WHAT IS THE NATURE OF THE DARK MATTER?

343

Because all gas molecules are moving in from the same direction, they “see” only the cross-sectional
area of this sphere. The accretion rate therefore equals the flow vs multiplied by the area of a circle
of radius R0 :
dM 4πγ 2 M 2
= π R02 vs = . (28.6)
dt vs3

Numerical example
We set vs = 0 and thus obtain an upper limit for the accretion rate. For vG we assume a value of
103 ms−1 (this corresponds to a temperature of about 100 K for hydrogen molecules). A typical value
for the density of an interstellar cloud is = 10−18 kg m−3 . The sun mass is M = 1.99 · 1030 kg, and
the gravitational constant is γ = 6.67 · 10−11 m3 kg−1 s −2 .
According to equation 28.4, it then results that
dM
= 8.86 · 1014 kg s −1
dt
= 2.79 · 1022 kg/year
= 4.67 · 10−3 M E /year
with the earth mass M E = 5.975 · 1024 kg.

Example 28.2: Motion of a charged particle in the magnetic field of the sun
If the sun moves through a cloud of interstellar matter, one has to take into account also electromagnetic
effects in the calculation of the mass accretion. These shall be estimated below in a simplified model.
The cloud shall contain both gases in ionized form as well as charged solid particles. We consider
the motion of a charged particle of mass m and charge q that moves from far away toward the sun in
the gravitational field and magnetic field of the sun.
For sake of simplicity we assume the magnetic field of the sun as being generated by a dipole
with the magnetic dipole moment µ (for a definition of the dipole moment, see Chapter III in Vol.
3: Electrodynamics). Moreover, we shall restrict ourselves to particles moving in the plane passing
through the center of the sun and being perpendicular to µ.
The Lorentz force acting on the particle in the magnetic field B in this plane is (see volume 3,
Electrodynamics):
q q ṙ × µ
Greiner, Classical
Fmagn = ṙ × B = , Mechanics (28.7)
c c r3
where c is the speed of light.
According to (26.10), the gravitational force reads
r
Fgrav = −γ Mm (28.8)
r3
with the sun mass M. Hence, the equation of motion of the particle is
r q 1
m r̈ = −γ Mm + ṙ × µ.
r3 c r3
In plane polar coordinates (r, ϕ) this equation, taking into account (10.11) and (10.12), reads
er q 1
m r̈ − r ϕ̇ 2 er + (r ϕ̈ + 2ṙ ϕ̇) eϕ = −γ Mm + ṙ er + r ϕ̇eϕ × µ. (28.9)
r2 c r3
344 THE EARTH AND OUR SOLAR SYSTEM 28

Because µ is perpendicular to er and eϕ , this equation may be split with respect to the two
components:
q µṙ
m(r ϕ̈ + 2ṙ ϕ̇) = − (28.10)
c r3
γ Mm q µϕ̇
m r̈ = − + + mr ϕ̇ 2 . (28.11)
r2 c r2
We begin with the first equation. The left side may be transformed such that the following holds:
m d 2 q µṙ
(r ϕ̇) = − . (28.12)
r dt c r3
Integration of this equation yields
 
qµ ṙ qµ dr qµ
mr 2 ϕ̇ = − dt = − = + constant (28.13)
c r2 c r2 cr
The integration constant may be set to zero if we require the boundary condition that at large
distances from the sun the particle shall have no angular momentum with respect to the sun (the left
side of this equation just represents the angular momentum).
By inserting the result 28.13 in equation 28.11, we obtain
γ Mm 2q 2 µ2
m r̈ = − + . (28.14)
r2 mc2 r 5
Because
d ṙ d ṙ
r̈ = = ṙ (28.15)
dt dr
we get
d ṙ γM 2q 2 µ2
ṙ = − 2 + 2 2 5. (28.16)
dr r m cr
Integration of this equation yields
2γ M q 2 µ2
ṙ 2 = − 2 2 4 + constant (28.17)
r m cr
With the boundary condition ṙ = 0 for r → ∞, we may set the integration constant to zero. There
is still another point rc at which the radial velocity vanishes. Solving the equation
2γ M q 2 µ2
− 2 2 4 =0 (28.18)
rc m c rc
yields
 1/3
q 2 µ2
rc = . (28.19)
2γ Mm 2 c2
Hence, a particle coming from outside can never approach the sun closer than to the radius rc .
The only particle parameter entering the formula for rc is the ratio q/m. The interstellar matter
typically contains two kinds of particles: atoms (mainly hydrogen) and solid particles. Solid particles
have a significantly smaller value for q/m than an ionized hydrogen atom and thus may approach the
sun much closer than the hydrogen atoms may do.
WHAT IS THE NATURE OF THE DARK MATTER? 345

An estimate of the magnetic field of the sun yields a value of rc of about 1010 km for hydrogen. The
actual value of rc should be somewhat smaller because hydrogen atoms are ionized only at velocities
of about 5 · 104 ms−1 , such that the boundary condition for equation 28.17 must be a distinct one.
In any case the minimum distance for hydrogen atoms lies in the external regions of the planetary
system where the large gas planets are actually localized.
For the solid particles one may assume that only their surface is ionized. One may then estimate
their q/m-ratio to be proportional to the ratio of surface to volume, that is, inversely proportional to
their radius. The radius of, for example, an interstellar dust particle is typically about 500 times larger
than that of a proton, such that for rc ∼ (q/m)2/3 there should result a value being by about a factor
of 100 smaller. This is just the radius of the inner planetary orbits.

Example 28.3: Excursion to the external planets

Many new insights about our solar system have been collected by unmanned space probes such as
Voyager I and II. The passage of Saturn by Voyager I (on Nov. 12, 1980) and of Voyager II (on Aug.
25, 1981) provided much new knowledge on this planet.35
The Cassini gap of the Saturn rings, caused by the largest moon Titan, is not empty but is also
interspersed by a number of narrow rings. The Saturn rings consist of countless individual rings, the
widths being about 2 km. Besides the classical 10 Saturn moons, 7 further ones with diameters of
less than 100 km have been detected.

20. Aug. 77
Neptune
5. Sept. 77 24. Aug. 89

2
ager Uranus
Jupiter Voy
5. Mar ch 79 24. Jan. 86
Saturn
Jupiter 25. Aug. 81
9. July 79 Voyag
er 1
Saturn
12. Nov . 80 Pluto
Aug. 89

Typical pearl string configuration of the exterior planets with the orbits of the Voyager space probes
shown. Note the “swing-by” maneuver, i.e., the optimized passages of the planets by the space probes
in a kind of “planet swing.”

35 The discussion of this problem goes back to suggestions of students of the mechanics course in Frankfurt,

using material from various sources.