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Elements Of Mechanical Engineering project report, Fabrication and

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Technical Report · December 2023

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29620.63369

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COURSE BASED PROJECT
REPORT

N Krishna Reddy,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
VNRVJIET.
 A Course-Based Project Report on
FABRICATION & AND MEASUREMENTS
OF DIMENSIONS OF A TURBINE BLADE
BY -3D PRINTING & VERNIER CALIPERS
Department of Mechanical Engineering

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of the course

ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY (22SD5ME101)

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by
N. KRISHNA REDDY
SHARLEEN ELISHA V
HRIDAY K

Under the guidance of

Mr. K Krishna Murthy
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VNRVJIET

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

VALLURUPALLI NAGESWARA RAO VIGNANA

JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
An Autonomous Institute, NAAC Accredited with an ‘A++’ Grade, NBA
Vignana Jyothi Nagar, Pragathi Nagar, Nizam pet (S.O), Hyderabad – 500 090, TS,

DECEMBER 2023
Academic year- 2023-2024
1|Page
 VALLURUPALLI NAGESWARA RAO VIGNANA JYOTHI
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
An Autonomous Institute, NAAC Accredited with ‘A++’ Grade, NBA Accredited for CE, EEE, ME, ECE,
CSE, EIE, IT B. Tech Courses, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to JNTUH, recognized as
“College with Potential for Excellence” by UGC, ISO 9001:2015 Certified, QS I GUAGE Diamond Rated
Vignana Jyothi Nagar, Pragathi Nagar, Nizam pet(SO), Hyderabad-500090, TS, India

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the “Fabrication of turbine by 3D printing” project report is

Bonafide's work done under our supervision and is being submitted by
Mr. N Krishna Reddy (23071A0338),
Miss. N Namratha (23071A0337),
Miss. N Sai Deepika(23071A0339),
Mr. P Shashi Vamshi (23071A0340),
M. Sai Srinija(23071A0335)
MOHAMMED ABDULLA (23071A0333)
MOHAMMED AKHIF (23071A0334)
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Information Technology, of the VNRVJIET, Hyderabad during the academic year
2023-2024.

Mr. K Krishna Murthy Dr. B Satyanarayana

Assistant Professor,
Mechanical Engineering Professor & HOD,

2|Page
 VALLURUPALLI NAGESWARA RAO VIGNANA JYOTHI
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
An Autonomous Institute, NAAC Accredited with an ‘A++’ Grade,
Vignana Jyothi Nagar, Pragathi Nagar, Nizam pet(SO), Hyderabad-500090, TS, India

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DECLARATION

We declare that the course-based project work entitled “FABRICATION OF

TURBIN BY 3D PRINTING” submitted in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Vallurupalli Nageswara Rao Vignana Jyothi Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Hyderabad, in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the
degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering is a Bonafede record
of our work carried out under the supervision of Mr. K Krishna Murthy, Assistant
Professor, Department of Mechanical engineering, VNRVJIET. Also, we declare
that the matter embodied in this thesis has not been submitted by us in full or in any
part thereof for the award of any degree/diploma of any other institution or university
previously.
Place: Hyderabad.

N. NAMRATHA 23017A0337
N. KRISHNA REDDY 23071A0338
N. SAI DEEPIKA 23071A0339
P. SHASHI VAMSHI 23071A0340
M. SAI SRINIJA 23071A0335

3|Page
 APPROVAL CERTIFICATE

Viva-Voice examination conducted for the dissertation work entitled

“FABRICATION AND MEASUREMENT OF TURBINE BLADE BY 3D
PRINTING & VERNINER CALIPERS” is conducted on………………
and the work is approved for the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Mechanical Engineering award.

INTERNALEXAMINER EXTERNALEXAMINER

4|Page
 INDEX

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
CONTENTS iii
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF TABLES x

5|Page
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our deep gratitude to our beloved President, Sri. D. Suresh Babu, VNR Vignana
Jyothi Institute of Engineering & Technology for the valuable guidance and for permitting us
to carry out this project.
We sincerely thank our beloved Principal, Dr. C.D Naidu, with immense pleasure, for
permitting us to carry out this project.
We express our deep sense of gratitude to our beloved Professor Dr. B Satyanarayan, Associate
Professor and Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VNR Vignana Jyothi Institute of
Engineering & Technology, Hyderabad-500090 for the valuable guidance and suggestions,
keen interest, and encouragement extended throughout project work.
We take immense pleasure in expressing our deep sense of gratitude to our beloved Guide, Mr.
K Krishna Murthy, Assistant Professor in Mechanical Engineering, VNR Vignana Jyothi
Institute of Engineering & Technology, Hyderabad, for his valuable suggestions and rare
insights, for his constant source of encouragement and inspiration throughout my project work.
We thank all those who contributed to the successful completion of our project work.

6|Page
 ABSTRACT

The advent of 3D printing, also referred to as additive manufacturing, has brought about a
paradigm shift in various industries. This abstract delves into the ever-expanding role of 3D printing in
upcoming technological sectors and its transformative effects on the field of engineering.

The versatility of 3D printing technology allows for the creation of intricate objects through a layer-by-
layer fabrication process, granting unprecedented design freedom and customization. Within the realm
of technological industries, 3D printing has found applications in aerospace, healthcare, automotive,
and electronics, among others. The ability to manufacture complex geometries with precision and
efficiency has resulted in improved product development cycles, cost reduction, and increased
innovation.

In the aerospace industry, 3D printing has revolutionized the production of lightweight yet durable
components, optimizing fuel efficiency and overall performance. Similarly, in healthcare, the ability to
create customized implants and prosthetics tailored to individual patients’ needs has transformed
medical treatments. The automotive sector benefits from rapid prototyping and the creation of
lightweight structures, contributing to enhanced fuel efficiency and design optimization.

One of the notable advantages of 3D printing lies in its positive environmental impact. By minimizing
material waste during the manufacturing process and enabling local production, it aligns with
sustainable practices. Furthermore, this technology facilitates on-demand production, reducing the
necessity for large inventories and warehouse space.

Within the engineering field, 3D printing has disrupted traditional manufacturing methods by
streamlining the prototyping phase and expediting product development. Engineers can now iterate
designs rapidly, test concepts more efficiently, and bring products to market at an accelerated pace. The
ability to produce intricate parts with complex internal structures, which were previously unattainable
or prohibitively expensive, has expanded the possibilities in engineering design.

In conclusion, 3D printing has emerged as a revolutionary technology with profound implications for
various industries. Its versatility, cost-effectiveness, and ability to produce intricate designs have
transformed aerospace, healthcare, automotive, and engineering sectors. With its positive
environmental impact and potential for innovation, 3D printing continues to shape the future of
manufacturing and design.

KEYBOARDS: 3D printing, Additive manufacturing, Technological industries,

Engineering, Versatility, Design freedom, Customization, Aerospace, Healthcare,
Automotive, Electronics, Precision, Efficiency, Product development cycles, Cost
reduction, Innovation, Lightweight, structures, Rapid prototyping, Environmental
impact, Sustainable practices, On-demand production, Material waste reduction, Local
production, Engineering design, Prototyping, Iterative design, Product development,
Traditional manufacturing, Internal structures, Innovation.

7|Page
 CONTENTS Pg.no

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION 10

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY 11

CHAPTER 3
WORK METHODOLOGY 12
3.1 work methodology of 3d printing 13
3.2 TYPES OF PROCESSES IN 3D PRINTING 14
3.2.1 Stereolithography (SL) 15
3.2.2 Fused deposition modeling (FDM) 15

3.2.3 Powder bed fusion (PBF) 16

3.2.4 Selective laser sintering (SLS) 17

3.2.5 Binder jetting (BJ) 18

3.2.6 Direct energy deposition (DED) 19

3.2.7 Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) 19

CHAPTER 4 20
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS USED IN
VARIOUS 3D PRINTING PROCESSES

4.1 Materials used in stereolithography. 20

8|Page
4.2 Materials used in fused deposition modeling. 21
4.3 Materials used in selective laser sintering. 23
4.4 Materials used in powder bed fusion. 24
4.5 Materials used in binder jetting. 25
4.6 Materials used in direct energy deposition. 26
4.7 Materials used in laminated object manufacturing. 26

CHAPTER 5
FABRICATION OF TURBINE BLADE BY
3D PRINTING

5.1 Input Measurements for fabrication of 3d printing. 28

CONCLUSIONS 38
REFERENCES 39

9|Page
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
In recent times, the field of engineering has undergone a significant transformation due to the
emergence of 3D printing technology. This revolutionary innovation has not only
revolutionized traditional manufacturing processes but has also opened new possibilities in
design, prototyping, and production. The purpose of this project report is to delve into the
introduction of 3D printing, exploring its fundamental principles and emphasizing its crucial
role in the current engineering landscape.

Introduction to 3D Printing:

3D printing, also referred to as additive manufacturing, is a groundbreaking technique that

enables the creation of three-dimensional objects by building them layer by layer from digital
models. This method stands in stark contrast to conventional subtractive manufacturing,
introducing unparalleled flexibility and precision. Despite its seemingly simple process, the
impact of 3D printing on various industries, such as aerospace, healthcare, and automotive,
cannot be overstated.

The Role of 3D Printing in Today's Engineering:

In the modern realm of engineering, 3D printing has emerged as a game-changer, fostering

innovation and pushing the boundaries of what was once considered feasible. This technology
has empowered engineers to streamline the prototyping process, reduce time-to-market, and
optimize the manufacturing of intricate components. As we delve into the multifaceted
applications of 3D printing, particular attention will be given to its transformative role in the
fabrication of turbine blades.

Fabrication of Turbine Blades through 3D Printing:

Turbine blades, which are critical components in the energy sector, require exceptional
precision and durability. Traditional manufacturing methods face challenges in achieving the
intricate geometries necessary for optimal performance. This report explores how 3D printing
addresses these challenges by offering unparalleled design freedom, customization of
materials, and intricate layer-by-layer fabrication. We will delve into the advantages and
considerations associated with 3D-printed turbine blades, shedding light on the potential for
enhanced efficiency and sustainability in the energy production sector.

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 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY

Chuck Hull – He is widely recognized as the individual responsible for inventing

stereolithography and co-founding 3D Systems Corporation. His groundbreaking work has
established the fundamental principles for the entire additive manufacturing industry.

Carl Deckard - He is credited with the development of selective laser sintering (SLS), a
technique that has revolutionized 3D printing. By utilizing lasers to sinter powdered materials,
Deckard introduced a method that enables the creation of intricate and functional prototypes.

Scott Crump - The co-founder of Stratasys, has played a pivotal role in the advancement
of fused deposition modeling (FDM), a highly popular 3D printing technique. FDM involves
the gradual deposition of material layer by layer, making it an essential tool for rapid
prototyping and manufacturing.

Hod Lipson - A distinguished robotics engineer and professor at Columbia University, has
made significant contributions to the fields of 3D printing and robotics. His research focuses
on the development of self-aware and self-replicating robots, pushing the boundaries of
complexity and autonomy achievable through 3D printing technology.

Joseph DeSimone - A chemist and entrepreneur, co-founded Carbon, a company that

introduced Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP). This resin-based 3D printing
technology revolutionized the field by enabling faster and more precise printing compared to
traditional methods. DeSimone's significant contributions have propelled the capabilities of 3D
printing, particularly in terms of speed and material options.

Avi Reichental - He held the position of CEO at 3D Systems and played a pivotal role
in expanding the company's influence within the 3D printing industry. Under his guidance, 3D
Systems successfully diversified its portfolio, exploring applications in healthcare, aerospace,
and consumer products. Reichental's leadership was instrumental in driving the company's
growth and establishing its presence in various sectors.

Neri Oxman - a renowned designer, and professor, has made significant contributions
to the intersection of art, design, and 3D printing. Her innovative work revolves around the
concept of "material ecology," which combines biology and 3D printing to create sustainable
and groundbreaking designs. Oxman's exploration of the potential of 3D printing showcases
its ability to push the boundaries of creativity and sustainability.

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 CHAPTER-3
WORK METHODOLOGY

One will conclude a machine as a 3D printer if it comprises the three properties that are, three-
dimensional, additive, and layer based. An additive process is adding different substances to
make the desired substance. Let's say if we want to bake cupcakes, we take an empty bowl and
add ingredients, one by one until we get the finished batter, this is an additive way to make it.
Another way to make a cupcake is, can buy a big cake and cut away everything to give it the
shape of a cupcake. This is a subtractive process, wherever we tend to begin from a bigger part
and take away everything that's not needed. Examples of subtractive manufacturing would be
manual wood carving, CNC machining or laser cutting, etc.
In 3D printing, which is an additive manufacturing process, we start with the fundamental
design of the part we want to model [55]. The said design is created on computer software that
is attachable to 3D printers. This software then generates a special type of file to be sent to the
printer. The 3D printer reads that file and creates the product by adjoining one layer over the
other [22]. Almost every process in 3D printing uses layers to form a part. 3D printers read the
parts as a single two-dimensional layer at a time rather than a whole single part. The working
of 3D printers as shown in Fig. 1 is based on the fact that they are designed to read Standard
Tessellation Language (STL) file type.

The sustainable aspects of 3D Printing such as less material wastage, less post processing and
very less cost even for manufacturing complex parts makes 3D Printing a technology of the
future. The other sustainable aspects include the potential of 3D printing to reuse plastics,
recycle and reduce emissions. The technology is also capable of producing designs with
complex and optimized geometries, which help in developing parts with light weight and
better strength to weight ratios. Therefore, the use of 3D Printing helps to produce designs
which are sustainable.

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3.1 WORK METHODOLOGY OF 3D PRINTING

3D printing is an additive process in which the object is created by placing successive layers
of material until the whole object is created. The beginning of 3D printing starts with the
development of computer-simulated blueprint of the object which you want to produce. This
object can be designed either on any 3D modeling software program such as AutoCAD
(Computer Aided Design), Wings 3D, Autodesk 123D, etc. or with the use of any 3D scanner.
3D scanners like Handy SCAN 3D™ are optimized to develop the most precise measured
replica objects. The object is modeled into hundreds or thousands of horizontal layers by any
of the 3D modeling software. Then the same file is uploaded in the 3D printer to create the
object layer by layer

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3.2 TYPES OF PROCESSES IN 3D PRINTING

In order to satisfy the need for printing intricate models with high resolutions, methods of AM
have been developed. Rapid Prototyping has played an important part in the advancement of
AM technologies. AM Technologies are based on three main types which are sintering-
whereby the temperature of the material is raised without being liquified to compose complex
sharp resolution prototypes, melting- where electron beams are used to melt the powders and
stereolithography- which uses a method referred to as photopolymerization, which uses an
associate ultraviolet laser. This laser is dismissed over a photopolymer resin vat so that torque-
resistant ceramic components are ready to encounter the utmost temperatures [2]. As per
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials), AM has been divided into seven
processes which include VAT Photopolymerization, Material Jetting, Binder Jetting, Material
Extrusion, Powder Bed Fusion, Sheet Lamination, and Direct Energy Deposition [3]. Some of
the main methods have been addressed in depth in the subsequent sections focusing on the
work involved in each process, benefits and drawbacks, materials used in different processes,
and applications of various 3D printing processes.

3.2.1. Stereolithography (SL)

Era of 3D printing started in the late 20s and SL is the earliest 3D printing process ever
introduced in the market and the first ever 3D printers set in motion were stereolithographic/ SL
machines that were used to manufacture 3D models, 3D prototypes, 3D parts and patterns.
Although many studies in the area of 3D printing were conducted in the 1970s, this process
was introduced and patented by Charles Hull in 1984 [4].
Before defining the term Stereolithography, one needs to understand how the SL
process works. To begin the process, a CAD file is generated on the system and this file is
converted into STL file type. This STL file type provides the geometric data required by a 3D
printer to manufacture an object. The four main parts which contribute to the formulation are
ultraviolet (UV) curable photopolymer liquid, perforated table, laser source, and a computer to
control the process. After reading the STL file type, 3D printers start working in such a way
that the perforated table gets immersed in the liquid tank. As the table moves downwards, the
liquid polymer encounters the table through the perforated holes. The instant the liquid comes
in contact with the table, the UV laser hits the upper surface of the photo liquid polymer making
it hardened instantly. This table then again moves downward, to create a layer-by-layer
geometry and each consecutive layer is fused starting with the base layer. After the completion
of the last layer, the 3D printed part is immersed into another resin so that the 3D printed model
gets separated from the liquid polymer. After this process, the bonding between all the layers
gets strong in that particular resin and this 3D printed model is now allowed to bake in a UV
curing oven. Inside this oven, at the predetermined temperature, all the layers harden up,
strength increases, and the desired surface finish is obtained. Thus, all these processes finally
lead to the finished object. Now, we are in a position to define the term SL, stereolithography
(SL) is outlined as a method of 3D printing during which liquid photopolymer is born-again
into 3D objects with the assistance of a Stereolithographic/ SL machine.

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3.2.2. Fused deposition modelling (FDM)
FDM is a procedure that uses thermoplastic filament that has been parched to its melting point
and then thrust out layer upon layer toform a 3D object [5], [50]. FDM technology was
introduced by Scott Crump during the early Nineteen Nineties by Stratasys INC, USA
introduced this. The 3D printers used for FDM contain a support base that is related to some
degree of freedom and it has an arrangement such that it will move in a vertical direction.
Aboard with the bottom plate, there's an associate extruder that connects the filament and is
liable for heating of the filament up to its freezing point and so extrudes it layer by layer with
the assistance of a nozzle to form the required object. The extruder has the supply to maneuver
in all three directions (x, y and z). The reason that it's called fused deposition modeling is that
the adjacent layers get consolidated to one another whereas deposition is completed by the
extruder and therefore the 3D printer is liable for modeling of the item [57]. Counting on the
surface end needed, the ultimate product is dipped in resin as similar in the SL method.

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3.2.3. Powder bed fusion (PBF)
A PBF process uses a thin layer of powder to build a plate and energy source, such as a laser
or an electron beam fuses, to fuse the powder in accordance with the geometry of the
component made [6]. This process allows the laser to selectively deliquesce powders layer-by-
layer, resulting in three-dimensional sections. PBF processes unfold pulverized material over
the antecedental joined layer, preparing it for the subsequent layer's process, resulting in a
distinct rather than continuous output (nevertheless every layer is conjoined to vicinal layers).
A hopper delivers the pulverised powder, which is then spread evenly over the powder bed to
create platform space by a roller or brush. Conditions of processes and content used determine
the best thickness of each sheet of unfolding powder. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Electron
Beam Melting (EBM) Selective Laser Melting (SLM), Direct Metal Laser Melting (DMLM)
and Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) are all names of Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) [6].

3.2.4. Selective laser sintering (SLS)

Dr. Carl Deckard and Dr. Joe Beaman of the University of Texas at Austin invented this method
in the mid-nineteen eighties [7]. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) is a rapid prototyping method
that enables the creation of detailed geometry by consolidating consecutive powdered material
layers over one another [8]. The solidification of layers takes place with the help of CO2/
Nitrogen lasers counting on the sort of surface end and fusion needed. During this method, the
chemical compound powder is employed for the aim of producing the object. The powder may
be of thermoplastic, ceramics, glasses, metals, etc. If the powder used is created from metal,
then this method is thought of as Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS). SLS printers are
composed of two chambers, the transfer of power takes place from the first chamber to the
second one, where actual manufacturing occurs. The powder is heated at a temperature below
the melting point of the equivalent substance. The leveler or roller present at the top surfaces
the powder by forming layers. After the manufacturing gets completed, finishing operations
are required.

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3.2.5. Binder jetting (BJ)
Binder Jetting uses a modified version of Inkjet technology. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) introduced this process [9]. Instead of using lasers to bind this process, it
uses an inkjet to bind the objects. It uses a 2D printer technology in inkjet and goes up in layers
forming a 3D project. In this process, with the help of a printhead, moving on two axes, a liquid
binder is precisely deposited. This process also begins like any other 3D printing process, that
is by creating a 3D drawing and then importing it into printer software. Since constant supply
is required during printing, thus, a dispenser ensures that supply by placing powder in it that is
to be used. Following the application of a powder sheet of varying thickness, the printing head
attaches the binder according to the specification. Before continuing onto the subsequent layer,
the solvent containing the binder is desiccated using fluorescent or electric lamps. After that,
the powder bed is de-escalated, and a new sheet of powder is applied. The binder is then placed
in a furnace after the completion of the cycle. Factors such as temperature and time required
are dependent on the nature of the binder used. The metals and ceramic parts must undergo
sintering, in-filtration, heat treatment, or hot isostatic pressing before being used. However,
most of the metals and plastic materials do not require any post-processing and are ready to use
as soon as they come out of the printing systems [10,11].

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3.2.6. Direct energy deposition (DED)
Unlike alternative 3D printing processes, this method is employed for repair and maintenance
instead of producing components. DED methods make it easier to create materials by melting
material when it is deposited [12]. The equipment used for the DED process consists of
the deposition head which is an integration of energy source and two powder feed nozzles. In
this process, either the metal powder is fed or a thin wire can also be fed. The particular part
which is to be fabricated is kept on a platform and in some cases, inert gas tubing is also present.
The direction of the deposition head (which is depositing the powder beam and conjointly the
laser beam) is a 4 or 5 axis machine. The DED process uses a centered heat supply (electron
beam or laser) and then as it solidifies, the material is affixed layer by layer, repairing and
making new material objects on the already present products.

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3.2.7. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
Helices Inc.(now Cubic Technologies) in 1991 headquartered in California, commercialised
LOM [13]. It is a rapid prototyping process that fabricates models by paper, plastic, or
metal laminates which are successfully epoxied together, and therefore the desired form of the
item or model is cut employing a laser cutter. The process starts with a sheet joined to a
substrate with a heated roller and manoeuvring a laser or a mechanical cutter, the following
layers are cut accurately and then glued successively i.e (forming followed by bonding) or vice
versa (i.e bonding followed by forming) [1]. The platform which has the completed layers
move downwards and the contemporary sheet of metal is rolled into the position while the
platform goes back to its original position to receive the next layer. The method is to be
continued till the prototype is produced. UAM may be a subset of LOM that combines
lamination with ultrasonic metal seam connection and CNC milling.

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 CHAPTER-4
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS USED IN
VARIOUS 3D PRINTING PROCESSES

After going through the various types that are incorporated into 3D printing the next question
that comes to our mind is what some of those materials are that are used in these processes and
what are the viability of those materials, what kind of properties do they provide, and for which
process and applications we use them. Therefore, based on these parameters’ material aspects
have been elaborated in the following sections specific to each 3D printing process.

4.1. Materials used in stereolithography.

Stereolithography, as the term itself explains, is an optical manufacturing method in which UV
rays are applied to liquid monomers, also called photopolymer resin, to tie them together to
form polymers (enabling them to cross-link together). These polymers are then solidified layer
by layer to keep the pattern according to our wishes.
In a method called photopolymerization, SL uses a UV laser to curate liquid resin into
hardened plastic [15].
Stereolithography consists of additives namely stabilizers, flexibilities, monomers/oligomers,
solvent, photo-initiators, and reactive diluents etc. Table 2 groups together, the materials and
their properties along with their applications [16].
Table 2. Materials, properties and applications in SL method.
Materials Properties Applications/ Industries
DC 100 Lesser shrinkage with higher Used for the casting of patterns for pieces of
accuracy. jewelry.
DC 500 Like wax in nature and can easily For the making of precise and thinner wire
burn out. patterns of jewellery which can't be easily
copied using methods for molding rubber.
DL 350 Highly flexible and resistant to Used to produce parts for industrial as well as
fatigue and chemicals etc. Similar general purposes.
to polypropylene.
DL 360 Strong and transparent in nature. Produces parts for general purposes and
industrial uses which require transparent
properties.
AB 001 Provides good strength and Used for producing parts that are strong and
stiffness and electrical smooth in nature.
characteristics.

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Materials Properties Applications/ Industries
GM 08 Highly flexible, strong and elastic, Produces parts that don't require further
along with transparency comprises finishing operations.
its nature.
DM 210 Great surface qualities and Used for jewellery patterns that require liquid
including ceramic-type properties. silicone that can be extracted quite easily from
rubber.

4.2. Materials used in fused deposition modeling.

These materials have resistance to UV radiation, hardness, translucency, and biocompatibility,
among other characteristic properties. This is a widely used AM process that needs
a continuous filament which uses thermoplastic content as input [16]. Table 3 details the
properties and applications of several material classes and their examples.
Table 3. Materials, properties, and applications in FDM method.
Material class Materials Properties Applications
Thermoplastic Polylactic acid (PLA), Properties associated Because of their
Polymer Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene with this include great thermal
(ABS), ABSi, High Density toughness and strength, resistance
Polyethylene (HDPE), UV stability, good properties, they
Polyphenylsulfone (PPSF), chemical resistance, and are suitable for
Polycarbonates (PC), high fatigue resistance aerospace and
Polyethylene terephthalate along with the high aerodynamics
glycol-modified impact strength. They application.
(PETG), Ultem 9085, possess high tensile and
Polytetrafluoroethylene flexural strength etc.[16]
(PTFE), Polyether Ether Ketone
(PEEK), Recycled Plastics,
Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate
(ASA), Nylon 12, etc.[16]
Polymer Glass Fiber Reinforced plastic Compatibility with Constructional
Matrix (GFRP), Carbon Fiber toughness, ductility, applications.
Composites Reinforced Polymer yield strength, etc.
(CFRP).[17]
Ceramic Alumina, Zirconia, Kaolin.[18] Chemical and physical General purpose
Slurries and stability, heat resistance, uses along with
Clay and compatible thermal the applications
conductivity, strength in dental field as
and hardness. well.
Green Zirconia, Calcium Resistance to chemicals Structures
Ceramic/ phosphate.[19] and corrosion, great suitable for bone

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Material class Materials Properties Applications

Binder compatibility with substitute

Mixture respect to fracture scaffolds[19],
toughness, hardness, and for making
wear-resistance, and piezoelectric
thermal resistance good components.
frictional behavior,
lower electrical and
thermal conductivity and
non-magnetic in nature
etc.[20]
Green Metal/ Stainless steel, Titanium, Providing binder For the
Binder Inconel.[21] viscosity, flowability, manufacturing of
Mixture greater sintered density, mechanical parts
leads to the used in tooling
homogeneous and fixtures etc.
microstructure of
parts.[21] Results in
strong, light and
corrosion resistant
properties etc.
Food pastes Sugars and Chocolates Flowability Cooking
Biological Bioink [23] Easy to print, with Bioprinted
Materials desired mechanical organs and
properties, can be easily scaffolds.
biodegraded, and we can
easily install modifiable
functional groups on the
surface, the better ability
of post-printing
maturation, biologically
compatible and capable
of retaining the 3D
printed structure after it
is printed.[24]

4.3. Materials used in selective laser sintering.

A laser is used in this method as the power source for the sintering of granulated material
(usually polyamide or nylon), as detailed by a three dimensional model the laser is
automatically directed at predefined places in space, binding the material together in order to
create a strong structure. It is comparable to Selective laser melting (SLM), working on the
same principle but requiring different technical conditions. This laser is used over powders

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which have lesser melting or sintering temperature, on the other hand, a liquid binder is
otherwise used. SLS is used with various polymers, alloys, and metal powders while SLM is
generally applicable in case of certain metals like steel and aluminum [25]. Table 4 presents a
comparative study of materials incorporated in this process.
Table 4. Materials, properties, and applications in SLS method.
Laser Materials Properties Applications
CO2/N2 Polymers including Characterized by an ideal Prototype making in
Polyamides [26], sintering behavior like a the early design
Polycarbonates, Polystyrene semi-crystalline process, automobile
(PS), Thermoplastic thermoplastic [26], high parts, hardware, etc.
Elastomer (TPE), toughness, thermal stability,
Polyaryletherketone (PAEK) etc.
Nd:YAG Ceramics Great hardenability, Aeronautics,
mechanical strength, better biomedical,
thermal and chemical metallurgical
stability, and usable thermal, application.[28]
electrical, optical, and
magnetic characteristics.[27]
Yb-Fiber Glasses such as fused Silica, Chemical resistance, thermal Glass filters, medical
Borosilicate Glasses.[29] stability, etc.[29] and chemical
field.[29]
Metals Good thermal conductivity Varied applications
hence, used in case of in various industries.
selective laser melting

4.4. Materials used in powder bed fusion.

The method consists of fine layers of quiet minute particles of powder, which are dispersed
and tightly bound on a platform [1]. PBF is one of the rapid manufacturing processes in which
a thermal source for example a laser is used to initiate partial or complete merging between
particles of powder and is rolled over with a roller or blade re-coater to further smoothen the
powder layer. The combining process of the PBF method includes melting and sintering [16].
Examples of PBF methods are SLS process [30,31], Electron Beam Melting (EBM) method
[32,33], and selective laser melting (SLM) method. The materials, properties, and applications
incorporated in PBF are mentioned below in Table 5 and Table 6 [16].
Table 5. Materials, properties and applications in SLM method.
Materials Properties Applications
Titanium (Ti Resistance to Corrosion and thermal Its applications are included in but not
) expansion with great biological limited to design, medical, automotive,
compatibility, along with the high aerospace, marine industry, and jewelry
strength and lower density. industries, etc.

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Materials Properties Applications
Stainless Increased resistance to wear and These materials have extensive
Steel tear, corrosion, along with application in automotive industry,
compatible ductility, hardness, and maritime and medical technology,
hardenability. toolmaking and in varied areas of
mechanical engineering.
Aluminium Light metal with lower density and These components are used in aerospace
(Al) better electrical conductivity along engineering, automotive industry, in the
with alloying properties and easy to area of prototype construction, marked
process abilities. with complicated geometries.
Cobalt- Biologically compatible, with In the medical and dental field, and
Chrome increased hardness, corrosion industries requiring greater thermal
resistance with comparable strength resistant properties for example in jet
and ductility. engines.
Nickel based Great weldability and hardenability Used in aerospace engineering and fields
alloys along with the resistance to requiring thermal resistant properties also
corrosion and outstanding have applications in tool making.
mechanical strength.
Table 6. Materials, properties and applications in EBM method.
Materials Properties Applications
Titanium Resistance to Corrosion and thermal Building of prototypes for aerospace and
expansion with great biological racing fields, in the marine, chemical
compatibility, along with high industry and also used in medical
strength and lower density. applications such as orthopedic implants
and prosthesis.
Cobalt- Increased strength and wear In power generation, orthopedics,
Chrome resistance, biologically compatible, aerospace and dental fields.
with thermal capabilities.

4.5. Materials used in binder jetting.

Binder jet AM process that is also known as "Powder bed and inkjet" & "drop-on-powder"
printing. Their examples of material are summarized in Table 7 below [16].
Table 7. Materials, properties and applications in BJ method.
Materials Properties Applications
Stainless Resistant to heat and Used for parts of pump, drilling and mining
steel corrosion with greater machinery.
tensile strength.
Ceramic Highly permeable as well as Steel alloys are casted using this and can also be
beads better thermal properties. used for printing of cores that have to bear high

24 | P a g e
 metallostatic forces and subsequent stress
conditions during casting.
Inconel Supplementing the product Used for the manufacturing of gas turbine blades,
alloy with good mechanical for producing steam generators used in pressurized
properties and even greater nuclear water reactors, seals and also in pressure
density. vessels, these are widely applicable in the aerospace
industry.
Iron Provides better mechanical Applications are in the production and repairing of
properties and is also automotive components, tooling, and also in
excellent wear resistant. machine tools, along with this they are also popular
in decorative hardware.

4.6. Materials used in direct energy deposition.

In one fundamental aspect, the operating concept of a DED process differs from that of PBF in
that, here the high dense and powerful laser concentrates on a steady stream of powdered
material that are laid down on the substance itself instead of a layer of metallic powder that are
pre-deposited [16]. The following Table 8 presents the comparative study of materials and
their properties [34].
Table 8. Materials, properties and applications in DED method.
Materials Properties Applications
Titanium Resistance to corrosion and thermal expansion Used for repairing works in
with great biological compatibility, along with the automation and aerospace
high strength and lower density. industry.
Aluminium Light metal with lower density and better Filling of cracks and refitting
electrical conductivity with alloying properties of manufactured parts.
and easy to process abilities.
Stainless Resistant to heat and corrosion with greater Repairing of turbine engines,
steel tensile strength. and other such complex
applications.
Copper Malleable, ductile, and better surface finish. Industrial applications.
Inconel, Good mechanical properties and greater Aerospace, biomedical
Ceramics density. applications.

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4.7. Materials used in laminated object manufacturing.
The two major types of sheet lamination methods are defined as follows, first one is such that
in this process laser is used to cut the material sheets and the process is known as Laminated
Object Manufacturing (LOM) or the second one in which these sheets are joined by ultrasound
and the process is described as ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) [16]. The
following Table 9 is the culmination of some of the materials along with their properties and
applications [1].
Table 9. Materials, properties and applications in LOM method.
Materials Properties Applications
Polymer Good thermal conductivity, adhesive bonding. Paper industry.
Composites High modulus, low density, excellent resistance to Paper industry etc.
fatigue, etc.
Ceramics Chemical and physical stability, resistance to heat, Foundry and forging
and compatible thermal conductivity, strength, and industries.
hardness.
Paper Good conductor of electricity. Electronics
industry.
Metal Filles Tapes, Better mechanical properties. Applicable in smart
Metal Rolls structures.

CHAPTER-5
FABRICATION OF TURBINE BLADE BY 3D PRINTING

Turbine wheels, pivotal components in energy generation systems, require a delicate balance
of strength, aerodynamics, and intricate geometry. Traditional manufacturing methods have
encountered difficulties in achieving the precise specifications necessary for optimal turbine
performance. However, the emergence of 3D printing technology has revolutionized the

26 | P a g e
manufacturing process by enabling the layer-by-layer construction of complex structures
directly from digital models.

The utilization of 3D printing in the fabrication of turbine wheels represents a significant shift
in the industry, allowing engineers to surpass the limitations of conventional manufacturing
processes. This innovative technology provides designers with unprecedented freedom to
create intricate and customized geometries, optimize fluid dynamics, and enhance the overall
efficiency of turbine systems. Furthermore, the ability to produce lightweight yet robust turbine
wheels with intricate internal channels opens up new possibilities in energy production.

There are numerous advantages associated with 3D-printed turbine wheels. Firstly, this
technology reduces material waste, as it only uses the necessary amount of material for
construction. Additionally, the intricate cooling channels incorporated into the design enhance
the thermal performance of the turbine. Moreover, 3D printing offers the potential for on-
demand production and customization, addressing the evolving needs of the energy industry
and providing a more sustainable and adaptable approach to turbine fabrication.

As we delve into the intersection of innovation and energy production, the fabrication of turbine
wheels through 3D printing emerges as a symbol of progress. This report aims to explore the
technological intricacies, material considerations, and real-world implications of adopting 3D
printing in the creation of turbine wheels. Ultimately, it seeks to illuminate a path towards more
efficient, sustainable, and advanced energy systems.

5.1. Input Measurements for fabrication of 3d printing.

For fabrication of a turbine blade by 3d printing we will be needing a well-designed CAD

model of a turbine wheel, This model is should be accurately designed in all views and sides
including inner and outer dimensions for accurate output.

27 | P a g e
The procedures for designing are as follows:

*Sketch the Blade Profile:

Start a new sketch on the plane where you want to create the blade profile.
Use lines, arcs, and splines to create the shape of the blade.

*Extrude the Blade Profile:

Extrude the 2D sketch to create a 3D blade. Set the extrusion length based on your design
requirements.

*Create Twist and Curvature:

Use tools like the Twist or Bend feature to introduce the desired twist and curvature to the
blade.

28 | P a g e
*Define Thickness and Airfoil Shape:
Modify the blade to have the desired thickness and adjust the airfoil shape if needed. This may
involve sketching additional profiles along the length of the blade.

*Add Fillets and Chamfers:

Round off edges using fillets to reduce stress concentrations. Chamfers can also be added for
specific design considerations.

*Refine Blade Geometry:

Use additional sketches and features to refine the blade geometry. This may include adjusting
the leading and trailing edges or adding features for better aerodynamics.

29 | P a g e
*Check for Interferences:
Ensure there are no interferences or overlaps in the design. Make necessary adjustments to
avoid any issues during printing.

*Export as STL:
Once satisfied with the design, export the model as an STL file. STL is a standard file format
for 3D printing.

Prepare for 3D Printing:

Import the STL file into your 3D printing software.
Orient the blade for optimal printing, considering factors like support structures and build
orientation.

*Adjust Printing Parameters:

Set printing parameters such as layer height, infill density, and support structures based on your
3D printer and material specifications.

*Slice and Generate G-Code:

Use the 3D printing software to slice the model and generate G-code that your 3D printer will
understand.

30 | P a g e
*3D Print the Turbine Blade:
Load the G-code into your 3D printer and initiate the printing process.

The output model we obtained will be much smaller than the original model that we provided
into the 3D printer.
The reasons for this are as follows:
Material Shrinkage:
Most 3D printing materials, especially thermoplastics like PLA or ABS, can experience a
certain amount of shrinkage as they cool down. This is particularly noticeable in the early layers
of the print.

31 | P a g e
Slicer Settings:
Incorrect slicer settings can lead to dimensional inaccuracies. Make sure that the printer
settings, such as the filament diameter and nozzle size, match the actual specifications of your
3D printer.
Calibration Issues:
If your 3D printer is not properly calibrated, it can result in size variations. Check the
calibration of your printer, including steps per millimeter for each axis and the extruder.
Cooling and Warping:
Rapid cooling of the material can cause warping, especially in large and flat prints. Warping
can lead to a reduction in the size of the printed object.

Print Bed Adhesion:

If the first layer does not adhere properly to the print bed, it can affect the overall dimensions
of the print. Ensure good bed leveling and proper adhesion techniques.

32 | P a g e
Over-Extrusion:
Over-extrusion, where more material is extruded than the slicer anticipates, can lead to an
increase in the size of the printed object. Conversely, under-extrusion can result in a smaller
print.

Print Speed:
Extremely high print speeds can sometimes cause inaccuracies in the dimensions. Adjusting
the print speed in the slicer settings may help.

Print Head Size:

The physical size of the print head/nozzle can affect the details of the print. Ensure that the
slicer settings match the actual size of the nozzle.

33 | P a g e
OUTPUT MODEL OF TURBINE BLADE

DEPTH

Turbine MSD VSD VSR ZE OR CR

Radius 61 9.4 0.188 0 9.588 9.588
Depth 20.45 7.1 0.142 0 20.592 20.592
Outer 10.7 0.5 0.01 0 10.71 10.71
radius
Inner 6 0.6 0.12 0 6.12 6.12
radius

The above-mentioned are the measurements for the output model. By this we can understand
that 3D printing plays a vital role in generating prototype models for practical applications and
engineering studies, which allows engineers to study more accurately based on their projects
they are working on.

Use of vernier calipers in measuring the Turbine Blade

Portability and Convenience:

Vernier calipers are portable and convenient tools that can be easily carried and used in various
settings. Their compact size and lightweight design make them ideal for on-the-go
measurements, allowing users to take precise readings wherever they are needed.

34 | P a g e
measurements, allowing users to take precise readings wherever they are needed.

2. Non-destructive Measurement: One of the key advantages of using vernier calipers is their
non-destructive nature. Unlike other measuring tools that may cause damage or alteration to
the object being measured, vernier calipers provide a gentle and non-invasive way to obtain
accurate measurements without compromising the integrity of the material.

3. Educational Significance: Vernier calipers hold great educational significance as they are
frequently utilized in teaching environments to introduce students to the concepts of precise
measurement and the functioning of precision instruments. By using vernier calipers, students
can develop their understanding of measurement techniques and enhance their practical skills.

4. Versatile Applications: With their ability to measure both external and internal dimensions,
as well as depth, vernier calipers offer versatility in various fields. From engineering and
physics to manufacturing and quality control, these tools find extensive applications in
industries where precise measurements are crucial for ensuring the accuracy and functionality
of components.

5. Enhanced Precision: The finely calibrated scale of vernier calipers enables users to achieve
a higher level of precision compared to simpler measuring tools. By utilizing the vernier scale
and aligning it with the main scale, measurements can be interpolated to a greater degree of
accuracy, allowing for more precise and reliable results.

6. Accurate and Reliable Readings: Vernier calipers are designed to minimize parallax errors,
ensuring that readings are not distorted by the observer's perspective. By aligning the zero point
on the main scale with the closest aligned mark on the vernier scale, users can obtain accurate
and reliable measurements, making vernier calipers a trusted tool in various industries.

35 | P a g e
7. Quality Control and Inspection: In industries where precision is of utmost importance,
such as manufacturing and aerospace, vernier calipers play a vital role in quality control
processes. By using these calipers, manufacturers can ensure that components meet specific
dimensional specifications, thereby maintaining high standards of quality and reliability.

8. Measuring a Range of Dimensions: Vernier calipers excel in measuring various

dimensions, including length, diameter, and thickness. This versatility makes them
indispensable tools in a wide range of applications, allowing for precise and comprehensive
measurements in diverse settings.

9. Fine Scale Graduations: The vernier scale on vernier calipers provides finer scale
graduations, enabling users to carry them easily for on-site-measurements, inspections or field
works.

36 | P a g e
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the emergence of 3D printing technology has brought about a revolutionary
period in the realm of engineering, profoundly impacting various aspects of manufacturing,
particularly in the production of turbine blades. The ability to transform intricate design
concepts into tangible and precise structures has significantly enhanced efficiency and
innovation within the engineering domain.

The application of 3D printing in the manufacturing of turbine blades has proven to be a game-
changer, offering unprecedented benefits such as enhanced customization, reduced production
costs, and accelerated prototyping. The complex geometries and intricate structures inherent in
turbine blades, which were once considered challenging to manufacture, can now be seamlessly
achieved through advanced 3D printing techniques.

Furthermore, the utilization of 3D printing has not only streamlined the manufacturing process
but has also resulted in the development of turbine blades that are lighter, stronger, and more
durable. This has contributed to overall efficiency and performance in various industries,
including aerospace and energy. The shift towards additive manufacturing has not only
optimized the utilization of resources but has also minimized waste, aligning with
contemporary sustainability objectives.

Beyond the realm of turbine blades, 3D printing has sparked a paradigm shift in the field of
engineering as a whole. The technology's ability to rapidly iterate, facilitate intricate designs,
and enable the production of complex prototypes has fueled unprecedented levels of
innovation. Engineers now have the freedom to explore unconventional designs and push the
boundaries of what was once considered impossible.

In essence, 3D printing has not only revolutionized the manufacturing processes of specific
components like turbine blades but has also transformed the entire landscape of engineering.
As we embrace the era of additive manufacturing, the engineering field stands at the forefront
of a technological revolution, where creativity and efficiency converge to redefine the realm of
possibilities.

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3903-6_10

44 | P a g e
Introduction
This article will take an in-depth look at sand casting.

The article will bring more detail on topics such as:

• Sand Casting, its Construction, and Methods

• Types of Casting Sand
• Applications and Advantages of Sand Casting
• And Much More…

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Chapter 1: Sand Casting Construction and
Methods
Sand casting is thousands of years old, having been first introduced in 1000 BCE.
Over the centuries since, it has had improvements in process controls, material
options, tolerance capabilities, the intricacies of parts, and the range of part
sizes but with slight changes in the types of metals used. The results of
engineering, innovation, and development has made sand casting the most
versatile and widely used metal casting method.

What is Sand Casting?

Sand casting is a manufacturing process in which molten metal is poured into a
sand mold containing a hollow cavity of the desired shape. After a period of
time, the casting cools and solidifies. The sand is then broken away and shaken
out. Casting materials for sand casting include metal, concrete, epoxy, plaster,
and clay.

Sand Casting

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Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured
into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then
allowed to solidify. Casting materials include metal, concrete, epoxy, plaster, and
clay. This article will focus on sand casting.

Parts manufactured using sand casting come in a wide range of sizes and
weights and have complex geometries using a variety of metals. The use of sand
as the casting material significantly reduces the cost of the casting process. In
the metal mold process, the machining of the molds accounts for a large portion
of the costs.

With sand casting, the type of sand used in the process depends on whether the
sand will be reused or disposed of. In green sand sand casting, the molds are
reusable while in the dry sand casting process, the sand is thrown away.

Sand casting is used for metals with high melting temperatures, such as
titanium, steels, and nickel and is the only casting process that can work with

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those materials. It is the choice of the aerospace and automotive industries for
producing low cost, small series parts.

Components of a Sand Casting Mold

The making of the sand casting mold usually requires four components which
are:

Base Sand
The base sand is the sand that is utilized to create the mold in its purest form. A
binding agent is necessary to keep it together. The core is also made of base
sand. The following are the most prevalent varieties of base sand:

• Silica sand
• Olivine sand
• Chromite sand
• Zircon sand
• Chamotte sand

Binders or Binding Agents

The binding agents are the glue that holds the sand particles together. The
following are the most frequent types of binders:

• Clay and water

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 • Oil
• Resin
• Sodium silicate

Improvement Through Additives

Additives are used to improve the mold surface finish, its strength,
refractoriness, and cushioning.

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Parting Compounds
This can be a fine powder or liquid used to facilitate pattern removal from the
mold.

Sand Casting Methods

Sand casting is a centuries old manufacturing process that developed in China
around 1600 BCE. At the time, it was used to produce statues, decorative
ornaments, and artifacts. With the introduction of airplanes and automobiles in
the 20th century, sand casting became an essential part for producing highly
accurate parts with exceptional tolerances. Since then, ancient sand casting has

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been improved, adjusted, changed, and engineered to be a vital part of 21st
century parts and components production.

It is estimated that 70% of metal castings in the world are completed using sand
casting. It is an essential production method for the manufacturing of engine
blocks, cylinder heads, pump housings, valve bodies, and gearboxes.
Bedding-In Sand Casting
The 'bedding-in approach' can also be used to form the solid cylindrical design.
The drag is partially filled with molding sand and rammed in this technique. The
pattern is driven into the sand after enough pounding. To ensure accurate sand
ramming, the sand near the pattern is tucked and slammed tightly.

The pattern may be removed for the sand to be examined for soft patches on
the surface. If there are any soft patches, ramming with more sand is done until
the sand is tightly packed. To ensure a well rammed mold chamber, the pattern
is forced downward, again.

The dividing line should be level with the surrounding smooth sand surface
when bedding-in. The drag does not need to be rolled over when a pattern is
bedded in. When employing pit molding to make larger molds, bedding-in can
be used.

False Cope Sand Casting

Another method for molding the solid cylindrical design is the false cope
technique. In this process, the sand is rammed tightly beneath the pattern. The
design is bedded into the coping without regard for sand ramming beneath the
pattern, resulting in a smooth parting surface.

After dusting the cope and pattern with separating sand, the drag section of the
flask is placed on top of the cope and is followed by the standard ramming
procedure. The completed assembly is gripped and rolled over on a sand bed
and the clamps, cope, and cope bottom board are removed and destroyed. The
empty cope is placed on the drag and rammed. In this case, the cope is a
dummy block that is used to create the drag and is referred to as a 'false cope.'

Flat Back Sand Casting

With flat back sand casting, the mold cavity is on the drag side, the cope side, or
both. With an unmolded cope, a sprue is placed in the drag to form the flat back
to help with the pouring and cooling of the molded part. The pattern is placed
into the drag box, covered in sand, and rammed. This is used for simple flat back

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parts or for a flat back part that will be joined to its other half in the joining of
the cope and drag.

With simple flat back parts, the rammed pattern is removed and gates and
sprues are inserted to allow molten metal to be poured into the mold. When flat
back sand casting has the pattern in the cope and drag box, the cope is placed
over the drag box and an identical or similar pattern is placed over it and
rammed such that the two patterns make a firm complete impression.

The cope and drag box are separated and the patterns are removed after which
the cope and drag box are placed back together and tightly sealed to keep the
upper box from floating. Gates and sprues are added for the pouring of the
molten metal. Once the metal has cooled and solidified, the part is removed and
finished.

Skin Dried Sand Casting

In skin dred sand casting, a thin layer of sand is placed over the mold cavity and
dried by a heater, torch, heat lamp, or the ambient air. The dried skin layer
provides an exceptionally smooth surface finish and is made up of fine grain
sand mixed with a binder. Molten metal is poured into the mold cavity filling the
space between the pattern and the skin sand layer.

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As with all forms of sand casting, the sand is removed when the part cools and
solidifies. The skin dried process is ideal for parts that require an extremely
smooth and uniform surface, such as engine, aerospace, and machinery parts.

Water Glass or Sodium Silicate Sand Casting

Sodium silicate sand casting is a form of green sand casting where sodium
silicate is used as the binder. The use of sodium silicate allows for rapid
production of the casting mold and involves curing the sand and sodium silicate
with carbon dioxide (CO2), which instantly hardens the mold. Prior to the
hardening process, other materials, such as resin, oil, cellulose, or
polysaccharide, are mixed with the sodium silicate such that it will break down
when removing the casting.

Sand is mixed with a sodium silicate solution and packed around the pattern for
the casting. CO2 quickly cures and hardens the mold. Once the mold is solidified,
the pattern is removed from the hardened mold and molten metal is poured in.
The cooled and solidified part is broken from the mold and the materials are
disposed of.

Water glass sand casting is used for the manufacture of complex and intricate
parts since the sand is capable of creating complicated shapes and patterns. It is
an inexpensive process that involves little machinery but produces castings with
rough uneven surfaces that require finishing.

Vacuum Sand Casting

Vacuum sand casting, known as the V-process, uses a thin sheet of plastic that is
draped over the pattern that has been vented such that a vacuum can be pulled
through it. A vacuum flask is placed over the plastic covered pattern and is filled
with sand, which is vibrated to compact it. A sprue and pour cup are placed in
the cope. A second sheet of plastic is placed over the sand, and a vacuum is
drawn through the sand and plastic sheets that hardens and strengthens the
sand.

The process is repeated for the formation of the drag. The molten metal is
poured while the cope and drag are under the vacuum. During the process, the
plastic vaporizes as the vacuum maintains the shape in the sand as the molten
metal slowly solidifies. Once the part is cooled and set, the vacuum is removed.

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Vacuum sand casting is known for tolerances of ± 0.01 in and ± 0.002 in with
cross sections as thin as 0.090 in (2.3 mm). Surface finishes are excellent without
moisture defects, the cost of a binder, and no toxic fumes.

Shell Sand Casting

Shell sand casting uses a resin coated sand to form a shell like mold, which is
heated until it hardens. After the formation process, the shell is assembled and
molten metal is poured into it and allowed to cool. Once the metal has cooled,
the shell is broken and the part is removed.

The process for shell sand casting or molding is more expensive than traditional
sand casting, which makes the cost of parts higher. Shell sand casting requires
fewer steps, creates far less waste, and is cost effective for its accuracy and
efficiency. Additionally, shell molding can produce parts at a faster rate in large
quantities.

The main distinguishing feature of shell sand casting is its resin coated molds,
which make shell sanding casting more precise and accurate than traditional
sand casting. In a single step, intricate, complex, and detailed components are
quickly manufactured with smooth even surfaces with exceptionally accurate
dimensions and tolerances that removes the need for secondary finishing.

How Sand Casting is Done

When sand casting, several steps are followed which include:

Producing the Pattern – Desired Product

A reusable pattern with the same details as the desired completed product is
used in the process. A pattern is always made larger than the final part to give
an allowance for thermal contraction or shrink. Shrinkage allowance will account
for the contractions that occur as a casting cools to room temperature.

Liquid shrinkage is a reduction in volume that occurs when a metal transitions

from a liquid to a solid form. To compensate for this, the mold has a riser that
feeds liquid metal to the casting. Solid Shrinkage: When a metal loses its solid
state temperature, it shrinks in volume. To account for this, shrinkage allowance
is included in the patterns.

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The machining allowance will cover the extra material that will be eliminated in
order to produce a completed product. The rough surface of the cast product
will be eliminated in this process. The size, material properties, distortion,
finishing accuracy, and machining method all influence the machining allowance.
To ensure that the pattern is removed safely, all surfaces parallel to the pattern
removal direction are tapered slightly inward. This is known as draft allowance.

Pattern Creation – Gates and Risers: Metal Delivery System

The metal channels that will feed the required cast product design with proper
gating and risers are also included in the pattern. This regulates the metal flow
and requires gas venting while driving the unavoidable thermal contraction to
acceptable places (other than the actual desired finished product).

Depending on the volume and tolerance required, patterns are manufactured of

a variety of materials, including wood, metal, synthetics, expandable polystyrene
(EPS), and others. In other circumstances, such as pipe fittings, the component’s
interior must be hollow. In such circumstances, extra patterns known as cores
must be created.

55 | P a g e
Core Making
Cores are a separate portion of the mold that prevents the liquified material
from filling in any gaps. They're utilized to make interior cavities and other things
that the mold can't produce. A core box is the tooling used to build the core,
which is just another name for the mold that makes the core.

The materials used to make the core must meet certain criteria:

• It must be strong enough to withstand the turbulence caused by the molten

material
• It must have a good hardness
• It must have a high permeability so that the gasses formed during the casting
process can easily escape
• It must be able to withstand the high temperatures caused by the molten
material
• Smooth surface finish
• Minimal gas formation when exposed to the molten material
• It must be weak enough to break while the molten material cools and shrinks,
allowing it to be removed after solidification.
Creating the Mold
Around the design, a refractory substance that is stable at high temperatures (in
our case, sand) is created. The material must be strong enough to support the

56 | P a g e
weight of the liquid metal during casting. It should also be resistant to metal
reaction but fragile enough to be separated after cooling of the casting.

The mold can be made out of a variety of different sand materials. Other
elements, such as clay or a chemical bonding agent, are usually added to the
sand to make it stronger so that it can withstand the pouring operation. The
mold can also be made by drilling the necessary shaped hollow straight into a
block of sand. Because design changes may be handled and applied quickly, the
technology is extensively employed during product development, or for portions
with infrequent usage to avoid the storage or maintenance of a physical pattern.

The top half of the mold, known as the "cope," and the bottom half, known as
the "drag," are usually made in two sections. The parts are split and the pattern
removed once the sand has set (using the traditional/non-machined procedure).
To improve the surface finish and protect the mold from the turbulence of the
poured metal, a refractory coating is applied. The halves are reassembled,
resulting in a cavity in the pattern's form. Cores, a means of producing
appropriate internal pathways in the final product, may be included in the mold.

57 | P a g e
 Pouring the Metal into the Mold
Molten metal is injected into the static mold directly. It defines the finished
portion and the risers by filling the void. A continuous liquid metal supply comes
from the risers to the casting. Because they are meant to cool and solidify last,
the shrinkage and potential void are concentrated in the riser rather than the
targeted section.

Liquid metal can thus flow into the casting smoothly with less turbulence.
Reduced turbulence can aid in the prevention of oxide formation and casting
flaws. This method can be used to make almost any alloy. Almost any alloy can
be made using this method. For extremely reactive materials to oxygen, an
argon shielding process can be used to keep air away from the molten metal.

Shakeout Operation
The casting hardens and cools, containing both the desired item and the
additional metal required to manufacture it. In a shakeout operation, the sand is
split up. The sand used to make the mold is recovered, reconditioned, and
reused in large quantities.

Casting Final Operations

The gates, runners, and risers are cut from the casting, and final post-processing
such as sandblasting, grinding, and other methods are used if necessary to finish
the casting dimensionally. To achieve final dimensions or tolerances, sand
castings may require extra machining.

Heat treatment can be used to improve the dimensional stability or

characteristics of parts. Non-destructive testing is another option. Fluorescent
penetrant, magnetic particle, radiographic, and other inspections are examples.
Prior to shipment, final dimensional inspections, alloy test results, and NDT are
validated.

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