Software

The term software refers to a general term primarily used for digitally stored data such
as computer programs and other kinds of information read and written by computers.
These programs are written for computer users. A software package is a program or a
set of programs together with a full set of documentation.

Examples of software
 A word processor program.
 A spreadsheet program.
Examples of software package
 A word processor program and its manual.
 A spreadsheet program and its manual.
Types of Software

There are two major types of software, system software and application software.

There are two main types of computer software; system software and application
software. System software includes the operating system, utility programs and
translation programs ( Compiler and Interpreter).

System Software Application Software

Control the hardware Perform real-world jobs that people want
to do.
OS usually allocate space on disk, control Word processing, spreadsheets, CAD,
peripherals, load software into RAM, payroll, stock control, computer game,
divide time according to the programs run. etc.

Operating Systems/ system software

Operating system/system software is software that controls the general operation of a

computer. System software are general programs designed for performing tasks such as
controlling all operations required to move data into and out of the computer. It
communicates with printers, card reader, disk, tapes etc. monitor the use of various
hardware like memory, CPU

Examples of Operating Systems

These include UNIX, MSDOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System), Windows 95/97/98/ NT,
Windows 2000, windows XP, Novell Netware. Mac OS and LINUX

Relationship between the System and Application Software

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The operating system acts as a bridge between applications software and computer
hardware. It also acts as a bridge between user and computer hardware. Users need
applications software to carry out the tasks that they require.

The applications software needs the operating system so that it can communicate with
the hardware and get it to carry out hardware related tasks such as printing or
transferring data to and from backing storage devices.
Applications software and computer hardware cannot function without an operating
system.

Us er

A pp l ic a t ions S of twa r e

O p e ra t i n g S y s t e m

Co m pu ter Har dwa r e

Functions of the Operating Systems

The operating system usually

 Create a working environment in which the user can run programs.
 Controls the use of peripherals such as disc unit and printers: accepting data
from input devices and transferring it to the computer’s memory, making sure
that any output is sent to the correct output device.
 Controls loading and running of programs: It deals with the loading of
applications software into memory and controls the execution, or ‘running’ of
them. It also provides a way for applications software to communicate with the
computer’s hardware.

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  Organise the use of the main store or it manages system resources: which
involves allocating memory space to programs and data, keeping track of which
parts of the memory have already been allocated and the parts that are still
free.
 Deal with execution errors and keep the computer running when they occur.
 Communicate directly with users and /or operators.
 Display messages about the errors and the problems with peripherals – such as a
printer out of paper.
 Deal with user commands to organise files and run programs.
 Multitask to allow more than one program to run at the same time.
For larger computer and networks
 Produce a record of programs as they are run
 Maintaining security
o Right identification by the use of password;
o Whether access to files is granted or not.

 Organise the use of storage.

 Working out the resources used by each program.

Types of Operating Systems

Single User, Single program

One application is run at the time and only one user works at the machine. MSDOS is an
example of a single user, single program.

A multitasking operating system allows two or more programs to run at the same
time.
The operating system does this by swapping each program in and out of memory in
turn. When a program is swapped out of memory it is stored temporarily on disk until it
is needed again. MS Windows is an example of a multitasking operating system.

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Backing Storage CPU
Program A
MAIN MEMORY

Program B
Program C
Multi-programming
More than one application program is held in RAM at the same time. This usually refers
to a large computer which is running different programs for different people.

Batch Processing
This accepts a list of jobs or data and process them at the same time without a need
for anyone to do anything more. The data is collected(batched), and then the
computer works through it. Examples include payroll and cheque processing.

Real-Time
These give an immediate response to data input. Examples include heart rate
monitoring and control situations such as traffic lights and aircraft navigation. Game
play also use real-time.
Note:
 All computers use operating systems.
 Operating systems are large and complex collections of software.
 Operating systems control the hardware so that the user does not have to.
 Operating systems are loaded from disk into RAM when a computer boots up.
 Application software works through the operating system to gain access to the
hardware.

A multi-user operating system lets many users at different terminals share processing
time on a powerful central computer. The operating system does this by switching
rapidly between the terminals giving each one in turn a small amount of processor time
on the central computer.

A multi-user operating system switches so quickly between the terminals that each
user appears to have uninterrupted access to the central computer. However if there
are a large number of users on such a system the time that it takes the central
computer to respond can become more noticeable.

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Utility programs

Utility programs are usually supplied along with an operating system and referred to as
system software. They are used to carry out routine tasks that are often needed by a
user such as:

 compressing a file to save space on backing storage.

 decrementing a disk drive.
 recovering data from damaged file.
 checking a disk for faults and repairing them.
 formatting a floppy disk.
 Checking the files on a disk for computer viruses.

Types of computer processing

A processing method is the way a particular operating system deals with input.

Batch Processing Systems:

Data or Programs are collected, grouped and processed at a later stage. Here a number
of jobs (batch) are stored in a job queue until the computer gets the instructions or is
ready to deal with them. OR
A batch processing system does not respond to input straight away. Instead, input is
collected together into a ‘batch’ while the system is off-line. When a batch is ready to
be processed the system goes on-line to carry out the processing of the data.

Batch processing is non-interactive. This means that the user cannot get an immediate
response to input as they would with an interactive system.
Examples of applications that use batch processing include producing gas, electricity or
water bills and marking OMR sheets from multiple choice examinations, payroll, Stock
control system and billing system.

Real time processing systems:

Real-time processing systems process input data so quickly that the resulting output
can affect further input. It is used for applications where it is essential that the

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computer responds straight away to input. It is the one, which processes data without
significant delay. Inputs immediately affect the output. Timing is critical. They are
capable of influencing the sources of the data eg control where data from sensors is
processed immediately and affects the output.

Timing is critical and the term real time control system. For example: Consider a
situation in bank where a customer makes a deposit or a withdrawal. If computers are
not updated right away, then the system is not real time system. It should processes
data without a significant delay. e.g. control of nuclear power plants, oil refining,
chemical processing and air traffic control system and banking.

Multi-access on-line or Multi user processing system

Users are linked by workstations to a central computer such as in a network or number
of users with terminals work online to the same computer, operating system switches
so quickly between the terminals that each user appears to have uninterrupted access
to the central computer. However if there are a large number of users on such a system
the time that it takes the central computer to respond can become more noticeable.
e.g. holiday or airline booking system, police service and online libraries.
NB: online means directly connected to a computer and under its control.

Multi-Programming:
Ability to run many programs apparently the same time e.g. Main Frame system, each
job is allocated small amount of processing time (time slot) in turn. E.g. Unix, Linux
and windows 2000.

Distributed System:
Processing is carried out independently in more than one location, but with shared and
controlled access to some facilities. Eg Database

Interactive processing:
The user has to be present and program cannot proceed until there is some input from
the user e.g. select menu at ATM, Microwave and playing games.

Single-user, Single tasking Operating system:

This Operating system designed to manage the computer so that one user can
effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm operating system for palm handheld
computer is good example of a modern single, single task.

On-line Processing:
Processing performed under the direct control of the CPU whilst the user remains in
communication with the computer.

Offline processing:

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Processing which is done away from CPU e.g. filing of OMR (Optical Mark Recognition)
cards and batching together clock cards.

Real time transaction:

Real-time processing systems process input data so quickly that the resulting output
can affect further input. It is used for applications where it is essential that the
computer responds straight away to input.
Input immediately affect the outputs but timing is not critical, each transaction is
completed online as it arises e.g. Booking system each booking is online and a database
of bookings can be amended interactively and very quickly whilst another user is looked
out so cannot double book or alter that record at the same time. Used in holiday and
airline booking system.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REAL TIME SYSTEM AND REAL TIME TRANSACTION

In real time, time is critical is critical and delays can be catastrophic but in real time
transaction systems there is no time critically e.g. Poor speed in air line control system
would be dangerous but poor booking speed would not be so crucial.

Interfaces

Operating systems provide user interfaces; a user interface is what the user sees and
works with when using a computer. A user interface consists of menus, prompts, icons,
cursor etc.

There are three types of user interfaces

1. Command driven interface
2. Menu driven interface
3. Graphical (GUI)

Command Line Interface (CLI) or Command Driven Interface (CDI)

With a CLI the user types a command to get something done. This type of user
interface is not easy to use if one is new to the interface/software, there are many
commands to learn and remember.
DOS, which stands for Disk Operating System, is a very commonly used command-
driven user interface.

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 CyberSoft(R) PC-DOS Version 5 The correct commands to copy
(c) Cyber Corp 1987-1996 the file are typed in by the
user at the keyboard

C:\DOS\> copy c:\fred.txt a:\

1 file(s) copied The operating system displays
a message to confirm that the
C:\DOS\>
command has been carried out
successfully.

Examples of commands
dir in MS-DOS and list in Linux– displays all the files that are stored in the current
directory
mkdir in MS-DOS – creates a directory in the current directory

Advantages of CLI
 Many IT professionals favor CLIs because they make up little RAM and are quick
to operate.
 Many commands can be grouped together as a batch file so that repetitive tasks
can be automated.
Disadvantages of CLI
 Many commands have to be learnt

Menu driven interface

These are interfaces that produce a list of commands/options that are available within
a program where the user is required to make a selection using a mouse or keyboard
The user is offered a simple menu from which to choose an option. One menu often
leads to a further menu. Part of the screen may have an instruction followed by a
numbered list of options to choose from:
A full screen menu takes up most of the screen.
A menu bar is the set of options at the top of the screen. When an option is chosen a
pull down menu may be offered.

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Advantages

 They are easy to use as the user does not have to remember sets of commands.
 They are user friendly - you can often guess your way around the options.

Disadvantages

 They can be irritating if there are too many levels of menus to move around -
with a command line interface you can go to the option required immediately.

Graphical User interface

A graphical user interface provides a way for the user to communicate/interact with
the computer with the use of pictures i.e. icons, pull down menus, buttons, dialog
boxes ect
GUIs are designed to be operated by a mouse so that items can be
 Selected by pointing and clicking
 Moved by dragging and dropping

WIMP systems are the most widely used type of graphical user interface.
WIMP stands for Windows Icons Menu Pointer. Options are represented by small
pictures or 'icons' arranged inside rectangular boxes called windows.

Advantages of GUIs
 They are easy to use without the need to know commands.
 For any application the interface is familiar
 The user environment can be changed easily

Disadvantages
 They require a lot of RAM to store the graphic images
 They require a lot of processing power to refresh the display
 A lot of disk space is needed to hold all the functions
 It is difficult to automate functions for expert users

A good user interface should:

 Be attractive and pleasing to the eye

 Allow the user to try out different options easily
 Be easy to use
 Use suitable colors for key areas
 Use words that are easy to understand aimed at the type of user
 Have online help

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It also should consider the needs of the users. For example, young children are likely to
prefer pictures to words and people with disabilities may benefit from particular input
or output devices.

Booting process

The starting of the computer‘s operating system and identifying its hardware and
software components that all work together to provide computing activities. This
explains what happens between the time that the user powers up the computer and
when the graphical user interface appear on the desktop.

In order for a computer to successfully boot, its BIOS (Basic Input Output system),
operating system and hardware components must all be working properly, failure of
any one of these three elements will likely results in a failed boot sequence.

When the computer’s power is first turned on, the CPU initilaizes itself, which is
triggered by a series of clock ticks generated by the system clock. Part of the CPU’s
initialization is to look to the system’s ROM BOIS for its first instruction in the start
up program.

ROM BIOS stores the first instruction, which is the instruction to run the power – on
self test (POST), in a predetermined memory addr4esss. POST bengind by checking
the BIOS chip and then tests CMOS RAM. If the POST does not detect a battery
falure, it then continues to initialize the CPU, Checking the inventoried hardware
devices such as video card), secondary storage devices, such as hard disk and foppy
drives, ports and other hardware devices such as the keyboard and mouse to ensure
they are functioning properly.

Once the POST has determined that all components are functioning properly and the
CPU has successfully initialized, the BOIS looks for an OS to Load.
The BIOS looks to the CMOS chip to tell it where to find the OS and in most PCs, the
OS loads from the C drive on the Hard disk even the BOIS has the capability to load
the OS from a floppy disk, CD or ZIP drive.

The order of divers that the CMOS looks to in order yo locate the OS is called the
boot sequence, which can be changed by altering the CMOS setup. Looking to the
appropriate boot drive, the BIOS will first encounter the boot record, which tell it
where to find the beginning of the OS and program file that will initialize the OS.

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Applications Software

Application programs or packages (groups of programs) are designed to enable the

computer to tackle a specific task, such as writing a letter. Application software caries
out user-related tasks and can be classified as off-the-shelf, custom written or tailor-
made.

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‘Off-the-shelf’ Package

Advantages

 The software tends to be relatively cheap as the cost of development can be

spread over a large number of users
 The software can be very sophisticated (e.g. Excel or Word) as the revenues
from a very large numbers of users means that a lot of resources can be applied
to it's development
 It is easy to get support and literature is usually widely available as there are
many other users using exactly the same software
 It is easy to share files produced by the software with others as chances are they
also have the software available to open the file

Disadvantages

 The software can be highly complex and will usually include large sections that
you will never use
 It tends to be a compromise. By it's nature it is designed for many different
types of users, each of whom will have different requirements
 As the software tends to be large and complicated it may take a long time to
learn properly (some of the most asked for additions to later versions of Word
were ones that already existed in the previous version)

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  You may have to alter the way that you work in order to fit in with the way that
the software has been designed
 There will probably be operations that you require that you simply cannot do
with the software
 As the same system can be bought by your competitors it is very difficult to gain
any competitive advantage from it's use

A general-purpose application package

A general-purpose application package is a type of software that can perform many

different related tasks. Word processors, spreadsheets, databases, graphics and
presentation software are all examples of application packages.
This type of software is sometimes called generic software. This means, for example,
that any one of the many different word processing packages that you could buy will all
do the same general sorts of tasks as each other

1. Integrated package

An integrated package combines many different types of application together in one

single package.
Integrated packages normally include facilities for word processing, spreadsheets,
databases, graphics, presentation and communications.

The advantages of using integrated packages are:

It is much cheaper to buy one integrated package rather than several separate
application packages;
Different applications have the same user interface;
Data can be transferred quickly and easily between applications;
They are much quicker to install than several separate application packages.

2. Specialist application software

Specialist application software performs a single very specific type of task. Programs
to work out payroll, calculate accounts, plan driving routes, work out income tax
returns, deal with stock control and handle appointments are all examples of specialist
application software.

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Special tailor-made or bespoke

software specially developed for the purpose.

Advantages

 It has been specifically designed for your particular requirements and can be
tailored to fit in exactly with the way that your business or organisation wishes
to operate.
 It can be customised to interface with other software that you operate with the
potential to provide you with a fully integrated IT infrastructure across your
whole organisation
 Users will usually find it easier and more intuitive to use as it should not contain
unnecessary facilities and should operate in the way that they are used to
working
 It is much more flexible than packaged software and can be modified and
changed over time as your requirements and business practices change
 You will receive much better support and can in many cases talk directly to the
developers concerned
 The use of professionally developed bespoke software applications can give you
a significant business advantage over your competition

Disadvantages

 The investment required will usually be much higher than with packaged
software. This is usually the biggest reason for not going down the custom route
- you need to undertake a business justification exercise and compare the costs
against the expected benefits and commercial advantages.
 A large investment in your time is required during the development process and
a bespoke application will take longer to implement.
 It can be difficult to get support for bespoke software, unless the developers
themselves offer support services.
 If you do not have the source code you are dangerously exposed and are wholly
dependent upon the developer's continuing existence and good will.
 If you pick the wrong developer you could end up with an application that is
unstable, unreliable and full of bugs

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Examples:

Word processing - for writing letters, reports and other documents.

Examples: Microsoft Word, Word Perfect.
Facilities include: editing of text, font & size changing, find & replace, spell checker,
word count, mail merging (combining data from a database with text in a standard
letter to produce customised letters).

Desk-top Publishing (DTP) - for producing posters, leaflets and newspapers.

Examples: Microsoft Publisher, Adobe PageMaker.
Facilities include: ability to import text and images from other programs or from disk
plus ability to position them individually on the page. Usually have some text editing
tools included.

Data handling - for creating databases.

Examples: Datapower2, Pinpoint, Microsoft Access.
Facilities include: creation & editing of fields, sorting and searching records and
displaying data in graphical or chart form.

Spreadsheet modelling - for producing invoices and cost plans. Can be used to create
models, simulations or expert systems for others to use.
Examples: Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3.
Facilities include: entry of formulas to perform calculations, also ability to display data
in graphical and chart form. Acts rather like a multifunction pocket calculator, but
once set up for a particular purpose there is no need to remember all the formula and
functions each time you use it.

Graphics package - for drawing and painting.

Examples: Microsoft Paintbrush, Serif Photoshop.
Facilities include: cropping, resizing, various digital filters, drawing, painting and
editing tools.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) - for floor layouts and product design.

Examples: 2D Design, AutoCad. Facilities include: various drawing and editing tools and
ability to scale accurately, sometimes in three dimensions and with ability to rotate in
any direction.

Presentation software - for demonstrations and lectures to live audiences.

Examples: Microsoft Powerpoint, RM Illuminatus.

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Facilities provided to produce and edit on screen multimedia presentations involving
text, images, video and sound.

Music software - for composing a musical performance.

Example: Sibelius.
Facilities provided to create, edit, store, print and play scripts; to record, process and
replay a variety of sounds via input from a music keyboard and other "midi"
instruments.

Programming Languages

All computer programs are written using a programming language. The program is a set
of instructions that the computer follows when it runs the program. Programs can be
stored in a computer's RAM or ROM memory or on some form of storage media.

Programming languages can be divided into 2 groups:

1) Low Level Languages

Low level languages - such as machine code/Language and assembly language. These
languages are simple for the computer to understand so are fast to run but they are
difficult for programmers to understand and debug. Machine code programs written for
a particular type of computer may not work on other types.

(a) Machine Language

Machine Language is the only language that is directly understood by the computer. It
does not need any translator program. We also call it machine code and it is written as
strings of 1's (one) and 0’s (zero). When this sequence of codes is fed to the computer,
it recognizes the codes and converts it in to electrical signals needed to run it. For
example, a program instruction may look like this:

1011000111101

It is considered to the first generation language.

Advantage

 The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast because
no translation program is required for the CPU.

Disadvantages

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  It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to know
details of hardware to write program.
 The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program which
results in program errors.
 It is difficult to debug the program.

(b) Assembly Language

Computer can handle numbers and letter. Therefore some combination of letters can
be used to substitute for number of machine codes. The set of symbols and letters
forms the Assembly Language and a translator program is required to translate the
Assembly Language to machine language. This translator program is called `Assembler'.
It is considered to be a second-generation language.

Advantages:

 The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to understand and

saves a lot of time and effort of the programmer.
 It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
 Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine level
language. Because this is one-to-one translator between assembly language
program and its corresponding machine language program.

Disadvantages:
 One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine dependent.
A program written for one computer might not run in other computers with
different hardware configuration.

2) High level languages

High level languages - such as BBC Basic, Visual Basic, Fortran, C++, COBOL, JAVA,
HTML and LOGO. These languages are often developed for a specific programming
purpose. They are written in a form which resembles English so they are much easier
for humans to write and debug.

All programming languages actually run as machine code. Assembly language is

converted before the program is run. High level languages are either translated into
machine code while they are running (slower but easier to make changes) or compiler
software converts the whole program into machine code before it is run.

Advantages of High Level Languages

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  Higher level languages have a major advantage over machine and assembly
languages that higher level languages are easy to learn and use. It is because
that they are similar to the languages used by us in our day to day life.
 Another advantage of high level languages is that they can be used on different
types of computer with little alteration.

Compiler

It is a program translator that translates the instruction of a higher level language to

machine language. It is called compiler because it compiles machine language
instructions for every program instructions of higher level language. Thus compiler is a
program translator like assembler but more sophisticated. It scans the entire program
first and then translates it into machine code.

The programs written by the programmer in higher level language is called source
program. After this program is converted to machine languages by the compiler it is
called object program.

A compiler can translate only those source programs, which have been written, in that
language for which the compiler is meant for. For example FORTRAN compiler will not
compile source code written in COBOL language.

Object program generated by compiler is machine dependent. It means programs

compiled for one type of machine will not run in another type. Therefore every type of
machine must have its personal compiler for a particular language.

Interpreter

An interpreter is another type of program translator used for translating higher level
language into machine language. It takes one statement of higher level languages,
translate it into machine language and immediately execute it. Translation and
execution are carried out for each statement. It differs from compiler, which
translate the entire source program into machine code and does involve in its
execution.

The advantage of interpreter compared to compiler:

 is its fast response to changes in source program.
 It eliminates the need for a separate compilation after changes to each program.
 Interpreters are easy to write and do not require large memory in computer.

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The disadvantage of interpreter:
 is that it is time consuming method because each time a statement in a program
is executed then it is first translated. Thus compiled machine language program
runs much faster than an interpreted program.

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Data and File Management

Information and Data

Information:
-Consists of facts and items of knowledge. Anything that is meaningful to people.
Information can be expressed in words, numbers, pictures, sound or measurements.

E.g. – a list of names and addresses,

- Contents of a letter,
- Song words or even a map.
Data:
Raw facts that will be processed. In a computer, before it can process information,
it is coded into a form that the computer can accept. This coded information is
called DATA.

e.g. - a letter stored in a disk,

- a telephone conversation converted into electrical signals for transmission,
- a date encoded as a six-figure number.

Types of Data

Analogue Data

It is the data represented by a quantity that varies continuously. The value of the data
item at a given time is represented by the size of the quantity, measured on a fixed
scale.

Examples of analogue systems are

- Some watches have an analogue display, where the hands move continuously
round a dial. The time is represented by the position of the hands on the dial.
- Conversations travel on an old telephone circuits as an analogue signal. The size
of the signal depends on the loudness of the speech. The words spoken show up
changes in the frequency of the signal.

Digital Data

Data is digital if some quantity in it can be set to a number of different separate values
or states. The combinations of these values represent data. Digital devices are usually
binary and the data is represented as a succession of 0s and 1s.

Examples of digital systems are

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 - An electronic calculator. The display is digital with the numbers in decimal. Each
digit can have any of the ten separate states (that is the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9). The circuits inside are digital with binary digits represented by 0
volts and 5 volts.
- Some watches have a digital display – digits shown on a little display screen
represent the time.
- Telephone conversation can be digital.

Characteristics of analogue and digital devices

Analogue
- The quantity use to represent data gets bigger or smaller depending on
the size of the data itself.
- Any value can be represented because the quantity can take any value in
the range used.

Digital
- With the device the quantity used can only take few different values –
usually only two.
- The data is held as a code.

Data Conversion

Data has to be converted into information by data converters

Conversi Process Conver

on (At (calculati sion (at
Information the Data being ng, data output the
Information keyboard sorting, screen,
or by storing printer,
mouse etc Input etc plotter

Converting information to data (Encoding and Decoding)

Encode

To encode data means to convert data into a form ready for processing.

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Information about an item is encoded into the bar codes, which are then printed on
item labels. This data can be input into a computer via a laser scanner on a POS
terminal at the till.

Decode
To decode means to convert data back to a form in which it can be understood.

 On a school data file, the names of the teachers are stored. For this two (2)
letters of the surname are used. Thus, Mr. Gaongalelwe can be stored as GN,
Miss Mmepe as MP and Mr. Williams as WI. The computer has a reference file of
these codes. To print out the name the computer uses the reference file to
decode the two letters. It can then print out the full name.

 An electronic circuit can be made to decode binary numbers into decimal

numbers.

Computers use a common code called American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII). An ASCII code is an 8-bit character code. A convenient grouping of
bits inside a computer is in sets of 8 bits. A set of eight bits is called a byte. A byte can
store an ASCII character with only one bit left.
ASCII characters and their binary equivalent are shown below.

Data Types
It is the term used to describe the kind of data used e.g. whether it is a number or a
letter.

Character: One of the symbols used to make up data. e.g. a letter (A…Z), a
punctuation mark or any digit of a number (0…9) etc. All keyboard combination
characters.
A string: A group of letters is called a string. e.g. “This is a string of letters”.
Alphanumeric data: made up of letters and numbers e.g. B 363 AHE.
Numeric data: Only numbers – both whole and fractional numbers.
Integers: complete numbers (whole numbers) either positive or negative.
Character set: this is a set of letters, digits and other symbols used for representing
data. These include numeric characters (digits), alphabetical characters (letters) and
even special characters (punctuation marks, mathematical symbols, etc).

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Data Capture/Collection
Data capture means collecting information for a computer.
Examples are:
 Asking people to fill in the questionnaires,
 Making measurements and keying in them into a key board,
 Collecting documents which have been filled in, and preparing them for a
keyboard operator.
 Taking pictures using a digital camera.

Advantages of Manual Data Capturing

1 Data is standardized
2 All records are set in the same way
3 People collecting data know exactly which data is required
4 It is not expensive thus it can be afforded by a small organization e.g. tuck
shop.
5 Suitable to remote area where there is no electricity and technical
assistants.
6 Need no skills
7 Cost less i.e. Needs only stationary, pen, pencil and paper.

Disadvantages of Manual Data Capturing

1 Slow process as it involves a lot of typing
2 Chances of errors are more as wrong data can be obtained/ entered.
3 Difficult to identify and recover errors.
4 Data is not much secured as it is captured in different forms.

Advantages of Automatic Data capture

1 Fast access as data is directly input into a computer.
2 It has a greater accuracy level as data is input directly which eliminates
chances of errors.
3 Data is much secure as different protection methods can be used such as
password.
4 Errors can be identified and recovered easily.

Disadvantages of Automatic Data capture

1 Devices Are expensive
2 Difficult to be afforded by everyone.
3 Needs skills.
4 Needs proper care and maintenance.

Advantages of POS terminals using barcodes

For the customer:

The time spent at the checkout is shorter
The customer’s receipts lists all the items bought by name
Stock control is improved to stock is fresher

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For the shop management:
Improved stock control means no waste of money or space on excess stock
Faster throughput at the checkout means fewer staff needs to be employed
Fewer errors are made at the checkouts.
For employees
There is relatively little keying to do

Methods of Data Capture

1. Automated data Capture

This is obtaining data directly by an input device.
For example
 using a document reader,
 Scanning pictures and text from documents,
 Using sensors for data logging,
 Scanning coded data such as bar codes and magnetic stripes
Advantages

 No data has to be keyed.

 There are a few errors or accuracies.
Disadvantages
 Many automated data entry/capture systems are expensive to set up. Therefore
a small shop may decide not to use the system.

Data Capture Forms

It is a form designed to have computer input data, written or filled on it.
e.g.
 A membership subscription form,
 A questionnaire,
 A turn around document.

Advantages
 Data is standardised – all records are set out in the same way.
 People collecting the data know exactly what data is required.

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Turnaround Documents

A form, which is produced by a computer, with more data, added to it and then input
to the computer again for processing.

E.g.
 At Omang offices renewals forms of the IDs can have an ID number already
written on it.
 In a club membership form, the computer will print the person’s membership
number on the renewal form.

Advantages

 Data, which is already known to the computer, does not have to be written or
keyed again.
 The computer can recognise each individual document, using information it has
already printed on it.

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DATA ENTRY CHECKS
Data Verification

It is the checking of the data, which has been copied from one place to another to see
if, it still represent the original data.
Example:
 In a computer bureau, data is being encoded onto a disc. A keyboard operator
reads the data from a source document and keys it at a key station, the data
being recorded on disc.
 The second operator, who re-keys it all, then verifies this data. The computer
controlling the key station checks the data stored against the data now being
typed and reports any discrepancies/differences, so that any errors can be
corrected.

Data Validation

It is the checking of data at the time of input. The software carries out the checking.
The check is to ensure that the data is accurate and reasonable.
Note: Validation is not the checking of data to make sure that it is correct. Verification
does that. Validation checks many data entry errors, but not all.

VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION TECHNIQUES

VERIFICATION CHECKS TECHNIQUES

Double entry: Is a method of verification which involves two people entering the data.
If the data is identical then it is accepted and processed. If one of them enters wrong
data, it will not be accepted and a message will be generated.

Proof Reading:

VALIDATION CHECKS TECHNIQUES

Validation programs will usually perform some or all of the following types of checks:

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Check digit: A check digit is a single digit placed at the end of numerical computer
data. The last digit of a barcode is a check digit. Check digits are numbers used to
verify that a barcode reader has read a bar code accurately.Check digits are used to
make sure that packets of information transmitted over a network have not changed.
A check digit is generated by applying a formula to the numerical computer data that is
to be read or transmitted. The computer data is sent to its destination along with the
attached check digit. The receiving computer can apply the same formula to the
received data and generate a check digit. If the check digit does not match the one
sent from the source then the receiving computer will know that a transmission error
has occurred. Usually this will mean that the packet of information is resent and
another check is made to see if it has been read correctly this time.
e.g.
 Bank account numbers, the ISBN of a book and scanned bar codes contain check
digits.
 ATM card pin number may contain a check digit.
 Bar codes for items sold in a supermarket.

PASTE THE HANDOUT FOR MODULE 11

Character type checks

Character type checks make sure that the right types of characters have been entered
and right type of digits have been entered or the characters does not include digits and
digits does not include characters.

Range check
Range checks are performed on numbers to make sure that they lie within a specified
range. If for instance, a program deals with retired pensions and all the recipients of
the pensions have to be 60 0r over then, if a typist enters 18 instead of 81, a range
check would detect this.

Presence check- checks that some data has in fact been keyed.

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When entering data into a database the completion of some field may be optional while
some may be compulsory.

Length checks-that it is of the right number of characters

Sometimes a certain item of information is always of a certain length: it contains a set
number of characters.

A table look-up: checks through a set of possible values to see if the data is one of
them.
Stock items are given a unique code to identify them. Whenever this code is used, it is
checked against a table stored by the computer to make sure that it is a valid stock
code. If the code is not in the table it is rejected, thus preventing
any processing using incorrect codes.

Parity Checks

Parity checks are used during transmission of data to detect errors that have been
caused by interference or noise. All data is transmitted as a sequence of 1s and 0s. A
common type of error that occurs during data transmission is that a bit is swapped from

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a 0 to a 1 or a 1 to a 0 by electrical interference. Parity checks detect this type of
error. A parity check works like this :

Transmission

1) When data is transmitted each character is encoded as a 7-bit binary number. e.g.
the letter ‘B’ has the code 1000011.

2) An eigth bit is added to make a byte. This bit is called a Parity Bit.

3) A system can use either even or odd parity -

 Even Parity : The parity bit is set to make sure there are an even number of 1s
and 0s in the byte.
 Odd Parity : The parity bit is set to make sure there are an odd number of ones
and zeros in the byte.

For example in an even parity system a parity bit of 1 would be added to the code for B
and it would be transmitted as 11000011.

Format Check: This checks that data is of the right format, that it is made up of the
correct combination of alphabetic and numeric characters. A National Insurance
number must be in the form of XX 99 99 99 X. The first two and the last characters
must be letters. The other six characters are numbers. The total length is nine
characters. Any other format is rejected

Example of verification of data

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Key to disc encoding – double entry
In a computer bureau, data is being encoded on to disc. A keyboard operator reads the
data from a source document and keys it at a key station, the data being recorded on
disc. A second operator, who keys it all, then verifies this data. The computer
controlling the key station checks the data stored against the data now being typed and
reports differences, so that any errors can be corrected.

Note
Validation may be carried out by the program, which is to process the data, or by a
separate program
Validation of data may include
1. A check to see it is in the right type format
2. A type check – that it is of the right type, e.g. a number
3. A length check – that it has the right number of characters
4. A range check – that it is within the range of possible values;
5. A presence check- that some data has in fact been keyed;
6. A table look-up – checking through a set of possible values to see if the data is
one of them

Examples of validation checks

1. A type check
1 A set of numbers to be totaled is checked to make sure that;
2 Each character is either a decimal digit or a decimal point;
3 There is at most one decimal point per number

2. A range check
Dates of birth are being input to a pupil record program. Before accepting a date
the program checks.
1 The day is between 1 and 31 inclusive
2 The month is between 1 and 12 inclusive
3 The year is in the correct range for pupil at the school

Note
The dates of birth could also be checked to see
That all parts of the date are numbered (a typed check)
That February has 29 days in a leap year and only 28 days in other year

Differences between verification and validation

Verification Validation
o Data is checked after o Data is checked at the
entry time of entry
o Done both manually and o Done by software
by software o Application to small
o Application to large data
data o Used to check accuracy

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 o Used to check o Criteria used
correctness of data
o No criteria used.

Presenting Information
Presenting information can be done using a word processor or desktop publishing.

Word Processing

Word processing means producing text such as letters and reports using IT. A piece of
text produced by a word processor is called a document.

Mail Merge
Many word processing can produce a set of letters by adding to them the name and
address of each person on a mailing list.
A standard letter is a letter, which an organisation stores on files because it is used
frequently. A personalized letter is a letter, which is made to look like a personal letter
by adding the recipient’s name, address and possibly other details.
A mail merge is the operation of producing a set of personalized letter by merging the
personal details with the standard letter.
Advantages:
 Mail merge allows an organization to produce a large quantity of letters quickly
and cheaply.
Disadvantages:

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  A mail merge sometimes makes it to easy to produce letters, which people do
not want. They may be regarded as ‘junk mail’.

Desktop Publishing (DTP)

Desktop publishing is the use of a computer system to produce page layouts of high
quality for printing or publication.

Characteristics

 Ability to divide the page into columns.

 A wide range of fonts, sizes and styles of text.
 Guides to position text and graphics.
 Flowing of text around the object and from page to page
 Options with package to produce text and graphics.
 Facilities to for moving pictures and pieces of text on the page and adjusting
their size to fit spaces.

Application of DTP
 Produce leaflets and posters.
 Produce newsletters and magazines.

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Database

A database is an organized collection of data for one or more purposes, usually in

digital form and sometimes on hardcopy. The data are typically organized to model
relevant aspects of reality (for example, the availability of rooms in hotels), in a way
that supports processes requiring this information (for example, finding a hotel with
vacancies).

Some examples of databases you may encounter in your daily life are:
 a telephone book
 T.V. Guide
 airline reservation system
 motor vehicle registration records
 papers in your filing cabinet
Database management system (DBMS)

A database management system (DBMS) is software that provides you with the software
tools you need to organize that data in a flexible manner. It includes tools to add,
modify or delete data from the database, ask questions (or queries) about the data
stored in the database and produce reports summarizing selected contents e.g. Access,
FileMaker, Lotus Notes, Oracle or SQL Server

COMPONENTS OF DATABASE TABLE

File:- File is a collection of related data. A data base file being structured as collection
of identically structured records made up of fields. A file has to have a name which is
recognized by the system consist of some kind of extension identify the kind of data in
the file.Example a document file of word-processing has extension doc representing a
document file.

Field: There are a couple of different explanations for field. (i) A column in a database
table. A database table is made up of records and fields. The rows are called records
and represent information about one person or thing. The columns are called fields. A
single record may contain information about one person such as their name, age,
gender, home address and phone number. In this example gender is the name of a
field for the database. (ii) A record is divided into parts called fields. A field contains
information about one thing in a record. For example the name field contains
information about a person’s name.
Field Type(data type) : Database tables contain rows called records and columns
called fields. The type of information allowed in a field is called the field type. Valid
field types include (i) Boolean, (ii) long integer, (iii) character, (iv) integer, (v)
currency. There are many more field types that can be used.

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Record:A row in a database table. A record is a set of related information about one
thing or person. For example a single record may contain information about a person
such as their name, age, gender, home address and phone number.
Key Field : A key is a data item that allows us to uniquely identify individual
occurrences or an entity type. You can sort and quickly retrieve information from a
database by choosing one or more fields (ie attributes) to act as keys.

There are several types of key field:

 Primary Key: The primary key of a relational table uniquely identifies each
record in the table. It can either be a normal attribute that is guaranteed to be
unique (such as Social Security Number in a table with no more than one record
per person)

 Foreign key: A foreign key is a field in a relational table that matches the
primary key column of another table. The foreign key can be used to cross-
reference tables

Regist_no Owner Make Model Colour

B 666 HHH M. Malaakatse Toyota Fong kong White

B 123 JKL J. Selomo Daihatsu Cuore Red

B 789 WQR S. Disiile Kia Sportage Navy blue

B 001 AAB S. Leso BMW 318i Silver

Records An item Fields

Directories

A directory is a small file on a disc, which is used by the operating system to locate
the other files on the disc.
The directory contains a list of names of files and the information needed to access
the files on the disc. The information given in a directory can include:

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  The size of the file in bytes,
 The time and date the file was written or used.

A directory can mean the area of a disc where files are stored. The main directory on a
disc is called the root directory. A sub-directory is a part of the root directory.

Types of Files

There four different types of files. These are:

Master File:- Is the principle source of data for an application. It holds data which is
mostly static but which can be added to or amended by updating as necessary during
processing. Such as Payroll, the master file (of all employees) is updated by a
transaction file of hours worked in current month.

Transaction file:- It is used to hold temporary data which is used to update the master
file. A list of transactions. In a business this might be a list of sales for the day. At the
end of the day the transaction file is merged with a master file to update such
information as shop stock levels and year to date sales totals.
Random/direct File:- Is a file in which each record is stored and accessed using the
physical address or its location. . A randomly organised file contains records arranged
physically without regard to the sequence of the primary key unique key.

Sequential file:- Is a file in which the records are stored sequentially, that is one after
one in a specific order. Records are held in a logical sequence and accessed in that
logical sequence.

Methods of organisation

The method of organisation of a file refers to:

 The way in which the records are arranged within the file;
 The method of working out where each record is stored in the file.

The main methods of file organization used for files are:

 Serial
 Sequential
 Random (or Direct)
 Indexed Sequential

Methods of file access

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The method of access to a file refers to the way in which a program reads data from a
file or writes data to it.

Immediate Access/Direct access/Random Access: Immediate access is the same as

random access. Where records are directly obtained without having to look at any
other record first. It is fast accessing method where record obtained without any delay.
A randomly organised file contains records arranged physically without regard to the
sequence of the primary key unique key.

Serial access: A method where the items are read, one at a time, from the physical
start of the file, in the order in which they stored, to read a serial file, a computer has
t read each record until it reaches the one required.
We have serial access data on a tape. To read information at some place in the middle
of the tape we must go through step by step through all proceeding parts of
the magnetic tape first. Magnetic tapes have high capacity and are cheap.
Alternatively, hard disks can also store a lot of data but they are much more expensive
to buy than tapes.
Sequential access: sequential access means that data in a memory array or a disk file
or on magnetic tape data storage) is accessed in a predetermined, ordered sequence.
Records are held in a logical sequence and accessed in that logical sequence. Where
the items are read, one at a time, from the logical start of the file, in key value order
because the records in a file held on a serial access device (Magnetic tape) need to be
stored into the order in which they are to be processed.

Indexed Sequential Organisation

Indexed Sequential file organization is logically the same as sequential organization,

but an
index is built indicating the block containing the record with a given value for the Key
field.
This method combines the advantages of a sequential file with the possibility of direct
access
using the Primary Key (the primary Key is the field that is used to control the sequence
of
the records).

Notes:

File stored in a tape cartridge are always serial or sequential access. A direct access
would involve too much movement of the tape forward and backward. Direct access
files can only be stored on a direct access medium (such as magnetic tape)

Advantages: of direct access over sequential

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Selected records can be accessed far more quickly from direct access.
Records can be accessed in any chosen order.
Records do not have to be put into any particular order before the file is created.

Advantages: of sequential over direct

Sequential files can be stored on the magnetic tape as well on discs.

It is usually easier to write programs to handle sequential files.

Reasons for choosing different methods of access

The choice of access depends on:

The number of records to be accessed.

If not many records are to be accessed, direct access should be used.
The size of the record.
For large files sequential searches takes a long time and direct access is better.
For a small file the time delay is not important and a sequential access is acceptable.
The type of storage medium being used.
On magnetic tape files have to be serial or sequential – direct access to tape files is not
practical.
Whether or not the application is interactive.
Sequential access is often suitable for batch processing.
On-line applications such as information retrieval usually need direct access.

Common process in database

 Updating files-To update a file means to alter it with new information.

Updating can involve:
 Insertion – adding a new record to a file;
 Deletion – removing a record from the file;
 Amendment – changing the items within the existing records.

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