EE6009 POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

UNIT II
ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR RENEWABLE
ENERGY CONVERSION
SYLLABUS:
Reference theory fundamentals-principle of operation and analysis:
IG, PMSG, SCIG andDFIG.

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRO-MECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Energy exists in many forms, and we use numerous devices on a daily basis that convert
one form of energy into another. When we speak of electromechanical energy conversion,
however, we mean either the conversion of electric energy into mechanical energy or vice versa.
For example, an electric motor converts electric energy into mechanical energy. On the other
hand, an electric generator transforms mechanical energy to electric energy. Electromechanical
energy conversion is a reversible process except for the losses in the system. The term
"reversible" implies that the energy can be transferred back and forth between the electrical and
the mechanical systems. However, each time we go through an energy conversion process, some
of the energy is converted into heat and is lost from the system forever.

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force

that tends to move it. If the conductor is free to move in the direction of the magnetic force, the
magnetic field aids in the conversion of electric energy into mechanical energy. This is
essentially the principle of operation of all electric motors. On the other hand, if an externally
applied force makes the conductor move in a direction opposite to the magnetic force, the
mechanical energy is converted into electric energy. Generator actio n is based upon this
principle.

Introduction For energy conversion between electrical and mechanical forms,

electromechanical devices are developed. In general, electromechanical energy conversion
devices can be divided into three categories:

Transducers (for measurement and control): These devices transform the signals of different
forms. Examples are microphones, pickups, and speakers.

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Force producing devices (linear motion devices): These type of devices produce forces mostly
for linear motion drives, such as relays, solenoids (linear actuators), and electromagnets.

Continuous energy conversion equipment: These devices operate in rotating mode. A device
would be known as a generator if it converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, or as a
motor if it does the other way around (from electrical to mechanical). Since the permeability of
ferromagnetic materials is much larger than the permittivity of dielectric materials, it is more
advantageous to use electromagnetic field as the medium for electromechanical energy
conversion.

2.2 REFERENCE THEORY FUNDAMENTALS

Transformation of three phase electrical quantities to two phase quantities is a usual

practice to simplify analysis of three phase electrical circuits. Polyphase A.C machines can be
represented by an equivalent two phase model provided the rotating polyphases winding in rotor
and the stationary polyphase windings in stator can be expressed in a fictitious two axes coils.
The process of replacing one set of variables to another related set of variable is called winding
transformation or simply transformation or linear transformation. The term linear transformation
means that the transformation from old to new set of variable and vice versa is governed by
linear equations. The equations relating old variables and new variables are called
transformation equation and the following general form:

[New Variable] = [Transformation matrix][ Old variable]

[Old Variable] = [Transformation matrix][ New variable]

Transformation matrix is a matrix containing the coefficients that relates new and old
variables. Note that the second transformation matrix in the above-mentioned general form is
inverse of first transformation matrix. The transformation matrix should account for power
invariance in the two frames of reference. In case power invariance is not maintained, then
torque calculation should be from original machine variables only.

2.3 INTRODUCTION TO REFERENCE FRAME THEORY

2.3.1 Overview

As the application of ac machines has continued to increase over this century, new
techniques have been developed to aid in their analysis. Much of the analysis has been carried
out for the treatment of the well-known induction machine. The significant breakthrough in the
analysis of three-phase ac machines was the development of reference frame theory. Using these

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techniques, it is possible to transform the phase variable machine description to another
reference frame. By judicious choice of the reference frame, it proves possible to simplify
considerably the complexity of the mathematical machine model. While these techniques were
initially developed for the analysis and simulation of ac machines, they are now invaluable tools
in the digital control of such machines. As digital control techniques are extended to the control
of the currents, torque and flux of such machines, the need for compact, accurate machine
models is obvious.

Fortunately, the developed theory of reference frames is equally applicable to the

synchronous machines, such as the Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM). This
machine is sometimes known as the sinusoidal brushless machines or the brushless ac machine
and is very popular as a high-performance servo drive due to its superior torque-to-weight ratio
and its high dynamic capability. It is a three-phase synchronous ac machine with permanent-
magnet rotor excitation and is designed to have a sinusoidal torque-position characteristic. The
aim of this section is to introduce the essential concepts of reference frame theory and to
introduce the space vector notation that is used to write compact mathematical descriptions of ac
machines. Over the years, many different reference frames have been proposed for the analysis
of ac machines. The most commonly used ones are the so-called stationary reference frame and
the rotor reference frame.

2.3.2 Clarke’s Transformation

The transformation of stationary circuits to a stationary reference frame was developed

by E. Clarke. The stationary two-phase variables of Clarke‘s transformation are denoted as α and
β. As shown in Figure 2.1, α-axis and β-axis are orthogonal.

Figure 2.1: Clarke’s transformation

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 In order for the transformation to be invertible, a third variable, known as the zero-
sequence component, is added. The resulting transformation is

(1)

where

and

Where f represents voltage, current, flux linkages, or electric charge and the transformation

matrix, is given by

The inverse transformation is given by

where the inverse transformation matrix is presented by

2.3.3 Park’s Transformation

Park‘s transformation, a revolution in machine analysis, has the unique property of

eliminating all time varying inductances from the voltage equations of three-phase ac machines
due to the rotor spinning. Although changes of variables are used in the analysis of ac machines
to eliminate time-varying inductances, changes of variables are also employed in the analysis of
various static and constant parameters in power system components. Fortunately, all known real
transformations for these components are also contained in the transformation to the arbitrary
reference frame. The same general transformation used for the stator variables of ac machines
serves the rotor variables of induction machines. Park‘s transformation is a well-known three-
phase to two-phase transformation in synchronous machine analysis.

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 Park's transformation
The transformation equation is of the form

where

and

and the dq0 transformation matrix is defined as

θ is the angular displacement of Park‘s reference frame and can be calculated by

where is the dummy variable of integration. It can be shown that for the inverse transformation
we can write

where the inverse of Park‘s transformation matrix is given by

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In the previous equations, the angular displacement θ must be continuous, but the angular
velocity associated with the change of variables is unspecified. The frame of reference may
rotate at any constant, varying angular velocity, or it may remain stationary. The angular
velocity of the transformation can be chosen arbitrarily to best fit the system equation solution or
to satisfy the system constraints. The change of variables may be applied to variables of any
waveform and time sequence; however, we will find that the transformation given above is
particularly appropriate for an a-b-c sequence.

2.3.4 Transformations between Reference Frames

In order to reduce the complexity of some derivations, it is necessary to transform the

variables from one reference frame to another one. To establish this transformation between any
two reference frames, we can denote y as the new reference frame and x as the old reference
frame. Both new and old reference frames are shown in Figure.

Transformation between two reference frames

It is assumed that the reference frame x is rotating with angular velocity ωx and the
reference frame y is spinning with the angular velocity ωy. θx and θy are angular displacements
of reference frames x and y, respectively. In this regard, we can rewrite the transformation
equation as

But we have

If we substitute (2) in (1) we get

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In another way, we can find out that

From (3) we obtain

Then, the desired transformation can be expressed by the following matrix:

2.3.5 Field Oriented Control (FOC) Transformations

2.3.5.1 Machine side transformation in field oriented control

Machine side transformation in field oriented control

In the case of FOC of electric machines, control methods are performed in a two-phase
reference frame fixed to the rotor (qr -dr ) or fixed to the excitation reference frame (q e -de ). We
want to transform all the variables from the three-phase a-b-c system to the two-phase stationary
reference frame and then retransform these variables from the stationary reference frame to a
rotary reference frame with arbitrary angular velocity of ω. These transformations are usually
cascaded. The block diagram of this procedure is shown in Figure

2.3.5.2 Variable transformation in the field oriented control.

In this figure, f denotes the currents or voltages and q e -de represents the arbitrary
rotating reference frame with angular velocity θ e and qs -ds represents the stationary reference
frame. In the vector control method, after applying field oriented control it is necessary to
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transform variables to stationary a-b-c system. This can be achieved by taking the inverse
transformation of variables from the arbitrary rotating reference frame to the stationary reference
frame and then to the a-b-c system. In this block diagram, * is a representation of commanded or
desired values of variables.

Variable transformation in the field oriented control

2.3.6 Commonly used reference frames

Based on speed of reference frame there are four major type of reference frames

1. Arbitrary reference frame: Reference frame speed is unspecified (ω), variables

denoted by fdqos or fds, fqs and fos, transformation matrix denoted by Ks.

2. Stationary reference frame: Reference frame speed is zero (ω=0), variables denoted by
fsdqo or fds, fqs and fos, transformation matrix denoted by Kss.

3. Rotor reference frame: Reference frame speed is equal to rotor speed (ω= ωr),
variables denoted by frdqo or fdr, fqr and fos, transformation matrix denoted by Kss.

4. Synchronous reference frame: Reference frame speed is equal to synchronous speed

(ω= ωe), variables denoted by fe dqo or fde, fq e and fos, transformation matrix denoted by
Kse.

The choice of reference frame is not restricted but otherwise deeply influenced by the
type of analysis that is to be performed so as to expedite the solution of the system equations or
to satisfy system constraints. The best suited choice of reference frame for simulation of
induction machine for various cases of analysis is listed here under:

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 Stationary reference frame is best suited for studying stator variables only, for example
variable speed stator fed IM drives, because stator d-axis variables are exactly identical to
stator phase a-variable.

 Rotor reference frame is best suited when analysis is restricted to rotor variables as
rotor d-axis variable is identical to phase-a rotor variable.

 Synchronously rotating reference frame is suitable when analog computer is

employed because both stator and rotor d-q quantities becomes steady DC quantities. It is
also best suited for studying multi-machine system.

It is worthwhile to note that all three types of reference frame can be obtained from
arbitrary reference frame by simply changing ω. Modeling in arbitrary reference frame is
therefore beneficial when a wide range of analysis is to be done.

2.3.7 Induction Machine Model in the Park Reference Frame

The induction machine was modeled using two separate frames. The first one is used to
express stator quantities; the second one is used to express rotor quantities. Since these two
frames are linked with angle θ, a model of the machine in a common frame named d, q can be
obtained using the two rotation matrices. At a certain point, the position of the magnetic field

rotating in the air gap is pinpointed by angle θ s; in relation to stationary axis sa: For the
development of the machine model, a Park reference frame is assumed to be lined up with this

magnetic field and to rotate at the same speed (ω s): Angle θ s corresponds to the angle of axes sx

and θr; angle θr corresponds to the angle of axes rx and d: Transforming angle θ s is necessary
to bring the stator quantities back to the Park rotating reference frame. Transforming angle θ r is
necessary to bring the rotor quantities back. The figure indicates that the angles are linked by a

relation in order to express the rotor and stator quantities in the same Park reference frame ( ;

d; q). This relation is:

The same situation happens between the frame speeds in each frame and the mechanical speed,
that is:

With

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where is mechanical speed and is very speed viewed in the electrical space.

The speed of the rotor quantities is in relation to rotor speed . In relation to the
stator frame, the rotor quantities consequently rotate at the same speed xs as the stator quantities.
Using the Park transform will allow the conception of an induction machine model independent

from the rotor position. Two transformations are used. One [P( )]is applied to the stator

quantities; the other [P( )]is applied to the rotor quantities.

Direct and squared components xd, xq represent coordinates xa, xb,xc in an orthogonal frame of
reference rotating in the same plane. Term xo represents the homopolar component, which is
orthogonal to the plane constituted by the system x a, xb, xc.

2.4 INDUCTION GENERATORS (IG)

2.4.1 Introduction

An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of alternating

current (AC) electrical generator that uses the principles of induction motors to produce power.
Induction generators operate by mechanically turning their rotors faster than synchronous speed.
A regular AC asynchronous motor usually can be used as a generator, without any internal
modifications. Induction generators are useful in applications such as mini hydro power plants,
wind turbines, or in reducing high-pressure gas streams to lower pressure, because they can
recover energy with relatively simple controls. An induction generator usually draws its
excitation power from an electrical grid; sometimes, however, they are self-excited by using
phase-correcting capacitors. Because of this, induction generators cannot usually "black start" a
de-energized distribution system. Induction Generator construction is based on the very common
squirrel-cage induction motor type machine as they are cheap, reliable, and readily available in a
wide range of electrical sizes from fractional horse power machines to multi-megawatt
capacities making them ideal for use in both domestic and commercial renewable energy wind
power applications.

Induction generator is not a self excited machine therefore in order to develop the
rotating magnetic field, it requires magnetizing current and reactive power. The induction
generator obtains its magnetizing current and reactive power from the various sources like the
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supply mains or it may be another synchronous generator. The induction generator can‘t work in
isolation because it continuously requires reactive power from the supply syst em. However we
can have a self excited or isolated induction generation in one case if we will use capacitor
bank for reactive power supply instead of AC supply system.

2.4.2 Construction

Induction machine longitudinal cut: (a) stator, (b) wound rotor, and (c) cage rotor

An induction generator is made up of two major components: the stator, which consists
of steel laminations mounted on a frame so that slots are formed on the inside diameter of the
assembly as in a synchronous machine, and the rotor, which consists of a structure of steel
laminations mounted on a shaft with two possible configurations:

Wound rotor or cage rotor. Figure shows a schematic cut along the longitudinal axis of
a typical wound-rotor induction machine. Figure (a) shows the external case with the stator yoke
internally providing the magnetic path for the three-phase stator circuits. Bearings provide
mechanical support for the shaft clearance (the air gap) between the rotor and stator cores. For a
wound rotor, a group of brush holders and carbon brushes, indicated on the left side of Figure
(a), allow for connection to the rotor windings. A schematic diagram of a wound rotor is shown
in Figure (b). The winding of the wound rotor is of the three-phase type with the same number
of poles as the stator, generally connected in Y.

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 Cross-sectional cut for an induction machine

Three terminal leads are connected to the slip rings by means of carbon brushes. Wound
rotors are usually available for very large power machines (>500 kW). External converters in the
rotor circuit, rated with slip power, control the secondary currents providing the rated frequency
at the stator. For most medium power applications, squirrel cage rotors, as in Figure (c), are
used. Squirrel cage rotor windings consist of solid bars of conducting material embedded in the
rotor slots and shorted at the two ends by conducting rings. In large machines, the rotor bars may
be of copper alloy brazed to the end rings. Rotors sized up to about 20 inches in diameter are
usually stacked in a mold made by aluminum casting, enabling a very economical structure
combining the rotor bars, end rings, and cooling fan. Figure shows a cross-sectional cut
indicating the distributed windings for three-phase stator excitation. Each winding (a, b, or c)
occupies the contiguous slots within a 120° spatial distribution.

The stator: It is built up from silicon steel laminations punched and assembled so that it
has a number of uniformly spaced identical slots, in integral multiples of six (such as 48 or 72
slots), roughly parallel to the machine shaft. Sometimes, the slots are slightly twisted or skewed
in relation to the longitudinal axis, to reduce cogging torque, noise, and vibration, and to smooth
up the generated voltage. Machines up to a few hundreds of KW rating and low voltage have
semi closed slots, while larger machines with medium voltage have open slots.

2.4.3 Off-grid Induction Generator

We have seen above that an induction generator requires the stator to be magnetized
from the utility grid before it can generate electricity. But you can also run an induction
generator in a stand alone, off-grid system by supplying the necessary out-of-phase exciting or
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magnetizing current from excitation capacitors connected across the stator terminals of the
machine. This also requires that there is some residual magnetism in the rotors iron laminations
when you start the turbine. The excitation capacitors are shown in a star (wye) connection but
can also be connected a delta (triangular) arrangement.

2.4.4 Capacitor Start Induction Generator

Capacitor Start Induction Generator

The excitation capacitors are standard motor-starting capacitors that are used to provide
the required reactive power for excitation which would otherwise be supplied by the utility grid.
The induction generator will self-excite using these external capacitors only if the rotor has
sufficient residual magnetism. In the self-excited mode, the generator output frequency and
voltage are affected by the rotational speed, the turbine load, and the capacitance value in farads
of the capacitors. Then in order for self-excitation of the generator to occur, there needs to be a
minimum rotational speed for the value of capacitance used across the stator windings. The
―Self-excited induction generator‖, (SEIG) is a good candidate for wind powered electric
generation applications especially in variable wind speed and remote areas, because they do not
need external power supply to produce the magnetic field. A three-phase induction generator can
be converted into a variable speed single-phase induction generator by connecting two excitation
capacitors across the three-phase windings. One of value C amount of capacitance on one phase
and the other of value 2C amount of capacitance across the other phase.

2.4.5 Principle of operation

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 An induction generator produces electrical power when its rotor is turned faster than
the synchronous speed. For a typical four-pole motor (two pairs of poles on stator) operating on
a 60 Hz electrical grid, the synchronous speed is 1800 rotations per minute (rpm). The same
four-pole motor operating on a 50 Hz grid will have a synchronous speed of 1500 RPM. The
motor normally turns slightly slower than the synchronous speed; the difference between
synchronous and operating speed is called "slip" and is usually expressed as per cent of the
synchronous speed. For example, a motor operating at 1450 RPM that has a synchronous speed
of 1500 RPM is running at a slip of +3.3%. In normal motor operation, the stator flux rotation is
faster than the rotor rotation. This causes the stator flux to induce rotor currents, which create a
rotor flux with magnetic polarity opposite to stator. In this way, the rotor is dragged along
behind stator flux, with the currents in the rotor induced at the slip frequency. In generator
operation, a prime mover (turbine or engine) drives the rotor above the synchronous speed
(negative slip). The stator flux still induces currents in the rotor, but since the opposing rotor
flux is now cutting the stator coils, an active current is produced in stator coils and the motor
now operates as a generator, sending power back to the electrical grid.

2.4.5.1 Excitation

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 Per-phase equivalent circuit of the stand-alone induction generator

An induction machine requires externally supplied armature current. Because the rotor
field always lags behind the stator field, the induction machine always "consumes" reactive
power, regardless of whether it is operating as a generator or a motor. A source of excitation
current for magnetizing flux (reactive power) for the stator is still required, to induce rotor
current. This can be supplied from the electrical grid or, once it starts producing power, from the
generator itself. An induction machine can be started by charging the capacitors, with a DC
source, while the generator is turning typically at or above generating speeds. Once the DC
source is removed the capacitors will provide the magnetization current required beginning
producing voltage. An induction machine that has recently been operating may also
spontaneously produce voltage and current due to residual magnetism left in the core.

2.4.5.2 Active power

Active power delivered to the line is proportional to slip above the synchronous speed.
Full rated power of the generator is reached at very small slip values (motor dependent, typically
3%). At synchronous speed of 1800 rpm, generator will produce no power. When the driving
speed is increased to 1860 rpm (typical example), full output power is produced. If the prime
mover is unable to produce enough power to fully drive the generator, speed will remain
somewhere between 1800 and 1860 rpm range.

2.4.5.3 Required capacitance

A capacitor bank must supply reactive power to the motor when used in stand-alone
mode. The reactive power supplied should be equal or greater than the reactive power that the
machine normally draws when operating as a motor. Consider, an AC supply is connected to the
stator terminals of an induction machine. Rotating magnetic field produced in the stator pulls the
rotor to run behind it (the machine is acting as a motor). Now, if the rotor is accelerated to the

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synchronous speed by means of a prime mover, the slip will be zero and hence the net torque
will be zero. The rotor current will become zero when the rotor is running at synchronous speed.

If the rotor is made to rotate at a speed more than the synchronous speed, the slip
becomes negative. A rotor current is generated in the opposite direction, due to the rotor
conductors cutting stator magnetic field. This generated rotor current produces a rotating
magnetic field in the rotor which pushes (forces in opposite way) onto the stator field. This
causes a stator voltage which pushes current flowing out of the stator winding against the
applied voltage. Thus, the machine is now working as an induction generator (asynchronous
generator).

2.4.6 Torque-Slip characteristics

The basic fundamental of induction generators is the conversion between mechanical

energy to electrical energy. This requires an external torque applied to the rotor to turn it faster
than the synchronous speed. However, indefinitely increasing torque doesn't lead to an indefinite
increase in power generation. The rotating magnetic field torque excited from the armature
works to counter the motion of the rotor and prevent over speed because of induced motion in
the opposite direction.

As the speed of the motor increases the counter torque reaches a max value of torque
(breakdown torque) that it can operate until before the operating conditions become unstable.
Ideally, induction generators work best in the stable region between the no -load condition and
maximum torque region.

2.4.7 Torque–Speed characteristics

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2.4.7 Torque–Speed characteristics

It can be observed that there is no torque at the synchronous speed. Both the torque–
speed and the power–speed curves are almost linear since from no load to full load the
machine‘s rotor resistance is much larger than its reactance. The resistance is predominant in
this range, current and the rotor field as well as the induced torque increase almost linearly with
the increase of the slip factors. The rotor torque varies as the square of the voltage across the
terminals of the generator if the speed slows down close to the synchronous speed, the generator
motorizes that is, it works as a motor; as we will show, the generated power has a maximum
value for a given current drained from the generator in the same way, there is a maximum
possible induced generator torque called pullout or breakdown torque, and from this torque
value on, there will be over speed. The peak power supplied by the IG happens at a speed
slightly different from the maximum torque, and, naturally, no electric power is converted into
mechanical power when the rotor is at rest (zero speed). In the same way, in spite of the same
rotation, the frequency of the IG varies with the load variation.

2.5 HIGH-EFFICIENCY INDUCTION GENERATOR

A high-efficiency induction generator is commercially available as a high-efficiency

induction motor, except for some peculiarities. Therefore, the same care must be taken in design,
materials selection, and manufacturing processes for building a high-efficiency generator. The
main advantages of the high-efficiency induction generator compared with the conventional
induction generator are better voltage regulation, less loss of efficiency. Steady-state model of
Induction Generators with smaller loads, less over sizing when generators of lower power
cannot be used, reduced internal losses, and, therefore, lower temperatures, less internal electric
and mechanical stress, and, thus, increased useful life.

The constraints are the need for larger capacitors for self-excitation. High-efficiency
induction generators should not be used for self-excited applications. The efficiency of the high-
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efficiency generator compared with the standard ones differs by more than about 10% for small
power ratings (up to 50 kW) and about 2% for higher powers (above 100 kW). It is therefore
highly recommended for micro power plants. Rated efficiencies are normalized, and they
should have guaranteed minimum values stated by the manufacturer on the plate of the machine
for each combination of power versus synchronous speed. High-efficiency generators are better
suited to stand the harmful effects of the harmonic generated by nonlinear loads (power
converters) because they have higher thermal margin and smaller losses.

2.6 PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS (PMSG)

2.6.1 Introduction

A permanent magnet synchronous generator is a generator where the excitation field is

provided by a permanent magnet instead of a coil. The term synchronous refers here to the fact
that the rotor and magnetic field rotate with the same speed, because the magnetic field is
generated through a shaft mounted permanent magnet mechanism and current is induced into the
stationary armature Synchronous generators are the majority source of commercial electrical
energy. They are commonly used to convert the mechanical power out put of steam turbines, gas
turbines, reciprocating engines and hydro turbines into electrical power for the grid. Some
designs of Wind turbines also use this generator type.

2.6.2 Construction

Types of PMSG rotor construction

(a) Surface mounted; (b) inset; (c) Interior PM motor

A Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator is a generator where the excitation fie ld is

provided by a permanent magnet instead of a coil. The rotor contains the permanent magnet and
the stator is the stationary armature that is electrically connected to a load. A set of 3 conductors
make up the armature winding in standard utility equipment, placed 1200 apart in space, this
provides for a uniform force or torque on the generator rotor. The uniformity of the torque arises
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because the magnetic field resulting from the currents in the three conductors of the armature
winding combine spatially in such a way as to resemble the magnetic field of a single rotating
magnet. The stator magnetic field appears as a steady rotating field and spins at the same
frequency as the rotor when the rotor contains a single dipole magnetic field. The two fields
move in ‗synchronicity‘ and maintain a fixed position with respect to each other as they rotate.
The armature MMF combines vectorically with the persistent flux of the permanent magnets,
which leads to higher air-gap flux density and eventually core saturation. In PMSG, the output
voltage is proportional to the speed.

2.6.3 Operation

In the majority of designs the rotating assembly in the center of the generator called
"rotor" contains the magnet, and the "stator" is the stationary armature that is electrically
connected to a load. As shown in the diagram, the perpendicular component of the stator field
affects the torque while the parallel component affects the voltage. The load supplied by the
generator determines the voltage. If the load is inductive, then the angle between the rotor and
stator fields will be greater than 90 degrees which corresponds to an increased generator voltage.
This is known as an overexcited generator.

The opposite is true for a generator supplying a capacitive load which is known as an
under excited generator. A set of three conductors make up the armature winding in standard
utility equipment, constituting three phases of a power circuit that correspond to the three wires
we are accustomed to see on transmission lines. The phases are wound such that they are 120

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degrees apart spatially on the stator, providing for a uniform force or torque on the generator
rotor. The uniformity of the torque arises because the magnetic fields resulting from the induced
currents in the three conductors of the armature winding combine spatially in such a way as to
resemble the magnetic field of a single, rotating magnet. This stator magnetic field or "stator
field" appears as a steady rotating field and spins at the same frequency as the rotor when the
rotor contains a single dipole magnetic field. The two fields move in "synchronicity" and
maintain a fixed position relative to each other as they spin.

2.6.4 Advantages and disadvantages of PMSG

Advantages

 Light weight and small size in construction.

 Low losses and high efficiency

 No need of external excitation current.

 No need of gearbox.

Disadvantages

 It is useful for small wind turbines, but for large wind turbines the size of the magnet
has to be increased.

 Demagnetization of permanent magnet due to atmospheric conditions is a big

problem

2.7 SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION GENERATORS (SCIG)

2.7.1 Constructional features

Asynchronous Induction generators are widely used in wind mills due to the several
advantages, such as robustness, mechanical simplicity and low price. Induction machines
operate in the generating and motoring modes fundamentally in the same manner except for the
reversal power flow. Therefore, the equivalent circuit and the associated performance are valid
for different slip. If the rotor is driven by a prime mover above the synchronous speed, the
mechanical power of the prime mover is converted into electrical power to the utility grid via
stator winding. The SCIG is a self-excited induction generator where a three-phase capacitor
bank is connected across the stator terminals to supply the reactive power requirement of a load.
When such an induction machine is driven by an external mechanical power so urce, the residual
magnetism in the rotor produces an Electromotive Force (EMF) in the stator windings. This

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EMF is applied to the capacitor bank causing current flow in the stator winding and establishing
a magnetizing flux in the machine.

An induction generator connected and excited in this manner is capable of acting as a

standalone generator supplying real and reactive power to a load. SCIG have a steep torque
speed characteristic and therefore fluctuations in wind power are transmitted directly to t he grid.
SCIG feed only through the stator and generally operate at low negative slip, approximately 1 to
2 percent. The slip, and hence the rotor speed of a SCIG varies with the amount of power
generated. The generator will always draw the reactive power from the grid. Reactive power
consumption is partly or fully compensated by capacitors in order to achieve a power factor
close to unity and make the induction machine to self-excite. The speed varies over a very small
range above synchronous speed as it is coupled with the grid, hence commonly known as a
fixed-speed generator. SCIG drives have bulky construction, low efficiency, low reliability and
need of maintenance, also the existing of slip ring, brush and three-stage gearbox increases the
system mass and cost, also electrical and mechanical loss. Recently, squirrel-cage induction
generators are dropping in this application.

2.7.2 Principle of operation

Initially, the induction machine is connected in motoring command such that it generates
electromagnetic torque in the same direction as the wind torque. In steady-state, the rotational
speed exceeds the synchronous speed and the electromagnetic torque is negative. This
corresponds to the squirrel-cage induction machine operation in generation mode. As it is
directly connected to the grid, the SCIG works on its natural mechanical characteristic having an
accentuated slope (corresponding to a small slip) given by the rotor resistance. Therefore, the
SCIG rotational speed is very close to the synchronous speed imposed by the grid frequency.

55
Furthermore, the wind velocity variations will induce only small variations in the generator
speed.

As the power varies proportionally with the wind speed cubed, the associated
electromagnetic variations are important. SCIG are preferred because they are mechanically
simple, have high efficiency and low maintenance cost. Furthermore, they are very robust and
stable. The rotating magnetizing field represented by the space vector Bm (or, equivalently by
the magnetizing current Im) moves at the synchronous speed ωs with respect to a stator (or
stationary) observer and at the slip speed ωsl = ωs - ωm with respect to a rotor observer. In the
motor mode of operation where ωm< ωs, the rotor effectively moves backwards (clockwise)
with respect to the field, inducing in each bar a voltage having the polarity indicated and a
magnitude proportional to slip velocity u and to the field strength acting on the bar (in
accordance with the flux-cutting rule v = Blu). Since the magnetic field is sinusoidally
distributed in space, so will the induced voltages in the rotor bars. Ignoring the effects of rotor
leakage, the resulting rotor currents are in phase with the induced voltages and are thus
sinusoidally distributed in space varying sinusoidally in time at slip frequency; they may then be
represented by the space vector Ir which rotate at the slip speed ωsl with respect to the rotor and
at synchronous speed ωs with respect to the stator. Because Bm cannot change with a fixed stator
input voltage (in accordance with Faraday's law), a stator space vector IR is created in order to
compensate for the rotor effects so that the resultant stator current becomes Is = IR + Im.

The electromagnetic force exerted on rotor bar acting in the positive or anticlockwise
direction (same as rotor speed) in the present case of a motor. The resultant torque developed on
the rotor also acts in the same direction. Follow the path taken by one rotor bar as it travels
around, observing the polarity and magnitude (described by the size) of the bar current. In the
case of a generator where ωm > ωs, all polarities and directions are reversed as can be observed
in the right figure (except for the magnetizing component).

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2.7.3 Modelling of Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG)

A three-phase voltage system may be expressed, with obvious meaning of the notation,
as follows

The corresponding space-vector is calculated in (2). Notice that the amplitude of the
defined voltage space-vector is equal to the peak amplitude of the instantaneous voltage:

where

The phasor V is defined in such a way that its magnitude is equal to the peak-value of the
voltage. The first part of (2) is valid also if the three-phase quantities do not form a balanced
system. In this case, the space vector becomes:

Similar expressions can be obtained for currents and fluxes. The zero-sequence is not
considered here, since commonly an induction generator is not grounded and therefore no zero-
sequence current can flow. If no zero-sequence component is present, the instantaneous values
of the currents in the three phases can be obtained from the corresponding space-vector as:

(4)

Using the introduced space-vector notation and using a stationary reference frame, the
equations describing the electrical dynamics of a squirrel-cage induction machine are given by :
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 where

2.8 DOUBLY FED INDUCTION GENERATORS (DFIG)

2.8.1 Constructional features

Doubly fed electrical generators are similar to AC electrical generators, but have
additional features which allow them to run at speeds slightly above or below their natural
synchronous speed. This is useful for large variable speed wind turbines, because wind speed
can change suddenly. When a gust of wind hits a wind turbine, the blades try to speed up, but a
synchronous generator is locked to the speed of the power grid and cannot speed up. Therefore
large forces are developed in the hub, gearbox, and generator as the power grid pushes back.
This causes wear and damage to the mechanism.

If the turbine is allowed to speed up immediately when hit by a wind gust, the stresses
are lower and the power from the wind gust is converted to useful electricity. One approach to
allowing wind turbine speed to vary is to accept whatever frequency the generator produces,
convert it to DC, and then convert it to AC at the desired output frequency using an inverter.
This is common for small house and farm wind turbines. But the inverters required for
megawatt-scale wind turbines are large and expensive. Doubly fed generators are one solution to
this problem. Instead of the usual field winding fed with DC, and an armature winding where the
generated electricity comes out, there are two three-phase windings, one stationary and one
rotating, both separately connected to equipment outside the generator. Thus the term "doubly
fed". One winding is directly connected to the output, and produces 3-phase AC power at the
desired grid frequency. The other winding (traditionally called the field, but here both windings
can be outputs) is connected to 3-phase AC power at variable frequency. This input power is
adjusted in frequency and phase to compensate for changes in speed of the turbine.

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 Wind turbine–powered DFIG with transformer-based utility connection

The doubly-fed generator rotors are typically wound with 2 to 3 times the number of
turns of the stator. This means that the rotor voltages will be higher and currents respectively
lower. Thus in the typical ± 30% operational speed range around the synchronous speed, the
rated current of the converter is accordingly lower which leads to a lower cost of the converter.
The drawback is that controlled operation outside the operational speed range is impossible
because of the higher than rated rotor voltage. Further, the voltage transients due to the grid
disturbances (three- and two-phase voltage dips, especially) will also be magnified. In order to
prevent high rotor voltages - and high currents resulting from these voltages - from destroying
the IGBTs and diodes of the converter, a protection circuit (called crowbar) is used.

The crowbar will short-circuit the rotor windings through a small resistance when
excessive currents or voltages are detected. In order to be able to continue the operation as
quickly as possible an active crowbar has to be used. The active crowbar can remove the rotor
short in a controlled way and thus the rotor side converter can be started only after 20-60 ms
from the start of the grid disturbance when the remaining voltage stays above 15% of the
nominal voltage. Thus it is possible to generate reactive current to the grid during t he rest of the
voltage dip and in this way help the grid to recover from the fault. For zero voltage ride through
it is common to wait until the dip ends because with zero voltage it is not possible to know the
phase angle where the reactive current should be injected.

2.8.2 Principle of operation

The principle of the Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (referred to as DFIG) is that rotor
windings are connected to the grid via slip rings and back-to-back voltage source converters that
control both the rotor and the grid currents. Thus, rotor frequency can freely differ from the grid

59
frequency (50 or 60 Hz). Double Fed Induction Generator, a generating principle widely used in
wind turbines. It is based on an induction generator with a multiphase wound rotor and a
multiphase slip ring assembly with brushes for access to the rotor windings. It is possible to
avoid the multiphase slip ring assembly but there are problems with efficiency, cost and size.

A doubly-fed induction machine is a wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine and has

several advantages over a conventional induction machine in wind power applications. First, as
the rotor circuit is controlled by a power electronics converter, the induction generator is able to
both import and export reactive power. This has important consequences for power system
stability and allows the machine to support the grid during severe voltage disturbances. Second,
the control of the rotor voltages and currents enables the induction machine to remain
synchronized with the grid while the wind turbine speed varies. A variable speed wind turbine
utilizes the available wind resource more efficiently than a fixed speed wind turbine, especially
during light wind conditions. Third, the cost of the converter is low when compared wit h other
variable speed solutions because only a fraction of the mechanical power, typically 25-30%, is
fed to the grid through the converter, the rest being fed to grid directly from the stator. The
efficiency of the DFIG is very good for the same reason. Doubly-fed electric machine is
connected to a selection of resistors via multiphase slip rings for starting. However, the slip
power was lost in the resistors. Thus means to increase the efficiency in variable speed operation
by recovering the slip power were developed.

Interaction between the rotor speed and the frequency of the rotating magnetic field
created in the rotor windings of a doubly-fed induction generator.

By using the converter to control the rotor currents, it is possible to adjust the act ive and
reactive power fed to the grid from the stator independently of the generator's turning speed. The
control principle used is either the two-axis current vector control or direct torque control. Direct
60
torque control has turned out to have better stability than current vector control especially when
high reactive currents are required from the generator.

2.8.3 Equivalent Circuit of DFIG

A doubly fed induction generator is basically a wound rotor induction generator fed by
both stator and rotor, in which the stator winding is directly connected to the grid and the rotor
winding is connected to the grid through AC/DC/AC converters. These converters are divided
into two components: the rotor side converter and the grid side converter. A capacitor between
the converters plays a role of a DC voltage source. A coupling inductor is used to link the grid
side converter to the grid.

The operation principle of DFIG is fundamentally the same as that of a transformer.

Thus, DFIG can be represented as a transformer‘s per phase equivalent circuit, where Rr and Xr
represent rotor resistance and reactance referred to the stator side. But the equivalent circuit of
induction machine differs from a transformer‘s primarily with respect to varying rotor frequency
on the rotor voltage. In case of DFIG, there is a voltage injected to the rotor winding, so an
equivalent circuit of classic induction machine needs to be modified by adding a rotor injected
voltage as shown in Figure. In this figure, s is the rotor slip, V the voltage, I the current, R and X
represent resistance and reactance, respectively. The subscripts r, s and m stand for rotor, stator
and mutual, respectively.

The Equivalent Circuit of DFIG

Real and reactive power in the stator side like Ps and Qs delivered to the connected grid can be
derived from Is and Vs as in (1):

Real and reactive power in the rotor side, P r , Qr , referred to stator side is derived from Ir and
Vr/s, as in (2):

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It is possible to express the electromechanical torque, Te , as in (3):

where

s and r : the stator and the rotor flux, respectively.

p: the number of poles per phase.

, : the complex conjugates of the stator and the rotor current, respectively.

2.8.5 Sub- and Super-synchronous modes

Figure (a) shows the power balance in a DFIG at sub-synchronous generation where s >
0 and the power flow into the rotor by a current-controlled inverter. A step-up transformer is
usually connected between the low-frequency low-voltage requirements and the grid in order to
alleviate the rotor converter ratings.

(a) Sub-synchronous generating mode (s > 0).

Figure (b) shows the super-synchronous generating mode where the mechanical speed is
greater than the electrical synchronous speed, so the slip is negative (s < 0). The rotor voltages
will have their phase sequence reversed; since Pg < 0 and Pr < 0, the rotor circuit contributes in
generating power to the line with improved efficiency.

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 (b) Super-synchronous generating mode (s < 0).

(c) Sub-synchronous mode back-to-back double converter.

It is important to note that the shaft incoming power indicates Pm = (1 + s)Pg to show
the extra capability of the power conversion, but the slip is actually negative. Thus, very
efficient generating systems can be achieved using the super-synchronous region. Because the
operating region is limited, the main drawback is the starting-up sequence of the system. One
possible way around this is to use auxiliary resistors in the rotor circuit as indicated in Figure
(c), then drive the machine in motoring mode, and, just after the cut-in speed, plug in the
controller, which imposes regenerative operation.

2.8.6 Torque-slip curve for DFIG in sub- and super-synchronous modes.

For high-power machines, the stator resistance is neglected, and the stator terminal
power is Pg. Considering that the power flowing out of the machine is negative (generating
mode), the induction generator has a power balance in accordance with the torque-slip curve
indicated in Figure. The power distribution for the generator operating at sub-synchronous and
super-synchronous regions is indicated in the operating region from 0.7ωs to 1.3ωs. For
operation at the sub-synchronous region, the slip is positive, and therefore, the rotor circuit
receives power from the line, whereas for the super-synchronous region, the slip is negative, and
the rotor power supplements extra generating power to the grid.

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2.8.7 Advantages and disadvantages of DFIG

Advantages

 DFIG is a variable speed generator and therefore has the variable speed advantages
compared to fixed speed generators.

 It more fully converts the available wind power over a wider range of wind speeds with less
mechanical complexity but more electrical and electronic complexity.

 DFIG provides variable speed with a smaller power converter compared to other variable-
speed generators.

 Only the rotor power needs to be converted. That is typically about 30% of the total power.

 Reduced power conversion means reduced losses and increased efficiency. However the
converter must be designed to transfer power in either direction, making it more complex
than power converters for other types of variable-speed generators.
 The overall equipment, installation and maintenance cost is apparently lower for DFIG
systems for some range of power levels.

Disadvantages

 A disadvantage of the DFIG compared to the permanent magnet synchronous generator

is that the DFIG requires a speed increasing gearbox between the wind turbine and the
generator whereas the PMSG can be constructed with a sufficient number of poles to
allow direct drive.