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Introduction to RDBMS &

SQL
 View of Data
• One main purpose of a DBMS:
• Provide users with abstract view of data
• Hiding details of how data are stored and maintained
• Hiding the complexity from the naïve users

Consider a C program:
• The view for the users is the
#include<stdio.h> executed printf and scanf options.
int main() { • The program has a logic behind
int a; this with a set of statements.
printf(“Enter a number”); • The physical aspect of this program
scanf(“%d”,&a); is with regard to its storage space
printf(“The entered number is %d”, a); requirements.
return 0;
}
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 Data Models

• Data model:
• A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data
relationships, data semantics, and consistency constraints.
• The data models can be classified into four different categories:
• Relational Model
• Entity-Relationship Model
• Semi-structured Data Model
• Object-Based Data Model

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 Relational Model
• In the relational model, data are represented in the form
of tables.
• Each table has multiple columns, and each column has a
unique name.
• Each row of the table represents one piece of information.

A sample relational database

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 Entity-Relationship Model

• Diagrammatic representation.
• Collection of objects called Entities.
• Relationship between the entities.
• Commonly used in database design.
• Example:
• Entity - instructor and Student
• Relationship - advisor

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 Three level Data Abstraction

• ANSI/SPARC Architecture

• The three levels are:

• Physical level

• Logical level

• View level

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 Three Levels of Data Abstraction

• Physical Level
• The lowest level of abstraction describes how the data are actually stored.
• The physical level describes complex low-level data structures in detail.

• Logical Level
• Describes what data are stored in the database, and what relationships exist among those data.
• Therefore, the entire database in terms of a small number of relatively simple structures.

• View Level
• The highest level of abstraction describes only part of the entire database.
• Simplifies the interaction between user and the system.

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 Instances And Schema

• The collection of information stored in the database at a particular moment is

called an instance of the database.

• The overall design of the database is called the database schema.

• Based on the levels of abstraction:

• Physical Schema – Database design at the physical level
• Logical schema – Database design at the logical level
• Subschemas – Different views of the database

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 Example of schemas

Department (dept_name, building, budget)

Student (ID, name, dept name, tot cred)
Instructor (id, name, dept_name, salary)
Advise (s id, i id)
Course (Course_id, title, dept_name, credits)

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 Example of Instance

• Information stored in the database at a

particular moment
• E.g. Set of instructor's information at a
particular time t
• Insertions, Updates, Deletions to this
data later, t+1
• new instance

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 Database Constraints

• Constraints are certain rules defined to limit the type of data

inserted into the table.

• It ensures the reliability and accuracy of data in the database.

• It can be applied either at the column level or at the table level.

• Defined either during the table creation or later with some database
commands.

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 Most Commonly used Constraints

• Unique Constraint

• Not null Constraint

• Default Constraint

• Check Constraint

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 Unique Constraint

• It’s a column level constraint.

• Ensures that all values in a column are different.

• It’s different than primary key.

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 Not Null Constraint

• It’s a column level constraint.

• Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.

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 Default Constraint

• It’s a column level constraint.

• Provides a default value for a column where no value

specified during insertion of record.

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 Check Constraint

• It’s a column level constraint.

• Ensures that all the values in a column satisfy certain

conditions.

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 Database Keys & Constraints
You can define this column
with Check Constraint You can define this
Primary Key column with Not
Unique Key NULL Constraint You can define
Table: Students this column with
Roll No Name Address Date of Birth Registration Foreign Key Default Constraint
No.
BCA101 Alan Mumbai 20-10-1989 6087452099 Table: Marks
Roll No Semester Subject Marks Faculty
BCA102 Dev Chennai 05-02-1990 9789112902
BCA102 II Maths 89 Helen
BCA103 Ziva Kolkata 27-05-1989 8340008479
BCA103 I English 94 Yami

BCA101 IV C/C++ 90 Ann

BCA103 II Maths 91 Helen

BCA101 III Computer 95 John

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 Need of Database Keys

• In today’s world, the data is rapidly increasing, GB to TB of data

generating per day.

• Challenge: Instantly store and retrieve the large set of data in

real-time.

• Database Keys: Ensures each record in a table is precisely

identified.

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 Database Keys
• Keys are fields in a database table which participate in below
activities in RDBMS systems:

▪ Establish relationships between multiple tables in the database.

▪ To maintain uniqueness in a table.
▪ To keep consistent and valid data in database.
▪ Might help in fast data retrieval by facilitating indexes on column(s).

“A Key is either a single column (or an attribute) or a group of

columns that can uniquely identify rows (or tuples) in a table.”

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 Types of Keys

• Candidate Key

• Primary Key

• Unique Key

• Super Key

• Foreign Key

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 Candidate Key
• The minimal set of fields which can uniquely identify
each record in a table.
• It is an attribute or a set of attributes that can act as a
Primary Key for a table to uniquely identify each
record in that table.
• There can be more than one candidate key.
Candidate Keys

Employee Table

Table: Employee_ID Employee_Name Address License_Number Passport_Number

Emp101 John Mumbai MI490587 WBH874520995
Employee
Emp102 Riya New Delhi DL123456 SQV789112902
Emp103 Bob Chennai CH231458 EHN340008479

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 Criteria for a Candidate Key

• It must contain unique values.

• It cannot contain null values.
• It comprises a minimum number of fields necessary to define
uniqueness.
• Its values must uniquely and exclusively identify each record in
the table.
• Its value must exclusively identify the value of each field within a
given record.
• Its value can be modified only in rare or extreme cases.

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 Primary Key
• A primary key field identifies the table throughout the
database structure and helps establish relationships with
other tables.
• It’s a candidate key which is most appropriate to become
main key of any table.
• A primary key value uniquely identifies a given record within a
table and represents that record throughout the entire
database. It also helps to guard against duplicate records.

Primary Key
Employee Table
Table: Employee_ID Employee_Name Address License_Number Passport_Number
Employee Emp101 John Mumbai MI490587 WBH874520995
Emp102 Riya New Delhi DL123456 SQV789112902
Emp103 Bob Chennai CH231458 EHN340008479

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 Criteria for a Primary Key

• It must contain unique values.

• It cannot contain null values.
• It comprises a minimum number of fields necessary to define
uniqueness.
• Its values must uniquely and exclusively identify each record in the
table.
• Its value must exclusively identify the value of each field within a
given record.
• Its value can be modified only in rare or extreme cases.

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 Unique Key
• The set of one or more attribute that can be used
to uniquely identify the records in table.
• Unique key is similar to primary key but unique key
field can contain a “Null” value but primary key
doesn’t allow “Null” value.
Unique Keys

Employee Table

Table: Employee_ID Employee_Name Address License_Number Passport_Number

Emp101 John Mumbai MI490587 WBH874520995
Employee
Emp102 Riya New Delhi DL123456 SQV789112902
Emp103 Bob Chennai CH231458 EHN340008479

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 Super Key

• A set of one or more than one keys that can be used to uniquely
identify the record in table.
• It is a set of one or more attributes whose combined value uniquely
identifies the entity in the entity set.
• It is simply a non-minimal Candidate Key, that is to say one with
additional columns not strictly required to ensure uniqueness of
the row.

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 Super Key

Super Key

Primary Key Candidate Keys Unique Key

Employee Table
Employee_ID Employee_Name Address License_Number Passport_Number
Emp101 John Mumbai MI490587 WBH874520995
Emp102 Riya New Delhi DL123456 SQV789112902
Emp103 Bob Chennai CH231458 EHN340008479

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 Foreign Key
• It is used to generate the relationship between the tables.
• It is a field in database table that is Primary key in another table.
• It can accept null and duplicate value.
Foreign Key
Primary Key
Salary Table
Employee_ID Month_Year Amount
Emp102 Aug-2020 45000
Employee Table
Emp103 Aug-2020 50000
Employee Employee Address License_ Passport_
_ID _ Name Number Number Emp101 Aug-2020 38000
Emp101 John Mumbai MI490587 WBH874520995 Emp103 Sept-2020 50000
Emp102 Riya New Delhi DL123456 SQV789112902 Emp101 Sept-2020 38000
Emp103 Bob Chennai CH231458 EHN340008479 Emp102 Sept-2020 45000

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 SQL

• SQL - Structured Query Language : A relational database language.

• It is a standard programming language designed for Storing, Retrieving and
Manipulating the data that exist inside a RDBMS.

• It is a medium used to communicate to the DBMS.

• SQL commands consist of English like statements which are used to query,
insert, update and delete data.

• It is also referred to as “non-procedural database language”.

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 Features of SQL

• SQL is a language used to interact with the database.

• SQL is a data access language.

• SQL is based on relational tuple calculus.

• SQL is a standard Relational Database Management Language.

• The first commercial DBMS that supported SQL was Oracle in 1979.

• SQL is a “nonprocedural” or “declarative” language.

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The SQL Environment

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 SQL Datatypes
Data Type Description

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 What can SQL do ?

• Execute queries against a database.

• Retrieve data from a database.

• Insert, Update, Delete records in a database.

• Create new databases.

• Create new tables, stored procedures, views in a database.

• Set permissions on tables, procedures, and views.

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 Types of SQL Commands

• DDL - Data Definition Language

• DML – Data Manipulation Language

• DCL – Data Control Language

• TCL - Transaction Control Language

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 DDL - Data Definition Language

• DDL commands can be used to define the database schema.

• DDL commands are :
• CREATE – Create an object. i.e. create a database, table, triggers, index,
functions, stored procedures etc.

• DROP - To delete objects. Eg: delete tables, delete a database, etc.

• ALTER - Used to alter the existing database or its object structures.
• TRUNCATE - Removes records from tables.

• RENAME - Renaming the database objects.

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 DML - Data Manipulation Language

• DML commands are used for performing queries on the

data within schema objects.
• DML commands are :
• SELECT – Select records or data from a table.
• INSERT INTO – Insert data into a database table.
• UPDATE – Update existing records within a table.

• DELETE – Delete unwanted records from a table.

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 DCL - Data Control Language

• DCL commands will control the Data access permission.

• DCL commands are :
• GRANT – It permits users to access the database.
• REVOKE – It withdraws the permission given by GRANT to
access the database.

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 TCL - Transaction Control Language

• TCL commands deals with the transaction within the database.

• TCL commands are :
• COMMIT – Commit the running transaction.
• ROLLBACK – Rollback the current transaction.
• SAVEPOINT – Set a save point so that, next time it will start from here.
• SET TRANSACTION – Specify the characteristics of the transactions.

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 Summary

• In this session, we discussed about an overview of Structured query language

(SQL).
• Evolution and benefits of SQL.
• A simplified schematic of a typical SQL Environment.
• Datatypes in SQL.

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 Reference & Image Courtesy

• Sumathi, Sai, and S. Esakkirajan. Fundamentals of relational

database management systems. Vol. 47. Springer, 2007.

• Modern Database Management, 10th Edition By Jeffrey A. Hoffer,

2011.

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