The document discusses key concepts in statistical inference including samples and populations, null and research hypotheses, types of errors, significance tests, effect sizes, and choosing appropriate statistical analyses. Statistical significance, confidence intervals, and replication are important aspects of drawing conclusions from research results.
The document discusses key concepts in statistical inference including samples and populations, null and research hypotheses, types of errors, significance tests, effect sizes, and choosing appropriate statistical analyses. Statistical significance, confidence intervals, and replication are important aspects of drawing conclusions from research results.
The document discusses key concepts in statistical inference including samples and populations, null and research hypotheses, types of errors, significance tests, effect sizes, and choosing appropriate statistical analyses. Statistical significance, confidence intervals, and replication are important aspects of drawing conclusions from research results.
The document discusses key concepts in statistical inference including samples and populations, null and research hypotheses, types of errors, significance tests, effect sizes, and choosing appropriate statistical analyses. Statistical significance, confidence intervals, and replication are important aspects of drawing conclusions from research results.
A FEW TERMS A FEW TERMS SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS 9 Inferential statistics are necessary because 9The results of a given study are based on data obtained from a single sample of researcher participants and 9Data are not based on an entire population of scores
9 Allows conclusions on the basis of sample data
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 9 Allow researchers to make inferences about the true differences in populations of scores based on a sample of data from that population 9 Allows that the difference between sample means reflects random error rather than a real difference NULL AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES 9 Null Hypothesis 9H0: Population Means are Equal 9Any differences between groups are due to chance alone
9 Research Hypothesis 9H1: Population Means are Not Equal 9Any differences between groups are due to the IV
9 Statistical Significance: Unlikely to be due to chance alone
PROBABILITY AND SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS 9 Probability: The Case of ESP 9Are correct answers due to chance or due to something more? 9 Sampling Distributions 9Assumes Null is True 9Binomial Distributions 9 Sample Size THE T TEST 9 t value is a ratio of two aspects of the data 9The difference between the group means and The variability within groups 9The between-groups difference t= within-groups difference SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION OF T VALUES EXAMPLE: THE T AND F TESTS 9 Degrees of Freedom 9The number of scores that are free to vary when making an estimate. 9 One-Tailed vs. Two-Tailed Tests 9Directional vs. vs Nondirectional Hypotheses? 9 The F Test (analysis of variance) Systematic variance / Between 9Systematic Between-Groups Groups Variance 9Error variance / Within-Groups Variance ONE-TAILED VS. TWO-TAILED TESTS What is a directional hypothesis?
Is a one-tailed test valid?
EXAMPLE: THE T AND F TESTS 9 Calculating Effect Size (r, Cohen’s d, η p , etc.) 2
9 Confidence Intervals and Statistical Significance
9 Statistical Significance TYPE I AND TYPE II ERRORS 9 Type I Errors 9Made when the null hypothesis is rejected but the null hypothesis yp is actuallyy true 9Obtained when a large value of t or F is obtained by chance alone 9 Type yp II Errors 9Made when the null hypothesis is accepted although in the population the research hypothesis is true 9Factors related to making a Type II error 9Significance (alpha) level 9Sample size 9Effect size TYPE I AND TYPE II ERRORS THE EVERYDAY CONTEXT OF TYPE I AND TYPE II ERRORS SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL & STATISTICAL ERRORS 9 Researchers traditionally have used either a .05 or a .01 significance level in the decision to reject the null hypothesis 9 A Agreementt that th t the th consequences off making ki a Type T I error are more serious than those associated with a Type II error 9Arlo’s Two Cents: It depends on context. 9 9e.g., A new drug d which hi h may cure AIDS
9 Interpreting p g nonsignificant g results 9Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. 9Nothing is ever proven or disproven! CHOOSING A SAMPLE SIZE: POWER ANALYSIS Power is a statistical test that determines optimal sample size based on probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis yp Power = 1 – p(Type II error)
Eff Effect sizes i range and dddesired i d power Smaller effect sizes require larger samples to be significant Higher desired power demands a greater sample size Researchers usually use a power between .70 70 and .90 90 IMPORTANCE OF REPLICATIONS Scientists attach little importance to results of a single study Detailed understanding requires numerous studies examining same variables i bl Researchers look at the results of studies that replicate previous investigations SIGNIFICANE OF PEARSON’S R CORRELATION COEFFICIENT Is the correlation statistically significant? Ho: r = 0 H1: r ≠ 0
It is proper to conduct a t-test to compare the r-value with the null
correlation of 0.00 ? COMPUTER ANALYSIS OF DATA 9 Software Programs include 9SPSS 9SAS 9Minitab 9Microsoft Excel 9 Steps in analysis 9Input data 9Rows represent cases or each participant’s scores 9Columns represent p apparticipant’s p score for a specific p variable 9Conduct analysis 9Interpret output SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE SIGNIFICANCE TEST IV DV Statistical Test Nominal Nominal Chi Square Male-Female Vegetarian – Yes / No Nominal (2 Groups) Interval / Ratio t test Male-Female Grade Point Average Nominal (3 groups) Interval / Ratio One-way ANOVA Study time (Low, Test Score Medium, High) Interval / Ratio Interval / Ratio Pearson’s Optimism Score Sick Days Last Year correlation SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE SIGNIFICANCE TEST 9 Multiple Independent Variables 9Nominal Scale Data – ANOVA Factorial Design 9Ordinal Scale Data – no appropriate test is available 9Interval or Ratio Scale Data – Multiple Regression
(Springer Series in Statistics) R.-D. Reiss (Auth.) - Approximate Distributions of Order Statistics - With Applications To Nonparametric Statistics-Springer-Verlag New York (1989) PDF
(Springer Series in Statistics) R.-D. Reiss (Auth.) - Approximate Distributions of Order Statistics - With Applications To Nonparametric Statistics-Springer-Verlag New York (1989) PDF
