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INDENTURE TRUSTEES’ DUTIES

UNDER THE TRUST INDENTURE ACT IN
THE FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD
CIRCUITS
DAVID JAVIDZAD

I. INTRODUCTION
A trust indenture is a contract that corporations and governmental
entities use to issue securities and borrow money from the general public or
large institutional investors.1 A necessary and important instrument in United
States economics,2 trust indentures typically provide terms and conditions of
extending credit, govern activities of security issuers while the securities are
outstanding, set forth remedies for security holders in case of issuer default,
and contain provisions defining the rights, duties, and obligations of the
parties to the agreement.3
This introduction will briefly discuss what an indenture trustee is and
provide an overview of the history, purpose, and intent of the laws governing
trust indentures. Finally, it will introduce the most litigated issues regarding
indenture trustees. The rest of the note will display how the First, Second,
and Third Circuit Courts of Appeals, as well as the states within their
geographic areas, have decided such issues.

A. WHAT IS AN INDENTURE TRUSTEE?

Using a trust indenture, security issuers appoint a trustee to facilitate the
working of the bond issue to a successful conclusion.4 However, a “trustee”
in this context differs fundamentally from the trustee in an ordinary personal
trust. In an ordinary trust, the main characteristic of the trustee is that she
possesses, holds, and administers the specific trust res for the benefit of a
designated beneficiary.5
An indenture trustee, on the other hand, has no possession of or right to
the mortgaged property until after a default has occurred, and has limited
rights even at that point.6 An indenture trustee is not in a close and intimate
relationship with beneficiaries as in the case of an ordinary trustee. Rather,
an indenture trustee is in the position of both a stakeholder and a trustee.7
The trust’s administration covers a long period of time, and the trustee is
unable to consult security holders regularly. Most uniquely, while the trustee

1 ROBERT I. LANDAU & JOHN E. KRUEGER, CORPORATE TRUST ADMINISTRATION AND

MANAGEMENT 22 (5th ed. 1998).

2 Id. at 23.
3 Id. at 22.
4 JEFFREY J. POWELL, CORPORATE TRUST: A PARTNER IN FINANCE 1 (2018).
5 LANDAU & KRUEGER, supra note 1, at 26.
6 Id.
7 Id. (citing Sklar, infra note 15).
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of a personal trust has responsibilities to protect the trust solely in the interest
of the beneficiaries, the indenture trustee, while having a primary
responsibility to the security holders, owes to the obligor “important and
practical fiduciary duties, and in the interest of all parties, it must be able to
work cooperatively with the obligor.”8 Additionally, indenture trustee
relationships are distinct from personal trusts because the primary governing
law for indentures, the Trust Indenture Act of 1939 (“TIA”),9 requires the
trustee be a bank that meets specified eligibility criteria.10 Market
considerations and state laws governing municipal bonds are consistent with
this rule for indentures not governed by the TIA, so all indenture trustees are
financial institutions. Thus, trust indentures create contractual relationships
similar to mortgages or ordinary trusts, but are not identical to those
relationships.11
While the concept of mortgages and trusts were developed in an early
period of common law, the corporate trust indenture is a relatively recent
development.12 For this reason, despite their importance to the economy,
courts poorly understand trust indentures.13

B. HISTORY OF THE TRUST INDENTURE ACT OF 1939 (“TIA”)

The first trustees were individuals appointed to oversee railroad bond
issues in the early nineteenth century.14 The railroads, which were the largest
enterprises at the time, would issue debt secured by mortgages.15 This was
before the formal development of corporations, so the trustee was usually a
well-respected individual, such as an officer of the issuer.16 Trustees had very
limited powers and responsibilities in these relationships, and there were no
formal standards of conduct for trustees to follow under law or by custom.17
Furthermore, issuers were not legally required to appoint trustees on bond
issues, so it was common that bond issues most in need of a trustee did not
have one.18 Thus, a suboptimal situation existed in which no one was
available to provide issuers with needed services or bondholders with needed
protection.19
Leading up to the Great Depression, many municipalities and
corporations were using bond issues to finance their capital needs.20 By the
1920s, unsecured debentures came to replace bonds secured by mortgages
and virtually all indenture trustees were corporations, not banks.21 These

8 Id. at 27.
9 Trust Indenture Act of 1939, 15 U.S.C.A. §§ 77aaa–77bbbb (2010). The Trust Indenture Act
(“TIA”) is discussed further infra Part I.B.
10 Id. § 77jjj (“Eligibility and disqualification of trustee”).
11 LANDAU & KRUEGER, supra note 1, at 23.
12 “It was first introduced around 1830, but until the latter part of the nineteenth century, the trust
indenture was used infrequently.” Id. at 22.
13 Id. at 23.
14 POWELL, supra note 4, at 6.
15 Martin D. Sklar, The Corporate Indenture Trustee: Genuine Fiduciary or Mere Stakeholder?, 106

BANKING L.J. 42, 43–44 (1989).

16 Id. at 44; POWELL, supra note 4, at 6.
17 POWELL, supra note 4, at 6.
18 Id. at 7.
19 Id.
20 Id.
21 Sklar, supra note 15, at 44.
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indentures contained broad exculpatory provisions limiting the trustee’s

liability to gross negligence, willful default, or bad faith.22 The broad
exculpatory clauses in the indentures circumscribed the responsibilities of
trustees, granting them no authority to take actions to protect bondholders’
interest in case of default.23 As a result, when a large number of U.S.
corporate bonds defaulted during the Depression, trustees had very limited
powers and authority to act. 24 It became clear that security holders needed
protection and assistance in pursuing their rights as creditors of these
corporations.25 To address the need for bondholder protection, Congress
enacted the TIA as an amendment to the Securities Exchange Act of 1933.26

C. THE PURPOSE AND INTENT OF THE TIA

The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted not only to protect the investing
public from fraud but also to restore investor confidence in the securities
markets.27 The TIA, as a mechanism to protect bondholders’ interests, was
mainly intended to require that a trustee be appointed for bond issues sold to
the investing public.28 Because publicly-issued corporate bond debt had been
subject to the highest incidents of default, Congress determined that banks,
as entities in the business of acting as trustee, should take the role of trustee
to protect public investors.29
Section 302 of the Act states its purpose, which is to protect “the national
public interest and the interest of investors in notes, bonds, debentures,
evidences of indebtedness, and certificates of interest or participation
therein, which are offered to the public” from adverse effects on such
investors, enumerated in the TIA.30 Congress explained that these interests
are adversely affected when: (1) the obligor fails “to provide a trustee to
protect and enforce the rights and to represent the interests of such
investors”; (2) trustees’ rights and powers, or duties and responsibilities, to
protect and enforce such investors’ rights are inadequate; (3) trustees do not
have resources “commensurate with its responsibilities” or they have a
conflict with the interests of such investors; (4) the obligor is not required to
communicate adequate and current financial information to investors; (5) the
indenture contains misleading or deceptive provisions; or (6) since trust
indentures are commonly prepared by the obligor or underwriter “in advance
of the public offering of the securities to be issued thereunder,” such
investors would be unable to cure defects in an indenture because they lack
understanding of the situation or are unable to participate in the preparation
of the indenture.31 Thus, the TIA puts in place safeguards to protect investors’
interests.

22 See id.
23 POWELL, supra note 4, at 63.
24 Id.
25 Id.
26 See id. at 7.
27 Id. at 61.
28 Id. at 63–64.
29 See id. at 64.
30 Trust Indenture Act of 1939, 15 U.S.C.A. § 302(a) (2010).
31 Id.
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The TIA requires an official trustee to be appointed for certain bond

issues and establishes qualifications that banks and other entities must meet
in order to serve as trustee.32 It further gives trustees the authority to act to
protect bondholders’ interests.33 By governing what must be in the indenture
agreement for it to be qualified and enforceable under law, the TIA ultimately
regulates the relationship between security holders, issuers, and trustees.

D. ISSUES
Section 315 of the TIA sets forth the duties of indenture trustees before,
during, and after an issuer’s or debtor’s default.34 The prudent-person
standard, to which indenture trustees are held post-default, is a topic that has
various interpretations across jurisdictions, especially when intertwined with
bankruptcy issues, claims under distinct causes of action (i.e., breach of
contract, negligence, breach of implied covenant of good faith and fair
dealing), and breaches of state-imposed common law fiduciary duties.
Although courts mostly agree that trust indentures do not impose full
fiduciary responsibilities on the trustee,35 some argue that the TIA should
impose such responsibilities. However, doing so risks impairing indentures’
effectiveness, potentially removing certainty from a well-developed market
and making it more difficult for trustee banks to accept appointments. Courts
have swung back and forth between considering the indenture trustee a mere
stakeholder, and imposing broader, fiduciary-like duties. The main public
policy rationales involve a balance between adequately protecting the
security holders’ interests and ensuring that “banks and trust companies will
be willing to assume the role of indenture trustee and to therefore ease the
raising of capital.”36 Advocates of imposing broader duties argue that the
imposition of such duties would not hinder the raising of capital.37
This note examines the facts of cases in different jurisdictions to
determine when courts have found breaches of indenture trustees’ duties
under the TIA and, if applicable, under state common law. Specific attention
is given to the Second Circuit and New York state and federal courts because
most U.S. trust indentures are governed by New York law. The patterns in
the cases’ holdings provide guidance for understanding how the rules are
interpreted for indentures subject to the TIA. Although indentures not
governed by the TIA, such as municipal bonds, are beyond the scope of this
note, it is worth noting that cases involving such exempt indentures tend to
be consistent with and follow interpretations under the TIA.38 Many courts
are unfamiliar with debt issuances under indentures and the customary
provisions and limitations on indenture trustees’ duties. This note seeks to
clarify both what the “prudent-person” standard under the TIA requires and
what actions courts have held to be a breach of this standard.

32 See id. at §§ 304–14; POWELL, supra note 4, at 64.

33 POWELL, supra note 4, at 65.
34 Trust Indenture Act of 1939, § 315. The TIA enumerates the duties of indenture trustees in § 315,
delineating trustees’ duties by subcategories: (a) prior to default, (b) when there is a notice of default, (c)
in case of default, and (d) generally, the responsibilities of the trustee to security holders. Id.
35 LANDAU & KRUEGER, supra note 1, at 23.
36 Sklar, supra note 15, at 60.
37 See id. at 61.
38 See LANDAU & KRUEGER, supra note 1, at 68–69.
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The following case review shows that, despite some anomalous cases,
the majority position is that trustees owe no duties beyond the indenture
agreement to bondholders prior to default. Further, in the event of default,
trustees’ duties rise to a prudent-person standard in handling the
bondholders’ affairs but do not necessarily rise to a “fiduciary” standard.
New York common law imposes two extracontractual pre-default duties,
which will be discussed below. Distinctly, the Third Circuit, holds that
trustees have duties similar or equal to those of fiduciaries after an event of
default.

II. CASES

A. UNITED STATES FIRST CIRCUIT COURT OF APPEALS

While the First Circuit Court of Appeals has no major decisions
addressing the duties indenture trustees owe to bondholders, federal district
courts within the First Circuit have touched on the question.
1. Massachusetts
In Peterson v. National Bank Association,39 a district court in
Massachusetts found that bondholders’ claims against the indenture trustee
were not precluded by collateral estoppel and that they had standing to sue.40
The bondholders claimed that by failing to object in bankruptcy court to the
sale of a property and business, which secured the bonds, the indenture
trustee “breached [its] fiduciary duty.”41 The lien on the property and
business was subordinate to the security interest of other creditors.42 The
opinion discusses the indenture trustee’s arguments that the bondholders are
precluded from making such claims, but does not decide whether the
defendant breached its duties or whether the defendant had fiduciary duties.
In addressing standing, however, the court notes that the relationship
between bondholders and indenture trustees is one in which bondholders are
entitled to bring suit where an indenture trustee “fail[s] faithfully to perform
his fiduciary duties.”43 In conclusion, the court states that if the plaintiff’s
allegations were true, then the indenture trustee violated fiduciary duties by
failing to object to the sale of the asset securing the bonds in bankruptcy,
because that would favor “unsecured creditors over its own bondholders.”44
Thus, without concluding whether indenture trustees owe the full store
of fiduciary duties to bondholders, the Massachusetts District Court clarified
what type of conduct would be a breach of an indenture trustee’s duty to
bondholders under the common law—namely, putting other parties’ interests
ahead of bondholders’.

39 Peterson v. U.S. Bank Nat’l Ass’n, 918 F. Supp. 2d 89 (D. Mass. 2013).
40 Id. at 104.
41 Id. at 91.
42 See id. at 93–94.
43 Id. at 103.
44 See id. at 104.
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2. Puerto Rico
In Wells Fargo Bank Minn., N.A. v. El Comandante Capital Corp.,45 the
issue before the Puerto Rico District Court was whether bondholders could
replace an existing indenture trustee with another, more experienced and
skillful one, after default.46 The court held that bondholders may take such
an action post-default.47
In so holding, the court noted that a trustee’s skill and expertise in
administrating securities on behalf of noteholders become critical following
default.48 A “prudent” indenture trustee “must make countless, discretionary
decisions regarding how best to protect the interests of the beneficiaries of
the trust.”49 The court then quotes from a secondary source that although “[i]t
is impossible to prescribe the exact conduct to be followed in the event of
default,” it remains critical for bondholders to be able to appoint a competent
trustee.50 In this case, the original indenture trustee, Banco Popular, was not
experienced in defaulted securities,51 while the successor trustee, Wells
Fargo, was.52 In allowing the bondholders to replace their trustee, the court
emphasized the importance of the trustee’s conduct post-default. However,
the court did not hold that an indenture trustee owes any duties higher than
the prudent-person standard under the TIA.

B. UNITED STATES SECOND CIRCUIT COURT OF APPEALS

In the Second Circuit’s seminal case, Meckel v. Continental Resources
Company,53 agents for bondholders alleged that the bondholders failed to
take advantage of a favorable conversion option because they received
“inadequate redemption notices.”54 The holders alleged that the redemption
notices were inadequate because they were mailed.55 However, the indenture
and the debentures themselves provided for notice to be given by a mailing.56
Plaintiff-bondholders alleged that the indenture trustee, Citibank, should
have gone beyond the indenture (for example, by follow-up mailings or
registered, rather than first-class, mail), and that not doing so violated
reasonable care and skill under the TIA.57 The district court for the Southern
District of New York had found that the indenture trustee made a proper
mailing pursuant to the indenture.58 The Second Circuit affirmed, finding that
the indenture trustee fulfilled its duty under the indenture to give notice of
the conversion opportunity.59

45 Wells Fargo Bank Minn., N.A. v. El Comandante Capital Corp., 332 F. Supp. 2d 448, 456 (D.P.R.
2004).
46 Id. at 457.
47 Id. at 456–57.
48 Id. at 456.
49 Id.456–57.
50 Id. (quoting LANDAU & KRUEGER, supra note 1, at 171).
51 Id. at 455.
52 Id.
53 Meckel v. Cont’l Resources Co., 758 F.2d 811, 813 (2d Cir. 1985).
54 Id.
55 Id.
56 Id. at 813–14.
57 Id.
58 Id. at 815.
59 Id.
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The Meckel opinion quotes the text of the TIA, stating that a trustee’s
duties are limited to those set forth in the indenture.60 The court supported
the enforceability of a clause in the indenture that limited Citibank’s duties
to those set forth in the indenture.61 The court went on to hold:
An indenture trustee is not subject to the ordinary trustee’s duty of
undivided loyalty. Unlike the ordinary trustee, who has historic
common-law duties imposed beyond those in the trust agreement, an
indenture trustee is more like a stakeholder whose duties and
obligations are exclusively defined by the terms of the indenture
agreement.62
Thus, in the Second Circuit, an indenture trustee is bound only by what
is in the indenture; no additional duties are implied.63 Meckel reaches this
conclusion by upholding a 1936 decision from a New York state trial court,
Hazzard, which will be discussed below.64
The other crucial Second Circuit case is Elliot Associates v. J. Henry
Schroder Bank & Trust Co.65 In Elliot, an issuer wanted to redeem debentures
that were convertible into stock.66 The indenture trustee waived a notice
requirement in the indenture that required fifty days’ notice to the trustee if
the issuer seeks to redeem the debentures,67 accepting a single week’s notice
from the issuer instead.68 Debenture holders were given notice forty-two
days in advance of the redemption, and were advised to convert the
debentures into stock.69 The holders alleged that by waiving the fifty-day
requirement without considering impact of that waiver on debenture holders,
the indenture trustee breached fiduciary duties.70
The Second Circuit refused to find an implied pre-default duty of the
indenture trustee to secure greater benefits for debenture holder “over and
above” the duties and obligations it undertook in the indenture.71 The court
denied the existence of such an implied duty under the TIA as well as the
TIA’s legislative history.72 The original draft of the TIA imposed a “prudent
man” duty on the indenture trustee both before and after default.73 The
Second Circuit explained that getting rid of the prudent-man standard from
the trustee’s pre-default obligations under the Act, paired with Congress’
subsequent enactment of the existing version of the Act (which limits the
trustee’s pre-default duties to the indenture), supported its conclusion that no

60 Id. at 815–16.
61 Id. at 816.
62 Id. (emphasis added).
63 Id.
64 See id.; Hazzard v. Chase Nat'l Bank, 159 Misc. 57, 287 N.Y.S. 541 (Sup. Ct. 1936).
65 Elliott Assoc.’s v. J. Henry Schroder Bank & Tr. Co., 838 F.2d 66, 70 (2d Cir. 1988).
66 Id. at 68–69.
67 Id.
68 Id. at 69.
69 Id.
70 Id. at 70.
71 Id. at 70–71.
72 Id.
73 Id. at 71.
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implicit duties are imposed on the trustee to limit its pre-default conduct74
outside of refraining from “engaging in conflicts of interest.”75
Next, in LNC Investments v. National Westminster Bank, the defendant
was an indenture trustee on bonds secured by an aircraft.76 The indenture
trustee’s post-default duties under the TIA were triggered when the bond
issuer filed for bankruptcy.77 Because of the automatic stay, the indenture
trustee was prevented from taking possession of the aircraft, which was the
collateral.78 By the time the issuer released the collateral to the indenture
trustee, its value had diminished.79
Bondholders brought suit against the indenture trustee for breach of
contract, violation of the TIA, and breach of fiduciary duties under New York
state law. They alleged that “indenture trustees, immediately upon [issuer]’s
chapter 11 filing should have asked the bankruptcy court to lift the automatic
stay or to issue an order that [issuer] provide ‘adequate protection’ of the
collateral.”80
The jury in the trial court found that the trustee in this case acted
prudently.81 The Second Circuit upheld the jury’s verdict.82 The court
resolved a dispute over whether a jury instruction was proper by upholding
the district court’s use of a prudent-person standard to assess the trustee’s
post-default conduct.83 The Second Circuit noted that “the question is not
what appears to be prudent in light of our current understanding of the law,
but rather what was prudent in light of what reasonably could have been
known to Trustees at the time they allegedly should have made the motion.”84
Thus, the district court’s standard was the proper one by which to judge the
indenture trustee’s prudence; the jury was instructed to take into
consideration the unsettledness of the law regarding whether the trustee
could have moved in bankruptcy court to lift the stay or receive adequate
protection of the collateral.85
Only a few distinctions exist between New York state common law
regarding the issue of indenture trustees’ duties and the requirements of the
TIA; these are discussed in the Semi-Tech cases.86 In Semi-Tech, the Second
Circuit affirmed all but one of the district court’s conclusions and adopted
them as law.87 In this case, Bankers Trust (“BT”) was the indenture trustee
for a note offering by Semi-Tech.88 Semi-Tech subsequently filed for
bankruptcy.89 Noteholders alleged that BT breached “statutory, contractual,

74 Id. at 70–71.
75 Id. at 71. The opinion does not comment on the nature or extent of an indenture trustee’s post-
default duties.
76 LNC Inv.’s, Inc. v. Nat’l Westminster Bank, 308 F.3d 169, 171 (2d Cir. 2002).
77 Id.
78 Id.
79 Id.
80 Id. at 172.
81 Id. at 175.
82 Id. at 176.
83 Id. at 174–76.
84 Id. at 176.
85 Id. at 173.
86 See Semi-Tech Litig., LLC v. Bankers Tr. Co., 450 F.3d 121 (2d Cir. 2006); Semi-Tech Litig.,

LLC v. Bankers Tr. Co., 353 F. Supp. 2d 460, 472 (S.D.N.Y. 2005).
87 450 F.3d at 123.
88 Semi-Tech Litig., LLC, 353 F. Supp. 2d at 462.
89 Id.
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and fiduciary duties” by failing to examine certain documents and give

certain notices, and that BT was “therefore liable for the losses allegedly
suffered by the noteholders after Semi-Tech entered into transactions that are
said to have diminished the value of the notes.”90
The indenture provided that if an event of default occurs and certain
notices have been given, the “Default Amount of the Notes,” which is the
issue price plus accrued interest, would immediately become due and
payable.91 The indenture required Semi-Tech to periodically deliver to BT
several types of certificates stating that Semi-Tech was in compliance with
its obligations under the indenture.92 One provision in the indenture set forth
the required content of the certificates which needed to include statements:
(1) that anyone signing a certificate has read it and the definitions it contains;
(2) speaking to the nature and scope of any examination or investigation
which the statements or opinions in the certificate are based on; (3) that
anyone signing the form has made investigations which enable expression of
an informed opinion as to whether or not any conditions have been complied
with; and (4) as to whether, “in the opinion of each such individual or firm,
such condition or covenant has been complied with.”93 For five years, annual
and quarterly non-default certificates did not contain the required language.94
The district court determined that the trustee’s duties under the indenture,
the TIA, and New York law were the same,95 holding that the duties to
provide such certificates under the indenture were the same as under § 314
of the TIA.96 The court explained that the New York common law’s
imposition of “fiduciary” duties on indenture trustees involve the same exact
requirements as the TIA,97 as well as the additional pre-default duty to
perform “basic non-discretionary ministerial tasks not specified in the
indenture.”98 Here, the ministerial tasks BT was obligated to perform—
namely, examining the certificates to ensure they conform to the indenture—
were required by the indenture and the TIA.99 Therefore, the court only
considered BT’s breach under the statute.100 The parties also agreed that the
duties under state and federal law were the same.101
In conclusion, the district court in Semi-Tech held that the indenture
trustee had a duty, under TIA § 315(a), to examine the certificates and to
ensure they conform with the indenture.102 The district court held that “the
plain language and the structure of the statute require the trustee to examine
evidence submitted to it for conformity with the indenture independent of

90 Id.
91 Id.
92 Id. at 463–64.
93 Id. at 464.
94 Id. at 466.
95 Id. at 472.
96 Id. at 473; see Trust Indenture Act of 1939, 15 U.S.C.A. § 314 (2010) (“Reports by obligor;
evidence of compliance with indenture provisions”).
97 Semi-Tech Litig., LLC, 353 F. Supp. 2d at 472 (citing Beck v. Mfr.’s Hanover Tr. Co., 632

N.Y.S.2d 520, 527–28 (1995)).

98 Id. (citing LNC Inv.’s, Inc. v. First Fidelity Bank, Nat’l Ass’n, 935 F. Supp. 1333, 1347 (S.D.N.Y.
1996)).
99 Id.
100 Id.
101 Id.
102 Id. at 475.
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whether it seeks to rely upon any statement or opinions set forth in that
evidence.”103
Another issue in the Semi-Tech cases was whether BT had a duty to be a
prudent person and inquire into the matters asserted by the certificates.104
Under the TIA, the prudent-person duty is triggered by the event of default.105
Here, the district court held that BT had no duty to inquire into the matters
stated by the certificate106: “Until the prudent person duties were triggered,
the trustee’s obligations were to comply with the indenture (which imposed
no duty to inquire) and to insist that all documentation conform to it.”107
The Second Circuit affirmed, and adopted “as the law of this circuit” that
(1) BT failed to fulfill its duty under TIA § 315(a) to examine for conformity
both the indenture and the officers’ and accountants’ certificates it received
from Semi-Tech (pursuant to TIA § 314),108 and (2) BT did not violate any
prudent-person duties.109 However, contrary to the district court, the Second
Circuit held that BT failed to comply with TIA § 315(b), requiring BT to give
notice to the noteholders “of all defaults known to trustee,” with the option
(except as to a default in payment) first to demand cure.110 The district court
reasoned that since BT failed to examine the certificates, the nonconformities
were not “known to the trustee” and the trustee therefore did not violate §
315(b) by failing to give notice to the noteholders of those defaults.111 The
Second Circuit disagreed, holding that BT’s failure to examine the
certificates does not excuse it from having to give notice of the defaults.112
Regarding New York common law, the Second Circuit affirmed the
Southern District’s holding that defendant-trustee’s contractual duties were
identical to its statutory duties because “the indenture incorporates the TIA
duties by reference.”113
1. New York
New York state courts hold that New York common law imposes some
extracontractual pre-default duties on indenture trustees. Hazzard v. Chase
National Bank, which was decided before the TIA was enacted, is often cited
to represent the original New York common law impositions on indenture
trustees.114 At issue in Hazzard was a series of debentures issued by utility
holding companies.115 As security, the holding companies deposited the stock
of several operating utility companies with an indenture trustee.116 The
indenture trustee later substituted these shares with the stock of another

103 Id.
104 Id. at 480–82.
105 See Trust Indenture Act of 1939, 15 U.S.C.A. § 315(c) (2010).
106 Semi-Tech Litig., LLC, 353 F. Supp. 2d at 482.
107 Id.
108 Semi-Tech Litig., LLC, 450 F.3d at 123.
109 Id.
110 Id. at 127.
111 Semi-Tech Litig., LLC, 353 F. Supp. 2d at 479–80.
112 Semi-Tech Litig., LLC, 450 F.3d at 127 (because “BT had a duty under § 315(a) to examine the
certificates, its failure to do so cannot excuse its failure to comply with the duty under § 315(b) to take
action with respect to known defaults”).
113 Id. at 123.; Semi-Tech Litig., LLC, 353 F. Supp. 2d at 472.
114 See Hazzard v. Chase Nat. Bank of City of New York, 287 N.Y.S. 541 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1936).
115 Id. at 544.
116 Id. at 549–50.
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holding company.117 The security was still valuable, but both of the holding
companies filed for bankruptcy.118 Debenture holders brought suit, alleging
that the indenture trustee either acted in bad faith or was grossly negligent in
permitting the stock substitution.119 The court entered judgment for the
defendant, noting that the limitation of the indenture’s liability for gross
negligence in the indenture was valid.120 The court described the indenture
trustees’ liability as measured by the express agreement between the trustee
and “obligor of the trust mortgage.”121 It went on to hold that “where the
terms of the indenture are clear, no obligations or duties in conflict with them
will be implied.”122
Hazzard was largely fundamental to the Second Circuit’s seminal
holding in Meckel that an indenture trustee is more like a stakeholder whose
duties and obligations are exclusively defined by the terms of the indenture
agreement, whereas ordinary trustees have historic common-law duties
imposed beyond those in the trust agreement.123
Almost sixty years after Hazzard, a New York state appellate court
defined the duties of indenture trustees under New York state law in Beck v.
Manufacturers Trust.124 In Beck, plaintiffs were holders of bonds issued by
the National Railway Company of Mexico, a Utah corporation.125 There were
two series of bonds, which had both been in default since their due dates.126
The defendant was the indenture trustee for those bonds.127 The indenture
trustee auctioned off collateral securing payment of the bonds at an upset
price, assigning the bonds to the purchaser of the collateral, Mexrail.128 The
plaintiffs argued that the assignments Mexrail offered as payment for the
collateral were not valid tender for the purchase because the bonds assigned
to Mexrail were not outstanding.129 The plaintiffs alleged that the trustee
breached the trust indenture and its fiduciary duties by setting the upset price
of the collateral and negotiating its sale.130
The Supreme Court of New York Appellate Division explained that if
the matter at issue was whether the trustee acted in accordance with the terms
of the trust indentures, it would affirm the dismissal of the plaintiff’s
complaint.131 However, the court continued:
[b]ecause we are of the view that the Trustee of the collateral securing
payment of the defaulted bonds here at issue had fiduciary
responsibilities to the trust beneficiaries and that those responsibilities
were in some respects broader than the obligations specified in the

117 Id.
118 Id.
119 Id. at 550.
120 Id. at 566–67.
121 Id.
122 Id.
123 Meckel v. Cont’l Resources Co., 758 F.2d 811, 816 (2d Cir. 1985).
124 Beck v. Mfr.’s Hanover Tr. Co., 632 N.Y.S.2d 520, 522 (Sup. Ct. 1995).
125 Id.
126 Id.
127 Id.
128 Id. at 522–23.
129 Id.
130 Id. at 523–24.
131 Id. at 526.
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380 Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal [Vol. 29:369

indentures, we cannot agree that the relevant inquiry was exhausted

simply by measuring the Trustee’s performance against the
requirements of the indentures.132
The court reinstated the plaintiffs’ causes of action alleging that the
“Trustee’s failure to obtain a competent, independent valuation of the sold
collateral constituted a breach of the fiduciary duty owed by the Trustee to
the trust beneficiaries.”133 The plaintiffs’ allegation that this breach resulted
in undervaluation of the auctioned trust assets moved forward.134
The court held that despite the holding in Hazzard the Trustee owed the
trust beneficiaries the fiduciary obligation of undivided loyalty, free from
any conflicting personal interest.135 The court noted that this fiduciary
obligation has been “nowhere more jealously and rigidly enforced than in
New York where these indentures were executed.”136 Further, loyalty was not
alone “among the constellation of fiduciary attributes” that was required of
the present trustee.137 After a default, “it is clear that the indenture trustee's
obligations come more closely to resemble those of an ordinary fiduciary,
regardless of any limitations or exculpatory provisions contained in the
indenture.”138
The court reasoned that after a default the trustee is usually best able to
act swiftly to assure to its best ability that bondholders will recover what they
are owed.139 The opinion describes the post-default prudent-person duty:
The trustee must in the post-default context act prudently, but only in
the exercise of those rights and powers granted in the indenture. The
scope of the trustee's obligation then is still circumscribed by the
indenture, albeit less narrowly. The trustee is not required to act
beyond his contractually conferred rights and powers, but must, as
prudence dictates, exercise those singularly conferred prerogatives in
order to secure the basic purpose of any trust indenture, the repayment
of the underlying obligation.140
On these bases, the court concluded that the trustee should have a post-
default duty to “act prudently,” preserve and manage the trust assets in the
event of default, and provide some reasonable assurance that the bondholders
will eventually receive their due.141
The court in Beck explained that Hazzard was adopted into New York’s
real estate statute.142 The text of that statute’s prudent-person standard is
identical to the text of TIA § 315(c) requiring trustees to “use the same degree
of care and skill in their exercise as a prudent man would exercise or use

132 Id. (emphasis added).

133 Id.
134 Id.
135 Id. at 526–27.
136 Id.
137 Id. at 527.
138 Id.
139 Id.
140 Id.
141 Id.
142 Id. at 528.
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under the circumstances in the conduct of his own affairs.”143 The court
suggested that the common law should impose a similar requirement upon
indenture trustees in the event of default.144
The Beck court came to three conclusions. First, the trustee in Beck acted
within its “limited fiduciary capacity” with respect to the bond acquisition.145
Second, the trustee imprudently set the sale price for the collateral by relying
on unverified valuations that were not independent.146 This constituted a
“clear breach” of the trustee’s fiduciary obligations, and “a decidedly
imprudent exercise of the powers which the trustee certainly possessed to
ensure the fairness of the ‘auction.’”147 Finally, an indenture trustee could not
enforce broad exculpatory provisions to excuse the trustee’s failure to
exercise powers under the indenture.148
In LNC Investments, Inc. v. First Fidelity Bank, National Association,
First Fidelity Bank was the “Collateral Trustee” under an indenture.149
Eastern Airlines and First Fidelity established a trust to issue bonds in order
to buy airplanes, which were leased to an airline.150 Eastern filed for
bankruptcy, triggering the automatic stay that prevented the trust from
recovering the airplanes.151 Prior to the bankruptcy, the planes were appraised
at $682 million and Eastern was cautioned that their value would decline
rapidly in the near future.152 By the time First Fidelity successfully moved to
lift the stay,153 the “value of the collateral had plummeted, leaving the
certificate holders undersecured.”154 Such under-collateralization resulted in
second-series certificate holders receiving only part of their principal and no
interest, and third-series certificate holders receiving neither principal nor
interest.155
Plaintiff-bondholders contended that these losses could have been
prevented if the trustees had requested that the court lift the stay when
bankruptcy was first declared.156 They claimed that the trustees’ failure to do
so breached the “prudent-man” requirement of the TIA, and the agreement,
as well as “fiduciary duties under the indenture and New York common
law.”157
The Southern District of New York explained that pre-default, New York
common law imposes two extracontractual duties on indenture trustees.158
First, the indenture trustee must avoid conflicts of interest.159 Second, the
143 See id.; Trust Indenture Act of 1939, 15 U.S.C.A. § 315(c) (2010); N.Y. Real Prop. Law § 126
(Consol., LEXIS through 2019 Chapters 1–187 (except for 96, 106)).
144 Beck, 632 N.Y.S.2d at 528.
145 Id. at 529
146 Id. at 529–30.
147 Id. at 530.
148 Id. at 527.
149 LNC Inv.’s, Inc. v. First Fid. Bank, Nat’l Ass’n, 935 F. Supp. 1333, 1336 (S.D.N.Y. 1996).
150 Id.
151 Id.
152 Id.
153 Id. On November 14th, 1990, First Fidelity moved to lift the stay, and on January 18, 1991, the

stay was lifted.

154 Id. at 1336–37.
155 Id. at 1337.
156 Id.
157 Id.
158 Id. at 1347.
159 Id.
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indenture trustee must perform all basic, non-discretionary, ministerial

tasks.160 Regarding the former, the court stated that the indenture trustee
“must discharge its obligations with absolute singleness of purpose because
of the inability of dispersed investors to enforce their rights.”161 The TIA does
not “abrogate an indenture trustee’s common law fiduciary duty of
loyalty.”162 The court noted that fiduciary duties are not activated until a
conflict arises “where it is evident that the indenture trustee may be
sacrificing the interests of the beneficiaries in favor of its own financial
position.”163
The opinion engages in an interpretation of New York law as stated by
Beck.164 First Fidelity interprets Beck to say that the trustee has a duty to act
prudently only in exercise of those rights and powers granted in the
indenture. This duty is imposed by operation of New York common law.165
First Fidelity offers two alternative interpretations of the holding in
Beck.166 A narrow interpretation provides that a trustee must exercise the
powers and duties enumerated in the indenture with the care of a prudent
person.167 The court explains that under the narrow reading, First Fidelity
would be liable for breach of common law fiduciary duty only if the power
to seek a lifting of the Eastern bankruptcy stay were specifically listed in the
indenture.168 That reading, however, offers very limited protection to the
investors and may require the parties to anticipate every contingency at the
time of contract formation.169 The SDNY thus held that an indenture trustee
must perform prudently “even the more general obligations in the
indenture.”170 This applies to any conduct not specifically prohibited by the
indenture that would enable the investors to secure repayment of the trust
certificates.171 The trustee should not take actions specifically prohibited by
the contract, and when the indenture imposes general duties on the trustee,
the trustee must take “any authorized action necessary to protect the
investors.”172
Thus, the SDNY held that the broad reading is “more faithful to Beck,
more faithful to the purposes underlying the fiduciary duty, and imposes a
duty of care congruent with the duty imposed by the TIA.”173 In First Fidelity,
the indenture empowered First Fidelity to act alone when it saw fit, and did

160 Id.
161 Id.
162 Id.
163 Id. (quoting In re E.F. Hutton Southwest Prop.’s II, Ltd., 953 F.2d 963, 969–72 (5th Cir. 1992)).
164 Id. at 1348.
165 Id. The SDNY discusses the meaning and implications of the language in Beck, quoted above and
reproduced below:
The trustee must in the postdefault context act prudently, but only in the exercise of those rights and
powers granted in the indenture. The scope of the trustee’s obligation then is still circumscribed by the
indenture, albeit less narrowly. The trustee is not required to act beyond his contractually conferred rights
and powers, but must, as prudence dictates, exercise those singularly conferred prerogatives in order to
secure the basic purpose of any trust indenture, the repayment of the underlying obligation. Beck v. Mfr.’s
Hanover Tr. Co., 632 N.Y.S.2d 520, 528 (Sup. Ct. 1995).
166 First Fid. Bank, Nat’l Ass’n, 935 F. Supp. at 1347–48.
167 Id. at 1348.
168 Id.
169 Id.
170 Id.
171 Id.
172 Id.
173 Id. (emphasis added).
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not prohibit First Fidelity from taking action to protect the investors absent
instruction.174 Thus, “First Fidelity could be held liable alone for its failure
to discharge [its independent] obligations.”175
In AG Capital v. State Street, an indenture trustee, State Street, and
issuer, Loewen, were parties to an indenture.176 In June of 1999, Loewen filed
for bankruptcy protection.177 The plaintiff-bondholders accepted a
discounted value for the debt securities and agreed to release and indemnify
the indenture trustee from any liability. This release did not release or
indemnify the indenture trustee as to any claim based on its negligence.178
When Loewen’s bankruptcy came around, this failure created uncertainty
about whether the instrument holders had secured-creditor status.179 These
allegations gave rise to the plaintiffs’ claims against State Street for breach
of contract, breach of the TIA, and negligence in breaching New York’s
common law fiduciary duties.180
On these facts, the court concluded that the plaintiffs’ breach of contract
and TIA claims were barred by the release mentioned above, and that “no
fiduciary duties exist.”181 The court reinstated the plaintiffs’ cause of action
relating to the indenture trustee’s negligence due to a factual dispute as to
whether State Street owed a duty of care to the plaintiffs and, if so, whether
State Street violated that duty.182
The court explained that New York state and federal case law are
consistent with TIA § 315(a)(1).183 The court cites Hazzard to show that New
York law treats the indenture trustee’s duties as not “[defined by] the
fiduciary relationship.”184 New York courts have held that, prior to default,
indenture trustees “owe note holders an extracontractual duty to perform
basic, nondiscretionary, ministerial functions redressable in tort if such duty
is breached.”185 As a result,
an indenture trustee owes a duty to perform its ministerial functions
with due care, and if this duty is breached the trustee will be subjected
to tort liability. However, . . . the alleged breach of such duty neither
gives rise to fiduciary duties nor supports the reinstatement of
plaintiff’s [breach of fiduciary duty] causes of action.186

174 Id. at 1353.

175 Id.
176 AG Capital Funding Partners, L.P. v. State St. Bank & Tr. Co., 866 N.Y.S.2d 578, 579 (Sup. Ct.
2008).
177 Id.
178 Id.
179 Id.
180 Id.
181 Id.
182 Id. at 580.
183 Id. at 583.
184 Id.
185 Id. at 584.
186 Id.
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384 Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal [Vol. 29:369

Further, “fiduciary duties are wholly different from the performance of

ministerial functions with due care.”187 Notably, however, the court’s
holdings in this case only speak to pre-default duties.
Ellington Credit Fund v. Select Portfolio Servicing displays the extent
of any extracontractual duties of corporate trustees by explaining differences
between ordinary trustees and corporate trustees under New York law.188
Indenture trustees’ duties under the TIA were not at issue in Ellington Credit
Fund because a pooling and servicing agreement (rather than a bond
indenture) was the subject of the case and the defendant was a securitization
trustee.189 While an ordinary trustee generally owes a fiduciary duty to act
with undivided loyalty and administer the trust solely in the interests of the
beneficiaries, “much of the common law of trusts, and its corresponding
fiduciary obligations, are not applicable to commercial trusts. Rather, the
duties of an indenture trustee are generally strictly defined and limited to the
terms of the indenture.”190 In New York, an indenture trustee owes
bondholders limited extracontractual duties that expand after the occurrence
of a default.191
The court goes on to reiterate the two state-imposed pre-default
obligations: “a trustee must (1) avoid conflicts of interest, and (2) perform all
basic, non-discretionary, ministerial tasks with due care.192 The opinion
explains that the two pre-default obligations are not “fiduciary duties” but
rather obligations whose breach may subject the trustee to “tort
liability.”193 Post-default, an indenture trustee’s duties to noteholders “come
more closely to resemble those of an ordinary fiduciary, regardless of any
limitations or exculpatory provisions contained in the indenture.”194 The
court points out the similarity between bond indentures and pooling and
servicing agreements in order to apply these common law rules to
securitization trustees.195
In Dresner v. First Fidelity, the plaintiffs survived a motion to
dismiss their allegation that the defendant, an indenture trustee, did not
promptly seek to have a bankruptcy automatic stay lifted or move for
protection, during which time the value of collateral diminished.196 Noting
that no settled authority establishing that adequate protection was available,
the defendant argued that because the plaintiff sought to hold them liable for
their conduct during the course of litigation, the court should apply the
standard for attorney malpractice, which would prevent the defendant from
being liable for errors in judgment or reasonable litigation strategy.197

187 Id.
188 Ellington Credit Fund, LTD. v. Select Portfolio Servicing, Inc., 837 F. Supp. 2d 162, 175
(S.D.N.Y. 2011).
189 Id.
190 Id. at 191 (citations omitted) (internal quotations omitted).
191 Id.
192 Id. at 192.
193 Id.
194 Id. (citing Beck v. Mfr.’s Hanover Tr. Co., 632 N.Y.S.2d 520, 527 (Sup. Ct. 1995)).
195 Id.
196 Dresner Co. Profit Sharing Plan v. First Fid. Bank, N.A., No. 95 Civ. 1924 (MBM), 1996 U.S.
Dist. LEXIS 17913, at *1–3 (S.D.N.Y. Dec. 3, 1996).
197 Id. at *17.
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The court held the applicable standard to be the prudent-person

standard.198 The court stated that a reasonably prudent person in the same
situation may have chosen to act faster to obtain an order of adequate
protection, “particularly considering that such an order can include a cash
payment, or periodic cash payments, additional or replacement liens, or such
other relief ‘as will result in the realization . . . of the indubitable equivalent
of such entity's interest in such property.’”199 The court held that a prudent
person may have felt it wise to move to lift the stay, even if his attorney
thought the argument ill-founded.200 On this basis, the court allowed the case
to move forward on the factual issue of whether the defendant was imprudent
in failing to move to lift the automatic stay.201
In Morris v. Cantor, bondholders brought suit against indenture trustees
for violating the TIA and breaching common law fiduciary duties to the
bondholders; the indenture trustee moved to dismiss the claims.202 The
complaint alleged that Bankers Trust, the indenture trustee, became a
“preferred secured creditor” of the issuer by entering into a loan agreement
that granted priority over the bondholders in the event of bankruptcy.203
However, the loan was not consummated until after Bankers Trust resigned
as trustee and it was not negotiated within four months prior to any default
in payment of principal or interest.204 The plaintiffs contended that Bankers
Trust’s actions constituted “willful misconduct” within the meaning of §
315(d) of the TIA.205 The court’s opinion discusses the TIA’s legislative
history to explain the type of conduct it was enacted to regulate.206 The court
held that the TIA creates “substantive liabilities in those areas it specifically
addresses” in § 315(d).207 The TIA prescribes minimum standards for the
conduct of the trustee and the issuer, and the legislative history shows that
the TIA is intended to act upon the indenture agreement, rather than upon the
trustees.208 In other words, the TIA was enacted to regulate indenture
agreements and what parties may agree to, rather than the behavior of the
parties to the agreement or the trustee directly. According to the court, the
TIA corrects deficiencies in the indenture when needed—at the time the
indenture is being drafted by and between the parties, before the bonds are
offered.209 Commissions should police and enforce the trustee and issuers’
conduct, while the TIA regulates the terms of indentures.210
Thus, the court concludes that the legislative history suggests that
Congress considered existing common law sufficient to protect investors “so

198 Id. at *18.

199 Id. (citing 11 U.S.C. § 361 (1994)).
200 Id. at *8.
201 Id. at *25–26.
202 Morris v. Cantor, 390 F. Supp. 817, 818 (S.D.N.Y. 1975).
203 Id.
204 Id.
205 Id.; Trust Indenture Act of 1939, 15 U.S.C.A. § 315(d) (2010) (“Responsibility of the Trustee”).
This section provides, in relevant part, “The indenture to be qualified shall not contain any provisions
relieving the indenture trustee from liability for its own negligent action, its own negligent failure to act,
or its own willful misconduct,” and then lists a set of exceptions. Trust Indenture Act of 1939, § 315(d).
206 Morris, 390 F. Supp. at 819–23.
207 Id. at 820.
208 Id. at 820–21.
209 Id. at 821.
210 Id.
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386 Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal [Vol. 29:369

long as the trustee was precluded from contractually limiting the duties it
imposed upon fiduciaries, and so long as he explicitly assumed particular
duties.”211 The TIA was intended to create liability for both breach of the
indenture provisions and “breach of fiduciary obligations which it expressly
preserved from limitation by contract.”212
Merely making a loan to the company is protected under § 311 of the
TIA.213 The court here held that the mere existence of a dual relationship—
as trustee under the indenture and as preferred creditor of the obligor on the
bonds—does not, by itself, constitute a violation of the duties under TIA
§ 315(d), despite a potential conflict of interest.214 Congress permitted this
inherent conflict when drafting the TIA, enacting protections for the interests
of the bondholders.
Additionally, the court concluded that willful misconduct encompasses
“knowing, intentional action in flagrant disregard of the interests of the
bondholders.”215 Making a loan to the company does not fall under this
category, but the court denied the indenture trustee’s motion to dismiss
because of the possibility that under the circumstances known to the
indenture trustee, negotiating such a deal constituted a knowing, intentional
action in flagrant disregard of the interests of the bondholders.216
In conclusion, New York common law imposes two extracontractual pre-
default duties on indenture trustees,217 and New York courts have interpreted
Beck to impose fiduciary-like obligations on indenture trustees.218 Courts in
other circuits recognize these specificities about New York law.219 To the
extent that state law differs from the TIA, the Second Circuit has noted that
the TIA governs indentures.220 The Second Circuit further agrees with the
Third Circuit221 that since Congress enacted the TIA to uniformly govern
indentures, federal law controls trust indentures.222

211 Id. at 822 (referring to the duties stated in TIA § 315(d)).

212 Id. at 823.
213 Id. at 824; see Trust Indenture Act of 1939, 15 U.S.C.A. § 311 (2010) (“Preferential collection of

claims against obligor”).

214 Morris, 390 F. Supp. at 823–24.
215 Id. at 824.
216 Id.
217 LNC Inv.’s, Inc. v. First Fid. Bank, Nat’l Ass’n, 935 F. Supp. 1333, 1347 (S.D.N.Y. 1996).
218 Id.; see Beck v. Mfr.’s Hanover Tr. Co., 632 N.Y.S.2d 520, 528 (Sup. Ct. 1995).
219 See, e.g., Williams v. Cont’l Stock Transfer & Tr. Co., 1 F. Supp. 2d 836 (N.D. Ill. 1998):
An indenture trustee’s fiduciary duties are more limited in scope than the duties of an ordinary trustee.
Under New York law, the duties of an indenture trustee prior to default, with two exceptions, “are strictly
defined and limited to the terms of the indenture.” New York courts have placed two extra-contractual
duties on an indenture trustee prior to the occurrence of default. First, the indenture trustee must avoid
conflicts of interest, and second, the indenture trustee must perform all basic, non-discretionary,
ministerial tasks. The indenture trustee owes no other duties, fiduciary or otherwise, to the debenture
holders prior to a default. Id. at 840 (citations omitted).
220 Bluebird Partners, L.P. v. First Fid. Bank, N.A., 85 F.3d 970, 974 (2d Cir. 1996).
221 See id.:
It is hard to believe that Congress would have established uniform standards to govern indentures
and then paradoxically have allowed the application of those standards to depend on the law of the state
of the suit. The interpretation of the indenture provisions mandated by the Act does not depend on
ordinary contract principles--the intent of the parties--but depends on an interpretation of the legislation.
It would be contrary to the purposes of the [Trust Indenture] Act to have the trustee held to certain
standards in one state court and potentially different standards in another. Id. (quoting Zeffiro v. First Pa.
Banking & Tr. Co., 623 F.2d 290, 299 (3d Cir. 1980)).
222 LNC Inv.’s, Inc. v. First Fid. Bank, Nat’l Ass’n, 935 F. Supp. 1333, 1345 (S.D.N.Y. 1996)

(“Federal courts may recognize implied federal law, and may recognize also a need for uniform federal
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C. UNITED STATES THIRD CIRCUIT COURT OF APPEALS

In Lorenz v. CSX, the plaintiffs held debentures in the B&O Railroad.223
The debentures were convertible into B&O common stock at any time before
maturing in 2010.224 B&O segregated its rail and non-rail assets to avoid
Interstate Commerce Commission regulations. Mid Allegheny Corporation
(“MAC”) held the non-rail assets, and MAC common stock was distributed
as a dividend to B&O shareholders.225 B&O believed the SEC would issue a
"no-action” letter excusing registration of the MAC stock given the few
number of shareholders.226 Since this plan would fail if large numbers of
B&O debenture holders exercised their option to convert their debenture into
stock, B&O transferred its non-rail assets to MAC and declared the dividend
in MAC stock the same date and without prior notice, which resulted in the
debenture holders not being able to convert their shares in time to receive the
MAC dividend.227
Some of the debenture holders, who were not the plaintiffs in Lorenz,
brought actions against B&O228 and are herein referred to as the
PTC/Guttmann plaintiffs.229 Chase Manhattan Bank, the indenture trustee,
entered into a series of letter agreements whereby B&O agreed that if the
PTC/Guttmann plaintiffs prevailed or obtained a settlement, debenture
holders would be allowed to participate equally in that judgment or
settlement regardless of whether they had converted their debentures.230 The
district court offered these plaintiffs the opportunity to convert their
debentures and receive the MAC dividend, as well as dividend income
accruing since December 13, 1977.231
The plaintiffs in Lorenz were outside the scope of the PTC/Guttmann
remedy. They held debentures on December 13, 1977 but subsequently sold
them without converting them into stock.232 They brought breach of the
covenant of good faith and fair dealing claims against Chase based on
Chase’s failure to inform the Lorenz plaintiffs of the MAC dividend, the
letter agreements with B&O, and the PTC/Guttmann judgment.233 The
Pennsylvania district court dismissed the plaintiffs’ claims.234
The Third Circuit applied New York law in assessing whether a duty of
good faith and fair dealing was breached.235 First, the Third Circuit held that
the duties of an indenture trustee are defined exclusively by the terms of the
indenture.236 The sole exception to this rule is that indenture trustees “must

law with respect to certain features of a statute, but simultaneously may recognize that other parts of the
regulatory framework neither imply nor authorize a preemptive federal rule.”).
223 Lorenz v. CSX Corp., 1 F.3d 1406, 1409 (3d Cir. 1993).
224 Id.
225 Id.
226 Id.
227 Id.
228 Id.
229 See id.
230 Id.
231 Id. at 1410.
232 Id.
233 Id. at 1414.
234 Id.
235 Id.
236 Id. at 1415.
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388 Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal [Vol. 29:369

avoid conflicts of interest with the debenture holders.”237 Under New York
law, the covenant of good faith and fair dealing—which prohibits either party
from “doing anything which would prevent the other party from receiving
the fruits of the contract”—is inherent in every contract.238 However, the
covenant cannot be used to insert new terms that were not bargained for, as
“a covenant is implied only when it is consistent with the express terms of
the contract.”239 Therefore, the court considered whether the indentures in
this case contained provisions which entitled debenture holders to receive
notice of the MAC dividend, the letter agreements with B&O, or any of the
remedies in the PTC/Guttmann action.
The court found that the indenture at issue contained no provisions
explicitly requiring the trustee to provide such notice to the holders.240 The
court also found that the letter agreements did not affect the plaintiffs’ rights
under the indenture and cannot be characterized as supplemental
indentures.241 Thus, the court concluded that although it would have been
advantageous for the plaintiffs to have been informed of the letter
agreements, “so long as an indenture trustee fulfills its obligations under the
express terms of the indenture, it owes the debenture holders no additional,
implicit duties or obligations, except to avoid conflicts of interest.”242 In
affirming the Pennsylvania district court, the Third Circuit held that Chase
could not have breached the implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing
because it did not deprive the plaintiff of any right under the indenture.243
In Peak Partners v. Republic Bank,244 Keystone Owner Trust issued
mortgage-backed securities to plaintiff hedge fund Peak Partners (“Peak”);
US Bank Trust National Association (“US Bank”) was the indenture
trustee.245 Pursuant to the indenture, US Bank was responsible for making
monthly distributions to the noteholders from the funds in the collection
account operated by Republic Bank (“Republic”), the servicer (and
codefendant of US Bank).246 In May 2000, US Bank discovered there were
insufficient funds in the collection account to make the required monthly
distribution, and that it had overpaid principal payments to noteholders every
month since Keystone’s first distribution in 1998.247 US Bank used
Republic’s servicer certificates to calculate the amount available for
distribution. These documents failed to reflect the servicing fee that Republic
was deducting every month before entering received mortgage payments into
the collection account, which indicated that US Bank had been making
overpayments over the course of a nineteen-month period.248 US Bank
notified noteholders of this error on June 13, 2000.249

237 Id.
238 Id.
239 Id.
240 Id.
241 Id. at 1416.
242 Id.
243 Id. at 1418.
244 Peak Partners, LP v. Republic Bank, 191 F. App’x 118 (3d Cir. 2006).
245 Id. at 119–20.
246 Id. at 120.
247 Id.
248 Id. at 120–21.
249 Id.
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The noteholders’ brokerage, Bear Sterns, sent a letter to US Bank on

behalf of the noteholders, pointing out that the error caused an overstatement
of Keystone’s collateralization amount and that as that figure declined, so
did the market value of the notes.250 Bear Sterns proposed that either US
Bank or Republic post a letter of credit until the collection account was
replenished. US Bank and Republic rejected this proposal. 251
Peak sold all of its notes “due in part to the now reduced
overcollateralization amount in the Trust”252 Peak asserted that but for the
defendants’ errors its notes would have been worth $700,000 more and
claimed that US Bank and Republic negligently breached duties owed to
Peak by their failure to properly account for the trust’s financial condition.253
Peak claimed that the defendants breached both their indenture and common
law duties.
The opinion begins its discussion by acknowledging that it is “hornbook
law” that a trustee owes a strict fiduciary duty of undivided loyalty to the
beneficiaries of the trust, but an indenture trustee is a “a different legal
animal,”254 more akin to “a stake holder whose duties and obligations are
exclusively defined by the terms of the indenture agreement.”255 The court
explained that only after an “event of default” occurs, as that term is defined
in the indenture, does an indenture trustee’s duty to noteholders become more
like a traditional trustee’s duty.256
The Third Circuit explains that an indenture trustee’s duty to noteholders
becomes more like a traditional trustee’s duty only after an “event of default”
occurs, as defined in the indenture.257 The court cited Beck, which clarified
that an indenture trustee is not required to act outside of its rights and powers
under the indenture, but still must, “as prudence dictates, exercise those
singularly conferred prerogatives in order to secure the basic purpose of any
trust indenture, the repayment of the underlying obligation.”258
The Third Circuit first considered whether an event of default occurred
under the terms of the indenture,259 and agreed with the district court that it
had not because the pre-payments “did not jeopardize future payments of
principal.”260 Thus, US Bank’s only duties to Peak were those defined in the
indenture, “together with those pre-default duties imposed by New York
common law: the performance of ministerial tasks, and the avoidance of
conflicts of interest.”261 On this basis, the court analyzed US Bank’s actions
under the pre-default standard. Regarding the breach of indenture claim, the
court held that US Bank was not negligent in its reliance on Republic’s

250Id. at 121.
251Id.
252 Id.
253 Id. at 121–22.
254 Id. at 122.
255 Id. (citing Meckel and Hazzard and reiterating the two extracontractual duties imposed by New

York to void conflicts of interest with beneficiaries and perform non-discretionary ministerial tasks).
256 Id.
257 Id.
258 Id. (quoting Beck, 632 N.Y.S.2d at 528).
259 Id.
260 Id. at 123.
261 Id. at 124.
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servicer certificates.262 Further, Peak alleged that US Bank violated its

common law duty to perform basic non-discretionary ministerial tasks by
“blindly basing its distribution calculation upon the undefined ‘net interest’
figure reported by Republic and by failing to reconcile that amount and the
amount that was actually available for distribution.”263 With regard to this
claim, the court explained that a trustee could be held liable for failing to
perform its basic administrative obligations if its indenture exposed it to
negligence claims, and that this implied duty can be limited by the provisions
of the indenture.264
In affirming the district court’s granting of US Bank's motion for
summary judgment, the Third Circuit held that Peak failed to demonstrate
that US Bank owed it a pre-default duty, much less that it breached such a
duty.265
The District Court found that reconciling the collection account
balance was not ministerial because it ‘requires the Indenture Trustee
to look beyond the numbers, and make numerous calculations.’ But
the District Court need not have gone that far. As it correctly observed,
‘[i]n essence, Plaintiff is attempting to impose a duty on U.S. Bank
that would nullify its right to rely on the Servicer Certificate.’ Thus,
wholly aside from whether this task is ‘ministerial’ or ‘inherent in the
very nature of an indenture trustee's service,’ the Indenture
unequivocally ‘reliev[es] the trustee of this duty,’ a point that Peak
has conceded.266
1. Pennsylvania
Lorenz and Peak Partners evince the Third Circuit’s attitude toward the
issue of indenture trustees’ duties. Lorenz originated in Pennsylvania district
courts. Indeed, Pennsylvania state and federal cases have interpreted and
applied the Third Circuit’s precedent in varying ways.
The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania assessed the duties of indenture
trustees in the pre-TIA case, Gouley v. Land Title Bank and Trust.267 The
statements of law in this case were interpreted and expanded in Becker v.
BNY Mellon Trust, below, which brought attention to similarities and
differences between the Pennsylvania common law and the Third Circuit
ruling in Peak Partners.
In Gouley, plaintiff bondholders brought claims in equity against the
indenture trustee seeking: removal of the trustee, appointment of a successor
trustee, an accounting of all moneys the trustee received, and a decree
ordering the trustee to pay damages to the successor in a sum equal to the
loss and damage suffered by the bondholders as a result of the indenture

262 Id. at 125 (uncontested by plaintiffs at the district court level).

263 Id. (internal citations omitted).
264 Id.
265 Id. at 125–26.
266 Id. at 126 (internal citations omitted).
267 Gouley v. Land Title Bank & Tr. Co., 329 Pa. 465 (1938).
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trustee’s alleged misconduct.268 The trial court dismissed the plaintiffs’ claim
and the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania sustained the dismissal.269
The bonds in this case were secured by mortgages that had gone into
default; the trustee’s failure to notify the bondholders of each default led to
the plaintiffs’ allegations that the trustee willfully breached its duty.270
However, the trustee did give notice to the bondholders’ agent, the mortgage
guarantor company.271 The defendants argued that by the terms of the
mortgage, they were not required to send notices to the bondholders
individually and that they performed their duties by giving notice to the
guarantor.272
The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania began its discussion by stating that
the nature and extent of a indenture trustee’s duties are primarily to be
ascertained from the trust instrument, and that such duties are “those
assumed under the terms and conditions of the contract itself, rather
than inherent in the general law governing trust relationships.”273 In this case,
the terms of the trust and the trustee’s duties were set forth in the mortgage,
to which each bond referred.274 Under the mortgage’s terms, the trustee was
not required to take any action unless requested by the bondholders.275 The
mortgage also included exculpatory provisions, which relieved “the
defendant of any duty to notify the individual bondholders of defaults by the
mortgagor, or to recognize the same for any purpose under the mortgage,
unless requested in writing by twenty-five percent of the bondholders to take
action.”276 The court noted that such exculpatory provisions are not given
effect if they are illegal, are opposed to public policy, or permit trustees to
act in bad faith.277 The court affirmed the defendant’s motion to dismiss,
holding that the provisions in the mortgage were enforceable.278
The Western District of Pennsylvania encountered the issue of indenture
trustee’s duties in a 1946 reorganization proceeding, In re Pittsburgh
Terminal Warehouse & Transfer.279 In Pittsburgh Terminal, Buchanan, the
president of the debtor company, was also an “officer or director” of the
indenture trustee company.280 Buchanan caused misleading reports of the
results of the operations of the debtor to be issued and published.281 The
reports concealed from bondholders that although the company had paid
dividends to stockholders, there were no earnings available for payment of
such dividends by reason of failure of the debtor to make charges for
depreciation, obsolescence, and repairs against operating income.282 The
indenture trustee and its officers had no notice of the debtor’s accounting

268 Id. at 466.

269 Id. at 471.
270 Id. at 468.
271 Id.
272 Id.
273 Id. at 468–69.
274 Id. at 469.
275 Id.
276 Id. at 469–470.
277 Id. at 470–71.
278 Id.
279 In re Pittsburgh Terminal Warehouse & Transfer Co., 69 F. Supp. 289 (W.D. Pa. 1946).
280 Id. at 290.
281 Id.
282 Id.
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392 Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal [Vol. 29:369

methods in 1931 when the president died.283 Further, none of the officers of
the indenture trustee owned stock of the debtor company in 1931,284 and
stockholders knew that no depreciation was taken until 1931 and did not
object.285
In the reorganization proceeding, the debtor objected to paying the
indenture trustee because the indenture trustee allegedly failed in the
performance of its duties under the indenture.286 The court concluded that the
indenture trustee was not negligent and had not defaulted in its performance
of its duties under the indenture, but that the indenture trustee was in breach
of trust for not filing suits against the directors of the debtor in bankruptcy.287
The objections were dismissed and judgement was entered in favor of the
indenture trustee;288 the fact that two of the members of the bondholders’
committee were officers of the indenture trustee does not of itself make the
indenture trustee liable for payments that the debtor made.289
In Becker, bondholders brought suit against indenture trustees, alleging
that they were negligent and breached their fiduciary and contractual duties
to bondholders by failing to maintain “perfected” security interests in the
property securing the bonds.290 The bondholders alleged that they were
awarded less in bankruptcy than they would have been if security interests
had been perfected.291 Defendant-trustees cited Peak Partners to disclaim
any duty, whether contractual or common law, to maintain security interests,
and argued they are only responsible for losses caused by gross negligence
or willful misconduct.292 In 1992, Lower Bucks Hospital (“LBH”) entered
into a bond financing transaction. The Borough of Langhorne Manor Higher
Education and Health Authority (“Authority”) agreed to issue bonds and loan
LBH the proceeds from sales of the bonds, and LBH agreed to pay principal
and interest on the bond debt.293 The indenture was between the original
indenture trustee and the Authority. On January 13, 2010, LBH filed for
Chapter 11 relief, which constituted an event of default under the transaction
agreements.294 The indenture trustee, BNYM, chose to act as the
bondholders’ sole representative in the bankruptcy case.295
On August 12, 2010, BNYM filed a proof of claim for the bondholders
against LBH for the outstanding bond debt.296 LBH sued BNYM to avoid its
claims of liens and security interests against the hospital’s gross revenues
and reserve accounts.297 LBH and BNYM entered into a settlement in which
BNYM released LBH from indemnification obligations and negotiated a
reduced recovery for the bondholders.298 The bondholders released all claims
283 Id.
284 Id.
285 Id.
286 Id.
287 Id.
288 Id. at 291.
289 Id. at 290.
290 Becker v. Bank of N.Y. Mellon Tr. Co., N.A., 172 F. Supp. 3d 777, 781 (E.D. Pa. 2016).
291 Id.
292 Id.
293 Id. at 782.
294 Id. at 783–84.
295 Id. at 784.
296 Id.
297 Id.
298 Id. at 784–85.
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against the trustee, including those for damages resulting from conduct that
caused the security interests and liens to become unperfected and voidable.
299

On September 14, 2011, the bankruptcy court approved the stipulated

settlement as “fair to the bankruptcy estate.”300 On September 29, plaintiff
Becker, representing the bondholders, moved for reconsideration and
vacation of the approval order.301 The motion asserted that the indenture
trustee lacked authority to release or discharge the bondholders’ claims
against the indenture trustee, and that the bondholders were not provided
with notice of the stipulation before it was signed, or the approval order
before it was entered.302 It further asserted that the bondholders were not
adequately represented in the settlement process because there was a “clear”
and “actual conflict of interest between the bond trustee and the bondholders
resulting from the alleged failure to perfect the liens required under the
indenture.”303
The plaintiffs claimed that the trustee breached fiduciary duties it owed
to the bondholders by not maintaining perfected security interests in the
property securing the bonds. The trustee responded that as trustee it had “no
duties to ensure lien perfection under the Indenture and Loan Agreement”
and “no duties to bondholders other than those specifically set forth in the
Indenture,”304 and contended that it could be held liable only for gross
negligence or willful misconduct, which had not been alleged.305
The court held that the defendants were fiduciaries of the bondholders’
interests in LBH’s unrestricted gross revenues, as well as the security
interests, liens, and reserve funds created by the transaction agreements.306
Under those agreements, the defendants were required to manage the
entrusted assets for the benefit of the bondholders.307 Generally, the "standard
of care imposed upon a trustee is that which a man of ordinary prudence
would practice in the care of his own estate."308 It is a precept of Pennsylvania
law "that where a trust instrument is explicit as to the duty owed, it, as
evidencing the settlor's . . . intent, should govern." 309 The court then cites
Gouley’s premises that the nature and extent of an indenture trustee’s duties
are to be ascertained primarily from the trust instrument and that trustee
duties are not inherent in the general law governing trust relationships.310 The
Gouley rule allows the standard for a trustee's care and skill to be relaxed or
modified, and it permits an instrument to prescribe powers, duties, and
liabilities of the trustee. However, “it does not exempt a corporate or an
indenture trustee from all common-law fiduciary duties, as Defendants

299 Id. at 785.

300 Id.
301 Id. at 786.
302 Id.
303 Id.
304 Id. at 788.
305 Id.
306 Id.
307 Id.
308 Id. at 788–89.
309 Id. at 789 (citations omitted).
310 Id. (citing Gouley v. Land Title Bank & Tr. Co., 329 Pa. 465, 466–70 (1938)).
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394 Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal [Vol. 29:369

propose.”311 Thus, Pennsylvania law imposes upon trustees common law

duties arising from the nature of the fiduciary relationship. These
fundamental common law duties apply to indenture trustees, as well. Under
Pennsylvania law, an indenture trustee "stood in a fiduciary relation to the
bondholders," and as their trustee "it was bound to exercise the utmost good
faith in dealing with them and with the property of the trust; its first
obligation was to safeguard their interests."312
Finally, the court found that the defendants misread the holding in
Peak Partners to argue that as indenture trustee they owed no duties
whatsoever to the bondholders other than those specifically set forth in the
indenture. 313 The court rejected this argument, stating that Peak Partners
held that after a default an indenture trustee's duty to beneficiaries becomes
more like that of a traditional trustee, and that New York common law
imposes a duty to avoid conflicts of interest and a duty to perform ministerial
tasks.314 Thus, even considering this case under New York law, which does
not control:
Peak Partners would support a ruling that at least as early as January
13, 2010, when LBH petitioned for bankruptcy protection, which
filing was a defined event of default under the Indenture, Defendants
owed the bondholders the complete panoply of fiduciary duties of a
traditional trustee. That case also persuasively supports a ruling that
at all pertinent times on the facts presented here, Defendants had a
duty to act in good faith with undivided loyalty toward the
bondholders' interests. Defendants have not cited any case law that
would relieve them of their duties under Pennsylvania's general law
governing fiduciary relationships.315
Thus, in denying the defendants’ motion for summary judgment, the
Becker court held that the defendants owed actionable fiduciary duties to the
bondholders.316 The common law, as well as the transaction agreements
required the defendants to act prudently, in good faith, and with undivided
loyalty—using reasonable care under the circumstances. Therefore, the
defendants were liable for their negligent “failure to use reasonable care to
assure that the bondholders' rights and interests were protected and
preserved.”317
2. Delaware
In In re Worldwide Direct, an indenture trustee brought claims against a
debtor company in a bankruptcy case to collect “administrative expenses.”318
The bankruptcy court held that the indenture trustee was entitled to certain
fees as a result of its services to bondholders, and ordered the fees to be

311 Id.
312 Id.
313 Id. at 790.
314 Id.
315 Id. (emphasis added).
316 Id. at 791.
317 Id.
318 In re Worldwide Direct, Inc., 334 B.R. 112, 118 (Bankr. D. Del. 2005).
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paid.319 However, the court did not approve all the trustee’s administrative
expenses: the trustee was not entitled to expenses it incurred to “fulfill its
fiduciary duties to the Noteholders as the Indenture Trustee or to the creditors
as a member of the [Creditors’ Committee].”320 In denying such recovery, the
court noted that indenture trustees have a fiduciary duty to noteholders and
are required to act with the same care as if it owned the investment.321 The
indenture in this case required the trustee's services be performed with “the
same degree of care and skill in their exercise as a prudent Person would
exercise or use under the circumstances in the conduct of his own affairs.”322
Two years later, the Delaware Bankruptcy Court applied Worldwide
Direct in Miller v. Greenwich Capital Financial Products to conclude that
indenture trustees owe fiduciary duties to securities holders, not bankruptcy
estates, and that indenture trustees must act in the best interests of those
holders.323 On this basis, the court in Miller dismissed a bankruptcy estate’s
breach of fiduciary duty claim, concluding that an indenture trustee owes no
fiduciary duties to a bankruptcy estate.324
In In re Nortel Networks, noteholders objected to fees an indenture
trustee claimed in an issuer’s bankruptcy matter.325 The bankruptcy court
discussed whether the indenture trustee acted prudently in assigning work to
and supervising its lawyers, as well as whether the fees charged were
reasonable.326 Pursuant to the indenture, the trustee was authorized in
performing its duties “to act through agents or attorneys,” and to “consult
with counsel of its selection.”327 The indenture required disputes over its
terms to be governed by New York law.328 The court explained that under
New York law, “the fiduciary duties of an indenture trustee are governed by
a ‘prudent person’ standard.”329 As such, the court looked at whether the
indenture trustee acted prudently in assigning the lawyers to their tasks and
whether the lawyers’ work was reasonable. Solus Alternative Asset
Management (“Solus”), which asserted that it owned a majority of the notes,
instructed the trustee to replace the attorneys with a firm it chose.330 The
indenture trustee did not do so since Solus failed to provide the indenture
trustee with proof of its majority ownership of the notes.331 The court found
that, with one sole exception, the indenture trustee acted prudently
throughout the bankruptcy case and performed its duties appropriately.332

319 Id. at 135.

320 Id. at 127.
321 Id. at 129 (citing TIA §§ 301–315(c)).
322 Id.
323 Miller v. Greenwich Capital Fin. Prod.’s (In re Am. Bus. Fin. Serv.’s), 362 B.R. 135, 140–41
(Bankr. D. Del. 2007).
324 Id. at 144–45.
325 In re Nortel Networks Inc., No. 09-10138(KG), 2017 WL 932947, at *1 (Bankr. D. Del. Mar. 8,
2017).
326 Id.
327 Id.
328 Id. at *3.
329 Id. (citing Beck, 632 N.Y.S.2d at 528).
330 Id.
331 Id. at *4.
332 Id. Actions taken by the indenture trustee included:
(1) having its lawyers review pleadings in pending cases; (2) having its lawyers research the unique
features of the notes at issue; (3) filing and amending proofs of claim; (4) defend against the issuer’s
objection to post-payment interest; (5) participate in 4 rounds of mediation; (6) learn the intricacies of the
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396 Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal [Vol. 29:369

Noteholders objected to the legal fees and the number of lawyers

representing the Creditors’ Committee.333 The court found it was not prudent
for the indenture trustee or reasonable for the lawyers to have more than one
attorney preparing for or attending committee meetings,334 and so limited the
committee meeting fees to one lawyer.335

III. CONCLUSION
Despite some ambiguity, the majority of the opinions discussed above
indicate a clear pattern. The Second Circuit views indenture trustees’ pre-
default duties as only those explicitly set forth in the indenture, with the
exception of the duty to avoid conflicts of interest. New York courts have
held that any “fiduciary” duties implied by New York common law are
identical to trustees’ duties under the TIA.336 However, New York cases still
enumerate two extracontractual pre-default duties: (1) to avoid conflicts of
interest; and (2) to perform basic nondiscretionary ministerial tasks.337 The
duty to avoid conflicts, however, does not prevent indenture trustees from
becoming creditors of an issuer, despite the inherent conflict of interest.338
Indenture trustees’ post-default duties in New York more closely resemble
those of a fiduciary, but courts continue to disagree about whether those
duties reflect the full panoply of fiduciary duties.339
For its part, the Third Circuit generally agrees that trustees’ duties prior
to default are defined exclusively by the express terms of the indenture
agreement and that there are no additional duties except to avoid conflicts of
interest.340 It also recognizes that the trustee is more like a stakeholder in its
relation to the bond issue,341and like New York, has held that trustees have
an extracontractual duty to perform basic nondiscretionary ministerial
tasks.342
Pennsylvania views indenture trustees’ duties as higher, finding that they
have fiduciary obligations to safeguard the interests of holders after an event
of default has occurred.343 Unlike New York, the Pennsylvania district court
supported a ruling that indenture trustees owed actionable fiduciary duties to
bondholders.344 Delaware deviates from the Second Circuit as well, holding
that, after default, bondholders should have the same care as if they owned
the investment.345

unique notes; and (7) retain and rely on the lawyers who represented and advised the indenture trustee.
Id.
333 Id. at *5.
334 Id. at *7.
335 Id.
336 Semi-Tech Litig., LLC v. Bankers Tr. Co., 353 F. Supp. 2d 460, 472 (S.D.N.Y. 2005).
337 Steven Wolowitz & Christopher J. Houpt, Commercial Litigation in New York State Courts §

19:31, in N.Y. PRAC. SERIES (4th ed. 2015); see LNC Inv.’s, Inc. v. First Fid. Bank, Nat’l Ass’n, 935 F.
Supp. 1333, 1347 (S.D.N.Y. 1996).
338 Morris v. Cantor, 390 F. Supp. 817, 818 (S.D.N.Y. 1975).
339 See Wolowitz & Houpt, supra note 337, at § 91:31.
340 Lorenz v. CSX Corp., 1 F.3d 1406, 1415 (3d Cir. 1993).
341 Peak Partners, LP v. Republic Bank, 191 F. App’x 118, 120–22 (3d Cir. 2006).
342 Id.
343 Becker v. Bank of N.Y. Mellon Tr. Co., N.A., 172 F. Supp. 3d 777, 788 (E.D. Pa. 2016).
344 Id.
345 In re Worldwide Direct, Inc., 334 B.R. 112, 129 (Bankr. D. Del. 2005).
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In conclusion, various types of actions have been held to be a breach or

misconduct by indenture trustees under the TIA. With the exception of a few
outliers, courts have applied similar standards in spelling out the law when
it comes to defining indenture trustees’ duties.