A Short Guide to Significant Figures

What are "significant figures"?

The number of significant figures in a result is simply the number of figures that are known with
some degree of reliability/certainty. The number 13.2 is said to have 3 significant figures. The
number 13.20 is said to have 4 significant figures. A significant figure is any number (0 - 9) needed to
describe the value completely.

Value Accuracy Sig. figures Number of

0.03782 0.000005 3; 7; 8; 2 4
4.83700 0.000005 4; 8; 3; 7; 0; 0 6
5667.2 0.05 5; 6; 6; 7; 2 5

Zero is also a number. In Mathematics there is no difference between 17; 17.0 and 17.00. In Physics
there is a big difference as each number indicates not only the value but also the accuracy or
precision. So for example, an answer of 17 means that the value is somewhere between 16.5 and
17.5, while 17.00 means that the value is somewhere between 16.995 and 17.005.

Rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a measured quantity

(1) All non-zero digits are significant: 1.234 g has 4 significant figures; 1.2 g has 2 significant
figures.

(2) Zeroes between non-zero digits are significant: 1002 kg has 4 significant figures, 3.07 ml has
3 significant figures.

(3) Leading zeroes (to the left of the first nonzero digits) are not significant; such zeroes merely
indicate the position of the decimal point:
• 0.001 oC has only 1 significant figure,
• 0.012 g has 2 significant figures.

(4) Trailing zeroes (to the right of a decimal point after nonzero number) in a number are
significant: 0.0230 ml has 3 significant figures; 0.20 g has 2 significant figures and 200.0 g has
4 significant figures.

(5) Numbers ending in zeroes that are not to the right of the decimal point can be problematic.
The zeroes are not necessarily significant, albeit that the general rule is that we write only
the significant digits down:

For example:
• 190 km may be 2 or 3 significant figures,
• 50 600 calories may be 3, 4, or 5 significant figures.

How will you know how many significant figures are in a number like 200? In such a
problem, the context of the experiment and its measuring devices would tell you how many
significant figures to report, e.g. if you measure a series of lengths with the same instrument
such as 187 mm, 198 mm, 200 mm and 205 mm, the context clearly shows that 200 mm is
"known" to 3 significant figures. However, divorced of context, and not trusting that the
author meant to write only the significant digits, a number like 200 is problematic, and you
are left to assume only 1 significant number.

A Short Guide to Significant Figures 1

 The potential ambiguity in the last rule can be avoided by the use of "scientific notation".
For example, depending on whether 3, 4, or 5 significant figures is correct, we could write
50 600 calories as
• 5.06 × 104 calories (3 significant figures), or
• 5.060 × 104 calories (4 significant figures), or
• 5.0600 × 104 calories (5 significant figures).

What is an "exact number"?

Some numbers are exact because they are known with complete certainty.
Most exact numbers are integers:
• exactly 12 eggs in a dozen,
• there might be exactly 23 students in a class,
• exactly 100 cm in 1 m.

Exact numbers are often found as conversion factors or as counts of objects.

Other numbers that are exact are those in physical formulas, e.g.
• the diameter of a circle is twice the radius, d = 2r, the 2 is exact.
• the kinetic energy KE = ½mv2, the ½ is exact.

Exact numbers can be considered to have an infinite number of significant figures. Thus, the number
of apparent significant figures in any exact number can be ignored as a limiting factor in determining
the number of significant figures in the result of a calculation.

Rules for mathematical operations

In carrying out calculations, the general rule is that the accuracy of a calculated result is limited by
the least accurate measurement involved in the calculation.

(1) In addition and subtraction, the result is rounded off to the last common digit occurring furthest
to the right in all components. For example
100 (assume 3 significant figures) + 23.643 (5 significant figures) = 123.643, which should be
rounded to 124 (3 significant figures).
Let’s say you want to do the following calculation: 36.673 + 27.67 = 64.343…
The answer on the calculator is 64.343. The adding (subtracting) process involves writing the
numbers underneath each other and only the certain digits can be written in the final answer:
36.673?
+27.67??
64.34(3)?
The last 3 on the right is not certain, because it is the result of 3 + ? and so is not significant. We
therefore truncate the final answer to 64.34
Another example is: 255.7 – 99 = 156.7…
255.7?
- 99.??
156.(7)?
The 7 on the right in the answer is not certain, because it is the result of 7 - ? and so is not
significant. We therefore round the final answer to 157

A Short Guide to Significant Figures 2

(2) In multiplication and division, the result should be rounded off so as to have the same number
of significant figures as in the component with the least number of significant figures. For
example
3.0 (2 significant figures) 12.60 (4 significant figures) = 37.8000 which should be rounded off to
38 (2 significant figures).

Rules for rounding numbers

(1) If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the last retained digit is increased by one. For
example, 12.6 is rounded to 13.
(2) If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the last remaining digit is left as it is. For example, 12.4
is rounded to 12.
(3) If the digit to be dropped is 5, and if any digit following it is not zero, the last remaining digit is
increased by one. For example, 12.51 is rounded to 13.

General guidelines when using calculators

In short, never round intermediate results during a complex calculation. Remember, rounding of
final answers is purely cosmetic and is only done to convey information about the certainty of a
value.

In a long calculation involving mixed operations, carry as many digits as possible through the entire
set of calculations and then only round the final result appropriately, in order to convey its
accuracy.

For example,

5.00 6.35
� � + 3.000 + � � = 4.04(858 ⋯ ) + 3.000 + 1.5(875) = 8.6(30829 ⋯ )
1.235 4.0

• The first division should result in 3 significant figures – do not round, but make a note of the
number of significant figures, e.g. put the insignificant digits between brackets;
• the last division should result in 2 significant figures;
• the three numbers added together should result in a number that is rounded off to the last
common significant digit occurring furthest to the right (which in this case means the final
result should be rounded with 1 digit after the decimal).
• The correct rounded final result should be 8.6. This final result has been limited by the
accuracy in the last division.

Warning: carrying all digits through to the final result before rounding is critical for many
mathematical operations in statistics. Rounding intermediate results when e.g. calculating sums of
squares can seriously compromise the accuracy of the result. Don't do it! Remember, rounding of
final answers is purely cosmetic as it is done to convey information about the certainty of a value.

Reporting uncertainties

In science, the uncertainty or margin of error of a measurement, when explicitly stated, is given by a
range of values likely to enclose the true value. This may be denoted by error bars on a graph, or by
the following notations:
• Measured value ± uncertainty, e.g. 23.4782 ± 0.0032 m

A Short Guide to Significant Figures 3

 • Measured value (uncertainty), e.g. 23.4782(32) m or even 23.4782(0.0032) m, where the
first example implies that the given uncertainty refers to the least significant digits of the
given numerical value, i.e. 23.4782 ± 0.0032 m.
• The graph illustrates the error bars for the values of 23.478 ±
0.003 left and 23.477 ± 0.001 right. The first data point clearly
has a larger error (uncertainty) as seen by the longer error
bars, i.e. 23.478 ± 0.003.
• The uncertainty can be expressed as a percentage,
0.003/23.478 = 0.013%, while 0.001/23.477 = 0.004%. Thus,
the two values are 23.478 m ± 0.013% and 23.477 m ± 0.004%.
• Note that the more accurate value, 23.477 can be considered
as equal to the less accurate 23.478, because it lies within the uncertainty of the less
accurate value, i.e. 23.477 = 23.478 ± 0.003.

Making measurements

Significant figures are the digits in a measurement that corresponds to the markings on an
instrument plus one estimated digit.

Consider the following measurement situations. On the left the temperature is definitely between
28 and 29 oC, and we can further estimate that it is more than 28.5 and probably less than 28.7 oC.
We can therefore state the measured temperature as 28.6 oC, with an uncertainty in the last digit,
the one we had to guess, i.e. 28.6 ± 0.1 oC (3 significant figures). The volume in the cylinder on the
right is clearly between 43 and 45 mL, and we can estimate that it is on the 44 mL mark, i.e. the
volume is 44.0 ± 0.1 mL (3 significant figures).

If the instrument was calibrated with finer markings, as shown in the middle figure, we can know the
temperature with more certainty and write more significant figures, e.g. 28.62 ± 0.01 oC (4 significant
figures).

Question 1
Read the length of the metal bar to the correct number of significant figures. Which value is the
value with the correct number of significant figures? Hint: look at the image on the right of a slightly
different situation… (Answers at the end.)

A. 15 cm
B. 15.000 cm
C. 20 cm
D. 15.0 cm
E. 15.00 cm

A Short Guide to Significant Figures 4

Question 2
Read the following scales:

(i) (ii) (iii)

Question 3
(a) Look at the sketch of a beaker in (a) below. How much liquid does the beaker contain?
(b) Look at the graduated cylinder in image (b) below. (i) How much liquid does it contain? (ii)
How many significant figures does this measurement have?

(a) (b)

Answers to questions
Question 1: E (in the hint the measurement is 14.37 cm with certainty between 14.3 and 14.4 cm)
Question 2: (i) is 29.3 oC; (ii) 29.25 oC;
(iii)(a) 27 ml; (iii)(b) 28.2 ml; (iii)(c) 28.31 ml.
Question 3: (a) The top of the liquid falls between the mark for 40 mL and 50 mL, but it’s closer to
40 mL. A reasonable estimate is 43 mL. In this measurement, the first digit (4) is known
for certain, and the second digit (3) is an estimate, so the measurement has two
significant figures. One could say that the actual volume is somewhere between 42 and
44 mL, i.e. V = 43 ± 1 mL.
Question 3: (b)(i) First, note that you should read the amount at the bottom of its curved surface.
This falls about half way between the mark for 36 mL and the mark for 37 mL, so a
reasonable estimate would be 36.5 mL. (ii) There are 3 significant figures in this
measurement. You know that the first two digits (3 and 6) are accurate. The third digit
(5) is an estimate.

A Short Guide to Significant Figures 5

 'n Kort Gids tot Beduidende Syfers (syfers van betekenis)
Wat is "beduidende syfers"?

Die aantal beduidende syfers in 'n resultaat is bloot die aantal syfers wat met 'n mate van
betroubaarheid / sekerheid bekend is. Die getal 13.2 het na bewering 3 beduidende syfers. Die getal
13.20 het na bewering 4 beduidende syfers. 'n Syfer van betekenis is enige syfer (0 - 9) wat nodig is
om die waarde volledig te beskryf.

Waarde Noukeurigheid Bed. syfers Aantal

0.03782 0.000005 3; 7; 8; 2 4
4.83700 0.000005 4; 8; 3; 7; 0; 0 6
5667.2 0.05 5; 6; 6; 7; 2 5

Nul is ook 'n syfer. In die Wiskunde is daar geen verskil tussen 17; 17.0 en 17.00 nie. In Fisika is daar
'n groot verskil aangesien elke getal nie net die waarde aangee nie, maar ook die akkuraatheid of
noukeurigheid. So byvoorbeeld, beteken 'n antwoord van 17 dat die waarde êrens tussen 16.5 en
17.5 is, terwyl 17.00 beteken dat die waarde êrens tussen 16.995 en 17.005 is.

Reëls om die aantal beduidende syfers in 'n gemete hoeveelheid te bepaal

(1) Alle nie-nul syfers is beduidend: 1 234 g het 4 beduidende syfers, 1.2 g het 2 beduidende
syfers.

(2) Nulle tussen nie-nul syfers is beduidend: 1002 kg het 4 beduidende syfers, 3.07 ml het 3
beduidende syfers.

(3) Voorste nulle (links van die eerste nie-nul syfer) is nie beduidend nie; sulke nulle dui slegs die
posisie van die desimale punt aan:
• 0.001 oC het slegs 1 beduidende syfer,
• 0.012 g het 2 beduidende syfers.

(4) Nulle regs van 'n desimale punt in 'n getal is beduidend: 0.023 ml het 2 beduidende syfers,
0.200 g het 3 beduidende syfers.

(5) Getalle wat eindig op nulle wat nie regs van die desimale punt is nie, kan problematies wees.
Die nulle is nie noodwendig beduidend nie, alhoewel die algemene reël is dat ons slegs die
beduidende syfers neerskryf:

Byvoorbeeld:
• 190 km kan 2 of 3 beduidende syfers wees,
• 50 600 kalorieë kan 3, 4 of 5 beduidende syfers wees.

Hoe sal jy weet hoeveel beduidende syfers in 'n getal soos 200 is? In so 'n probleem sou die
konteks van die eksperiment en die meetapparate jou kan sê hoeveel beduidende syfers jy
moet rapporteer, bv. indien jy 'n reeks lengtes met dieselfde instrument meet, soos 187
mm, 198 mm, 200 mm en 205 mm, wys die konteks duidelik dat 200 mm tot 3 beduidende
syfers 'bekend' is. Aan die anderkant, geskei van konteks, en sonder om te aanvaar dat die
outeur bedoel het om slegs die beduidende syfers te skryf nie, is 'n getal soos 200
problematies, en kan jy slegs 1 beduidende syfer aanvaar.

Die moontlike onduidelikheid in die laaste reël kan vermy word deur die gebruik van
'wetenskaplike notasie'. Afhangend van die vraag of 3, 4 of 5 beduidende syfers korrek is,
kan ons byvoorbeeld 50 600 kalorieë skryf as:

A Short Guide to Significant Figures 6

 • 5.06 × 104 kalorieë (3 beduidende syfers)
• 5.060 × 104 kalorieë (4 beduidende syfers), of
• 5 0600 × 104 kalorieë (5 beduidende syfers).

Wat is 'n "eksakte getal"?

Sommige getalle is eksak (presies) omdat hulle met volle sekerheid bekend is.
Die meeste eksakte getalle is heelgetalle:
• presies 12 eiers in 'n dosyn,
• daar is presies 23 studente in 'n klas,
• presies 100 cm in 1 m.

Eksakte getalle word dikwels gevind as omskakelingsfaktore of as tellings van voorwerpe.

Ander getalle wat eksakt is, is dié in fisiese formules, bv.

• die deursnee van 'n sirkel is twee keer die radius, d = 2r, die 2 is eksak;
• die kinetiese energie KE = ½mv2, die ½ is eksak.

Eksakte getalle kan beskou word as 'n oneindige aantal beduidende syfers. Dus kan die aantal
skynbare beduidende syfers in enige eksakte getal geïgnoreer word as 'n beperkende faktor om die
aantal beduidende syfers in die resultaat van 'n berekening te bepaal.

Reëls vir wiskundige bewerkings

By die uitvoering van berekeninge is die algemene reël dat die akkuraatheid van 'n berekende
resultaat beperk word deur die minste akkurate meting wat by die berekening betrokke is.

(1) Vir optel en aftrek word die resultaat afgerond tot die laaste gemeenskaplike syfer aan die
regterkant van al die deelnemende getalle. Byvoorbeeld
100 (neem aan 3 beduidende syfers) + 23 643 (5 beduidende syfers) = 123 643, wat afgerond
moet word tot 124 (3 beduidende syfers).
Gestel jy wil die volgende berekening uitvoer: 36.673 + 27.67 = 64.343….
Die antwoord op die sakrekenaar is 64.343. Die optel (aftrek) proses behels dat die getalle
ondermekaar geskryf word, en net die seker getall finaal neergeskryf kan word.
36.673?
+27.67??
64.34(3)?
Die laaste 3 aan die regterkant is nie seker nie want dit is die gevolg van 3 + ? en is dus nie
beduidend nie. Ons kap dus die finale antwoord af na 64.34

Nog ‘n voorbeeld: 255.7 – 99 = 156.7…

255.7?
- 99.??
156.(7)?
Die 7 aan die regterkant in die antwoord is onseker want dit kom van 7 - ? en is dus nie
beduidend nie. Ons reond die finale antwoord op tot 157

(2) Tydens vermenigvuldiging en deling moet die resultaat afgerond word tot dieselfde aantal
beduidende syfers as die getal met die minste aantal beduidende syfers. Byvoorbeeld

A Short Guide to Significant Figures 7

 3.0 (2 beduidende syfers) x 12.60 (4 beduidende syfers) = 37.8000 wat afgerond moet word
tot 38 (2 beduidende syfers).

Reëls vir afronding van getalle

(1) As die syfer wat wegval groter is as 5, word die laaste behoue syfer met een verhoog: 12.6
word byvoorbeeld afgerond tot 13.
(2) As die syfer wat wegval minder as 5 is, word die laaste oorblywende syfer net so gelaat: 12.4
word byvoorbeeld afgerond tot 12.
(3) As die syfer wat moet wegval 5 is, en as enige syfer wat daarop volg nie nul is nie, word die
laaste oorblywende syfer met een verhoog: 12.51 word byvoorbeeld afgerond tot 13.

Algemene riglyne vir die gebruik van sakrekenaars

Kortom, moet nooit tussenin berekeninge in 'n komplekse som afrond nie. Onthou, afronding van
finale antwoorde is suiwer kosmeties en word slegs gedoen om informasie oor die sekerheid van
'n waarde oor te dra.

Tydens 'n lang berekening wat gemengde bewerkings behels, dra soveel as moontlik syfers deur die
hele reeks berekeninge saam en rond dan net die finale resultaat op die regte manier af om
sekerheid aan te dui.

Byvoorbeeld:

5.00 6.35
� � + 3.000 + � � = 4.04(858 ⋯ ) + 3.000 + 1.5(875) = 8.6(30829 ⋯ )
1.235 4.0

Die eerste term moet drie beduidende syfers tot gevolg hê; die laaste term moet twee beduidende
syfers tot gevolg hê; die drie getalle wat bymekaar getel word lewer 'n antwoord wat afgerond moet
word tot die laaste gemene beduidende syfer aan die regterkant (wat in hierdie geval beteken dat
die finale resultaat met 1 syfer na die desimale punt afgerond moet word). Die korrekte afgeronde
finale resultaat moet 8.6 wees. Die finale resultaat word beperk deur die akkuraatheid in die laaste
deling som.

Waarskuwing: dit is uiters belangrik vir baie wiskundige bewerkings in veral statistiek om alle syfers
deur al die berekeninge saam te dra en net die finale resultaat af te rond. Die afronding van
tussenresultate by bv. die berekening van die som van kwadrate kan die akkuraatheid van die
resultaat ernstig benadeel. Moet dit nie doen nie! Onthou, die afronding van finale antwoorde is
suiwer kosmeties, aangesien dit gedoen word om inligting oor die sekerheid van 'n waarde oor te
dra.

Aandui / raportering van onsekerheid

In die wetenskap word die onsekerheid of foutgrens van 'n meting, as dit eksplisiet vermeld word,
gegee deur 'n reeks waardes wat waarskynlik die ware waarde kan insluit. Dit kan aangedui word
deur foutgrense op 'n grafiek (error bars), of deur die volgende notasies:
• Gemete waarde ± onsekerheid, bv. 23.4782 ± 0.0032 m
• Gemete waarde (onsekerheid), bv. 23.4782(32) m of selfs 23.4782(0.0032) m, waar die
eerste voorbeeld impliseer dat die gegewe onsekerheid verwys na die laaste syfers van
betekenis van die gegewe numeriese waarde, d.i. 23.4782 ± 0.0032 m.

A Short Guide to Significant Figures 8

 • Die grafiek illustreer die foutgrense vir die 23.478 ± 0.003 waarde
links en 23.477 ± 0.001 regs. Die eerste data punt het duidelik 'n
grote fout (onsekerheid), soos gesien kan word aan die langer
foutgrense, d.i. 23.478 ± 0.003.
• Die onsekerheid kan ook uitgedruk word as ‘n persentasie,
0.003/23.478 = 0.013%, terwyl 0.001/23.477 = 0.004%. Die twee
waardes is dus 23.478 m ± 0.013% en 23.477 m ± 0.004%.
• Let op dat die meer akkurate waarde (23.477) as gelyk aan die
minder akkurate 23.478 beskou kan word, aangesien dit binne
die onsekerheid van die minder akkurate waarde lê, d.i. 23.477 = 23.478 ± 0.003.

Neem van metings

Beduidende syfers is die syfers in 'n meting wat ooreenstem met die merke op 'n instrument, plus
een geskatte syfer.

Beskou die volgende metingsituasies. Aan die linkerkant is die temperatuur beslis tussen 28 en 29 oC,
en ons kan verder skat dat dit meer as 28.5 en waarskynlik minder as 28.7 oC is. Ons kan dus die
gemete temperatuur as 28.6 oC neerskryf, met die onsekerheid in die laaste syfer, die een wat ons
moes raai, dit wil sê 28.6 ± 0.1 oC (3 beduidende syfers). Die volume in die silinder aan die regterkant
is duidelik tussen 43 en 45 mL, en ons kan skat dat dit op die 44 mL merk lê, dit wil sê die volume is
44.0 ± 0.1 mL (3 beduidende syfers).

As die instrument met fyner merke gekalibreer is, soos in die middelste figuur, kan ons die
temperatuur met meer sekerheid aflees en meer beduidende syfers neerskryf, bv. 28.62 ± 0.01 oC (4
beduidende syfers).

Vraag 1
Lees die lengte van die metaalstaaf tot die korrekte aantal beduidende syfers af. Watter waarde is
die waarde met die korrekte aantal beduidende syfers? Wenk: kyk na die prent aan die regterkant
van 'n effens ander situasie... (Antwoorde aan die einde.)

A. 15 cm
B. 15.000 cm
C. 20 cm
D. 15.0 cm
E. 15.00 cm

A Short Guide to Significant Figures 9

Vraag 2
Lees die skaallesings in die volgende gevalle:

(i) (ii) (iii)

Vraag 3
(a) Kyk na die skets van 'n beker in (a) hieronder. Hoeveel vloeistof bevat die beker?
(b) Kyk na die gegradueerde silinder in prent (b) hieronder. (i) Hoeveel vloeistof bevat dit? (ii)
Hoeveel syfers van betekenis het hierdie meting?

(a) (b)

Antwoorde op vrae
Vraag 1: E (in die wenk is die afmeting 14.37 cm met sekerheid tussen 14.3 en 14.4 cm)
Vraag 2: (i) is 29.3 oC; (ii) 29.25 oC;
(iii)(a) 27 ml; (iii)(b) 28.2 ml; (iii)(c) 28.31 ml.
Vraag 3: (a) Die bokant van die vloeistof val tussen die merk vir 40 mL en 50 mL, maar dit is nader
aan 40 mL. ’n Redelike skatting is 43 ml. In hierdie meting is die eerste syfer (4) met
sekerheid bekend, en die tweede syfer (3) is 'n skatting, so die meting het twee
beduidende syfers. ‘n Mens kan sê dat die werklike volume iewers tussen 42 en 44 ml is,
dit wil sê V = 43 ± 1 ml.
Vraag 3: (b)(i) Let eers daarop dat jy die hoeveelheid onderaan sy geboë oppervlak moet lees. Dit
val omtrent halfpad tussen die merk vir 36 ml en die merk vir 37 ml, so 'n redelike skatting
sal 36.5 ml wees. (ii) Daar is 3 beduidende syfers in hierdie meting. Jy weet dat die eerste
twee syfers (3 en 6) akkuraat is. Die derde syfer (5) is 'n skatting.

A Short Guide to Significant Figures 10