Minerals(Dietary elements or mineral nutrients.

)
Minerals are inorganic substances required by the body in small amounts for a variety of functions.
These include the formation of bones and teeth; as essential constituents of body fluids and tissues; as components of enzyme systems and for
normal nerve function.
There are two categories of minerals:
Major minerals (Major minerals are needed in amounts greater than 100 mg per day, Major minerals are present in the body in amounts greater
than 5 grams; The major minerals are: calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium.)
Trace minerals. (Trace minerals are needed in amounts less than 100 mg per day, Trace minerals are present in the body in amounts less than
5 grams. Important trace minerals include: iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine, bromine, and selenium. These are
also called minor minerals, with "minor" referring to their amount, as opposed to their importance. Despite being required in smaller amounts,
trace minerals are no less important than other minerals.)
These two terms refer to how much of the mineral is needed in the diet and also by how much is present in the human body.

Macrominerals/Majorminerals
Major minerals are classified as minerals that are required in the diet each day in amounts larger than 100 milligrams. These include sodium,
potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulfur. These major minerals can be found in various foods. For example, in Guam,
the major mineral, calcium, is consumed in the diet not only through dairy, a common source of calcium, but also through the mixed dishes,
desserts and vegetables that they consume.
Calcium and Phosphorus
Calcium and phosphorus are the minerals that humans require in the greatest amounts. Highest requirements for calcium and phosphorus are
for the young, and for pregnant and nursing mothers. Not only is the dietary intake of these minerals important but also the percentage that is
absorbed into the bloodstream. Because calcium and phosphorus can combine and precipitate one another, they actually interfere with the
effective absorption of one another.
Calcium (Ca) is the most abundant mineral in the body and is essential for a number of vital functions. The body needs adequate dietary calcium
(alongside vitamin D and several other nutrients such as vitamin K) to develop and maintain healthy bones and teeth. Calcium also plays a vital
role in many systems including intracellular signalling to enable the integration and regulation of metabolic processes, the transmission of
information via the nervous system, the control of muscle contraction (including the heart) and blood clotting. Furthermore, it has been suggested
that adequate calcium intake (for example from reduced fat dairy products) may help lower high blood pressure and may help protect against
colon cancer, although more evidence is needed to fully substantiate these functions.
The skeleton contains about 99% of the body’s calcium with approximately 1kg present in adult bones. The major constituents of bone are
calcium and phosphate, forming hydroxyapatite, which is associated within a meshwork of collagen fibres to form a rigid structure. The body’s
requirement for calcium fluctuates with the rate of bone development, so as well as protecting vital organs, the skeleton acts as a ‘bank’ of
minerals from which calcium and phosphorus may be continually withdrawn or deposited to support physiological requirement.
Calcium levels in the blood are carefully regulated and blood plasma levels are maintained within narrow limits. Calcium absorption is well
controlled to match the needs of the body and so calcium balance can be maintained at a variety of different levels of calcium intake. Even at low
levels of intake, there is evidence from the Gambia, for example, that calcium balance can be achieved. Calcium status is maintained by
balancing calcium absorption from the gut, excretion via the kidneys and mobilisation and deposition in the bone. These sites are regulated by
feedback mechanisms controlled by several hormones including parathyroid hormone and the activated form of vitamin D. Plasma levels of
calcium only become abnormal if there is a breakdown of this homeostatic mechanism, and not usually as a result of differences in dietary
calcium intake. The body invests this effort because small variations in plasma calcium concentrations may have serious consequences to the
functioning of vital organs and to health in general. Low blood calcium is called hypocalcaemia and high blood calcium is called hypercalcaemia..

The major function of phosphorus is in the formation, with calcium, of the bone component hydroxyapatite. 80% of the phosphorous in the body
is present as calcium salts in the skeleton and, therefore, is essential for healthy bone and tooth structure. In the adult, there is a dynamic
equilibrium between calcium and phosphate in the continual remodelling of bones.. The rest of the body’s phosphorus is distributed in all cells. It
is essential for the structure of cell membranes (in phospholipids) and intercellular phosphorus contributes to a number of processes associated
with energy metabolism.
In recent years the role of calcium in preventing the loss of calcium from bones (called osteoporosis) has been studied. This diesease is
especially prevalent in older women. There is some evidence that increasing calcium intake, especially when young, can help reduce
osteoporosis later in life. Vitamin D is essential for absorption of calcium from the intestinal tract, and lactose also is effective in promoting this
absorption. This makes milk, especially milk fortified with vitamin D, a particularly valuable source of calcium.
Deficiency
Deficiencies result chiefly in bone and teeth diseases.
Importance
Phosphorus is an essential part of every living cell.
It is involved in the enzyme-controlled energy-yielding reactions of metabolism.
Phosphorus also helps control the acid-alkaline reaction of the blood.
Cells need it to work normally.
Helps make energy.
Needed for bone growth.
Source of phosphorus
Milk and dairy products are excellent sources of calcium and phosphorus, and in normal diets there is seldom any deficiency of these minerals.
peas, meat, eggs, some cereals and breads
Phosphorus is abundant in red meat, dairy products, fish, poultry, bread, rice and oats and is usually found in foods that also contain calcium.
Deficiency
Phosphorus is unlikely to be in short supply in UK diets because it is available in many foods.
Adverse effects
Phosphorus has very low toxicity.

Recommended allowance

 Adults: 700 milligrams per day

Importance
Calcium also is necessary for clotting of the blood,
for the function of certain enzymes, and
for control of fluids through cell membranes.
Needed for bone growth and strength, blood clotting, muscle contraction, and more
Recommended allowance

 Adults ages 19-50: 1,000 milligrams per day

 Women age 51 and older: 1,200 milligrams per day
 Men age 51 - 70: 1,000 milligrams per day
 Men 71 and older: 1,200 milligrams per day

Source of calcium
Milk, fortified nondairy alternatives like soy milk, yogurt, hard cheeses, fortified cereals, unfortified almond milk, kale
Milk, cheese and other dairy products provide about half of the calcium in the UK diet. Bread is also an important source in the UK because most
bread flour (though not wholemeal) is fortified with calcium by law. Calcium is also provided by some green leafy vegetables such as broccoli and
cabbage (but not spinach), fortified soya products and fish eaten with the bones such as sardines, tinned salmon and whitebait. For more
information about the dietary sources of calcium
Adverse effects
Obtaining calcium as part of a varied diet is unlikely to cause any adverse effects but taking high dose supplements sometimes causes stomach
pain and diarrhoea.
Deficiency
For some nutrients, nutritional deficiency is identified by the existence of a low blood level of the nutrient but for nutrients such as calcium, for the
reasons described above, low blood levels rarely occur. Because of the need to maintain blood levels, the impact of a poor supply of calcium is
usually reflected in bone density because bone acts as a reservoir in times of need. For example,
insufficient calcium in bones can result from an inadequate supply of vitamin D which is essential for absorption of calcium. In children, vitamin D
deficiency results in rickets and, in adults, osteomalacia, in which bones become weak owing to lack of calcium.
In terms of dietary supply, a significant proportion of young women have average calcium intakes below the Lower Reference Nutrient Intakes
(8% of women aged 19-24 years and 6% of women aged 25-34 years) indicating these intakes are likely to be inadequate. An adequate calcium
intake is vital for health, particularly in times of growth (in childhood, adolescence, pregnancy) to establish peak bone mass and also during
lactation (breastfeeding). Supplements are sometimes recommended for those at risk of osteoporosis. See nutrient requirements for information
on calcium requirements throughout the life course.

Maintaining Calcium Levels

Because calcium performs such vital functions in the body, blood calcium level is closely regulated by the hormones parathyroid hormone (PTH),
calcitriol, and calcitonin. When blood calcium levels are low, PTH is secreted to increase blood calcium levels via three different mechanisms.
First, PTH stimulates the release of calcium stored in the bone. Second, PTH acts on kidney cells to increase calcium reabsorption and decrease
its excretion in the urine. Third, PTH stimulates enzymes in the kidney that activate vitamin D to calcitriol. Calcitriol is the active hormone that
acts on the intestinal cells and increases dietary calcium absorption. When blood calcium levels become too high, the hormone calcitonin is
secreted by certain cells in the thyroid gland and PTH secretion stops. At higher nonphysiological concentrations, calcitonin lowers blood calcium
levels by increasing calcium excretion in the urine, preventing further absorption of calcium in the gut and by directly inhibiting bone resorption.
Other Health Benefits of Calcium in the Body
Besides forming and maintaining strong bones and teeth, calcium has been shown to have other health benefits for the body, including:

 Cancer. The National Cancer Institute reports that there is enough scientific evidence to conclude that higher intakes of calcium decrease
colon cancer risk and may suppress the growth of polyps that often precipitate cancer. Although higher calcium consumption protects
against colon cancer, some studies have looked at the relationship between calcium and prostate cancer and found higher intakes may
increase the risk for prostate cancer; however the data is inconsistent and more studies are needed to confirm any negative association.
 Blood pressure. Multiple studies provide clear evidence that higher calcium consumption reduces blood pressure. A review of twenty-
three observational studies concluded that for every 100 milligrams of calcium consumed daily, systolic blood pressure is reduced 0.34
millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and diastolic blood pressure is decreased by 0.15 mmHg.[1]
 Cardiovascular health. There is emerging evidence that higher calcium intakes prevent against other risk factors for cardiovascular
disease, such as high cholesterol and obesity, but the scientific evidence is weak or inconclusive.
 Kidney stones. Another health benefit of a high-calcium diet is that it blocks kidney stone formation. Calcium inhibits the absorption of
oxalate, a chemical in plants such as parsley and spinach, which is associated with an increased risk for developing kidney stones.
Calcium’s protective effects on kidney stone formation occur only when you obtain calcium from dietary sources. Calcium supplements
may actually increase the risk for kidney stones in susceptible people.
particular groups of people who may require extra calcium intake.
 Adolescent teens. A calcium-deficient diet is common in teenage girls as their dairy consumption often considerably drops during
adolescence.
 Amenorrheic women and the “female athlete triad”. Amenorrhea refers to the absence of a menstrual cycle. Women who fail to
menstruate suffer from reduced estrogen levels, which can disrupt and have a negative impact on the calcium balance in their bodies. The
“female athlete triad” is a combination of three conditions characterized by amenorrhea, disrupted eating patterns, and osteoporosis.
Exercise-induced amenorrhea and anorexia nervosa-related amenorrhea can decrease bone mass.[2][3] In female athletes, as well as
active women in the military, low BMD, menstrual irregularities, and individual dietary habits together with a history of previous stress
issues are related to an increased susceptibility to future stress fractures.[4][5]
 The elderly. As people age, calcium bioavailability is reduced, the kidneys lose their capacity to convert vitamin D to its most active form,
the kidneys are no longer efficient in retaining calcium, the skin is less effective at synthesizing vitamin D, there are changes in overall
dietary patterns, and older people tend to get less exposure to sunlight. Thus the risk for calcium inadequacy is great.[6]
 Postmenopausal women. Estrogen enhances calcium absorption. The decline in this hormone during and after menopause puts
postmenopausal women especially at risk for calcium deficiency. Decreases in estrogen production are responsible for an increase in
bone resorption and a decrease in calcium absorption. During the first years of menopause, annual decreases in bone mass range from
3–5 percent. After age sixty-five, decreases are typically less than 1 percent.[7]
 Lactose-intolerant people. Groups of people, such as those who are lactose intolerant, or who adhere to diets that avoid dairy products,
may not have an adequate calcium intake.
 Vegans. Vegans typically absorb reduced amounts of calcium because their diets favor plant-based foods that contain oxalates and
phytates

Magnesium
Magnesium is an essential mineral present in all human tissues, especially in bone. It has both physiological and biochemical functions and has
important interrelationships with calcium, potassium and sodium. It is needed for the activation of many enzymes (for example enzymes
concerned with the replication of DNA and the synthesis of RNA) and for parathyroid hormone secretion, which in involved in bone metabolism. It
is also needed for muscle and nerve function.
Deficiency
Deficiency symptoms are more common in farm and experimental animals, which may have a restricted diet, than in humans whose diets
generally are adequate in magnesium.
Nutritional deficiency is rare and characterised by progressive muscle weakness and neuromuscular dysfunction. Mild hypomagnesaemia (low
blood magnesium) is common in severely ill patients, alcoholics and those with malabsorption disorders.
In contrast, intakes of magnesium that are judged to be too low are quite common in the UK. Despite magnesium being available in a wide range
of foods, one in five women aged 19-34 years and more than half of teenage girls have intakes below the LRNI (51% of 11-14 age group and
53% of 15-18 age group) and more than 20% of boys aged 11-14 years are also at risk of low intakes.
Adverse effects
There is no evidence that large dietary intakes are harmful to humans with normal kidney function. However, regular intake of high dose
supplements can result in diarrhoea and may also result in raised blood levels of magnesium with associated adverse effects.

Source
Green leafy vegetables, nuts, dairy, soybeans, potatoes, whole wheat, quinoa
Magnesium is present in both plant and animal cells and is the mineral in chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants, and so is widely available.
Sources include green leafy vegetables, nuts, bread, fish, meat and dairy products.

Importance
Magnesium is essential to the function of several enzyme systems,
is important in maintaining electrical potential in nerves and membranes,
is involved with liberation of energy for muscle contraction, and
is required for normal metabolism of calcium and phosphorus.
Helps with heart rhythm,
muscle and nerve function,
bone strength
Recommended allowance

 Men ages 19-30: 400 milligrams per day

 Men age 31 and up: 420 milligrams per day
 Women ages 19-30: 310 milligrams per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding
 Women age 31 and up: 320 milligrams per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding
 Pregnant women: 350-360 milligrams per day
 Breastfeeding women: 310-320 milligrams per day

Sodium and Chloride

Sodium is responsible for regulating body water content and electrolyte balance. The control of blood sodium levels depends on a balance
between sodium excretion and absorption at the kidneys, which is regulated by nerves and hormones. Sodium is also required for the absorption
of certain nutrients and water from the gut. Sodium is a component of common salt, known as sodium chloride (NaCl).
Great losses occur in sodium and chloride during loss of body fluids, such as perspiration during exercise, and these must be replaced to prevent
weakness, nausea, and muscle cramps. A human's daily intake from food of about 10 g of salt more than meets their needs, and indeed may be
excessive since high sodium can contribute to elevating blood pressure. Vegetables are relatively low in salt and so vegetarians and grass-eating
animals generally need salt supplementation to their diets.
Importance
Chloride ion also is necessary for the production of hydrochloric acid of gastric juice
Importance
Sodium and chloride are the chief extracellular ions of the body.
They are involved primarily with maintaining osmotic equilibrium and body-fluid volume.
Important for fluid balance
Adverse effects
High sodium intakes, along with obesity and high alcohol intake, are considered to be among the risk factors for high blood pressure
(hypertension), which is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and stroke. A low salt diet may be used in the treatment of hypertension .

Deficiency
As with some other minerals, sodium levels in blood and tissues are under homeostatic control. The kidneys tightly regulate sodium
concentration and can make the urine almost salt-free or excrete sodium in urine when supply is excessive. Sodium intakes in the UK are
considered to be too high and so deficiency of sodium is unlikely but under some circumstances losses can occur:

 Excess sweating:, e.g. due to exercise in a hot environment, may cause some sodium depletion.
 Diarrhoea can cause fluid loss and dehydration leading to some sodium depletion.
 The kidneys normally act to protect the body’s stores of sodium, but in Addison’s disease failure to produce aldosterone (hormone that
allows the kidneys to retain sodium and water) leads to the kidneys inability to conserve sodium.
 Renal failure: The kidneys may also lose sodium in some types of renal failure.
 Drugs: Diuretic drugs may remove large amounts of sodium in the urine.

Recommended allowance

 Adults ages 19-50: up to 1,500 milligrams per day

 Adults ages 51-70: up to 1,300 milligrams per day
 Adults age 71 and up: up to 1,200 milligrams per day
Source

Foods made with added salt, such as processed and restaurant foods

Potassium
Potassium is essential for water and electrolyte balance and the normal functioning of cells, including nerves. Increased dietary intakes of
potassium have been associated with a decrease in blood pressure, as it promotes loss of sodium in the urine. It is suggested that an increase in
potassium intakes may offset the impact of some of the sodium in the diet, therefore helping to protect cardiovascular health .
Deficiency
Low blood potassium levels (hypokalaemia) can result from severe diarrhoea. Symptoms include weakness, mental confusion and, if extreme,
heart failure.
Low dietary potassium intakes have been observed in the UK: in the NDNS of adults about 1 in 5 women had intakes below the LRNI and in
common with some other minerals, potassium intakes were lower among younger women. In the NDNS of young people, 10–15% of boys had
intakes below the LRNI but among girls, about 1 in 5 11-14 year olds and about 2 in 5 15–18 year olds had intakes below the LRNI .
Adverse effects
High supplementary doses of potassium can be harmful especially if the kidneys are not functioning properly.
Source
Potatoes, bananas, yogurt, milk, yellowfin tuna, soybeans, and a variety of fruits and vegetables.
Potassium is present in almost all foods but fruit (particularly bananas), vegetables, meat, fish, shellfish, nuts, seeds, pulses and milk are useful
sources. Processed foods typically contain less than raw foods.
Importance
Potassium is the principal intracellular cation and with sodium helps regulate osmotic pressure and pH equilibria.
It also is involved with cellular enzyme function.
Potassium is essential for life but rarely is limiting even in the most meager diets
Helps control blood pressure,
makes kidney stones less likely
Other Functions of Potassium in the Body

Potassium plays an important role in managing blood pressure. Potassium balances the effects of sodium on blood pressure because the more potassium you
eat, the more sodium you lose through urine. Nerve impulses also involve both sodium and potassium. A nerve impulse moves along a nerve via the
movement of sodium ions into the cell. To end the impulse, potassium ions rush out of the nerve cell, thereby decreasing the positive charge inside the nerve
cell. This diminishes the stimulus. To restore the original concentrations of ions between the intracellular and extracellular fluid, the sodium-potassium pump
transfers sodium ions out in exchange for potassium ions in. On completion of the restored ion concentrations, a nerve cell is now ready to receive the next
impulse. Similarly, in muscle cells potassium is involved in restoring the normal membrane potential and ending the muscle contraction. Potassium also is
involved in protein synthesis, energy metabolism, and platelet function, and acts as a buffer in blood, playing a role in acid-base balance.

Bioavailability

Greater than 90 percent of dietary potassium is absorbed in the small intestine. Although highly bioavailable, potassium is a very soluble mineral and easily
lost during cooking and processing of foods. Fresh and frozen foods are better sources of potassium than canned.

Recommended allowance

Adults: 4,700 milligrams per day, unless breastfeeding

Breastfeeding women: 5,100 milligrams per day

Fluorine
Diets of growing children appear to be low in fluorine since supplementation of water with about 1 ppm reduces incidence of tooth decay. No
other dietary requirement for fluorine is well documented.
Importance
The fluoride ion is required for the development of sound teeth with resistance to tooth decay.
SULFUR
Sulfur is incorporated into protein structures in the body. Amino acids, methionine and cysteine contain sulfur which are essential for the
antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase. Some vitamins like thiamin and biotin also contain sulfur which are important in regulating
acidity in the body. Sulfur is a major mineral with no recommended intake or deficiencies when protein needs are met. Sulfur is mostly
consumed as a part of dietary proteins and sulfur containing vitamins.
RDA/AI (mg/day)
Relatively large quantities of sulfur are required, but there is no RDA,[3] as the sulfur is obtained from and used for amino acids, and therefore
should be adequate in any diet containing enough protein.
Function(s)
A component of organic compounds such as some amino acids and some vitamins.
Food sources
High Protein foods like: beans, nuts, meat, eggs (some of the amino acids that make up protein contain sulfur)
Insufficiency
none reported
Excess
none reported

Trace minerals
Although trace minerals are needed in smaller amounts it is important to remember that a deficiency in a trace mineral can be just as detrimental
to your health as a major mineral deficiency.
Iron
Iron is essential for the formation of haemoglobin in red blood cells; haemoglobin binds oxygen and transports it around the body. Iron is also an
essential component in many enzyme reactions and has an important role in the immune system. In addition, it is required for normal energy
metabolism and for the metabolism of drugs and foreign substances that need to be removed from the body.

Source
The need for iron and copper is related to the rate of growth and to blood loss. Much of the iron in plant foods is bound in poorly soluble iron
phytate and iron phosphates and is not bioavailable. Iron from animal sources generally is more readily absorbed in digestion, as is iron from
soluble salts used in food enrichment and fortification.
Source of iron
Fortified cereals, beans, lentils, beef, turkey (dark meat), soy beans, spinach
Recommended allowance

 Men age 19 and up: 8 milligrams per day

 Women ages 19-50: 18 milligrams per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding
 Pregnant women: 27 milligrams per day
 Breastfeeding women: 10 milligrams per day
 Women age 51 and up: 8 milligrams per day

Importance

Iron is required as a component of blood hemoglobin, which carries oxygen, and muscle myoglobin, which stores oxygen.
Needed for red blood cells and many enzymes
Deficiency
A lack of dietary iron depletes iron stores in the body and this can eventually lead to iron deficiency anaemia. In particular, women of child
bearing age and teenage girls need to ensure they consume adequate dietary iron because their requirements are higher than those of men of
the same age. Also, loss of blood due to injury or large menstrual losses increases iron requirements in the short term. Data from the NDNS
indicate that average daily iron intakes from foods are below the RNI for women in all age groups, except for older women (over the age of 54
years). A very significant proportion of younger women (2 out of 5) have intakes below the lower reference nutrient intake (LRNI) i.e. intakes that
are likely to be inadequate.
Currently, there are no recommendations for increasing iron intake during pregnancy as the extra demand should be offset by pre-existing body
stores, lack of menstrual blood loss and the increased intestinal absorptive capacity of the mother during the second and third trimesters of
pregnancy.
More than 2 billion people worldwide suffer from iron deficiency anaemia, making it the most common nutritional deficiency condition.
Adverse effects
As with some other minerals, under normal circumstances absorption of iron is tightly controlled as iron can have adverse effects owing to its
ability to generate oxygen free radicals. However, 1 person in 200 of northern European descent is genetically predisposed to the iron loading
disease haemchromatosis
Food sources
Dietary iron is found in two basic forms. Either as haem iron (from animal sources) or non-haem iron (from plant sources). Haem iron is the most
bioavailable form of iron. However, the predominant form of iron in all diets is non-haem iron, found in cereals, vegetables, pulses, beans, nuts
and fruit. Absorption of non-haem iron is affected by various factors in food. Phytate (in cereals and pulses), fibre, tannins (in tea) and calcium
can all bind non-haem iron in the intestine, which reduces absorption. However, vitamin C, present in fruit and vegetables, aids the absorption of
non-haem iron when eaten at the same time, as does meat.
Liver, red meat, pulses, nuts, eggs, dried fruits, poultry, fish, whole grains and dark green leafy vegetables are all sources of iron. Since the
1950s in the UK, all wheat flours (other than wholemeal) have been fortified with iron and many breakfast cereals are also fortified with iron and
so contribute to iron intake, However, the nature of these foods imposes limitations on the type of iron that can be used as a fortificant and so low
bioavailability may be an issue, as suggested in the recent draft report on iron from SACN here.

Zinc
The major function of zinc in human metabolism is as a cofactor for numerous enzymes. Zinc has a key role as a catalyst in a wide range of
reactions. It is directly or indirectly involved in the major metabolic pathways concerned with protein, lipid, carbohydrate and energy metabolism
and is also essential for cell division and, therefore, for growth and tissue repair and for normal reproductive development. In addition, zinc is
required for the functioning of the immune system and in the structure and function of the skin, and hence plays a vital role in wound healing.
Deficiency
In some countries, delayed puberty and small stature have been linked to zinc deficiency, though it is not certain that this is due to zinc deficiency
alone.
Adverse effects
Excess zinc in the body from very high doses can interfere with copper metabolism.
Source
Red meats, some seafood, fortified cereals
Zinc is present in many foods and is most readily absorbed from meat, which provides about a third of zinc in the UK diet.. It is also present in
milk, cheese, eggs, shellfish, wholegrain cereals, nuts and pulses. For cereals and pulses, zinc’s availability is limited by phytates.
Importance
Zinc is an essential constituent of enzymes involved in carbohydrate and protein metabolism and nucleic-acid synthesis.
Supports your immune system and
Support nerve function.
Also important for reproduction.
Deficiency
Its deficiency results in impaired growth and development, skin lesions, and loss of appetite.
Recommended allowance

 Men: 11 milligrams per day

 Women: 8 milligrams per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding
 Pregnant women: 11 milligrams per day
 Breastfeeding women: 12 milligrams per day

Iodine
Iodine is part of the thyroid hormone and is essential for the prevention of goiter in humans. There is never a shortage o fiodine where saltwater
fish are eaten. The central United States and parts of South America, away from the ocean, are short of indigenous iodine. Today, the common
use of iodized salt prevents deficiency, and in the United States there is concern that iodine levels not become excessive.
Iodine is an essential component of the thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triidothyronine, which are vital regulators of metabolic rate and of
physical and mental development.
Deficiency

Iodine deficiency results in lethargy and swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck which forms a goitre. Iodine deficiency is relatively rare in the UK
but is still prevalent in many areas of the world, where it remains a major nutritional public health issue.
Infants born of severely iodine deficient mothers may be mentally retarded (cretinism).
With regard to low dietary intakes in the UK, data from the NDNS indicate that 12% (1 in 8) young women have intakes below the LRNI. This
may be associated with low intakes of milk and milk products.
Adverse effects
Excess iodine is not absorbed so toxicity is unlikely in healthy individuals.
Importance
Helps make thyroid hormones
Recommended allowance

 Adults: 150 micrograms per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding

 Pregnant women: 209 micrograms per day
 Breastfeeding women: 290 micrograms per day

Source

The amount of iodine in plant foods such as vegetables and cereal grains is determined by the amount of iodine in the growing plant’s
environment, and the amount in the soil or water can vary dramatically. The only rich sources of iodine are seafoods (sea fish, shellfish and
seaweed), but milk is also a source. In some countries certain foods, e.g. salt and bread, are fortified with iodine.

Seaweed, seafood, dairy products, processed foods, iodized salt

Copper
Copper is the third most abundant dietary trace metal after iron and zinc. It is a component of many enzymes and is needed to produce red and
white blood cells. The body also needs copper to utilise iron efficiently and it is thought to be important for infant growth, brain development, the
immune system and for strong bones.

Dietary induced copper deficiency is extremely rare due to the plentiful supply in the diet and the high efficiency of absorption. However, a rare
genetic condition, known as Menke’s disease, results in the inability to absorb copper and leads to severely impaired mental development, failure
to keratinise hair and skeletal and vascular problems.
As with some other minerals, under normal circumstances absorption of copper is tightly controlled so overload of copper is very rare. However,
Wilson’s disease, another genetic condition, leads to the inability to excrete excess copper in bile and results in copper accumulation in the body,
especially the liver and brain, with consequent pathological damage.

Source of copper

Sources of copper include shellfish, liver, kidney, nuts and wholegrain cereals (about a third of intake in the UK is from cereals).

Seafood, nuts, seeds, wheat bran cereals, whole grains

Importance
Copper aids in the utilization of iron and in hemoglobin synthesis.
Helps your body process iron
Recommended allowance

 Adults: 900 micrograms per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding

 Pregnant women: 1,000 micrograms per day
  Breastfeeding women: 1,300 micrograms per day

Selenium
 The main function of selenium is as a component of some of the important antioxidant enzymes (e.g. glutathione peroxidase), and
therefore to protect the body against oxidative damage. It is also necessary for the use of iodine in thyroid hormone production, for
immune system function and for reproductive function.
 The best characterised selenium deficiency condition is Keshan disease, a heart condition that affects children and women of child-
bearing years in rural China where soils are deficient of selenium, leading to continuing low levels in the food chain.
 Selenium intakes in the UK are below the DRVs but the implications of this are uncertain because of the lack of reliable biomarkers for
selenium status and requirements.
 In excess selenium is exceedingly toxic. Symptoms of selenosis (selenium excess) include brittle nails and hair, skin lesions and garlic
odour on the breath.
 Selenium is found in a variety of foods, especially Brazil nuts, bread, fish, meat and eggs. The selenium content of cereals is directly
proportional to the selenium content in the soil. In the UK selenium intakes have fallen with the decline in import of North American
selenium-rich wheat and the increased use of European cereals which are less rich in the mineral. However, some bread manufacturers
still import wheat from North America.

Manganese
Manganese is required for bone formation and for energy metabolism. It is also a constituent of an antioxidant enzyme, which helps prevent free
radical-mediated damage to cells.
Manganese deficiency is rarely seen.
Manganese toxicity is not a problem because blood levels are carefully controlled.

Source
Nuts, beans and other legumes, tea, whole grains
It is present in plant foods such as vegetables, cereals and nuts. Tea is also a rich source. In the UK, 50% of manganese intake is derived from
cereals and cereal products.

Recommended allowance

 Men: 2.3 milligrams per day

 Women: 1.8 milligrams per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding
 Pregnant women: 2.0 milligrams per day
 Breastfeeding women: 2.6 milligrams per day

Importance
Helps form bones and make some enzymes
Chromium
Chromium (III) is the active form of this nutrient and its main functions appear to be linked with carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. This form of
chromium is thought to promote the action of insulin, the hormone which controls glucose levels in the blood. Subjects with adequate dietary
chromium have improved control over blood glucose and a better blood lipid profile.
One significant characteristic of chromium deficiency is impaired glucose tolerance, which can be improved by chromium supplementation.
However, chromium supplementation does not improve insulin action for people who were not initially deficient.
Chromium is not known to show toxicity.
Sources of chromium include meat, nuts, cereal grains, brewer’s yeast and molasses.

Source
Broccoli, potatoes, meats, poultry, fish, some cereals
Recommended allowance

 Men ages 19-50: 35 micrograms per day

 Women ages 19-50: 25 micrograms per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding
 Pregnant women: 30 micrograms per day
 Breastfeeding women: 45 micrograms per day
 Men age 51 and up: 30 micrograms per day
 Women age 51 and up: 20 micrograms per day

Importance
Helps control blood sugar levels
Molybdenum
Source
Legumes, leafy vegetables, grains, nuts
Recommended allowance

 Adults: 45 micrograms per day, unless pregnant or breastfeeding

 Pregnant or breastfeeding women: 50 micrograms per day

Importance
Needed to make some enzymes
Fluoride
Fluoride’s Functional Role

Fluoride is known mostly as the mineral that combats tooth decay. It assists in tooth and bone development and maintenance. Fluoride combats
tooth decay via three mechanisms:

1. Blocking acid formation by bacteria

2. Preventing demineralization of teeth
3. Enhancing remineralization of destroyed enamel

Fluoride was first added to drinking water in 1945 in Grand Rapids, Michigan; now over 60 percent of the US population consumes fluoridated
drinking water. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has reported that fluoridation of water prevents, on average, 27 percent of
cavities in children and between 20 and 40 percent of cavities in adults. The CDC considers water fluoridation one of the ten great public health
achievements in the twentieth century[1].

The optimal fluoride concentration in water to prevent tooth decay ranges between 0.7–1.2 milligrams per liter. Exposure to fluoride at three to
five times this concentration before the growth of permanent teeth can cause fluorosis, which is the mottling and discoloring of the teeth.

Fluoride’s benefits to mineralized tissues of the teeth are well substantiated, but the effects of fluoride on bone are not as well known. Fluoride is
currently being researched as a potential treatment for osteoporosis. The data are inconsistent on whether consuming fluoridated water reduces
the incidence of osteoporosis and fracture risk. Fluoride does stimulate osteoblast bone building activity, and fluoride therapy in patients with
osteoporosis has been shown to increase BMD. In general, it appears that at low doses, fluoride treatment increases BMD in people with
osteoporosis and is more effective in increasing bone quality when the intakes of calcium and vitamin D are adequate. The Food and Drug
Administration has not approved fluoride for the treatment of osteoporosis mainly because its benefits are not sufficiently known and it has
several side effects including frequent stomach upset and joint pain. The doses of fluoride used to treat osteoporosis are much greater than that
in fluoridated water.

Dietary Sources of Fluoride

Greater than 70 percent of a person’s fluoride comes from drinking fluoridated water when they live in a community that fluoridates the drinking
water. Other beverages with a high amount of fluoride include teas and grape juice. Solid foods do not contain a large amount of fluoride.
Fluoride content in foods depends on whether it was grown in soils and water that contained fluoride or cooked with fluoridated water. Canned
meats and fish that contain bones do contain some fluoride.

Cobalt
cobalt is a part of vitamin B12• However, cobalt will not replace the need for vitamin B12 in humans.
Other Elements
Several other trace minerals are required by humans in at least trace amounts, but normal diets generally provide these. Thus,
manganese is needed for normal bone structure, reproduction, and functioning of the central nervous system.
Chromium is required for normal glucose metabolism.
Molybdenum is involved in protein metabolism and oxidation reactions. Requirements also have been demonstrated in experimental animals for
selenium, nickel, tin, vanadium, arsenic, and silicon, but their roles in human nutrition remain to be determined.
There are other minerals which are needed in tiny amounts and which appear to be essential in the diet, e.g. molybdenum, boron. Others occur
in the diet, but whether they are essential is unclear, e.g. nickel, lithium, antimony, aluminium and lead.