainly in the US
and Europe. However, the national HR Survey 2011 conducted by Knowledge Resources
and the SABPP showed that only 20% of South African companies have an HR compe-
tency model in place. Of those companies that do use a model, most simply use overseas
models without taking cognisance of the unique South African context. The SABPP is of
the view that the local context is of such importance that the competency model must
address it. Figure 20.1 illustrates the SABPP’s HR competency model.
Figure 20.1 The SABPP’s South African HR competency model

The competency model consists of three broad areas of competence:

• The four pillars of professionalism that form the square shape of the “house” as the
foundation for professional HR practice.
• Five core competencies needed by HR professionals to do high-quality HR work that
constitute the building blocks.
• Five HR capabilities required to ensure strategic HR impact that form the roof.
The HR competency model is based on the following design principles.
• The competency model emerged from the design principle that it be based on an over-
arching HR profession map covering all functions, elements and components of the HR
profession.
• While there was a clear intention to learn from previous models, the overall approach
used was to integrate the best elements of other models based on leading HR compe-
tencies worldwide.
• Having said that, SABPP decided not to duplicate global models because, despite global
benchmarking, HR in South Africa is unique and peculiar to a very specific context and
environment that is totally different from the rest of the world. Hence, the model had to
be relevant to South Africa with a unique local focus.
• The model achieves a balance between personal, business and HR competencies.
• While we can learn from other HR competency models over the past 30 years, a clear
focus on the needs and requirements of the present and future HR operating environ-
ment guided the developers of the SABPP’s HR competency model.
• The model must be general enough to be internalised by all HR professionals, irrespect-
ive of their level in the organisation or area of specialisation.
The four pillars of HR professionalism form the foundation of the model:
• Duty to society: HR professionals have a duty to deliver high-quality HR work that has
a positive impact on society.
• Ethics: HR professionalism should contribute to ethics in organisations and drive ethics
in accordance with the SABPP’s HR Guide on Ethics.
• Professionalism: HR professionals should manage themselves professionally and act
and behave like true professionals in the standard of HR work they deliver.
• HR and business knowledge: HR professionals must have good HR and sound business
knowledge if they want to be successful as professionals and strategic partners.
Considering these pillars, one could also say that HR’s duty to society forms the founda-
tion of the HR competency house. Ethics and professionalism are the walls. If the foun-
dation and walls are not strong, the house will fall down. Furthermore, HR and business
knowledge is the ceiling of the house, thus acquiring sound HR and business knowledge
opens up opportunities for HR professionals to move to the strategic level of the HR
house, i.e. the roof.
The five core competencies constitute the different layers of bricks or building blocks
of the house. These competencies are the basic competencies all HR professionals need to
be effective in the workplace:
• Leadership and personal credibility: All HR professionals should possess leadership
skills to drive the HR profession. Likewise, HR professionals should have personal
credibility in organisations, irrespective of level of seniority in the organisation, but
they can be credible only if they display a high level of competence in executing pro-
fessional HR work.
• Organisational capability: Understanding the organisational context and needs of the
business is critical to the process of planning and delivering HR practices.
• Solution creation and implementation: HR professionals create, plan and implement
HR solutions including interventions and practices according to the needs of the organ-
isation.
• Interpersonal and communication skills: All HR work depends on successful relation-
ships, and excellent interpersonal and communication skills are of utmost importance.
• Citizenship for the future: Over and above the HR strategic partner role, the new busi-
ness environment requires HR professionals who can drive innovation, optimise tech-
nology and contribute to sustainability. Thus, HR professionals become citizens for the
future in ensuring the sustainability of organisations and the environment.
Applying five capabilities in driving business excellence, HR professionals are rising to
the roof of the HR house. Once they can apply the basics of HR professionalism, they are
ready to do high-level strategic HR work. Typically, the five HR capabilities are as fol-
lows:
• Strategy: HR professionals contribute to business strategy by drafting HR strategies
aligned with the overall strategy of the organisation. However, HR strategy is more
than just alignment, it requires the ability and influence to create people-driven busi-
ness strategy in partnership with other executives.
• Talent management: Once business and HR strategy are clear, HR professionals should
work with line management in implementing a talent management plan for the organ-
isation.
• HR governance, risk and compliance: Governing the HR function to make effective
people decisions for the business, including managing HR risks and ensuring com-
pliance with employment laws, rules, codes and HR standards, elevates HR from busi-
ness partner to HR governor.
• Analytics and measurement: Another core capability is the ability to generate a system-
atic and integrated approach to HR analytics and measures in demonstrating HR impact
on the business.
• HR service delivery: Ultimately, HR professionals should be able to deliver high-quality
HR products and services for the organisation and meet or exceed the needs of manage-
ment, employees and other key stakeholders.
The new SABPP HR competency model sets the benchmark for HR professionalism in the
modern South African work environment. Under this comprehensive framework for HR
competence in South Africa, the further development of the HR competency model will
include a competency grid with a full list of HR competencies under each of the broader
HR competencies outlined in the model, a mapping to the SABPP’s levels of professional
registration and an assessment tool. The SABPP will continue to engage with the HR pro-
fessional market to refine the model and build HR competence nationally.
Also, since National HR Standards were developed in 2013, all HR professionals are
expected to apply the 13 standards in the workplace. In essence, HR professionals should
incorporate the 13 National HR standards as part of their CPD in ensuring that they keep
up to date with the HR standards, not only to meet current standards, but also to apply
new standards that may be developed in future.
20.12 Personal development plans

In practice, CPD works best when it is documented in a personal development plan. Crit-
ical elements of an effective personal development plan are as follows:
1 Take ownership and personal responsibility for your continuing personal development.
2 Write a clear statement of where you want to be at the end of a specified period:
assess your learning and development needs and goals for the year ahead, prioritise
these needs and decide which needs should be dealt with immediately.
3 Plan appropriate learning activities you will undertake to acquire the knowledge and
skills to meet these needs and goals. (Write SMART GOALS – specific, measurable,
action-oriented, realistic and time-focused.)
4 Identify the resources and support you will require to attain your goal.
5 Identify the criteria which will help you determine that you are on course.
6 Identify intermediate stages where you can review progress.
7 Put your learning into action, selecting the best way to achieve these goals
8 Evaluate the outcomes of your learning: whether the activities you undertook really
did fully meet your requirements and whether any further or subsequent learning
needs to take place.
9 Keep a record as you go through the cycle.
10 Reflect on progress made, achievements gained and how they can help you in the
work environment. Note that the satisfaction gained from completing one learning
activity and moving on to the next can easily cause you to miss out on this step of
reflection.
20.13 Complete the necessary CPD work

Today in business, people are often expected to do what other people want you to do, and
with the current focus on benchmarking, you are tempted to copy what others do. Rather,
with CPD you are challenged to establish your own personal standards and best practices.
These should be based on an assessment of your current competence levels and those you
will require in the future. You should always aspire to best practice, both in keeping up to
date and in broadening into new areas. You may be venturing into areas where new stand-
ards need to be set – so you will become the arbiter of best practice. Isn’t that exciting?
You become the master of your own destiny by empowering yourself with knowledge and
opportunities for personal growth and development.
Effective personal development depends to a large extent on your ability to do a realistic
and objective self-assessment so that you really face your strengths and opportunities for
growth and improvement. Here are some questions you can use for the purpose of such a
self-assessment:
Have you achieved the objectives in your CPD action plan? Has it been outcomes-
based with measurable outcomes?
Fully? Partially? Not at all?
If not, why not?
Do you need more time?
Have your needs changed?
What improvements can you see as a result of your learning?

Increased confidence (in yourself or from others in you)?
More job satisfaction/less stress?
Chance of new responsibilities?
Chance of promotion?
Increased quality of work?
Better feedback on performance?
Enhanced client base?
How are you going to use your new skills/knowledge?
To improve procedures/services/products?
To coach colleagues?
To improve ways of working/relationships/communication?
What are you going to do next?
Persevere with objectives that need more time?
Move on to a higher level?
Explore new areas of interest?
It is very easy to put off self-directed learning activities. It is even easier to place that list
of wonderful action plans you made in a hidden corner of the filing cabinet. However, if
you are to succeed in your career, you need to keep your action plan in sight at all times,
and the time frames written into your diary in black ink. Set times on your schedule to
regularly review your CPD plan.
For your CPD to be successful, you need to keep records in two main areas:
1 Your record of achievements
This is a full record of the actions and activities you have undertaken, together with a
listing of the respective outcomes you have achieved.
2 Your personal development plan
This shows the way forward that you have planned at various stages of your career and
the outcomes you need to achieve at each stage. Note that this development plan may
change at various stages in your life.
It is acknowledged that everyone is different and there is no such thing as “one plan fits
all”. What matters about these records is that you thoroughly reflect on your accomplish-
ments, assess your current needs and strategically plan your future CPD. Not only will this
ensure that your own profile is continuously updated, it can become a very useful reference
tool when you apply for promotions or when you need evidence for the purpose of RPL.
20.14 Building an organisational CPD strategy

While CPD is indeed essential to individual HRD practitioners, an organisational CPD
strategy is needed to ensure that your HRD practitioners are collectively developed as a
group to meet the needs of the business. Several South African organisations have there-
fore embarked on structured development opportunities for their HR and HRD practi-
tioners. An organisational CPD strategy brings a number of advantages by:
• showing how the views and priorities of service users and members of the public are
influencing CPD activity within the organisation
• describing systems and policies to ensure equity of access to CPD activities
• demonstrating how CPD activity will contribute to meeting local service needs
• showing how CPD activity reflects critical governance objectives
• defining how CPD objectives link with national policy initiatives
• setting out the process for matching education needs to service-user and organisational
needs at local level
• setting out specific plans for ongoing CPD activities covering mandatory, generic and
specialty-specific subjects
• offering guidance to staff on how their CPD needs can be met in partnership with man-
agers, supervisors and others
• demonstrating the benefits of effective working with partnership organisations such as
local partnership forums and education providers
• demonstrating how budgets and resources can be used most effectively.
Challenges for HRD that can be partially solved through CPD include the following
(Harrison and Kessels: 2004):
• Involvement at a strategic level of the business and development of their roles as busi-
ness partners in fostering learning partnerships across and outside organisations.
• A need to understand the business and their part in creating competitive advantage and
added value.
• Creation of HRD strategies that need to be integrated with business strategies.
• Creation of HRD strategies that focus on the building and embedding of fast, respon-
sive learning cultures that will assist in building organisational core competences and
capability for the future.
• Working with managers and learners on introducing learning cultures which create and
share knowledge and develop core competences and dynamic capability.
• Understanding the implications of High Performance Work Organisations and HRD’s
role in creating and facilitating appropriate learning environments.
• Promoting the value of workplace learning.
• Stimulating and support self-managed learning and team-based learning at all levels of
the organisation through social and professional networks.
• Considering how human capital measurement can help organisations to quantify the
return on investment in training and developing their employees.
• Understanding the implications for learning and development for all parties working in
a knowledge economy.
• Taking a leading role in the facilitation of knowledge management approaches and cre-
ation of knowledge networks.
• Ensuring their own CPD.
20.15 Practical guidelines for CPD

There seem to be few CPD frameworks at present which cater for the strategic and busi-
ness development needs of HRD professionals. Evans (2003) suggests a number of guide-
lines to make CPD work at a practical level.
• Spend time working in the business, for example, shadow senior managers in strategic
positions in other functions in order to develop business skills.
• Invest in formal learning by undertaking a specific academic HRD or Business Higher

Degree.
• Invest in Informal Learning and knowledge building, for example, spend time building
up networks with people within and outside professional boundaries to help gain new
insights and awareness of significant changes.
• Request secondment to other organisations to learn, and try out new approaches in dif-
ferent organisational settings.
• Take up a non-executive position to gain exposure to senior managers from other busi-
ness sectors in finding new perspectives and honing political and influencing skills.
• Get a good coach or mentor who can provide ideas, different perspectives and act as a
guide and sounding board.
• Read by becoming a book reviewer or accessing professional and business journals and
books as an updating activity. Alternatively, create a reading circle or book group for
collaborative reading and reflection or arrange an event with the latest community of
practices in terms of new knowledge areas or special interest groups.
However, the above guidelines will only work if a CPD programme is based on clear
principles:
• Development should be owned and managed by the individual learner.
• Development should be continuous in the sense that professionals should always be
actively seeking improved performance.
• CPD is a personal matter and the effective learner knows best when it is time to learn.
• Learning objectives should be clear and wherever possible serve organisational or client
needs as well as individual goals.
• Regular investment of time in learning should be seen as an essential part of profes-
sional life, and not as an optional extra.
• The development plan starts with the learner’s current learning needs, taking into account
previous development, and fitting in with their overall life and career plan, and where
relevant, meeting current organisational needs.
• Development goals should be clearly defined and accompanied by specific measures of
what will constitute a successful outcome.
• Learners should regularly assess their achievement either as self-assessment or through
peer assessment or with the help of a mentor.
• Investment in training, development and learning should be regarded as a fundamental
principle of enhancing professional and commercial success.
20.16 CPD example: SA Board for People Practices (SABPP)

The SABPP’s CPD Committee is proud to announce the release of the Continuous Professional
Development Policy and Procedures, which was adopted in 2015. The requirement for professionals
to keep their knowledge up to date is a hallmark of all recognised professions. It is one of the re-
quirements of SAQA to recognise a professional body. In today’s world, the knowledge and skills
acquired through one’s original education and training are rapidly overtaken by developments such
as new legislation, new ideas and new challenges, which arise continuously. We must adapt and
continued
acquire new knowledge and skills to fit changing demands. An out of date practitioner cannot be a
competent practitioner. Professionalism involves a personal commitment to career-long learning,
otherwise termed CPD.
The SABPP National HR Competency Model provides a solid and detailed foundation against
which practitioners can measure themselves and plan their development. The goals of CPD are to
facilitate a culture of lifelong learning amongst members of the HR profession, create learning op-
portunities and sustain and grow professionalism and the body of knowledge of the profession.
Principles
The CPD policy is based on the following principles:
• An understanding among practitioners of the importance of CPD is critical to the promotion of
HR professionalism in South Africa.
• There is an ethical obligation on HR practitioners to regularly enhance their professional compe-
tence through CPD, as stated in the SABPP code of ethics. Failure to do so will result in profes-
sional sanction.
• CPD should complement and update, but not replace, knowledge and skills initial education in
HR practices.
• CPD will be based on the SABPP HR Competency Model.
• CPD should eventually be part of the professional accreditation process and career development.
• CPD seeks to encourage on-going learning and skills development in the interests of keeping HR
relevant as a profession. While it does not exclude formal education, it also includes other learn-
ing processes, for example, job-based learning, skills development programmes, seminars, con-
ventions and professional body functions, reading, researching and writing journal and other
articles, lecturing and speaking engagements, mentoring and being mentored.
• SABPP recognises, in principle, the standing of the designation of members who are registered
also with other SAQA recognised professional bodies, provided that SABPP requirements are
met.
• HR professional development must be based on actual practice in the real world of work.
• SABPP will guide professional development and recommend learning activities that support
development against the SABPP HR Standards Model, HR Professional Practice Standards, HR
Competency Model and current HR priorities.
The SABPP CPD Committee is responsible for reviewing and updating the policy from time to time,
resolving any disputes arising out of the policy, and receiving and reviewing reports on the imple-
mentation of the policy. CPD may be based on verifiable and/or non-verifiable evidence. Verifiable
evidence involves some paper work, such as a certificate, attendance register, publications, while
non-verifiable evidence involves informal learning activities, such as reading and watching videos
of TV programmes. CPD activities can take a variety of forms, both formal and informal. Some of
these can be recorded and are verifiable, for example, a report on an HR project conducted in-house
would be verifiable information. Others would be hard or would take a lot of effort to record, such
as time spent reading a professional journal or listening to a financial/economics programme on the
car radio. So an estimate of time spent on this is acceptable, but for the portfolio of evidence, the
member will still need to show what competency gap is addressed by doing this and what has been
achieved.
SABPP registered practitioners will keep record of their learning and CPD achievements will be
tracked in an electronic membership platform called OneZone, as well as an App on their smart
phones. While all efforts are made to support learners to adapt to the new CPD system, members
who do not comply with the CPD policy will be deregistered if they fail to submit their CPD records
after being invited several times. Ultimately, CPD is about professionalism, not only to meet the
SABPP requirements, but also the SAQA policy on professional bodies in accordance with the NQF
continued
Act. Thus, CPD is about compliance on the one hand, but also about our performance and develop-
ment as an HR professional.
In conclusion
Perhaps more than any other single issue, a successful CPD programme depends on the motivation
of individual members and the way they search for or respond to the opportunities placed before
them. By delineating activities that are relevant, which improve their ability to deliver services and
which inspire enthusiasm and determination to gain new knowledge and skills, the SABPP can
encourage and harness members’ creativity and energy to help ensure that HR professionalism is
maintained, quality is improved and high standards are implemented and maintained. The CPD sys-
tem will be revamped to drive the new national HR Competency Model.
Reference
20.17 Case study: Help! I’m stuck in the mud!

Thabo, the competent but “stuck in the mud” HR manager in a medium-sized company, recognised
that the workplace around him was changing rapidly. Some research indicated that being good at
what he did was no longer good enough. If he wanted to get ahead of the competition, he would
have to update his skills. But how? Who, he thought, who in this organisation can help me? Where
do I start?
One day he was sitting in the canteen, when an elderly man sat down at his table. What a lucky
day for Thabo! Abraham was just what he was looking for. He was a mine of information. He sug-
gested that Thabo go on a short course to find out the latest HR thinking. He could then redesign his
HR strategy and people development initiatives for the next year and then map out his own qualifi-
cations and training against them to see how they compared. The result would highlight the areas
where he needed skills training or further qualifications.
“But where am I going to get these skills?” questioned Thabo. Abraham had some suggestions.
Upgrading skills
There is no shortage of ways to update your skills and knowledge, from one-day training, or cor-
respondence courses or part-time degrees, to reading business pages and industry publications.
Attending seminars and conferences is particularly good for inspiring fresh ideas and practices, and
gaining exposure to the latest HR and HRD thinking.
Keep a learning log
Even when you are working at full speed, Thabo, it is essential that you set aside time to reflect on
your learning. One way you can do this is in a logbook. You will see your way to analysing and
learning from your successes and failures. What did you do that was effective? What difficulties did
you encounter? How did you deal with them? What would you do differently next time? Formalis-
ing your on-the-job learning in this way will help you learn better, and will also provide you with a
useful reference source when employers ask you for evidence of the skills you gained on the job.
Take on lateral moves
You know, you could make a sideways move to increase your experience. Or you could ask for a
secondment to another part of the business. These would add to your credibility and knowledge of
the organisation. You could also volunteer for assignments that are not part of your everyday respon-
sibilities, but would enable you to learn something new.
continued
Learn online
It’s just so easy these days. The web has liberated how we learn. As well as full developed courses
in a variety of areas from soft skills to health and safety, short, bite-size learning modules allow you
to top-up your knowledge levels in a particular area as and when you need it (called ‘just-in-time’
learning). There are also chat rooms and online forums and newsletters to get you thinking and
stimulate discussion and promote shared experiences.
Get a weighty qualification
And if necessary, get down to some serious study – such as a higher degree. This will help you with
self-discipline, boost your confidence, and open your mind to new challenges. Most courses are
highly flexible, designed to fit around a wide variety of circumstances. But a commitment like this
will cost you in terms of time and energy. A flexible evening MBA qualification requires two even-
ings a week to attend class, and between 10 and 15 hours for reading and coursework every week.
Make it count
But most importantly, when you are back at your desk after a course or seminar, devise a plan
showing how you intend to implement new practices or put your new skills to use. Make sure your
team is informed, and promote a culture of knowledge sharing. Good luck!”
Question
What steps could Thabo take after receiving this advice from Abraham? What difference would
these steps make to Thabo in his job as the HR manager?
(Adapted from an article in Personnel Today, 17 February 2004)

• South African HRD professionals and their organisations can learn from international
models on CPD.
• CPD is needed to ensure the continuous development of HRD professionals after they
have completed their formal studies.
• The SABPP provides a CPD programme for the development of HRD professionals.
• Clear documentation is needed to ensure effective monitoring of CPD.
• Every HRD professional should have a personal development plan forming the basis of
CPD.
20.19 Conclusion
Why engage in CPD? Why spend the money? Why commit the time and effort? The
answer is simple: the shelf life of a degree is approximately three years – and declining.
“Maintaining competence and learning new skills must be at the top of every profes-
sional’s ‘To Do’ list. It is an ethical responsibility, but also a pragmatic one, and critical
for career success. Continuing professional education is no longer an option; it is a require-
ment of professional practice” (Weingand, 1999).
Why go for CPD? Here’s how one person gave feedback: “There’s never a single
reason, generally it is a combination of factors, plus a personal sense of responsibility and
commitment to myself and to my employer to actively seek opportunities to keep informed
and up to date with issues. I also feel strongly that as an individual it is necessary to be
proactive and to be responsible (though it’s hard at times) to ensure some sort of learning
outcomes occur from the learning experience, and that where practical this is fed back
into work and/or the workplace” (quoted in Weingand, 1999).
These are challenging times for increasing employee skills and knowledge. The HRD
profession has grown exponentially and organisations are unable to be satisfied in their
demand for competent and experienced staff. One solution lies in up-skilling the HRD
community through CPD.

1 “As a profession, HRD does not currently have sufficiently powerful strategies to
address and make impact on the key emerging business themes. While it is one thing
to identify future priorities in CPD and practice, HRD professionals need to consider
new and innovative ways of developing themselves as well as the learning populations
for whom they are responsible” (Cattell, 2005).
This is a serious indictment of the profession and the lack of power of the profession-
als. Suggest some ways to remedy the situation.
2 Cattell (2004) states that findings from literature reviews and questionnaires agree
that HRD professionals are currently functioning in their traditional roles at an oper-
ational level. In addition they do not seem to be involved in or have significant under-
standing of emerging business imperatives which lead to their organisations gaining
strategic competitive advantage. Whilst their organisations are involved in new and
emerging business areas, they do not appear to be.
Discuss the steps necessary to improve the situation (see also chapter 5 for some ideas).
3 “It is unlikely to be long before customers demand that professional advice is given
only by those who have kept their knowledge and skills up to date” (David Hill of
Echelon Publishing (Internet)).
Critically evaluate this statement, putting forward, if you can, both pros and cons.
4 “There is no significant move by trainers from their traditional roles in the workplace
to new roles as learning facilitators and strategic partners” (Stewart and Tansley,
2002).
Suggest how CPD can help trainers become learning facilitators and strategic partners.
5 Harrison and Kessels (2004:18) commenting on European research, express concern:
“It is particularly worrying that HRD practitioners in general expressed no expect-
ation that a significant change would occur between strategies they were using now
in their organisations and those they would be using in the future. There was also a
lack of clarity about what their role might be and a lack of awareness about the need
for learning to be actively promoted across their organisations.”
Make suggestions for the use of CPD in your own area and organisation.
6 Summarising research on HRD in South Africa, van Dyk, Nel, Loedolff and Haas-
broek (2001) set out a new mandate for those involved in the field when they state: A
new approach to HRD is needed to cope with a future that is not always like the past
. . . If HRD is to be strategic then the practitioner’s role is not solely to distil past
experience or help solve performance problems stemming from lack of individual
knowledge or skill, rather, practitioners need to guide organisational members in a
continuing creative process of discovery so that they can prepare for the knowledge
and skills needed for the future.”
Discuss how CPD can help in this instance.
7 “A knowledge economy needs HRD professionals whose attitudes and competencies
are very different from those they are expected to exercise in more traditional con-
texts. Many of those professionals will want to be educated and developed in differ-
ent ways” Harrison and Kessels (2004).
What should we be doing in CPD to move on from traditional contexts?
8 In the United Kingdom, skills shortages are high on the business agenda in a variety
of sectors. The UK government sees these shortages as such challenges to the UK’s
productivity that it has set up a network of 25 Sector Skills Councils, each tasked
with identifying and tackling skills gaps and shortages on a sector-by-sector basis
(Stairway to CPD Success, www.trainingreference.co.uk).
9 Discuss your ideas for addressing the skills shortage in South Africa through CPD.
Explore the possibilities.
10 Explain how you can use CPD to apply the new HR competency model to improve
your HR or HRD professionalism in the workplace.
20.21 References
Cattell AH, 2005, “Value – Redefining the priorities in CPD for HRD professionals”,
International Conference, Leeds.
Cattell AH, 2005, “Performance management” in JP Wilson (ed), Human Resource De-
velopment: Learning and Training for Organizations and Individuals, 2nd edn, London:
Kogan Page.
Evans C, 2003, Managing for Knowledge – HR’s Strategic Role, Oxford: Butterworths-
Heineman.
Harrison R and Kessels J, 2004, Human Resource Development in a Knowledge Economy:
An Organisational View, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.
Megginson D and Whitaker V, 2003, Continuing Professional Development, London:
CIPD.
Mitchell TR, 1993, Group Organisational Management, London: Sage.
RSA, 2009, National Qualifications Framework Act, Act No. 67 of 2008, Government
Gazette 31909, 17 February 2009.
SABPP, 2015, SABPP Policy on Continuing Professional Development (CPD) For
Registered SABPP Members, Parktown: SABPP.
Spangenberg HH, Schroder HM and Duvenge A, 1999, “A leadership competence utilisa-
tion questionnaire for South African managers”, Journal of Psychology 29(3): 117–129.
Stewart J and Tansley C, 2002, Training in the Knowledge Economy, Research Report,
London: CIPD.
Van Dyk PS, Nel PS, Loedolff P van Z and Haasbroek GD, 2001, Training Management
– A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Human Resources Development in Southern Africa,
3rd edn, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Weingand DE, 1999, “Describing the elephant: What is continuing professional educa-
tion?”, IFLA Council and General Conference, Bangkok.

Boyd B, 2005, Improving Professional Practice: An Introduction to CPD, Paisley: Hodder
Gibson.
CIPD, 2005, The Concept of the Thinking Performer – Why It Matters, London: CIPD.
Kruger, E, 2012, “HR as change agents: What competencies do we need?”, in J Heroldt
(ed), Managing Change in Organisations: Articles from Human Capital Review, Rand-
burg: Knowres.
Kirkwood M, 2005, Continuing Professional Development, Paisley: Hodder Gibson.
Meyer, M, 2012, “Wisdom from professional HR mentors: Transferring knowledge from
one generation to the next”, in J Heroldt (ed), Mentoring and Coaching: Articles from
Human Capital Review, Randburg: Knowres.
SABPP, 2010, HR Risk Management, Position Paper, Parktown: SABPP.
SABPP, 2011, Ethics Guide for HR and Line Managers, Parktown: SABPP.
SABPP, 2015, Ethical Competence for HR Practitioners. Parktown: SABPP.

Academy for Human Resource Development: http://www.ahrd.org
Australian Human Resource Institute: http://www.ahri.com.au
Certified Performance Technologist: http://www.certifiedpt.org
Chartered Institute of Personnel Development: http://www.cipd.co.uk
CPD Web: http://www.cpdweb.co.za
HR Future Network: http://www.hrfuture.net
Nederlandse Vereniging van Opleiers: http://www.nvo2.nl
Richard Donkin: http://www.RichardDonkin.com
Singapore Human Resource Institute: http://www.shri.org.sg
The SA Board for People Practices is acknowledged for providing its CPD policy docu-
ment. All HR and HRD professionals reading this chapter are encouraged to join the CPD
programme of the SABPP after registering with SABPP as professionals in accordance
with the NQF Act and SAQA policy on professional bodies.
ASSIGNMENT, PORTFOLIO AND
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
The following set of assignment, portfolio and examination questions are included to help
students and lecturers to prepare for assessment.
Question 1 (Example of a typical case study)

Read through the case study and answer the questions that follow.
Hecpro Technologies is a group of niche technology companies joined together around
common goals and the prospect of a shared future for continuous business growth and ex-
pansion. Each operating company is an established and profitable operation. The constitu-
ent parts blend a diverse range of specialist skills, industry-leading products and services
and an established network of blue-chip industry, global and government contracts. The
companies in the group are Mobile Communications, Global Technologies, Knowledge
Solutions and Growth Finance.
The product range is largely focused on mobile technologies. Particular attention is paid
to the e-commerce leg of the business, which is geared towards the sale of tailor-made
hardware and a range of accessories and consumables. The reality of globalisation has
forced the group to exploit a wider client base. The group’s operations will continue to
expand geographically, extending into the neighbouring countries, West Africa, Morocco,
Malaysia and Europe.
A group human resource manager, Lebo Mgxaji, was appointed when the managing
director realised that the future of the business would be built on the development of its
human resources. A particular challenge is the meaningful integration of specialist skills
in the pursuit of meeting clients’ needs.
551
A major problem the company faces is the shortage of skilled information technology
professionals in South Africa, especially from disadvantaged groups. However, the com-
pany’s long-term employment equity target is to have the company fully representative of
the South African population by 2015.
The training section consists of one chief learning officer, three learning officers and
two training administrators. Their mission is to provide a professional training service to
all the members of the group. Various types of training courses are being presented, the
majority being computer-based training. One of these programmes allows employees to
learn at their own pace through the Internet.
At a strategic planning workshop, the HR manager and the six training staff members
decided that a plan had to be drawn up among them to align their learning interventions
with the requirements of the NQF and SAQA. In addition, this plan needed to include a
skills development strategy in line with the Skills Development Act and Skills Develop-
ment Levies Act.
1.1 Which characteristics of the learning organisation are evident from the case study? (5)
1.2 Indicate how the HR manager can apply the steps in the needs analysis process at
Hecpro. (7)
1.3 You are one of the learning officers, and you feel that Hecpro can use industrial
theatre effectively as a training technique for customer service training. Write a mem-
orandum to Lebo giving reasons why you think that industrial theatre should be used
to conduct customer service training. (8)
1.4 Explain the benefits of e-learning for Hecpro. (5)
[25]
Assessment criteria for question 1

5 The characteristics of the learning organisation are clearly identified from the case
study.
5 Learning needs are correctly analysed using a variety of needs analysis techniques.
5 The benefits of e-learning are motivated to management to get their buy-in and sup-
port.
5 Different HRD interventions (in this case industrial theatre) are selected according to
the situation.
5 Different e-learning methodologies are identified and optimised according to busi-
ness needs.
Guidelines
• Read the chapters on the learning organisation, learning needs analysis, designing
HRD interventions and e-learning.
• Answer the above questions.
• Ensure that your answers are well integrated with the information provided in the
case study. In other words, your answers should be relevant to Hecpro.
Assignment, portfolio and examination questions 553
Question 2
You are appointed as skills development facilitator at Ubuntu Bank, a large national bank-
ing group. Your two main functions are to develop and implement a strategic human
resource development plan for the bank and also to ensure that all requirements of the
Skills Development Act are complied with.
2.1 Identify and describe the typical elements of a strategic human resource development
plan. (10)
2.2 Develop a skills development strategy for Ubuntu Bank. (15)
[25]
5 Comprehensive strategic HRD plans are formulated in line with business needs.
5 Planning of HRD strategies is based on a thorough analysis of the external environment.
5 Appropriate HRD strategies are planned in line with training legislation.
Guidelines
• Read the chapters on strategic HRD and HRD legislation.
• Review the elements of a strategic HRD plan as indicated in the table in your text-
book. Provide typical examples of these elements at Ubuntu Bank.
• Develop a skills development strategy for the bank. Indicate how skills development
should be planned and managed in an organisation. Give practical examples of all
the phases of implementation.
• End with a strong conclusion highlighting your main approach and its value.
Question 3
As head of leadership development at Virusfree Computers, you have been tasked with
developing and implementing a management development programme for the company.
Formulate your management development plan for the company by indicating the types of
skills you will concentrate on as well as the process you will follow in planning, imple-
menting and managing the programme. [25]
5 A process approach is used to ensure an integrated management development pro-
gramme based on business needs and the National Leadership Development Standard.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on management and leadership development.
• Start with an introduction explaining the term “management development” and why
it is important for an organisation to have a clear management development strategy.
• Formulate a management development plan for Virusfree Computers by indicating
how the training process will be used, that is, needs analysis, design and develop-
ment, implementation and evaluation. Ensure alignment with the National Leader-
ship Development Standard.
• Provide practical examples of the different phases of your plan.
Question 4
The managing director at Bewsco, an electronics company, decides to implement a multi-
skilling programme in the company. Explain the strategies and steps that can be used by
Bewsco to implement multi-skilling effectively. [25]

5 Factors supporting multi-skilling are correctly identified.
5 The value of multi-skilling is well motivated in an organisational context.
5 Multi-skilling programmes are developed in line with business and skills develop-
ment needs.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on multi-skilling.
• Start with an introduction explaining the need for and benefits of multi-skilling for
Bewsco.
• Explain the strategies for the implementation of multi-skilling at Bewsco. The plan
should clearly indicate the steps you will take to implement multi-skilling at the
company.
• Give practical examples of all the phases of implementation. Indicate the resources
you will need, when the different activities will be done, and who will take respon-
sibility for them.
Question 5
You are appointed as the Global Manager: HRD at Cleargate Manufacturing, a large inter-
national steel manufacturer with plants in Africa, Australia and Europe. The head office is
in Johannesburg. The company often sends managers on international assignments for ex-
tended periods in order to implement systems in the plants and then return to South Africa
after a year or two.
5.1 Explain the typical problems experienced by expatriate managers. (5)
5.2 As global HRD manager, develop a policy on international HRD that specifies the
guidelines you will follow in regard to effective global people development. (20)
[25]

5 Opportunities for HRD to support globalisation are identified and planned for.
5 Typical problems are identified and solutions planned to address them.
5 Appropriate guidelines for international HRD are provided.
5 An international HRD strategy is compiled in line with an overall business strategy
of globalisation.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on international HRD.
• Explain the typical problems experienced by expatriate managers at Cleargate.
• Develop a policy on international HRD for Cleargate. The policy should indicate
objectives or principles and typical strategies and guidelines to implement the pol-
icy.
Question 6
“The process of HRD starts with employee orientation.” Show the relevance of this state-
ment by answering the following questions:
6.1 Explain the reasons for implementing well-planned employee-orientation pro-
grammes. (5)
6.2 Provide a brief summary of the phases of employee orientation. (5)
6.3 Draft a set of principles or elements that are essential to effective orientation. (10)
6.4 Criticise the typical pitfalls of companies as far as employee orientation is con-
cerned. (5)
[25]

5 The benefits and elements of successful orientation programmes are outlined.
5 Potential pitfalls to orientation are identified and plans are made to address them.
5 Orientation programmes are designed effectively to ensure productive work adap-
tation.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on employee orientation.
• Answer all the above questions.
Question 7
You are appointed as senior manager of technical training at Powerlight, a large electri-
city supplier. A recent skills analysis revealed that employees often make mistakes in the
technical workshops due to a lack of proper technical training, in particular in regard to
the application of modern technology. The report recommends proper on-the-job training
as the solution to the problem. Synthesise all your knowledge of on-the-job training by
developing an HRD policy in regard to on-the-job training for the company. [25]

5 Appropriate HRD interventions are correctly designed according to the needs iden-
tified.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on designing HRD interventions, and focus specifically on the
section dealing with on-the-job training.
• Start with an introduction explaining the term “on-the-job training” and why it is
important for an organisation to optimise the application of this concept.
• Develop a policy for on-the-job training for Powerlight. Indicate the scope and pur-
pose of the policy, the main elements of the policy and its supporting procedures.
The policy should clearly indicate how on-the-job training will be used to address
the mistakes made by employees.
Question 8
Critically evaluate the following statement: “Performance consulting presents the HRD
practitioner with an opportunity to become both a business partner and an implementer of
the critical outcomes of the NQF.” [25]

5 The roles and competencies of performance consultants address the need for perform-
ance improvement.
5 Performance consulting interventions are planned effectively to improve organisa-
tional performance.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on performance consulting.
• Start with an introduction in which you define the term “performance consulting”
or “human performance technology”.
• Explain what it means to become a business partner in an organisation.
• Explain how you can apply the critical outcomes of the NQF if you are a perform-
ance consultant in an organisation.
• Critically evaluate some of the typical problems you will face, for example, the gap
between HRD and the line of the business.
Question 9
You are appointed as career development specialist for the provincial government of Gau-
teng. The chief director of the Sub-directorate: Human Resource Development is con-
cerned about the high level of labour turnover of professional staff members working for
the provincial government. He asks you to prepare a presentation to senior management
on how to design and implement a progressive career development programme for the
organisation by taking cognisance of the reality of the new world of work. [25]

5 A career development plan is developed for an organisation.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on career management and performance.
• Start with an introduction explaining the need for career development in the Gau-
teng government.
• Indicate typical programmes or action plans that can be used to implement a career
development system in the organisation.
• Give practical examples of the different activities you will use (for example, de-
signing career paths and using mentoring programmes, performance management,
succession planning, etc).
Question 10
Develop an implementation plan for an organisation that has to adapt its training to the
requirements of both the Skills Development Act and National Qualifications Framework
Act. [25]

5 Appropriate HRD strategies are planned in line with training legislation.
5 All relevant skills development legislation is correctly applied.
5 NQF principles are correctly infused in the planning of HRD interventions.
5 Relevant SAQA, QCTO and SETA structures are accessed and utilised for the pur-
pose of skills development.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on HRD legislation and concentrate on the Skills Development
Act and NQF Act.
• Start with an introduction explaining the major objectives or purposes of the Skills
Development Act and why it is important for an organisation to align its training
with the requirements of the Skills Development Act.
• Develop a plan for the implementation of the Skills Development Act and NQF Act.
The plan should clearly indicate how compliance with the Acts should be planned
and managed in an organisation. Give practical examples of the major elements of
implementation. Indicate the resources you will need, when the different activities
will be done and who will take responsibility for them. Also elaborate on the prac-
tical implications for HRD practitioners as discussed in chapter 2. Give practical
examples of these implications.
Question 11
Design a learning organisation implementation plan for an organisation. [25]

5 Integrated strategies and plans are designed to ensure the establishment and imple-
mentation of a learning organisation.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on the learning organisation.
• Start with an introduction explaining the term “learning organisation” and why it is
important for an organisation to become a learning organisation.
• Design a plan for the implementation of the learning organisation. The plan should
clearly indicate how the creation of the learning organisation should be planned
and managed in an organisation. Give practical examples of all the phases of im-
plementation.
Question 12
Critically evaluate the following statement: “Career planning is to strike a balance between
individual learning and development and for the company to get a reasonable return on in-
vestment”. [25]

5 Different career stages are identified and matched according to individual and busi-
ness needs within the reality of the new world of work.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on career management in your textbook.
• Consider the statement from different angles. Ask yourself to what extent you agree
and disagree with the statement, and make notes of your reasons.
• Start with an introduction explaining the above statement.
• Present a balanced view, in other words indicating the needs of both the organisa-
tion and the individual within the reality of the new world of work.
• Emphasise the contribution of individuals to the achievement of company objectives.
• Highlight the benefits of career planning to the organisation.
• End with a conclusion in which you summarise your main argument and your final
conclusion.
Question 13
An assessment system should be developed and planned to ensure appropriate methods of
assessment and reliability and validity. Explain the five stages of an outcomes-based edu-
cation and training assessment system with specific reference to the QCTO approach to
assessment. [25]

5 Assessments are conducted in accordance with NQF assessment principles and prac-
tices using the different phases of assessment.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on evaluation and assessment.
• Explain the five phases of an outcomes-based education and training assessment
system.
• Provide practical examples of how you can apply these five phases.
• Discuss how assessment will work in the QCTO system and the role of the assess-
ment quality partner (AQP).
• End with a conclusion in which you summarise the importance of a systematic
approach to outcomes-based assessment.
Question 14
The professional HRD practitioner is one who is able to integrate both international and
local trends and developments to the benefit of an organisation.
14.1 Formulate an HRD strategy in which your organisation will apply the latest inter-
national HRD trends and developments. (20)
14.2 Analyse the main South African HRD trends with specific reference to legislation
and your role as an HRD practitioner in aligning your organisation’s HRD strategy
with these trends. (5)
[25]

5 Organisational HRD strategies are aligned with international HRD trends and best
practices.
5 Organisational HRD strategies are clearly planned in accordance with local outcomes-
based trends and NQF requirements.
Guidelines
• Read the first chapter in your textbook. If you need more information about these
best practices, read the rest of the book – each chapter covers a particular best prac-
tice.
• Start with an introduction in which you emphasise the importance of aligning train-
ing with international trends and developments.
• Formulate a strategy on how your organisation can apply these best practices, for
example, e-learning, the learning organisation, etc.
• Review the South African trends in terms of legislation, and indicate your role as
HRD practitioner in ensuring alignment with legislative imperatives.
Question 15
You are the learning and development manager at Zetcem Insurance. To save training
costs, Zetcem has adopted an e-learning approach. Explain the benefits that e-learning
will have for Zetcem. Identify your choice and justify the involvement of all the stake-
holders you would include in planning the implementation of e-learning at Zetcem. In
addition, indicate the phases you would use to implement e-learning. [25]

5 The benefits of e-learning are motivated to management to get their buy-in and sup-
port.
5 Different e-learning methodologies are identified and optimised according to busi-
ness needs.
5 An e-learning implementation plan is developed and implemented correctly.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on e-learning.
• Start with an introduction in which you introduce the concept of e-learning and its
importance to Zetcem.
• Highlight the benefits of e-learning to Zetcem.
• Indicate the role players you will involve and give reasons for your choice.
• Outline the process you will follow to implement e-learning in the organisation.
• End with a conclusion in which you summarise your argument.
Question 16
Develop an implementation strategy for diversity training, utilising all phases of the train-
ing process. [25]

5 A diversity training strategy is developed based on a systematic implementation process.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on employment equity and diversity training.
• Start with an introduction in which you introduce the concept of diversity training,
its purpose and its importance to an organisation.
• Formulate a plan that includes clear objectives and action plans using a process for
implementation.
• End with a conclusion in which you summarise your strategy and approach.
Question 17
You are appointed the first Quality Manager: HRD at Richgate Bank, one of the largest
banks in Africa, with branches in South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Nigeria,
Egypt and Morocco. The other two HRD managers are responsible for the design, out-
sourcing and management of HRD interventions. Your primary role is quality assurance
of all HRD interventions from both a business and a legal perspective. Your key perform-
ance areas are customer satisfaction, quality techniques, process improvement, bench-
marking and quality-management systems. Synthesise your knowledge of quality man-
agement by describing your role as a manager responsible for HRD quality at the banking
group. [25]

5 Principle of HRD quality are outlined and infused in HRD interventions.
5 HRD programmes meet the SAQA and QCTO national quality requirements.
5 Quality interventions are planned to promote quality within the NQF.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on quality management training.
• Start with an introduction in which you emphasise the importance of quality HRD
at Richgate Bank.
• Discuss your role as HRD manager in implementing quality in HRD.
• Use some practical examples to illustrate your points by referring to components of
HRD such as needs analysis, design and development, assessment and facilitation.
• End with a conclusion in which you summarise your main points and the approach
you will adopt to implement quality HRD products and services.
Question 18
As the new head of human resource development at Mega Bank, you have been tasked
with transforming the training function of the bank so that it adds more value to the over-
all business goals. In the past, a “training for activity” approach was used, and many train-
ing programmes were developed and presented that did not necessarily improve any aspect
relating to the operations or performance of the bank. Formulate your plan to transform
the training function of the company by indicating the types of skills you will concentrate
on for staff members of the training department as well as the process you will follow to
plan, implement and manage the new performance improvement approach to training. [25]

5 The roles and competencies of performance consultants address the need for perform-
ance improvement.
5 Performance consulting interventions are planned effectively to improve organisa-
tional performance.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on performance consulting.
• Start with an introduction in which you introduce the concept of performance con-
sulting and the paradigm shift from training for activity to training for impact.
• Formulate your plan, including clear objectives and action plans using a process for
implementation at the bank.
• End with a conclusion in which you summarise your plan and approach.
Question 19
Critically evaluate the following statement: e-learning, m-learning and s-learning can save
a company hundreds and thousands of rands in training costs. [25]

5 The benefits of e-learning, m-learning and s-learning are motivated to management
to get its buy-in and support.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on e-learning.
• Start with an introduction in which you clarify the relevance of the statement.
• Highlight the benefits of e-learning, especially its costs savings. However, be crit-
ical in your approach. E-learning can also be a waste of money if it is not properly
implemented. Include the role of s-learning and m-learning.
• End with a conclusion in which you summarise your main argument.
Question 20
Describe the process and methodology you will follow to conduct a learning needs analy-
sis in an organisation. [25]

5 All relevant stakeholders are identified and consulted to ensure an inclusive approach
to learning needs analysis.
5 Learning needs are correctly analysed using a variety of needs analysis techniques.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on learning needs analysis.
• Start with an introduction explaining the importance of a learning needs analysis in
an organisation.
• Describe the process and methodology you can use to conduct a learning needs
analysis in an organisation.
• Use practical examples to support your answer.
• Conclude your essay by summarising your main points and arguments.
Question 21
Formulate a comprehensive employment equity training strategy for an organisation. [25]

5 The HRD implications of employment equity are outlined.
5 Appropriate HRD interventions are developed in line with employment equity legis-
lation.
Guidelines
• Start with an introduction explaining the meaning of employment equity and the
need for employment equity training in an organisation.
• Formulate a plan for employment equity training for an organisation. Indicate the
objectives of the plan and all the action plans that will form part of it. Be very spe-
cific and provide practical examples of implementation.
• End with a conclusion, summarising the main points and the essence of your
approach.
• Remember to focus on the training aspects of employment equity. You are not
required to provide a general approach to implementing employment equity; you
are required to provide a training strategy. To help you formulate your ideas, ask
yourself the following question: How can training help my organisation to imple-
ment effective employment equity?
Question 22
Develop a management plan to ensure the effective implementation of the National
Learning and Development Standards at an organisation. [25]

5 The purpose of L&D standards is explained.
5 The different L&D standards are listed and briefly explained.
5 An implementation plan is developed to ensure alignment to the L&D standards.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on L&D standards.
• Start with an introduction explaining the term L&D standards and why it is im-
portant for an organisation to align to the L&D standards.
• Develop a plan for the implementation of L&D standards alignment. The plan
should clearly indicate how L&D should be planned and managed in an organisa-
tion in accordance with the National L&D standards. Give practical examples of
all the phases of implementation. Indicate the resources you will need, when the
different L&D standards alignment activities will be done, and who will take re-
sponsibility for them.
Question 23
You are the chief training officer of Bula Products. The CEO has asked you to prepare a
two-day training course to be presented in three months’ time to improve customer service.
Develop a training plan to help you effectively plan and organise this programme. [25]

5 Training programmes are aligned with NQF requirements.
5 Relevant stakeholders to be consulted are identified.
5 The learning programme is planned and organised effectively based on a clear pro-
ject plan for training.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on planning and organising training.
• Start with an introduction in which you outline the purpose of the programme and
the importance of planning its implementation in a proper and professional way.
• Show all the different phases of the planning process and all the activities you will
include, such as needs analysis, acquiring resources, allocating responsibilities, tar-
get dates, etc. You are welcome to present this information in table format.
• End with a conclusion in which you summarise the main elements of your plan and
the value of your approach.
Question 24
Critically evaluate the following statement: “Employment equity and skills development
are two sides of the same coin”. [25]

5 The HRD implications of employment equity are outlined.
5 Appropriate HRD interventions are developed in line with employment equity legis-
lation.
Guidelines
• Start with an introduction in which you clarify the relevance of the statement.
• Highlight the role of employment equity in promoting skills development and vice
versa. Be critical in your approach.
• End with a conclusion in which you summarise your main argument.
Question 25
Develop a mentoring and coaching strategy for an organisation. [25]

5 A comprehensive mentoring and coaching strategy is developed in line with the over-
all needs of the organisation.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on mentoring and coaching.
• Start with an introduction in which you clarify the importance of mentoring and
coaching to an organisation.
• Outline a clear process approach regarding different phases for the implementation
of mentoring and coaching.
• End with a conclusion in which you summarise your approach.
Question 26
Design an HRD personal development plan for yourself using a CPD approach. [25]

5 A detailed HRD personal development plan is designed in accordance with accept-
able principles and standards for CPD.
Guidelines
• Read the chapter on CPD.
• Start with an introduction in which you highlight the importance of CPD to your-
self.
• Design a personal development plan with clear objectives and actions for CPD.
• End with a conclusion in which you summarise your approach to CPD.
Question 27
Explain the functioning and implications of the Quality Council for Trades and Occupa-
tions for training in your organisation. [25]

5 A detailed discussion is provided of the mechanisms, functioning and implications of
the Quality Council for Trade and Occupations for a typical organisation.
Guidelines
• Read the chapters on HRD legislation, design, assessment and quality management.
• Start with an introduction in which you highlight the importance of the QCTO.
• Identify all the sections dealing with the QCTO and indicate the relevant structures
(e.g. DQPs and AQPs).
• Explain the implications of the QCTO for your organisation.
• End with a conclusion in which you summarise the relevance of the QCTO.
GLOSSARY
360-degree feedback (multi-rater system) is a feedback system used when a person

receives performance ratings from a range of parties, such as supervisors, peers and sub-
ordinates and, in some cases, even customers, using some type of standardised instrument.
Accredited skills development provider means a provider of occupational learning
accredited by the QCTO.
Adult basic education and training (ABET) is basic education and training for people
over the age of 15 years and equivalent to ten years’ free and compulsory education legis-
lated for children. On its completion it is recognised with the award of a General Educa-
tion and Training Certificate (GETC) or NQF Level One.
Adventure learning occurs when people learn how to work together as a team and dis-
play leadership skills by participating in structured outdoor activities.
Affirmative action measures are measures designed to ensure that suitably qualified people
from designated groups have equal employment opportunities and are equitably represent-
ed in all occupational categories and levels in the workforce of a designated employer.
Applied competence means the ability to put into practice in the relevant context the
learning outcomes acquired in obtaining a qualification.
Articulation provides for learners, on successful completion of accredited prerequisites,
to move between components of the delivery system.
Assessment is the process of measuring applied competence by identifying and interpret-
ing information about a learner’s achievement and observing and evaluating the demon-
stration of such competence.
Assessment centre means a centre accredited by the QCTO for the purpose of conducting
external summative assessment for specified registered occupational qualifications.
Assessment criteria are a description of what would count as evidence that the learner
has achieved the specific outcomes and is therefore competent.
567
Assessment quality partner (AQP) means a body delegated by the QCTO to develop
assessment instruments and manage external summative assessment of specific occupa-
tional qualifications.
Assessment site means any site selected as suitable for the conducting of external sum-
mative assessment for a specified occupational qualification or qualifications when the
relevant qualification assessment specifications do not require the use of an accredited
assessment centre.
Assessor means a person registered by an assessment quality partner for the purposes of
conducting external assessment for occupational qualifications.
Career development helps individuals to realise their career objectives and includes indi-
vidual career planning processes and organisational interventions focused on facilitating
the achievement of career plans.
Career management is the structured process through which individual employees and
the organisation work together to achieve a best fit or match of the employees’own career
planning and self-development to the development of the organisation.
Chamber is a sub-structure of a SETA which deals with a particular sub-field of the
sector. For example, aerospace is a chamber of the transport sector.
Coaching is a professional relationship where a person with specific knowledge and/or
skills (coach) assists another (coachee) to develop more knowledge or skills as defined in
coaching goals defined up front.
Community of expert practitioners (CEPs) means a group of people qualified in the
relevant occupation with a minimum of five years’ relevant experience in that particular
occupation or recognised by practitioners of the occupation as experts.
Competence is the capacity for continuing performance within specified ranges and con-
texts resulting from integration of a number of specific outcomes.
Computer-based training (CBT) is a generic term for a computer program used by a
learner to acquire knowledge or develop new skills.
Computer-managed learning (CML) is a computer program that directs and tests learn-
ers’ performance through their learning and produces various reports.
Core learning means that compulsory learning required in situations contextually relevant
to the particular qualification.
Credit refers to the value to be assigned to a particular standard, measured in terms of
“notional learning time” and is thus the recognition that a learner has achieved a unit
standard.
Critical incident review is a procedure for collecting direct observations of workplace
behaviour in situations which have special significance for the people concerned, hence
situations which are critical to them.
Critical outcomes refer to the broad generic cross-field character of the outcomes which
all qualifications and standards should aim to promote.
Development occurs when ongoing learning opportunities are created so that employees
can improve and develop to maintain high levels of performance.
Development quality partner (DQP) means a body delegated by the QCTO to manage
the process of developing specific occupational qualifications, curricula and assessment
specifications.
Glossary 569
Digital video interactive (DVI) is a compact disc format designed for interactive multi-
media.
Diversity management is a comprehensive and holistic process for creating and sustain-
ing an environment in which all employees feel comfortable, recognised, valued and
appreciated, based on differences such as race, gender, culture, religion, disability and
sexual orientation.
Diversity training can be defined as training with the goal of raising a personal aware-
ness about individual and group differences and similarities in the workplace.
Education refers to all the activities directed at providing the knowledge, skills, moral
values and understanding required in the normal course of life. Education therefore en-
compasses a wide range of activities rather than equipping an individual with specific
skills to perform a particular job or function.
Education, training and development (ETD) is the term used to describe the practices
which directly or indirectly promote or support learning.
Elective learning refers to the component of a qualification from which a selection of
standards may be made to ensure that the purpose of the qualification is achieved.
Electronic learning refers to the application of advanced technological systems to sup-
port the training process.
Electronic performance support system (EPSS) is a well-constructed computerised tool,
systematically integrated at the employee location, which exploits the diverse capabilities
of a computer to improve individual and organisational performance. This means that the
employee gets advice from the computer when a particular problem occurs.
Emotional intelligence is our ability to acquire and apply knowledge from our emotions
and the emotions of others in order to solve problems and live a more successful and ful-
filling life.
Employee orientation or induction is the process of introducing and integrating a new
employee into an organisation and a position in order to become productive in a short
period of time.
Employment equity is the end result of equal opportunity, affirmative action and diversity
management, in other words, when real equality is achieved in the workplace. An organ-
isation will achieve employment equity when its employee profile reflects that of the popu-
lation at all organisational levels.
Equal opportunity means to provide all people with exactly the same opportunities with
regard to employment practices.
Extranet is a collaborative network that uses Internet technology to link organisations with
their suppliers, customers or other organisations that share common goals or information.
Evaluation is the assessment of the total value of the training system, training course or
programme in social as well as financial terms.
Formative assessment is used to support the learner developmentally while learning and
to feed back into the learning process.
Fundamental learning means that learning which forms the grounding or basis needed to
undertake the education, training or further learning required in obtaining a qualification.
Globalisation means doing business in several countries.
Human performance technology (HPT) is the science of improving human performance

in the workplace through analysis as well as the design, selection and implementation of
appropriate interventions.
Human resource development (HRD) can be defined as all the processes, systems,
methods, procedures and programmes an organisation uses to develop its human resources
in order to equip its employees to contribute to organisational performance.
Human resource development intervention is any event which is deliberately planned
by those responsible for training to assist learning to take place. It includes a wide range
of activities, from formal courses to structured work experiences.
Human resource standards are the national standards agreed by human resource man-
agers under the auspices of the SA Board for People Practices to guide a consistent and
quality approach to professional HR work aligned to business objectives.
Hypermedia is a programme that links different media under learner control in a way
similar to hypertext linkage or text. Hypermedia links media such as text, graphics, video,
voice and animation. For example, the learner can choose video, see a related video
sequence, and then return to the programme.
Hypertext is a computer program that links nonlinear text. Hypertext allows flexible,
learner-directed browsing to seek additional information by moving between related docu-
ments along thematic lines, without losing the content of the original inquiry.
Hypertext mark-up language (HTML) is the standard language for web documents sup-
ported by Internet browsers.
Industrial theatre makes use of drama and actors within a commercial setting in order to
sell a product or service, to convey a concept, raise the awareness of people and to en-
hance learning.
Integrative assessment is when a qualification needs to be assessed as a whole.
Interactive is when a computer responds in real time to a user’s demand. True inter-
activity happens when people interact. Computers can be a support for interactivity when
connected through a network like the Internet.
International HRD refers to HRD strategy affecting employees in different countries.
Internet is the loose confederation of computer networks around the world connected
through several primary networks.
Intranet is the use of Internet technology within a group or an organisation.
ISO 9000 is the most widely used accepted quality management system internationally
developed by the International Standards Organisation. According to this system, a sup-
plier must be successfully audited against the ISO 9000 quality standards.
Knowledge management is the conscious capture, maintenance and distribution of infor-
mation and experience in an organisation.
Learner qualifications development facilitator means a qualifications development
facilitator in training.
Leadership development is a structured and facilitated process to grow leaders and those
identified as potential leaders in their ability to unlock potential in themselves, in others
and through others.
Learnership is a skills development mechanism to link structured learning with work ex-
perience that will lead to nationally recognised credits or qualifications which are reliable
indicators of work readiness.
Glossary 571
Learning design is the practice guiding the design and development of learning solutions
that lead to improved workplace performance.
Learning evaluation is a continuous process to assess/measure the change/impact and
quality of the learning interventions/learning experience, application of knowledge/skills
and change in behaviour against specified outcomes/outputs.
Learning needs analysis is the systematic process through which the strategic intent and
plans of the organisation are translated into learning needs which describe the gap be-
tween present a desired future skills/competency/behaviour. The same process is also
used identify learning needs through the diagnosis of problems in the present functioning
of the organisation.
Learning and development standards are national standards agreed by learning and
development managers under the auspices of the SA Board for People Practices to guide a
consistent and quality approach to professional learning and development work aligned to
business objectives.
Learning organisations are organisations where people continually expand their capacity
to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are
nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning
how to learn together.
Learning programme is a set of learning activities intended to give a learner particular
knowledge and skills.
Level descriptor refers to a statement of learning achievement at a particular level of the
NQF that provides a broad indication of the types of learning outcomes and assessment
criteria that are appropriate to a qualification at that level.
Levels are the positions on the National Qualifications Framework where national unit
standards are registered and qualifications awarded. Levels are arranged to indicate in-
creasing complexity in learning and to facilitate meaningful progression routes along
career and learning pathways.
Life-long learning means that people continue to learn throughout their lives, and not
only when they are young.
Mentoring is a professional relationship where an experienced person (mentor) assists
another (mentee) to achieve personal and professional growth, maximising potential and
improving performance. It is a mutually agreed-to relationship outside the supervi-
sor/subordinate relationship is maintained through mutual trust and respect. It usually
lasts for a minimum period of one year, but may become long term.
Moderation is the process of ensuring that assessors are assessing work according to
agreed standards, and that there is consistency among different assessors.
Multimedia is a variety of media (text, graphics, sound and video) combined in a single
medium or computer.
Multi-skilling is a way of organising work so that people are able to acquire and use a
greater range of skills.
National Learners’ Records Database means a national database at SAQA that includes
learner achievements and professional designations.
National occupational pathway framework (NOPF) means a management tool for the
QCTO to ensure that qualifications are not developed in isolation but in a manner that
facilitates progression pathways for learners between related occupational qualifications
at different levels of the NQF.
National Qualifications Framework (NQF) is an integrated framework comprised of
registered standards, units and qualifications at eight levels of education and training.
National Skills Authority (NSA) is a statutory body responsible for implementing skills
development strategies.
National Skills Development Strategy is a set of objectives agreed to by the Minister of
Higher Education and Training that are to be achieved after five years to develop the
skills of the nation.
Occupation is a cluster or group of similar jobs that share many common occupational
tasks of similar complexity and require similar performance across different processes
and industries.
Occupational qualification means a qualification associated with a trade, occupation or
profession resulting from work-based learning and consisting of knowledge and stand-
ards, practical unit standards and work experience unit standards as defined in the Skills
Development Act and which has an external summative assessment.
Occupational qualifications framework (OQF) means the sub-framework for trades
and occupations as contemplated in the NQF Act.
Organising framework for occupations (OFO) means a skill-based coded classification
system which is intended to encompass all occupations in South Africa and is used as a
tool to collect, analyse and report on occupational information.
On-the-job training (OJT) is when training is given at the workplace by a manager,
supervisor or co-worker to an employee so that he or she can acquire job-related skills.
Outcome is a detailed statement in a standard or qualification of the applied competence
and indicates the end product of a learning process, in other words, what the learner is
able to do.
Outcomes-based education (OBE) is a learner-centred, results-orientated approach to
learning premised on what the learner must be able to do at the end of the learning event.
Outsourcing means to reduce the number of internal staff support activities and source
more of what is needed from outside vendors.
Part-qualification means an assessed unit of learning that is registered in the NQF as a
part-qualification.
Performance consulting refers to the new role of the training professional in which the
latter forms a partnership with management in order to identify performance problems
and develop appropriate training and non-training solutions to these problems.
Portability refers to the transferability and recognition of credits between providers and
employers.
Professional body means any body of expert practitioners in an occupational field and
includes an occupational body.
Professional designation means a title or status conferred by a professional body in rec-
ognition of a person’s expertise and right to practise in an occupational field.
Glossary 573
Progression ensures that the framework of qualifications permits individuals to move

through the levels of national qualifications via different appropriate combinations of the
components of the delivery system.
Progression paths are the possibilities for movement across and through qualifications
and careers.
Qualification is a planned combination of learning outcomes which has a defined pur-
pose or purposes, and which is intended to provide qualifying learners with applied com-
petence and a basis for further learning.
Quality assurance is the process of ensuring that the quality (level, scope, nature) of the
standards set by the quality councils are achieved in practice.
Quality Council for Trade and Occupations (QCTO) means the quality council respon-
sible for overseeing the quality of learning.
Quality development facilitator means a person registered by the QCTO to facilitate the
development of occupational qualifications.
Quality management system means the combination of processes used to ensure that the
degree of excellence specified is achieved.
Recognition of prior learning is the credit granted for a unit of learning on the basis of
an assessment of the formal and non-formal learning or experience of the learner to estab-
lish whether the learner possesses the competence specified in the outcome statement.
Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) are bodies regulated by the Skills
Development Act to assist communities, enterprises, industries and individuals to formu-
late and implement training plans linked to strategic objectives.
Sector skills plan is a set of skills priorities for one of the twenty-one sectors based on
research about the sector.
Skills programme is learning which is linked to an occupation and to SAQA standards
and which is a building block for a full qualification.
South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) is the statutory body responsible for
ensuring the development and implementation of a National Qualifications Framework
which contributes to the full development of each learner and to the social and economic
development of the nation at large.
Specific outcomes are statements of what the learners are capable of knowing and doing
at the end of a learning experience in a particular field of learning.
Standard is a detailed description of a component of applied competence, serving as a
criterion against which somebody may be assessed for entering or exiting a learning pro-
gramme, occupational level or profession.
Standard-setting is the political and technical process of developing the standards
against which people may be assessed in determining their eligibility for a qualification.
Strategic human resource development is a combination of strategic processes which, if
correctly aligned and integrated, are directed at providing for the learning of all relevant
stakeholders in order to improve business performance.
Succession planning is focused on the selection, development and promotion of the
organisation’s future leaders in order to ensure availability and continuity of highly-
talented managers that can meet the business challenges ahead.
Summative assessment is used to provide information about a learner’s level of compe-

tence at the completion of a grade, module, level or programme.
Training entails the transfer of specific skills to an employee so that he or she can per-
form a very specific job or task.
Training provider is an organisation or individual that organises and presents learning
programmes.
Unit standards are nationally agreed and internationally comparable statements of the
specific outcomes to be achieved by an individual in order to obtain credit for the unit,
together with administrative and other information as prescribed in the format agreed by
the South African Qualifications Authority. Unit standards also include the associated
assessment criteria.
Virtual reality (VR) is a computer-based technology that gives learners a three-
dimensional, interactive or simulated experience. VR is used to simulate conditions that
do not actually exist, but may also be used to simulate actual potential conditions.
Workplace skills plan is a set of skills priorities for a workplace based on an understand-
ing of the work to be done.
Worldwide web (www) is a distributed information service based on the metaphor of
hypertext to structure the access to the Internet.
HRD INTERNET INDEX
The Internet is now an established information resource on almost every topic, including
human resource development. The purpose of providing this index is to assist HRD prac-
titioners in searching for information to help them to identify best practices and support
services in the field of management, HR and HRD, both internationally and locally. This
will help HRD practitioners to fulfil the NQF requirement of international comparability
of local learning programmes.
General human resource management sites as well as other related business sites have
also been provided, as these may also assist the human resource practitioner in his or her
daily work. Most sites in the USA contain the suffix .com, .edu, .org or .gov. Sites in other
countries contain a two-digit code such as .za for South Africa, .uk for United Kingdom
and .au for Australia.
Academy of Management: http://www.aom.pace.edu
American Institute for Managing Diversity: http://www.aimd.org
American Management Association (AMA): http://www.amanet.org
American Society for Quality: http://www.asq.org
Association for Talent Development (ATD): http://www.atd.org
Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT):
http://www.aect.org
Association for Personnel Service Organisations of South Africa: http://www.apso.co.za
Association for Quality and Participation: http://www.aqp.org
At work online: http://www.atworknews.com
575
Australian Human Resource Institute: http://www.ahri.com.au

Australian Institute of Training and Development: http://www.aitd.com.au
Business Cases: http://www.businesscases.org
Business Process Reengineering Learning Center: http://www.prosci.com
Business Researcher’s Interests: http://www.brint.com
Call Centre Nucleus: http://www.ccn.co.za
Career Planning and Management: http://www.careerpmi.com
Center for the Study of Work Teams: http://www.workteams.unt.edu
Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA):
http://www.ccma.org.za
Computer Training Network: http://www.crctraining.com/training/
Conflict Resolution Center International: http://conflictres.org
Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU): http://www.cosatu.org.za
Education World: http://www.education-world.com
Edutech (Training Technologies and Learning): http://tecfa.unige.ch/info-edu-comp.html
Employee Assistance Professionals Association of South Africa: http://www.eapasa.org
Future Company: http://www.futurecompany.co.za
Global Alliance for Transnational Education: http://www.edugate.org
Hong Kong Institute of Human Resource Management: http://www.hkihrm.org
Hong Kong Productivity Council: http://www.hkpc.org
HR Library: http://www.hrlibrary.com
HR World: http://www.hrworld.com
HRIM Mall: http://www.hrimmall.com
Human Resource Learning Centre: http://www.human-resources.org
Human Resource Planning Society (HRPS): http://www.hrps.org
Human Resource Professional’s Gateway to the Internet: http://www.teleport.com
Human Resource Research Organisation: http://www.humrro.org
Human Science Research Council (HSRC): http://www.hsrc.ac.za
Industrial Relations Association of South Africa (IRASA): http://www.irasa.org.za
Information Technology Training Association (ITTA): http://www.itta.org
Institute of Management Consultants of South Africa: http://www.imcsa.co.za
Institute of People Development: http://www.peopledev.co.za
Instructional Technology Links: http://www.csupomona.edu/~grviers/ist/ist.html
HRD Internet index 577
International Association for Continuing Education and Training:

http://www.interedu.com/iacet/iacet.html
International Association for Human Resource Information: http://www.ihrim.org
International Federation of Professional Coaches and Mentors: http://www.ifpcm.org
International Federation of Training and Development Organizations (IFTDO):
http://www.iftdo.org
International Institute for Learning: http://www.iil.com
International Institute for Management Development (IMD): http://www.imd.ch
International Institute of Knowledge Management: http://www.iikm.com
International Labour Organization (ILO): http://www.ilo.org
International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI): http://www.ispi.org
International Training Network: http://www.itn.co.za
Knowledge Management: http://www.kmc.co.za
Knowledge Management: http://www.knowhouse.co.za
Malaysian Institute for Training and Development: http://www.mitd.org.my
Masterskill (Internet training): http://www.masterskill.com
National Economic Development and Labour Council (NEDLAC):
http://www.nedlac.org.za
National Research Foundation: http://www.nrf.ac.za
New Zealand Association of Training and Development: http://www.nzatd.org.nz
New Zealand Institute of Management: http://www.nzim.co.nz
NTL Institute for Applied Behavioral Science: http://www.ntl.org
Organizational Development Network (ODN): http://www.odnet.org
Performance Resource Organisation (ROI): http://www.birminghamnow.com
Personnel and Training Site: http://sol.zynet.co.uk/ethos/
Professional Society for Sales & Marketing Training (SMT): http://www.smt.org
Project Management Forum: http://www.pmforum.org
Project Management Institute: http://www.pmi.org
Project Management Resources: http://www.allpm.com
Quality Council for Trade and Occupations: http://www.qcto.org.za
Singapore Training and Development Association: http://www.stada.org.sg
Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM): http://www.shrm.org
Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology of South Africa:
http://www.siopsa.org.za
Society for Industrial/Organisational Psychology: http://www.siop.org

Society for Professionals in Dispute Resolution: http://www.spidr.org
South African Bureau of Standards (SABS): http://www.sabs.co.za
South African Chamber of Business (SACOB): http://www.sacob.co.za
South African Human Rights Commission: http://www.sahrc.org.za
South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA): http://www.saqa.org.za
South African Reward Association (SRA): http://www.sara.co.za
South African Society for Quality: http://www.quality.org.za
Targeted Communication Management Training and Development Resources:
http://www.tcm.com/trdev
The Work Foundation: http://www.theworkfoundation.org
Training Information Network: http://www.train-net.co.uk
Training Media Review: http://www.tmreview.com
Training Registry: http://www.tregistry.com
Training Supersite: http://www.trainingsupersite.com
Workforce: http://workforce.com
Work Information: http://www.workinfo.com
INDEX
360-degree feedback systems, 4, 170–171, Assessment and evaluation (continued)

425–426 critical incident reviews, 495
ABC see Activity-based costing diversity training, 360, 362, 368–369
e-learning, 317, 324–325
Action learning, 102, 207–208 evaluation models, 481–492
Action planning, 496–497 external summative assessment, 503–504
Activity-based costing (ABC), 453 focus groups, 496
formative evaluation, 462
Activity-based HRD, 478–479 individual emphasis, 479–480
Adventure learning, 209 inputs, 476
Affirmative action, 350, 354 interview, 495
key role-players, 480
Alignment of strategies, 71
Kirkpatrick’s model, 481–483
Alternative work arrangements, 395–396 management development, 269
Ambush training, 207 managing what is measured, 476
Application environment, 173 mentoring and coaching, 299–300
methods, 243, 492–499, 504
Apps, 311 myths, 474–475
Assessment and evaluation, 5, 243, 470 national learning evaluation standard
definitions, 461 (SABPP), 490–492
action planning, 496–497 oral assessments, 504
activity-based HRD, 478–479 outputs, 476
applications and benefits, 475–477 Phillip’s ROI framework, 484–485
behavioural analysis, 497 planning for, 243
case studies, 506 portfolios, 504
case study method, 504 practical tests, 496
CIRO model, 483–484 purpose in higher education, 472
competence-based assessment, 499–504 questionnaires, 494
consequences of not evaluating, 475 rationale in organisations, 473
cost-benefit analysis and ROI, 498–499 reactionnaires, 494–495
579
Assessment and evaluation (continued) Career development (continued)

reasons for not evaluating, 474–475 career in, 417–418
results-based HRD, 477–478 career-planning workshops, 428
role-plays, 504 career stages, 409–410, 419–420
SAB example, 485–486 case study, 434–435
simulations, 504 changing world of work, 409, 410–413
in South Africa, 479 designing comprehensive system, 431
South African ROI model, 486–490 disabled persons, 418
strategic objectives, 477 environment, 410
summative evaluation, 472 flexible work practices, 429–430
terminology, 461 framework, 409
written or computer-based tests, 495–496, linking career stages to development
504 interventions, 421–422
Assessment centres, 170 maintenance stage, 425
Assessment quality partners mastery, 425
criteria for approval, 461–462 meaning of work, 410–412
functions, 460–461 mentoring and coaching 426–427
practical guidelines for HRD practitioners, Microsoft example, 432–433
462–463 multiskilling, 396
QCTO’s obligations, 462 new career concept, 413–414
new meaning, 416–417
Asynchronous e-learning, 311
obsolescence, 428
Attitude analysis, 176 organisation entry, 423–424
Attitude changing, 226 organisation exit, 428–429
Australian CPD, 532–533 organisational socialisation, 424
outcomes, 410
Avatars, 311
performance management, 425–426
BBBEE see Broad-based black economic plateauing and stress, 428
empowerment processes, 410
Behaviour evaluation, 369, 481–483 psychological contract, 412–413
Behavioural analysis, 497 role-players and responsibilities, 418–419
Benchmarking, 126, 453, 458, 514 succession planning, 427–428
talent management, 414–416
Blended learning, 111 Telkom work/life balance programme, 430
Blogs, 311 Unilever example, 431–432
Brainstorming, 453–454 Cause-and-effect analysis, 454
Broad-based black economic empowerment CD-ROMs, 312
(BBBEE) Certificates
definition, 351–352
credit values, 39
Financial Services Charter, 353
NQF levels, 35
HRD interventions, 353
legislation, 352 Change facilitation, 126, 132–134
Browsers, 311 Change management, 360, 361, 455
Business process re-engineering, 391, 442 Changing world of work, 409, 410–413
CAP see Competency acquisition process Check sheets, 454
Career development, 4, 408–410 Chief Learning Officer (CLO), 8
360-degree feedback, 425–426 CIRO evaluation model, 483–484
advancement stage, 425 CLO see Chief Learning Officer
blocking graduate talent pipeline, 417
career anchors, 424 Cloud computing, 312
career choice, 423–424 Co-operation, 134
Index 581
Co-operative alliances, 70 Continuing professional development (CPD)

Co-ownership, 134 (continued)
rationale for, 530–532
Coaching see Mentoring and coaching
SABPP CPD policy, 544–546
Coercion, 134 self-assessment, 541–542
Coexistence, 134 semi-structured learning, 537
Coherence in implementing strategies, 71 structured learning, 537
tutorials, 536
Collaboration, 134 United Kingdom, 533–535
Commission for Employment Equity, 354 unstructured learning, 537
Competence widespread effect, 535–536
different kinds, 32 workshops and seminars, 536
expanding descriptions, 31–32 Continuous improvement, 442
original description, 31 Control charts, 454
standard format for describing, 33
Core learning, 38–39
unit standard format, 31
Cost-benefit analysis, 498–499
Competence-based assessment, 499–504
Cost of quality measurement, 453
Competency acquisition process (CAP), 15–
19 CPD see Continuing professional development
Critical cross-field outcomes, 33–34
Competency models, 176
Critical incident analysis, 169–170, 495
Computer-assisted instruction, 312
Customer-orientated organisations, 102
Computer-based tests, 495–496
Customer service training, 451
Computer-based training, 312
Degrees see University degrees
Computer-managed learning, 312
Delivery environment, 173
Conferences, 199, 536
Denel Aviation quality management, 463
Confrontation, 134
Department of Higher Education and Training
Continuing professional development (CPD), (DHET)
528 implementation of NQF, 40–43
definition, 529–530 Departmental purpose analysis, 454–455
activities constituting, 535
Australia, 532–533 Design of HRD interventions see Learning
case study, 546–547 design
competencies of thinking performer, 537– Design thinking, 218
540 Development, 7
conferences, 536 Development environment, 173
demand for, 529
DHET see Department of Higher Education
economic importance, 536
and Training
formal courses, 536
guidelines, 543–544 Diagnostic instruments, 168, 189–191
historic development, 528–529 Digital video interactive, 312
HRD role, 529 Diplomas
independent study and reading, 537 credit values, 39
individual benefits, 531–532 NQF levels, 35
mentoring and coaching, 537 Disabled persons
misconceptions, 530 multiskilling, 392
nature of, 529–530 talent management, 418
organisational benefits, 531
Discontinuous change, 62–64
organisational strategy, 542–543
personal development plans, 541 Discrimination see Employment equity
presentations and publications, 537 Discussions, 366
Disruptive technology, 312 Electronic learning, 3, 309–311

Distance behaviour, 516 definition, 310
ABSA example, 326
Diversity management, 5, 351
asynchronous, 311
Diversity training, 5 benefits, 315–318
definition, 357 case study, 327–328
action plan, 362 course administration, 315
awareness training, 364 cost savings, 316
balanced and objective approach, 361 disadvantages, 319
case study, 370–371 effective learning, 317
change management, 360, 361 evaluation, 317, 324–325
competencies, 365 financial management, 315
consultant co-ordination, 361–362 implementation process, 320–325
consultant liabilities, 360 improvements, 325
design and development, 364–367 individual learner needs, 316–317
employment equity training distinguished, learning delivery, 323–324
357 learning organisation, 112
facilitation process, 367 management reports, 315–316
facilitators, 359, 361, 364 myUnisa, 317–318
goals and objectives, 364 needs analysis, 320–321
guidelines for effective training, 360 platform and design, 321–323
integrated training, 365 resource management, 316
integration into business strategy, 361 terminology, 311–314
learning transfer, 359–360 types of e-learning methodologies, 319–320
management commitment, 358, 360 use in South Africa, 310–311
monitoring and evaluation, 360, 362, 368–
Electronic performance support systems
369
(EPSS), 312, 319, 325–326
needs identification, 358, 360–361, 362–
363 Emotional intelligence, 101
participants, 359, 361 Employee orientation, 333–335
pitfalls, 357–360 definition, 333, 334
political orientation, 358 ABSA example, 341–346
process, 362–369 case study, 346–347
project approach, 359 elements, 339–341
reactive approach, 358–359 exit interviews, 339
SAB example, 369–370 first day, 338
skills training, 365 first month and beyond, 338–339
support structures, 362, 368 job interview, 337
techniques, 366–367 monitoring, 339
training plan, 367 national on-boarding standard (SABPP),
unbalanced content, 359 334–335, 336
DVDs, 366 objectives, 335–336
phases, 337–337
E-learning see Electronic learning
pitfalls, 341
Education pre-employment, 337
definition, 6 welcome pack, 337
content-based education, 12
Employment equity, 349–352; see also
outcomes-based education, 11–12
Diversity training
Education, training and development (ETD) definition, 351
components, 6–7 affirmative action, 350, 354
ETD Practices Project, 7 broad-based black economic empowerment,
integrating ETD, L&D and HRD, 8–10 351–353
Elective learning, 38–39 Commission, 354
Index 583
Employment equity (continued) Globalisation, 3, 62, 512–514

designated employers, 353 Grants for skills development, 54
designated groups, 354
Handouts, 236, 367
diversity management, 351
equal opportunity, 350 Handshake, 516
HRD role and implications, 355 Histograms, 454
legislation, 353–354 HPT see Human performance technology
monitoring, enforcement and legal
proceedings, 354 HRD see Human resource development
prohibition of unfair discrimination, 354 HRD governance, 71
Employment equity training, 355–357 HRD interventions
definition, 197
Empowerment, 100
action learning, 207–208
EPSS see Electronic performance support adventure learning, 209
systems case study, 219
Equal opportunity, 350 conferences, 199
ETD see Education, training and development costs, 197
design process, 194–196
Ethics, 126
design thinking, 218
Evaluation of training see Assessment and games and simulations, 216–218
evaluation implementation plan, 198
Executive coaching, 292, 427 industrial theatre, 202–207
Exit interviews, 171, 339 learning programmes, 211–216
on-the-job training, 200–202
Expatriate employees see International HRD suitable intervention, selection of, 197–198
External focus, 101 team-building, 209–211
External growth/acquisition, 69–70 HTML, 313
External summative assessment, 503–504 Human performance technology (HPT), 118
Extranet, 312 Human resource development (HRD) see also
Eye contact, 516 HRD interventions; International HRD;
Legislation; National HR standards;
Facilitation, 132–134
Strategic HRD
Financial Services Charter, 353 definition, 2
First day, 338 HR competency model (SABPP), 537–540
First line managers, 254 integrating ETD, L&D and HRD, 8–10
international trends, 2–5
First month, 338–339 local trends, 5–8
Flat organisational structure, 99 role, 1–2
Flexible work practices, 429–430 Hypermedia, 312
Flexitime, 395 Hypertext, 313
Flowcharts, 454 Implementability of strategies, 71
Focus groups, 168–169, 363, 496 Increasing market share, 67–68
Force field analysis, 454 Incremental learning, 97–98
Foreign employment see International HRD Independent study and reading, 537
Formative evaluation, 472 Individual development, 271
Fundamental learning, 38–39 Induction see Employee orientation
Funding of skills development, 45, 51–54 Industrial theatre, 202–207, 367
Games, 216–218, 366 Innovation, 69, 100
Global competencies, 514–516 Inspired leadership, 100
Interactive distance learning, 313 LAN see Local area network

Interactive multimedia, 319 L&D see Learning and development
Interactivity, 313 Leadership development see Management
International HRD, 511–512 development
definition, 512 Learnership system, 45, 49–50
Asia, 517 Learning and development (L&D)
case study, 522 definition, 378–379
distance behaviour, 516 Chief Learning Officer, 8
expatriate employees, problems faced by, development of L&D practitioners, 10–11
518–519 integrating ETD, L&D and HRD, 8–10
expatriate training, 520–521 L&D managers, 8
eye contact, 516 national standard (SABPP)
global alignment, 521 application standard, 379–382
global competencies, 514–516 case study, 385–386
globalisation and HRD, 512–514 hierarchy, 377–379
guidelines, 519 implementation plan, 384
handshake, 516 Nedbank example, 382–384
IBM example, 521 objectives, 379
international trends, 2–5, 514 Nedbank example, 382–384
Middle East, 517–518 role of L&D practitioners, 9–10
record keeping, 521 SAB programme, 13–19
regional and country diversity, 516–518 Learning culture
repatriate training, 521 Asia, 517
South America, 518 assessment of, 104–106
strategy process, 519–521 Middle East, 517–518
United States, 518 South America, 518
International Society for Performance United States, 518
Improvement (ISPI), 118, 122, 135 “Workplace learning to support a learning
Internet, 313, 319 culture standard”, 92–93
Intervention design and development, 126 Learning design, 4–5, 194
definition, 194
Interviews, 168, 363, 495
national standard (SABPP), 194–196
Intranet, 313, 319 process, 195–196
ISDN, 313 Learning evaluation, 369, 481–483
ISO 9000, 455 Learning needs analysis, 155–157
ISPI see International Society for Performance definition, 157
Improvement analysis of data, 171–172
Job design, 394 assessment centres, 170
attitude analysis, 176
Job-duty-task analysis case studies, 183–187
example 180–182 categories of learning needs, 158
Job enlargement, 395 causes of performance deficiencies, 159–
Job enrichment, 395 160
collection of information, 165
Job interviews, 337 consultation with management, 166
Job rotation, 394–395 critical incident analysis, 169–170
Job satisfaction, 101 data collection methods, 167–171
Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model, 481–483 diagnostic instruments, 168, 189–191
examination of work samples, 169
Knowledge management, 107–108 exit interviews, 171
Knowledge transfer see Transfer of learning focus groups, 168–169
Index 585
Learning needs analysis (continued) Learning organisation (continued)

gaps in performance, 158 technology-driven, 101–102
identification of training criteria, 166–167 types of learner, 98–99
insurance broking example, 180–182 types of learning, 97–98
interviews, 168 “Workplace learning to support a learning
most popular methods, 171 culture standard”, 92–93
national standard (SABPP), 161–162 Learning programmes
observation, 169 definition, 211
organisation or situation analysis, 173–174 checklist, 214–216
performance appraisals, 170–171 curriculum development in terms of QCTO,
process, 162, 165–172 213–214
reasons for conducting, 158–161 design, 211–212
results and recommendations, 172 PSETA guide, 211
skills and competency analysis, 175–176 strategy, 212–213
skills audit, 177–180 unit standard, 212
stakeholders, 162–165
surveys and questionnaires, 167–168, 188– Lectures, 366
189 Legislation
target population analysis, 174–175 Broad-based Black Economic
task analysis, 175 Empowerment Act, 352
training committees, 169 Employment Equity Act, 353–354
Learning organisation, 5, 91–92 Skills Development Act, 26, 43–44
definition, 92 Skills Development Levies Act, 26
action and results focused, 102 training legislation, 6
assessment of learning culture, 104–106 Leisurely learners, 98
barriers to, 102–103 Life coaching, 293
blended learning, 111
case study, 113 Life-long learners, 99
characteristics, 99–102 Local area network (LAN), 313
coaching and mentoring, 112 Local trends in HRD, 5–8
customer orientated, 102
McClelland’s theory of competency training,
development of learning strategies, 108
269
e-learning, 112
empowerment, 100 Management development, 3–4, 254–256
evaluation, 109 case studies, 281–282
external focus, 101 changing roles and competencies, 256–258
flat structure, 99 development programmes, 262–263
goldmine example, 109–112 evaluation and assessment, 269
implementation plan, 103–109 fads, 270–271
innovation and change, 100 gap analysis, 259–260
inspired leadership, 100 good programmes, 270, 271
job satisfaction and commitment, 101 individual development, 271
knowledge management system, 107–108 international best practices, 258–261
learning opportunities, 102 knowledge management systems, 266
marketing and communication, 108–109 learning opportunities, 261–263
open communication, 99 management concerns, 263–264
people-orientated and talent focused, 101 management levels, 254
problems with training programmes, 94–95 managerial learning, 264–265
role-based training, 111 myths, 268–269
shared vision of quality, 100 national leadership development standard
shift from traditional training, 95–97 (SABPP), 265–266
systems approach, 100–101 NQF critical outcomes, 260–261
teamwork, 99 performance management, 269–270
Management development (continued) Mobile learning, 3, 309–311, 313

process approach, 270–271 Modem, 313
reasons for failure, 270–271
Multi-rater performance feedback, 4, 170–171
resource management, 266
SAQA requirements, 269 Multimedia, 313
skills required, 264–265 Multiple choice tests, 496
Telkom ISMP programme, 272–281 Multiskilling, 389–390
training hours, 262 definition, 390
transfer partnerships, 266–269 alternative work arrangements, 395–396
Management levels, 254 business re-engineering, 391
career development, 396
Market development, 68
case study, 404
Mentoring and coaching, 287–290, 426–427 competency model, 397, 399–401
definition, 288 consulted process, 397
Barclays coaching culture, 305–306 cross-skilling, 391
benefits, 290 disabled learners, 392
business approach, 289 documentation, 403
capacity-building, 298 factors to be considered, 398–399
continued professional development, 537 generic skills in learning programme, 393–
directive or non-directive, 292 394
electronic mentoring, 293 generic working, 391
engineering and construction company horizontal, 390
examples, 301–305 implementation process, 396–398
evaluation, 299–300 job design, 394
executive coaching, 292, 427 job enlargement, 395
guidelines, 300–301 job enrichment, 395
HRD role, 293–294 job rotation, 394–395
identifying coaches/coaches and learner’s perspective, 392
mentors/mentees, 297 limitations, 399
implementation process, 296–300 maintaining skill levels, 403
improvement, 300 means of promoting, 394–396
international standards, 427 monitoring, 398
introduction into organisation, 296–297 organisation’s perspective, 391–392
learning organisation, 112 resources for learners, 398
life coaching, 293 skills audit, 397–398
matching of coaches/coaches and strategy for implementing, 397
mentors/mentees, 298 structured learning programme, 401–403
meetings and feedback, 298–299 value, 392–393
multiple or power mentoring, 293 vertical, 391
national standard (SABPP), 294–296 National HR standards, 8
performance coaching, 292 benefits, 376
pitfalls, 290–291 coaching and mentoring, 294–296
professional mentoring, 293 development of, 375–376
psychological approach, 289 HR competency model, 537–540
relationship goal-setting, 298 leadership development, 265–266
reverse mentoring, 293 learning and development, 377–386
roles of mentors and coaches, 288–290 learning design, 194–196
team coaching, 293 learning evaluation, 490–492
traditional mentoring, 293 learning needs analysis, 161–162
training of steering committees, 297 on-boarding, 334–335, 336
types of interventions, 292–293
National Qualifications Framework (NQF),
Menu-driven learning, 313 27–28; see also Unit standards
Middle managers, 254 competences see Competence
Index 587
National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Paradigms, 64

(continued) Pareto analysis, 454
core learning, 38–39
People-orientated organisations, 101
critical cross-field outcomes, 33–34
elective learning, 38–39 Performance appraisals, 170–171
fundamental learning, 38–39 Performance coaching, 292
implementation framework, 40–43 Performance consulting, 4, 117–118
intended transformation, 29
definition, 118, 119
level descriptors, 35–37
approach and process, 128–132
levels, 34–35
business needs, 119–120
objectives, 28
case study, 143–151
performance consulting and, 121–122
Certified Performance Technologist
principles, 30–31
accreditation, 135
regulations and guidelines, 27
characteristics of performance consultant,
relationship between standards and
123–124
qualifications, 38
competencies of performance consultant
strategy underpinning, 28
additional competencies, 127–128
National Skills Authority (NSA) assessment/checklist, 139–142
composition, 46 change facilitator, 126
functions, 45 communicator, 126–127
national co-ordination role, 44, 45 professional, 125–126
National Skills Development Strategy, 54–55 researcher, 125
National Skills Fund, 53–54 facilitation, 132–134
framework, 124–125
Networking, 126, 134–135
HRD and, 120
New learning, 97 international standards, 135–137
NQF see National Qualifications Framework introduction of strategy, 137–139
NSA see National Skills Authority networking and communication, 134–135
NQF critical outcomes, 121–122
OBE see Outcomes-based education
organisation development and, 120–121
Observation, 169 partnerships with management, 119
Obsolescence, 428 performance challenges, 118–119
Occupation resetting performance results, 118–119
definition, 42–43 shift from traditional training, 122–123
components, 43 training dilemma, 122
training manager’s role, 137
Occupational qualification
definition, 43 Performance management, 4, 269–270, 425–
role of QTCO, 41–43 426
OD see Organisation development Personal development plans, 541
OJT see On-the-job training Phillip’s ROI framework, 484–485
On-boarding see Employee orientation Plateauing, 428
On-the-job training (OJT), 200–202, 228 Podcasts, 313
Open communication, 99 Portfolios, 504
Oral assessments, 504 Power mentoring, 293
Organisation development (OD), 120–121 Practical tests, 496
Organisational systems analysis, 173–174 Presentations, 537
Out-tasking, 75 Proactive needs identification, 4
Outcomes-based education (OBE), 11–12 Problem-solving, 225
Outsourcing HRD function, 74–76 Product development, 69
Professional bodies, 30 Quality management (continued)

Professional mentoring, 293 management meeting, 446
management training, 446–447
Project facilitation, 126
national standards, 442
Psychological contract, 412–413 organisation-wide training, 450–452
Publishing, 537 principles, 442–444
QCTO see Quality Council for Trades and problem identification and solving
Occupations techniques, 453–455
process improvement teams, 452
Qualifications
QCTO role, 460
core learning, 38–39
quality circles, 453, 455
credit values, 39–40
quality council, 448–449
elective learning, 38–39
quality management system training, 451
fundamental learning, 38–39
quality system auditing training, 451–452
NQF see National Qualifications
quality teams, 452–453
Framework
quality techniques training, 452
quality assurance, 41–43
statistical process control, 452
relationship with standards, 38
strategic planning, 447–448
Quality circles, 453, 455 terminology, 442
Quality Council for Trades and Occupations traditional management distinguished, 443–
(QCTO) 444
competence-based assessment, 499–504 traditional production approach, 442
functions, 42 Questionnaires, 167–168, 188–189, 363, 494
quality assurance role, 41–43, 460–463
Reaction evaluation, 368, 481–483
Quality councils
implementation of NQF, 40–43 Reactionnaires, 494–495
responsibilities, 30 Recognition of prior learning, 479–480
Quality function deployment, 454 Reducing operating costs, 68
Quality management, 441–442 Registration of HR professionals, 30, 528
alignment of HRD processes Reluctant learners, 98
benchmarking, 458
Repatriate training, 521
customer focus, 456
moderation systems, 459 Results-based HRD, 477–478
need for, 455 Results evaluation, 369, 481–483
problem-solving and quality techniques, Results-focused learning, 102
457
Retrenchment, 429
process improvement, 457–458
quality documentation and records, 459– Return on investment (ROI)
460 assessment of learning, 489
quality management system, 458–460 Association for Talent Development, 482
assessment quality partners, 460–463 calculation, 489, 498–499
audit and reviews, 455 communication of results, 490
case study, 464 conduct of training, 489
change management, 455 cost of learning, 488
communications strategy, 449–450 evaluation of training impact, 489–490
culture assessment, 449 executive coaching, 306
customer service training, 451 gap/performance analysis, 488
Denel Aviation example, 463 implementation process, 487
HRD quality approach, 442 management development, 269
implementation process, 444–455 measurement awareness, 486–487
international standards, 442 myth, 474
ISO 9000, 455 Phillips’ evaluation framework, 484–485
Index 589
Return on investment (ROI) (continued) Skills audit (continued)

SAB Sales Way, 485–486 BANKSETA positioning, 177
South African model, 486–490 FNB example, 185–187
strategic ROI planning, 487–488 multiskilling strategy, 397–398
training improvement plan, 490 practical application, 179–180
training plan/workplace skills plan, 488 process, 177–179
Reverse mentoring, 293 Skills development, 225–226
ROI see Return on investment Skills Development Act, 26
Role-based training, 111 purposes, 44
Role-plays, 366, 504 vision and strategic approach, 43
Rope courses, 209 Skills Development Levies Act, 26
RSS, 313 Skills development levy
calculation, 52–53
Run charts, 454
collection, 53
SAB exclusions from leviable amount, 53
Corporate Development Practitioner grants and tax deductions, 54
Programme, 13–19 introduction, 52
diversity management and training, 369– liability to pay, 52
370 rate, 52
Sales Way return on investment, 485–486 SETA registration, 53
SABPP see South African Board for People Skills development strategy
Practices core components, 44–45
SAQA see South African Qualifications National Skills Development Strategy, 54–
Authority 55
Scatter diagrams, 454 origin, 26
Seating arrangements, 239 practical implications for HRD
practitioners, 56
Second life, 314
principles underpinning, 43
Sector Education and Training Authorities relationship with other initiatives, 27
(SETAs), 44 strategic intent, 26–27, 43
chambers, 48
Skills financing see Funding of skills
collection of skills levy, 53
development
composition, 48
criteria for establishment, 46 Skills programmes, 45, 50–51
financing, 49 Social learning, 3, 309–311, 314, 320
functions, 47–48 Social media, 314
list of, 46–47
South African Board for People Practices
registration of employer with, 53
(SABPP)
sector skills plans, 54
CPD policy, 544–546
Seminars, 536 HR competency model, 537–540
Senior managers, 254 national HR standards see National HR
SETAs see Sector Education and Training standards
Authorities registration of HR professionals, 30, 528
Shared vision of quality, 100 “Workplace learning to support a learning
culture standard”, 92–93
Simulations, 216–218, 314, 504
South African Qualifications Authority
Situation analysis, 173–174
(SAQA)
Skills and competency analysis, 175–176 composition, 29
Skills audit establishment, 29
definition, 177 functions, 29
assessment methods, 177–179 implementation of NQF, 40–43
Staging, 314 Training (continued)

Statistical process control, 452 alignment with NQF and QC requirements,
226
Strategic HRD, 3, 62
definition, 65 booking venues and trainers, 240
co-operative alliances, 70 budgets, 230–232
external growth/acquisition, 69–70 case study, 248
implementation design criteria, 70–71 consultation with stakeholders, 226–228
increasing market share, 67–68 costs, 230–232
innovation, 69 course confirmation, 241–242
market development, 68 course list, 241
new competitive landscape, 62–64 course nomination form, 240–241
outsourcing HRD function, 74–76 diversity training see Diversity training
product development, 69 e-learning see Electronic learning
reconceptualising and repositioning HRD, employment equity training, 355–357
64–65 evaluation see Assessment and evaluation
reducing operating costs, 68 formal training, 228
strategy formulation and implementation group report, 242
distinguished, 65–67 HRD interventions see HRD interventions
strategy options, 67–70 HRD role, 2
Syngenta Key Talent Programme example, internal or external facilitator, 229–230
76–85 legislation, 6
Wesbank example, 72–74 managing ETD staff, 230
Stress, 428 marketing strategy, 234
methods/formats, 225–226, 228–230
Subjective probability measurement, 314
modular programmes, 228–229
Succession planning, 427–428 motivating learners, 233
Summative evaluation, 472 needs analysis see Learning needs analysis
Supervisors, 254 on-the-job training, 200–202, 228
Surveys, 167–168, 363 planner standards, 224
planning and organising, 223–224
Synchronous e-learning, 314 post-course administration, 242–243
Systems approach, 100–101 pre-course administration, 240–242
Talent management, 3, 101, 414–416 problems, 94–95
Microsoft example, 432–433 project management approach, 225, 243–
Target population analysis, 174–175 248
quality management see Quality
Task analysis, 175
management
Tax deductions, 54 records, 242–243
Team-building, 209–211 seating arrangements, 239
Team coaching, 293 selling to management, 233
Teamwork, 99 shift from traditional training
to learning organisation, 95–97
Technology-driven organisations, 101–102
to performance consulting, 122–123
Telecommuting, 395–396 training aids, 216, 234–236
Thinking performers, 537–540 training plan, 224–226
Total quality management see Quality venue, 236––239
management Training committees, 169
Total quality management assessment Transfer of learning see also Mentoring and
inventory, 449 coaching
Training barriers to, 173–174
definition, 6–7 management development, 266–269
administration, 240–243 training plan, 225
Index 591
Transformational learning, 98 Web-based training, 319

Trust fall exercises, 209 Webinar, 314
Tutorials, 536 Welcome pack, 337
Unilever career development, 431–432
Why people work, 411–412
UNISA e-learning management system, 317–
318 Wiki, 314
Unit standards Wilderness training, 209
credits, 34 Work experience, 49
description of competence, 31, 33
Work samples, 169
relationship with qualifications, 38
types of, 33 Work-setting analysis, 173–174
United Kingdom CPD, 533–535 Workplace illiterate, 255–256
University degrees Workplace skills plans
blocking graduate talent pipeline, 417 case studies, 183–185
credit values, 40 contents, 156
NQF levels, 34–35 needs analyses see Learning needs analysis
Unlearning, 98 submission to SETA, 156
URLs, 314 Transnet Rail Engineering, 55–56
Transport Education and Training
User-friendly system, 314
Authority, 55
Video conferencing, 319
Workshops, 536
Virtual reality, 314
Worldwide web, 314
Warr, Bird and Rackham evaluation model,
483–484 Written tests, 495–495, 504

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MANAGING HUMAN RESOURCE

A STRATEGIC LEARNING APPROACH

A STRATEGIC LEARNING APPROACH

• Measuring the ROI in Mentoring and Coaching Programmes

Melanie Bushney Associate Professor in Human Resource Development, University of

• Leonie van der Vaart, North-West University

• Wilhelm Crous, Knowledge Resources

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN RESOURCE

Chapter 2 HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT LEGISLATION ............ 25

Chapter 3 STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT ................. 61

Chapter 4 THE LEARNING ORGANISATION ................................................. 91

Chapter 5 PERFORMANCE CONSULTING ..................................................... 117

Chapter 6 LEARNING NEEDS ANALYSIS ........................................................ 155

Chapter 7 DESIGNING HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 8 PLANNING AND ORGANISING TRAINING ................................. 223

Chapter 9 MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT ............. 253

Chapter 10 MENTORING AND COACHING ..................................................... 287

Chapter 11 ELECTRONIC, MOBILE AND SOCIAL LEARNING .................. 309

Chapter 12 EMPLOYEE ORIENTATION ........................................................... 333

Chapter 13 EMPLOYMENT EQUITY AND DIVERSITY TRAINING ........... 349

Chapter 14 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT STANDARDS ............................ 375

Chapter 15 MULTISKILLING ............................................................................... 389

Chapter 16 CAREER MANAGEMENT AND PERFORMANCE ..................... 407

Chapter 18 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION ................................................ 469

Chapter 19 INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT ..... 511

Chapter 20 CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ..................... 527

Assignment, portfolio and examination questions ....................................................... 551

1.2 International trends in HRD

1.2.2 Strategic HRD and talent management

1.2.3 Electronic, mobile and social learning

1.2.4 Management and leadership development

transformation, while simultaneously creating systems, governance mechanisms,

1.2.5 Performance consulting

1.2.6 Career and performance management

1.2.7 Proactive needs identification

1.2.8 Training design

1.2.9 Evaluation of training

1.2.10 Employment equity and diversity training

1.2.11 Learning organisation

1.3 Local trends in HRD

requires additional interventions. Most of these interventions, such as the Skills

1.3.1 Training legislation

1.3.2 ETD practices

Education HRD Training

1.3.3 HR and L&D standards

1.4 Integrating ETD, L&D and HRD

1.5 Principles underlying the development of L&D practitioners

Approach development requirements proactively

Co-ownership for all concerned

The development model is also a role model for L&D practitioners

Training of L&D practitioners is a development process

Incorporating the transfer of learning into the development model

Constant adaptation and innovation

1.6 Outcomes-based education (OBE)

Table 1.2 Differences between content-based education and OBE

Course • Instructional designers develop • Learning programmes are designed

Learning • The learning material is called • Learning material is called learning

Presentation • The instructor presents a • A facilitator presents a lesson based

Assessment • Learners do assignments and write • A variety of assessment techniques