also incorporate speed governor systems on the mechanical shaft in order to control the

EE6009 POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

UNIT III
POWER CONVERTERS
SYLLABUS: Solar: Block diagram of solar photo voltaic system -Principle of operation: line
commutated converters (inversion-mode) - Boost and buck-boost converters- selection of inverter,
battery sizing, array sizing Wind: Three phase AC voltage controllers- AC-DC-AC converters:
uncontrolled rectifiers, PWM Inverters, Grid Interactive Inverters-matrix converters.

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO POWER CONVERTERS

The task of a power converter is to process and control the flow of electric energy by
supplying voltages and currents in a form that is optimally suited for the user loads. Energy was
initially converted in electromechanical converters (mostly rotating machines). Today, with the
development and the mass production of power semiconductors, static power converters find
applications in numerous domains and especially in particle accelerators. They are smaller and
lighter and their static and dynamic performances are better. A static converter is a meshed
network of electrical components that acts as a linking, adapting or transforming stage between
two sources, generally between a generator and a load.

Power converter definition

An ideal static converter controls the flow of power between the two sources with 100%
efficiency. Power converter design aims at improving the efficiency. But in a first approach and
to define basic topologies, it is interesting to assume that no loss occurs in the converter process
of a power converter.
3.2 SOLAR PHOTO-VOLTAIC SYSTEM

3.2.1 Introduction

A photovoltaic system, also PV system or solar power system is a power

system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photo-voltaic. It consists of an
arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into
electricity, a solar inverter to change the electric current from DC to AC, as well
as mounting, cabling and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. It may also use
a solar tracking system to improve the system's overall performance and include an integrated
battery solution, as prices for storage devices are expected to decline. Strictly speaking, a solar
array only encompasses the ensemble of solar panels, the visible part of the PV system, and does
not include all the other hardware, often summarized as balance of system . Moreover, PV
systems convert light directly into electricity and shouldn't be confused with other technologies,
such as concentrated solar power or solar thermal, used for heating and cooling.

PV systems range from small, rooftop-mounted or building-integrated systems with

capacities from a few to several tens of kilowatts, to large utility-scale power stations of
hundreds of megawatts. Nowadays, most PV systems are grid-connected, while off-grid
or stand-alone systems only account for a small portion of the market. Operating silently and
without any moving parts or environmental emissions, PV systems have developed from being
niche market applications into a mature technology used for mainstream electricity generation.

3.2.2 Working and components of a PV system

The solar energy conversion into electricity takes place in a semiconductor device that is
called a solar cell. A solar cell is a unit that delivers only a certain amount of electrical power. In
order to use solar electricity for practical devices, which require a particular voltage or current
for their operation, a number of solar cells have to be connected together to form a solar panel,
also called a PV module. For large-scale generation of solar electricity the solar panels are
connected together into a solar array. The solar panels are only a part of a complete PV solar
system. Solar modules are the heart of the system and are usually called the power generators.
One must have also mounting structures to which PV modules are fixed and directed towards the
sun.

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 For PV systems that have to operate at night or during the period of bad weather the
storage of energy are required, the batteries for electricity storage are needed. The output of a
PV module depends on sunlight intensity and cell temperature; therefore components that
condition the DC (direct current) output and deliver it to batteries, grid, and/or load are required
for a smooth operation of the PV system. These components are referred to as charge regulators.
For applications requiring AC (alternating current) the DC/AC inverters are implemented in PV
systems. These additional components form that part of a PV system that is called balance of
system. The elements of a PV system are schematically presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Components of a PV system

Figure 2: Major photovoltaic system components

Depending on the functional and operational requirements of the system, the specific
components required may include major components such as a DC-AC power inverter, battery
bank, system and battery controller, auxiliary energy sources and sometimes the specified
electrical load (appliances). In addition, an assortment of balance of system hardware, including
wiring, over current, surge protection and disconnect devices, and other power processing
equipment. Figure 2 show a basic diagram of a photovoltaic system and the relationship of
individual components. Batteries are often used in PV systems for the purpose of storing energy
produced by the PV array during the day, and to supply it to electrical loads as needed (during
the night and periods of cloudy weather). Other reasons batteries are used in PV systems are to
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operate the PV array near its maximum power point, to power electrical loads at stable voltages,
and to supply surge currents to electrical loads and inverters. In most cases, a battery charge
controller is used in these systems to protect the battery from overcharge and over discharge.

3.2.3 PV module and Array

Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce
higher voltages, currents and power levels. Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits
sealed in an environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental building blocks of PV
systems. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-
installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any
number of PV modules and panels.

Photovoltaic cells, modules, panels and arrays

3.2.4 Mounting structures

The principal aim of the mounting structures is to hold the PV modules securely in place,
which usually means that they have to resist local wind forces. When placed in a public area the
structures should prevent stealing the modules. The further common requirements are not to
cause shading of the modules and to be arranged so that there is an easy access to the modules
for the maintenance or repair. The cost of the structures should be low. For integration in
buildings, special mounting structures are being developed that together with the modules serve
as building elements.

3.2.5 Energy storage

The simplest means of electricity storage is to use the electric rechargeable batteries,
especially when PV modules produce the DC current required for charging the batteries. Most of
batteries used in PV systems are lead-acid batteries. In some applications, for example when
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used in locations with extreme climate conditions or where high reliability is essential, nickel-
cadmium batteries are used. The major difficulty with this form of storage is the relative high
cost of the batteries and a large amount required for large-scale application.

3.2.6 Charge regulators

Charge regulators are the link between the PV modules, battery and load. They protect
the battery from overcharge or excessive discharge. Charge and discharge voltage limits should
be carefully selected to suit the battery type and the operating temperature. These settings can
significantly affect maximum operational life of a battery. High temperatures tend to reduce
battery life because they accelerate corrosion and self-discharge. High temperatures may also
increase out gassing during charging and therefore should be controlled. PV modules that are
used to charge batteries usually operate at an approximately constant voltage, which is selected
to suit the local temperature. However some PV systems regulators employ a maximum power
point tracker (MPPT), which automatically permits the PV modules to operate at the voltage that
produces maximum power output. Such regulators employ an electronic DC-DC converter to
maintain their output at the required system voltage. The benefit of using an MPPT depends on
the application and should be weighed against its additional cost and reliability risks. For many
applications, it may be equally or more cost effective to operate the system at a fixed voltage.

3.2.7 Inverters

The inverter's main functions are: transformation of DC electricity into AC, wave
shaping of the output AC electricity, and regulation of the effective value of the output voltage.
The most important features of an inverter for PV applications are its reliability and its
efficiency characteristics. They are designed to operate a PV system continuously near its
maximum power point. The technology for high-switching-frequency inverters (typically 20
kHz or higher) is made possible by switch-mode semiconductor power devices. The efficiency
of an inverter is normally quoted at its design operating power, but inverters in PV systems
typically operate for much of their life at partial loads. For grid-connected operation, inverters
must meet the requirements of the utilities concerning acceptable levels of harmonic distortion
(quality of voltage and current output waveforms), and should not emit electrical noise, which
could interfere with the reception of television or radio. They must also switch off when there is
a grid failure for the safety of the engineers who have to repair the grid.

3.3 TYPES OF PV SYSTEMS

PV systems can be very simple, just a PV module and load, as in the direct powering of a
water pump motor, or more complex, as in a system to power a house. Depending on the system
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configuration, we can distinguish three main types of PV systems: stand-alone, grid-connected,
and hybrid.

3.3.1 Stand-alone systems

Stand-alone systems depend on PV power only. These systems can comprise only PV
modules and a load or can include batteries for energy storage. When using batteries charge
regulators are included, which switch off the PV modules when batteries are fully charged, and
switch off the load in case batteries become discharged below a limit. The batteries must have
enough capacity to store the energy produced during the day to be used at night and during
periods of poor weather. Figure 1 shows schematically examples of stand-alone systems.

3.3.2 Grid-connected systems

Grid-connected PV systems have become increasingly popular as building integrated

application. They are connected to the grid through inverters, and do not require batteries
because the grid can accept all of the electricity that a PV generator can supply. Alternatively
they are used as power stations. A grid-connected PV system is schematically presented in
Figure 2.

Figure 1: Stand-alone systems

Figure 2: Grid-connected systems

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 Figure 3: Hybrid PV-Diesel systems

3.3.3 Hybrid systems

Hybrid systems consist of combination of PV modules and a complementary means of

electricity generation such as a diesel, gas or wind generator. In order to optimize the operations
of the two generators, hybrid systems typically require more sophisticated controls than stand-
alone PV systems. For example, in the case of PV/diesel systems, the diesel engine must be
started when battery reaches a given discharge level and stopped again when battery reaches an
adequate state of charge. The back-up generator can be used to recharge batteries only or to
supply the load as well. A common problem with hybrid PV/diesel generators is inadequate
control of the diesel generator. If the batteries are maintained at too high a state-of-charge by the
diesel generator, then energy, which could be produced by the PV generator, is wasted.
Conversely, if the batteries are inadequately charged, then their operational life will be reduced.
Such problems must be expected if a PV generator is added to an existing diesel engine without
installing an automatic system for starting the engine and controlling its output.

3.3.4 Equivalent circuit diagram of solar PV cell

Now a days, different semiconductor materials i.e. mono crystal polycrystalline and
formless silicon are used. The single diode circuit configuration for PV cells is shown in Figure
1 and equation (1) shows the current expression. The double diode circuit configuration for PV
cell is shown in Fig.2 and equation (2) shows the current expression.

Figure 1: Single diode configuration for PV cell

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 Figure 2: Double diode configuration for PV cell

For temperature dependence Iph will be as shown in equation (3) for maximum power in case of
single diode model.

Where
q = electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 V
Is = diode saturation current
Iph = Photon Current
K1 = 12000 A/m2 K3
K2 = 2.9 x 109 A/m2K5/ 2
Rs = Series Resistance
Rsh = Shunt Resistance
A = Diode ideality Factor
To = Operating temperature
Ns = No. of cells in series
K = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10-23J/K
Low shunt resistance causes power losses in solar cells by providing an alternate current
path for the light-generated current. Such a diversion reduces the amount of current flowing
through the solar cell junction and reduces the voltage from the solar cell. The effect of a shunt
resistance is particularly more at low irradiance, since there will be less magnitude of current.
The loss of this current to the shunt therefore has a larger impact. In addition, at lower voltages
where the effective resistance of the solar cell is high, the impact of a resistance in parallel is
large. For the rise of series resistance the voltage and current density will be reduced and vice
versa. For ideal solar plate R s will be zero and the R sh will be infinite. Therefore, for the
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maximum power from the solar PV cell Rs will be negligible value and the R sh must have a
higher value.
For maximum power in case of single diode model

3.3.5 Characteristics of PV array and MPP

Solar Cell V-I Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation of the
operation of a solar cell or module summarizing the relationship between the current and voltage
at the existing conditions of irradiance and temperature. V-I curves provide the information
required to configure a solar system so that it can operate as close to its optimal peak power
point (MPP) as possible.

The above graph shows the V-I characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell operating under
normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar cell is the product of current and voltage. If
the multiplication is done, point for point, for all voltages from short-circuit to open-circuit
conditions, the power curve above is obtained for a given radiation level. With the solar cell
open-circuited that is not connected to any load the current will be at its minimum (zero) and the
voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar cells open circuit voltage, or Voc.
At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the positive and negative leads
connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum (zero) but the current flowing
out of the cell reaches its maximum, known as the solar cells short circuit current, or Isc.

Solar Panel I-V Characteristic Curves

Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or parallel

combinations, or both to increase the voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the array
panels are connected together in a series combination, then the voltage increases and if
connected together in parallels then the current increases.
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 The electrical power in Watts, generated by these different photovoltaic combinations
will still be the product of the voltage times the current, (P = V x I). However the solar panels
are connected together, the upper right hand corner will always be the maximum power point
(MPP) of the array.

3.3.6 Open circuit voltage and short circuit current of PV system

Open-Circuit Voltage
The open-circuit voltage, VOC, is the maximum voltage available from a solar cell, and
this occurs at zero current. The open-circuit voltage corresponds to the amount of forward bias
on the solar cell due to the bias of the solar cell junction with the light-generated current.

Short-Circuit Current
The short-circuit current is the current through the solar cell when the voltage across the
solar cell is zero (i.e., when the solar cell is short circuited). Usually written as ISC, the short-
circuit current is shown on the V-I curve below.
 Short-Circuit Current
The short-circuit current is due to the generation and collection of light-generated
carriers. For an ideal solar cell at most moderate resistive loss mechanisms, the short-circuit
current and the light-generated current are identical. Therefore, the short-circuit current is the
largest current which may be drawn from the solar cell.

3.3.7 MPPT

Maximum power point tracking is often called as MPPT. This is an electronic system which
commands a solar panel or a set of solar panels to generate the maximum amount of power. The
MPPT is not a physical system strapped with solar trackers that position the panels so that they
remain under the sun at all times. Although they can be used along with solar trackers, you must
know that both are different systems. This fully electronic system varies the electrical operating
point of the panels which enables them to deliver the maximum power. The Extra power
generated by the panels is made available to the modules in the form of increased battery
charging current.

3.4 PV POWER CONDITIONING SYSTEM

This is a power converter which interfaces the PV to utility grid and converts the DC
supply from the PV plant to AC supply as requirement by the utility grid. Based on the galvanic
connection between PV plant and grid, the power conditioning system (PCS) can be broadly
classified into two types such as isolated power conditioning system and non isolated power
conditioning system.

3.4.1 Isolated PV Power Conditioning System

In isolated type PV system the isolation between PV plant and grid is achieved by using
a line frequency transformer at the output of the inverter (AC side) or by using high frequency
transformer DC-DC converter at the input side of the inverter. In low frequency (power

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frequency) transformer system involves huge size, increasing magnetic loss and low efficiency
than high frequency transformer based DC-DC converter system. This high frequency
transformer involves complex control resonant problems and which increase the cost of the PV
system.

3.4.2 Non Isolated PV Power Conditioning System

The non isolated grid connected PV system is again classified in to single-stage and
multistage power conditioning systems. In single-stage, only one power processing stage is
available to convert the PV power to AC supply. Nowadays, single stage power converters are
most widely used in PV applications. The single- stage inverter can perform the buck, boost, and
both buck- boost input voltage, inversion and maximum power point. The single-stage inverter
has the advantages of improved efficiency, low cost, more reliability, modularity, and compact
size than multistage power conversion systems.

Figure 1 shows a block diagram of conventional photovoltaic power conditioning

systems. They consist of an inverter, LP-filter and line transformer. The filter
eliminates/attenuates the harmonics on produced by the inverter, the filter output is stepped up at
the grid level by a low frequency transformer.

Figure 1: PV PCS with line frequency transformer

Figure 2 shows a block diagram of a conventional isolated type photovoltaic power

conditioning system. In this system, a DC/DC converter using a high frequency transformer
converts a DC voltage delivered by the PV into a controlled DC voltage suitable for the inverter.

Figure 2: PV PCS with high frequency transformer

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 Figure 3 shows a block diagram of a conventional non-isolated type photovoltaic power
conditioning system. In this system, a DC/DC non-isolated converter receives the fluctuating
DC voltage delivered by the PV and converts it into DC voltage suitable for the inverter.

Figure 3: Conventional non-isolated type PV PCS

3.5 LINE COMMUTATED CONVERTERS

3.5.1 Introduction to Controlled Rectifiers

Controlled rectifiers are line commutated ac to dc power converters which are used to
convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply into variable dc output voltage. Type
of input: Fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply. Type of output: Variable dc output
voltage. The input supply fed to a controlled rectifier is ac supply at a fixed RMS voltage and at
a fixed frequency. We can obtain variable dc output voltage by using controlled rectifiers. By
employing phase controlled thyristors in the controlled rectifier circuits we can obtain variable
dc output voltage and variable dc (average) output current by varying the trigger angle (phase
angle) at which the thyristors are triggered. There are several types of power converters which
use ac line commutation. These are referred to as line commutated converters.

3.5.2 Line commutated converters under inversion mode

Single Phase Full Converter

The circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge converter is shown in the
figure with a highly inductive load and a dc source in the load circuit so that the load current is
continuous and ripple free (constant load current operation). The fully controlled bridge
converter consists of four thyristors T1, T2, T3 and T4 connected in the form of full wave bridge
configuration as shown in the figure. Each thyristor is controlled and turned on by its gating

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signal and naturally turns off when a reverse voltage appears across it. During the positive half
cycle when the upper line of the transformer secondary winding is at a positive potential with
respect to the lower end the thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased during the time interval ωt =
0 to π . As soon as the thyristors T3 and T4 are triggered a reverse voltage appears across the
thyristors T1 and T2 and they naturally turn-off and the load current is transferred from T 1 and T2
to the thyristors T3 and T4.

Single Phase Dual Converter

The dual converter system will provide four quadrant operation and is normally used in
high power industrial variable speed drives. The converter number 1 provides a positive dc
output voltage and a positive dc load current, when operated in the rectification mode. The
converter number 2 provides a negative dc output voltage and a negative dc load current when
operated in the rectification mode. We can thus have bidirectional load current and bi-directional
dc output voltage. The magnitude of output dc load voltage and the dc load current can be
controlled by varying the trigger angles of the converters 1 and 2 respectively. There are two
modes of operations possible for a dual converter system like non circu lating current mode of
operation and circulating current mode of operation.

3.5.3 DC-DC Converters

DC-DC Buck Converter

A buck converter (step-down converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter which steps

down voltage (while stepping up current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It is a class

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of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) typically containing at least two semi conductors and at
least one energy storage element, a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. To reduce
voltage ripple, filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are
normally added to such a converter's output (load-side filter) and input (supply-side filter).

Buck converter circuit diagram.

The basic operation of the buck converter has the current in an inductor controlled by two
switches. In the idealized converter, all the components are considered to be perfect.
Specifically, the switch and the diode have zero voltage drop when on and zero current flow
when off, and the inductor has zero series resistance.

DC-DC Boost Converters

A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter that steps up

voltage (while stepping down current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It is a class
of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two semiconductors (a diode and
a transistor) and at least one energy storage element: a capacitor, inductor, or the two in
combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination
with inductors) are normally added to such a converter's output (load-side filter) and input
(supply-side filter).

Basic schematic of a boost converter

The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist
changes in current by creating and destroying a magnetic field. In a boost converter, the output
voltage is always higher than the input voltage. When the switch is closed, current flows through
the inductor in clockwise direction and the inductor stores some energy by generating a
magnetic field. Polarity of the left side of the inductor is positive. When the switch is opened,
current will be reduced as the impedance is higher. The magnetic field previously created will be
destroyed to maintain the current towards the load. Thus the polarity will be reversed (means left
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side of inductor will be negative now). As a result, two sources will be in series causing a higher
voltage to charge the capacitor through the diode D.

DC-DC Buck-Boost Converters

A Buck-Boost converter is a type of switched mode power supply that combines the
principles of the Buck Converter and the Boost converter in a single circuit. Like other SMPS
designs, it provides a regulated DC output voltage from either an AC or a DC input.

Buck-Boost Converters
It is equivalent to a fly-back using a single inductor instead of a transformer. Two
different topologies are called buck–boost converter. Both of them can produce a range of output
voltages, ranging from much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the input voltage, do wn to
almost zero.

Modes of Buck Boost Converters

There are two different types of modes in the buck boost converter. The following are the two
different types of buck boost converters.
 Continuous conduction mode.
 Discontinuous conduction mode.
Continuous Conduction Mode
In the continuous conduction mode the current from end to end of inductor never goes to zero.
Hence the inductor partially discharges earlier than the switching cycle.
Discontinuous Conduction Mode
In this mode the current through the inductor goes to zero. Hence the inductor will totally
discharge at the end of switching cycles.
Applications of Buck boost converter
 It is used in the self regulating power supplies.
 It has consumer electronics.
 It is used in the Battery power systems.

 Power amplifier applications.

Advantages of Buck Boost Converter
 It gives higher output voltage.

 Low operating duct cycle.

  Low operating duct cycle.
 Low voltage on MOSFETs
Cuk converter

Schematic of a non-isolated Cuk converter

The Cuk converter is a type of DC/DC converter that has an output voltage magnitude
that is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. It is essentially a boost
converter followed by a buck converter with a capacitor to couple the energy. Similar to
the buck–boost converter with inverting topology, the output voltage of non-isolated Cuk is
typically also inverting, and can be lower or higher than the input. It uses a capacitor as its main
energy-storage component, unlike most other types of converters which use an inductor. There
are variations on the basic Cuk converter. For example, the coils may share single magnetic
core, which drops the output ripple, and adds efficiency. Because the power transfer flows
continuously via the capacitor, this type of switcher has minimized EMI radiation. The Cuk
converter allows energy to flow bi-directionally by using a diode and a switch.

3.5.4 PV fed Buck Boost Converter (Four switched topology)

Four-switch power converter is cascaded combination of Buck converter followed by a

Boost converter the converter is different from the other DC-DC converters why, because it has
four switches to be controlled, that is, two gate pulses we need. This means for the same
working point with different values both gate pulses can be used. Furthermore, due to its simple

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and cascaded combination of Buck-Boost structure, it presents high adaptability and high
performance to system voltage changes.
The configuration of the system consists of the Solar PV array fed to FSBB Converter
which feeds the Load. It is a combination of Buck converter followed by Boost converter; a four
switch buck-boost converter can operate in buck mode or boost mode rather than conventional
buck-boost converter. As such, its efficiency can be improved by synchronous rectification the
power stage consist of four switches (Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4), single inductor (L), and input and
output Capacitors.

Four-switch buck-boost converter.

Equivalent circuit in Buck/Boost mode

Here the MOSFETs Q3,Q4 share the gate control signal, which is complementary to the
gate control signal of MOSFETs Q1 and Q2, In the buck-boost mode the MOSFETs Q1 and Q2
share gate control signals and turn on and off simultaneously. When the MOSFETs Q 1 and Q2
are turned on, the input voltage Vin is applied, the inductor L stores the energy, output capacitor
supplies the load current entirely.

When Q1 and Q2 are turned off, MOSFETs Q3, Q4 are turned on in this stage the energy
is transferred from the inductor to output load and capacitor. Here we are using a synchronous
rectification scheme these means we are using MOSFETs instead of diodes to reduce the

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switching and power losses and to improve efficiency. The Figure shows the equivalent circuit
of the converter in buck and boost mode. When Vin is higher than Vout, The MOSFET Q 2 is
always OFF, Q4 is always ON, Q1 and Q3 ON and OFF simultaneously thus it works like a buck
converter (Vin > Vout) as shown in below figure. When Vin is lower than V out, Q1 is always ON
and Q3 is always OFF, Q2 and Q4 ON and OFF simultaneously it works as a boost converter (V in
< Vout) as shown in below figure.

3.5.5 Current regulated PWM inverters

Current regulation technique plays the most important role in Current Regulated PWM
(CR-PWM) inverters which are widely applied in ac motor drives, ac power supply and active
filters. The CR-PWM inverters, also known as current mode PWM inverters, implement an on
line current feedback (closed loop) type of PWM. In comparison to a conventional feed forwar d
(open loop) voltage controlled PWM inverters they show following advantages: - control of
instantaneous peak current, - overload problem is avoided, - pulse drop problem does not occur,
- extremely good dynamics, - nearly sinusoidal current waveforms, expect for the harmonics -
compensation of the effect of load parameter changes (resistance and reactance). The basic
problem involved in the implementation of CR-PWM inverters is the choice of suitable current
regulation strategy, which affects both the parameters obtained. The main task of the control
system in CR-PWM inverter is to force the current vector in the three phase load according to
the reference trajectory.

3.6 SIZING BATTERIES AND INVERTERS FOR A SOLAR PV

SYSTEM
3.6.1 Basics of sizing

The most important thing that one needs to know before sizing a PV system is t he energy
requirements of a setup. A few things that can help are:
1. Wattages and counts of all the appliances that need to be run on solar PV.
2. If you do not have wattages then you can look at the current requirement (in
amperes) of the appliances and calculate wattage with this simple formula: Watts =
Ampere x 240 (voltage)
3. Electricity bills of the setup. Used to check the monthly electricity units used in a
setup. Daily units can be obtained by dividing month units by 28/29/30 or 31
(depending on the number of days in the month for which the bill is generated)

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 4. Daily usage of each appliance in hours. This is required if you do not have a sample
electricity bill. This helps in calculating the number of units of electricity used in a
day using the formula below: Units = (Watts x Hours) ÷1000

3.6.2 Sizing a PV panel

To size a PV panel, the most essential thing to know is the Total Units consumed in a
day by the appliances in a setup. The size of PV system should not be less than the one that can
generate total units consume in a day. Every PV panels has a peak wattage (Wp) mentioned on
them. A 1 kWp (or peak kilo watt) system would generate 5 to 7 units in a day. Thus the right
size of PV system (in kWp) should be estimated by dividing maximum daily usage units divided
by 5. If you are going for a grid connected system where extra electricity produced will be sold
back to the electricity provider. In such cases you can optimize the size of PV system based on
the space that you have for installing PV panels.

3.6.3 Sizing Batteries for PV system

Along with sizing of the PV panel, it is important to size the batteries as well. Because if
purchase more batteries then they will not get fully charged, if buy fewer batteries, may not be
able to get the maximum benefit out of the solar panel. Most big PV systems use deep cycle (or
deep discharge) batteries that are designed to discharge to low energy levels and also to recharge
rapidly. These are typically lead acid batteries that may or may not require maintenance.
Batteries have energy storage ratings mentioned in Amp-hour (Ah) or milli-Amp-hour (mAh).
They also have a nominal voltage that they generate (typically deep discharge batteries are 12 V
batteries, cell phone batteries are 5 V batteries, etc). To calculate the total energy a battery can
store you can use following formula: Units = (Volt x Ah) ÷1000 or (Volt x mAh) ÷1000000.
Batteries should be sized in a way that the units of energy generated by the PV system should be
equal to the number we have calculated above. So assuming we have a 1 kWp system and we
assume that on an average it generates 6 units a day and if we have to buy 12 V battery for it, the
Ah (or storage) of battery required would be: (6 x1000) ÷12 = 500 Ah

3.6.4 Sizing Inverter for a Solar PV system

A power inverter or inverter is a system that converts Direct Current (or DC) to an
alternating current (or AC). A solar panel produces DC current, batteries also generate DC
current, but most systems we use in our daily lives use AC current. Inverters also have
transformers to convert DC output voltage to any AC output voltage. Depending on the type of
system (grid or off-grid) various types of inverters are available. Sizing of inverter depends on
the wattage of appliances connected to it. The input rating of inverter should never be lower than

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the total wattages of the appliances. Also it should have the same nominal input voltage as that
of the battery setup. It is always better to have inverter wattage about 20-25% more than that of
the appliances connected. This is specifically essential if the appliances connected have
compressors or motors (like AC, refrigerator, pumps, etc), which draw high starting current.
Most inverters available in market are rated on KVA /VA or Kilo Volt Ampere/Volt Ampere. In
ideal situations (power factor of 1) 1 VA = 1 Watt. But in real power factor varies from 0.85 to
0.99 (more about power factor on: What is Power Factor correction and how MDI (Maximum
Demand Indicator) penalty can be avoided). So one can assume 1.18 VA = 1 Watt. So if you
have a setup where the total wattage of the system is 1000 Watts, it means your inverter size
required is more than 1180 VA or 1.18 KVA (add some extra to be on a safer side).

3.7 THREE-PHASE AC VOLTAGE REGULATORS

There are many types of circuits used for the three-phase ac regulators (ac to ac voltage
converters), unlike single-phase ones. The three-phase loads (balanced) are connected in star or
delta. Two thyristors connected back to back, or a triac, is used for each phase in most of the
circuits as described. Two circuits are first taken up, both with balanced resistive (R) load

3.7.1 Three-phase, star connected AC Regulator with Balanced Resistive Load

The circuit of a three-phase, three-wire AC regulator (termed as ac to ac voltage

converter) with balanced resistive (star-connected) load is shown in Figure. It may be noted that
the resistance connected in all three phases are equal. Two thyristors connected back to back are
used per phase, thus needing a total of six thyristors. The current flow is bidirectional, with the
current in one direction in the positive half, and then, in other (opposite) direction in the
negative half. So, two thyristors connected back to back are needed in each phase. The turning
off of a thyristor occurs, if its current falls to zero. To turn the thyristor on, the anode voltage
must be higher that the cathode voltage, and also, a triggering signal must be applied at its gate.

Three-phase, three-wire star connected AC voltage regulator

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 The expression of the RMS value of output voltage is obtained by per phase for balanced
star-connected resistive load which depends on range of firing angle. If is the RMS value of the
input voltage per phase, and assuming the voltage, as the reference, the instantaneous input
voltages per phase are,

Then, the instantaneous input line voltages are,

3.7.2 Three-phase Delta-connected AC Regulator with Balanced Resistive Load

The circuit of a three-phase, delta-connected ac regulator (termed as ac to ac voltage

converter) with balanced resistive load is shown in Figure. It may be noted that the resistance
connected in all three phases are equal. Two thyristors connected back to back are used per
phase, thus needing a total of six thyristors. As stated earlier, the numbering scheme may be
noted. It may be observed that one phase of the balanced circuit is similar to that used for single
phase ac regulator. Since the phase current in a balanced three-phase system is only (1/√3) of
the line current, the current rating of the thyristors would be lower than that if the thyristors are
placed in the line.

Assuming the line voltage as the reference, the instantaneous input line voltages are,

9
t may be noted that is the RMS value of the line voltage in this case.

3.8 THREE PHASE AC-DC-AC CONVERTERS (THE BACK-TO-BACK

CONVERTER)

The back-to-back converter is consists simply of a force-commutated rectifier and a

force-commutated inverter connected with a common dc-link shown in figure. The properties of
this combination are well known; the line-side converter may be operated to give sinusoidal line
currents, for sinusoidal currents, the dc-link voltage must be higher than the peak main voltage,
the dc-link voltage is regulated by controlling the power flow to the ac grid and, finally, the
inverter operates on the boosted dc-link, making it possible to increase the output power of a
connected machine over its rated power. Another advantage in certain applications is that
braking energy can be fed back to the power grid instead of just wasting it in a braking resistor.
An important property of the back-to-back converter is the possibility of fast control of
the power flow. By controlling the power flow to the grid, the dc-link voltage can be held
constant. The presence of a fast control loop for the dc-link voltage makes it possible to reduce
the size of the dc-link capacitor, without affecting inverter performance. In fact, the capacitor
can be made small enough to be implemented with plastic film capacitors.

Back-to-back converter

3.8.1 Issues associated with a small DC-link capacitor

Smallest size of the dc-link capacitor is governed by the need to keep the switch-frequent
ripple at acceptable (i.e. small) levels. Fluctuations in the load cannot be smoothed in the
converter, but must be accommodated by other means. One alternative is to simply transfer such
fluctuations to the power grid, but this may re-introduce the line-current harmonics the back to
back converter is supposed to eliminate. However, load fluctuations will be random and thus
relatively harmless compared to the in-phase harmonics generated by diode rectifiers. Another
alternative is to use the load itself. In a typical drive, the mechanical energy stored in the drive is
several orders of magnitude larger than the electrical energy stored in the DC-link capacitor in a
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back-to-back converter. If the application does not need servo-class performance, there is no
reason why the rotational speed cannot be allowed to fluctuate slightly.

3.8.2 Application criteria for three-phase nine-switch converters

The nine-switch topology is derived from two converters connected back-to-back (BTB)
shown in figure. Two phase legs from converter 1 and 2, respectively, are merged together to
compose one phase leg of the nine switch converter, and meanwhile one switch is dismissed.
Thus nine-switch converters have only three phase legs and each of them has only three
switches.

Nine-switch power converters

With such a topology, nine-switch converters retain the DC-link and can achieve all the
functions of twelve-switch BTB even with three switches less.

3.9 UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

3.9.1 Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

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 A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating Current (AC) input power into
a Direct Current (DC) output power. The input power supply may be either a single-phase or a
multi-phase supply with the simplest of all the rectifier circuits being that of the Half Wave
Rectifier. The power diode in a half wave rectifier circuit passes just one half of each complete
sine wave of the AC supply in order to convert it into a DC supply. Then this type of circuit is
called a ―half-wave‖ rectifier because it passes only half of the incoming AC power supply as
shown below. During each ―positive‖ half cycle of the AC sine wave, the diode is forward
biased as the anode is positive with respect to the cathode resulting in current flowing through
the diode. During each ―negative‖ half cycle of the AC sinusoidal input waveform, the diode
is reverse biased as the anode is negative with respect to the cathode.

3.9.2 Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output voltage or
current which is purely DC or has some specified DC component. Full wave rectifiers have
some fundamental advantages over their half wave rectifier counterparts. The average (DC)
output voltage is higher than for half wave, the output of the full wave rectifier has much less
ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing a smoother output waveform. In a Full
Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the cycle. A multiple
winding transformer is used whose secondary winding is split equally into two halves with a
common centre tapped connection.

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 This configuration results in each diode conducting in turn when its anode terminal is
positive with respect to the transformer centre point C producing an output during both half-
cycles, twice that for the half wave rectifier so it is 100% efficient as shown below. The full
wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance (RL)
with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When point A of the transformer
is positive with respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the
arrows. When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C,
diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in the
same direction for both half-cycles. As the output voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum
of the two waveforms combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit is also known as a ―bi-
phase‖ circuit.

3.9.3 Three phase Half Wave Rectifier

A three phase half wave rectifier, as the name implies, consists of a three phase
transformer. Given below is a star connected secondary three phase transformer with three
diodes connected to the three phases as shown in the figure. The neutral point ‗NTRL‘ of the
secondary is considered as the earth for the circuit and is given as the negative terminal for the
load.

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 The input and the output wave forms for the circuit above is shown below. For each one-
third of the cycle, each diode conducts. At the instant when one diode out of three is conducting,
the other two are left inactive, at that instant their cathodes becomes positive with respect to the
anodes. This process repeats for each of the three diodes.

3.9.4 Three Phase Full Wave Rectifier

A three phase full wave rectifier can also be called a six wave half wave rectifier as
shown in the figure. The diodes D1 to D6 will conduct only for 1/6th of the period, with a period
of π/3. As shown in the output wave form, the fluctuation of dc voltage is less in a three phase
circuit. The variation lies between the maximum alternation voltage and 86.6% of this, with the
average value being 0.955 times the maximum value.

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3.10 THREE PHASE PULSE WIDTH MODULATED (PWM) INVERTER

Pulse width modulated (PWM) inverters are among the most used power-electronic
circuits in practical applications. These inverters are capable of producing ac voltages of
variable magnitude as well as variable frequency. The PWM inverters are very commonly used
in adjustable speed ac motor drive loads where one needs to feed the motor with variable
voltage, variable frequency supply. For wide variation in drive speed, the frequency of the
applied ac voltage needs to be varied over a wide range. The applied voltage also needs to vary
almost linearly with the frequency. PWM inverters can be of single phase as well as three phase
types. There are several different PWM techniques, differing in their methods of
implementation. However in all these techniques the aim is to generate an output voltage, which
after some filtering, would result in a good quality sinusoidal voltage waveform of desired
fundamental frequency and magnitude. Nature of Po le Voltage Waveforms Output by PWM

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Inverters Unlike in square wave inverters the switches of PWM inverters are turned on and off at
significantly higher frequencies than the fundamental frequency of the output voltage waveform.

The time instances at which the voltage polarities reverse have been referred here as
notch angles. It may be noted that the instantaneous magnitude of pole voltage waveform
remains fixed at half the input dc voltage (E dc). When upper switch (SU), connected to the
positive dc bus is on, the pole voltage is + 0.5 Edc and when the lower switch, connected to the
negative dc bus, is on the instantaneous pole voltage is - 0.5 Edc.

3 phase VSI using power transistors

A typical pole-voltage waveform of a PWM inverter

The switching transition time has been neglected in accordance with the assumption of
ideal switches. It is to be remembered that in voltage source inverters, meant to feed an
inductive type load, the upper and lower switches of the inverter pole conduct in a
complementary manner. That is, when upper switch is on the lower is off and vice-versa. Both
upper and lower switches should not remain on simultaneously as this will cause short circuit
across the dc bus. On the other hand one of these two switches in each pole (leg) must always
conduct to provide continuity of current through inductive loads. A sudden disruption in
inductive load current will cause a large voltage spike that may damage the inverter circuit and
the load.

3.11 GRID INTERACTIVE (GRID-TIE) INVERTERS

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3.11 GRID INTERACTIVE (GRID-TIE) INVERTERS
3.11.1 Introduction

A grid-tie inverter converts direct current (DC) into an alternating current (AC) suitable
for injecting into an electrical power grid, normally 120V RMS at 60Hz or 240V RMS at 50 Hz.
Grid-tie inverters are used between local electrical power generators: solar panel, wind
turbine, hydro-electric, and the grid. In order to inject electrical power efficiently and safely into
the grid, grid-tie inverters must accurately match the voltage and phase of the grid sine
wave AC waveform. Some electricity companies will pay for electrical power that is injected
into the grid. Payment is arranged in several ways. With net metering the electricity company
pays for the net power injected into the grid, as recorded by a meter in the customer's premises.
For example, a customer may consume 400 kilowatt-hours over a month and may return 500
kilowatt-hours to the grid in the same month. In this case the electricity company would pay for
the 100 kilowatt hours balance of power fed back into the grid. Feed-in tariff, based on a
contract with a distribution company or other power authority, is where the customer is paid for
electrical power injected into the grid.

3.11.2 Operation

Grid-tie inverters convert DC electrical power into AC power suitable for injecting into
the electric utility company grid. The grid tie inverter (GTI) must match the phase of the grid
and maintain the output voltage slightly higher than the grid voltage at any instant. A high-
quality modern grid-tie inverter has a fixed unity power factor, which means its output voltage
and current are perfectly lined up, and its phase angle is within 1 degree of the AC power grid.
The inverter has an on-board computer which senses the current AC grid waveform, and outputs
a voltage to correspond with the grid. However, supplying reactive power to the grid might be
necessary to keep the voltage in the local grid inside allowed limitations. Otherwise, in a grid
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segment with considerable power from renewable sources, voltage levels might rise too much at
times of high production, i.e. around noon with solar panels.
Grid-tie inverters are also designed to quickly disconnect from the grid if the utility grid goes
down. It ensures that in the event of a blackout, the grid tie inverter will shut down to prevent
the energy it transfers from harming any line workers who are sent to fix the power grid.
Properly configured, a grid tie inverter enables a home owner to use an alternative power
generation system like solar or wind power without extensive rewiring and without batteries. If
the alternative power being produced is insufficient, the deficit will be sourced from the
electricity grid.

3.11.3 Types

Grid-tie inverters include conventional low-frequency types with transformer coupling,

newer high-frequency types, also with transformer coupling, and transformer-less types. Instead
of converting direct current directly into AC suitable for the grid, high-frequency transformers
types use a computer process to convert the power to a high-frequency and then back to DC and
then to the final AC output voltage suitable for the grid. Transformer-less inverter are lighter,
smaller, and more efficient than inverters with transformers. But transformer-less inverter have
been slow to enter the market because of concerns that transformer-less inverters, which do not
have galvanic isolation between the DC side and grid, could inject dangerous DC voltages and
currents into the grid under fault conditions.

3.12 MATRIX CONVERTERS

3.12.1 Introduction

The main advantage of matrix converter is elimination of dc link filter. Zero switching
loss devices can transfer input power to output power without any power loss. But practically it
does not exist. The switching frequency of the device decides the THD of the converter.
Maximum power transfer to the load is decided by nature of the control algorithm. Matrix
converter has a maximum input output voltage transfer ratio limited to 87 % for sinusoidal input
and output waveforms, which can be improved. Further, matrix converter requires more
semiconductor devices than a conventional AC-AC indirect power frequency converter. Since
monolithic bi-directional switches are available they are used for switching purpose. Matrix
converter is particularly sensitive to the disturbances of the input voltage to the system. The
instantaneous power flow does not have to equal power output. The difference between the input
and output power must be absorbed or delivered by an energy storage element within the
converter. The matrix converter replaces the multiple conversion stages and the intermediate
energy storage element by a single power conversion stage, and uses a matrix of semiconductor
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bidirectional switches connecting input and output terminals. With this general arrangement of
switches, the power flow through the converter can reverse. Because of the absence of any
energy storage element, the instantaneous power input must be equal to the power output,
assuming idealized zero-loss switches.

3.12.2 Single Phase Matrix Converter

Single Phase Matrix Converter

The AC/AC converter is commonly classified as an indirect converter which utilizes a
dc link between the two ac systems and converter that provides direct conversion. This converter
consists of two converter stages and energy storage element, which convert input ac to dc and
then reconverting dc back to output ac with variable amplitude and frequency. The operation of
this converter stages is decoupled on an instantaneous basis by the energy storage elements and
controlled independently, so long as the average energy flow is equal. Figure shows the single
phase matrix converter switching arrangement.

3.12.3 Three Phase Matrix Converter

Three phase matrix converter consists of nine bidirectional switches. It has been
arranged into three groups of three switches. Each group is connected to each phase of the
output. These arrangements of switches can connect any input phase. These 3x3 arrangements
can have 512 switching states. Among them only 27 switching states are permitted to operate
this converter. Here A, B and C are input phase voltage connected to the output phase. Figure
shows synchronous operating state vectors of three matrix converter. It shows that the converter
switches are switched on rotational basis. In this case no two switches in a leg are switched on

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simultaneously. These states will not generate gate pulse when one phase of the supply is
switched off.

Circuit scheme of a three phase to three phase matrix converter

The matrix converter consists of 9 bi-directional switches that allow any output phase to
be connected to any input phase. The input terminals of the converter are connected to a three
phase voltage-fed system, usually the grid, while the output terminal are connected to a three
phase current-fed system, like an induction motor might be. The capacitive filter on the voltage-
fed side and the inductive filter on the current-fed side represented in the scheme are
intrinsically necessary. Their size is inversely proportional to the matrix converter switching
frequency. It is worth noting that due to its inherent bi-directionality and symmetry a dual
connection might be also feasible for the matrix converter: a current -fed system at the input and
a voltage-fed system at the output. Taking into account that the converter is supplied by a
voltage source and usually feeds an inductive load, the input phases should never be short-
circuited and the output currents should not be interrupted. From a practical point of view these
rules imply that one and only one bi-directional switch per output phase must be switched on at
any instant. By this constraint, in a three phase to three phase matrix converter 27 are the
permitted switching combinations.