10/31/2011 Vignesh Gopal-Shanbhag & Arees Uthayasurian 1

AuE 893 Advanced Engines ProposalHW5

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Deep Orange 3 project requires an
increase in power and torque to satisfy the
performance targets of the prototype car. This
proposal is used to throw light on the design changes
that can be implemented to increase the power of the
1.5L I-4 Mazda 2 engine. The target is set at a 15%
increase in power over a specific RPM band. This
proposal discuses in brief the possible changes, its
advantages, disadvantages and cost.
THE PROJECT DESCRIPTION
OBJECTIVE
The project in view here is the increase of
performance of the given engine a 1.5L I-4 Mazda
2 engine keeping in mind the 0-60mph time. Practical
and feasible physical and control changes are
proposed. The speed range being targeted is 3500-
6000rpm. This choice is justified by figure 1. Also, the
focus through the proposal is on increasing the
volumetric efficiency of the engine which in turn
increases the power.

Figure 1
The following sections explain the areas of
concentration, methods and the performance effects.
AREAS OF CONCENTRATION
Turbocharging
Probably the most common ideas that strikes
one, when power increase is the subject. It is one of
the most efficient ways to increase the volumetric
efficiency for a given displacement of the engine.
( / )
2
f v d lhv
NV Q F A
Power
q q
= - (1)

It is also one of the most complicated systems
that can be fitted on to the engine.
For the given Mazda 2 engine and the target
power, flow rates and pressure ratios were
calculated. (Shown in Appendix)
Table 1

One of the biggest concerns is the
turbocharger matching. The above table gives a fair
idea of the operating points of the compressor. We
need to match it with available compressor maps and
ensure that the operating points fall within the surge
and choke limits of the compressor.
Also, since the engine is already equipped
with EGR, the EGR variation rate also has an impact
on the operating points on the compressor maps.
- In high pressure configuration, increasing
EGR increases the pressure ratio only. This
can cause surge line problems at low speed
and high load.
- In low pressure EGR configuration, increase
in EGR increase both pressure ratio and air
mass flow. This can cause over-speeding
(choking) at high speed and high load.
Therefore Turbo matching depends also on the
architecture of the EGR. The complexity of the
system beyond just the matching is the necessity for
an intercooler to increase the density of the intake
air. Also, durability of the parts to the increase in
intake pressure needs to be considered. The current
intake manifold made of plastic will be unable to
withstand the pressures. So a new manifold has to
be designed.
Overall it is a major packaging and matching
issue although we can achieve the complete 15%
increase in power in one go.
Manifold injection
One of the methods to increase the
volumetric efficiency of the engine is by increasing
the amount of charge (air + fuel) entering the
cylinder.
To decrease the inlet charge temp and
increase the density of the charge, injection of
methanol in the manifold is resorted to. The heat of
the charge/air is used to vaporize the liquid injected.
The heat of vaporization of Methanol is 1103 kJ/kg
and has a boiling point at 65C. A pulsed spray of
fine droplets is injected at 45 to the air flow in the
manifold, to obtain best vaporization and minimize
the chances of puddle formation. The average intake
air temperature is about 30C greater than the
Air Flow @6000rpm 0.206 kg/s
Air Flow @4000rpm 0.144 kg/s
Pressure Ratio @6000rpm 3.03
10/31/2011 Vignesh Gopal-Shanbhag & Arees Uthayasurian 2
ambient temperature and hence makes it easy for the
methanol to evaporate.
This reduces the intake air temperature
considerably and increases the Octane number of
the fuel and consequently the knock limit.
A similar effect can be achieved by injecting
gasoline (heat of vaporization = 350 kJ/kg) in place of
methanol. This negates the necessity for a separate
water-methanol tank or separate injection lines. Also,
this system will be useful for colder environments too,
since the heat of vaporization is much lower.
The figure 2 shows the percentage of
evaporation of heptane injected in the manifold and
the manifold wall temperatures. The trend for
gasoline is fairly identical to the above graph.

Figure 2
So essentially, the charging efficiency
increases by 3-5% the octane rating improves and
the spark can be advanced up to 4 CAD. This gives a
combined increase of power by 6 to 8%.
But the complexity and risk involved in
implementation of the system is the calibration of the
two injectors to supply adequate quantities of fuel to
maintain the A/F ratio and reduce the inlet
temperature. Packaging wise, it is not much of a
hassle as the injector is placed downstream of the
throttle and is common for all 4 cylinders with an
extra high pressure fuel line from the common
supply.
Compression Ratio (CR)
We know the general effect of increasing
compression ratio. At any given speed, increasing
CR increases the cylinder pressure developed and
the temperature. Along with this, it also increases the
bearing loads, heat transfer requirements and
exhaust gas temperatures. So we need to keep the
compression ratio at an optimum where the
advantages outweigh the disadvantages.

Figure 3
The figure 3 shows the variation of Brake
thermal efficiency (BTE) with respect to CR. And
since IMEP is a function of BTE, the percentage
change of IMEP is shown (CR=10 is standard on the
Mazda 2 engine). We can achieve up to 6% increase
in IMEP theoretically. But practically, we are knock-
limited. This limit can be determined by dyno-testing
only. Thus to be safe, increasing the CR to 11.5
gives us a 2.5% gain in IMEP.
1
1
1
th
c
r

q

= - (2)
1 1
* 1
1 1
c
th
v c
r IMEP q
P c T r
q

| | | | | |
=
| | |

\ . \ . \ .
- (3)
Now there are 2 ways we can increase the
CR. One method is to grind material off the top of the
cylinder block. Although this would increase the CR,
many other variables have to re-calibrated (valve
timing, lift profiles etc.) for optimum functionality of
the engine. The other method is changing the piston
geometry. By increasing the length of the piston, we
can increase the CR. This method is further
discussed in the next section.

Piston Geometry
The piston head and the cylinder head
geometry are what define the combustion chamber
geometry. A change in the in piston geometry affects
the combustion characteristics and the compression
if the length is increased.
First let us discuss the effects of increasing
the length of the piston and how it affects the
compression ratio. If the piston pin location, i.e. the
connecting rod length remains constant, then the
displaced volume remains the same and an increase
in piston length (increase in top land width) will result
in a decrease of clearance volume.
Compression ratio is given by
d c
c
V V
V
+
. So
when V
c
decreases, CR increases. The stock
10/31/2011 Vignesh Gopal-Shanbhag & Arees Uthayasurian 3
clearance volume is 42 cc. To achieve a
compression ratio of 11.5, the clearance volume has
to be reduced to 35.7 cc. which is an increase of
piston length by 1.24 mm.
The change in length has to be incorporated
by redesigning the piston for the desired length.
While redesigning if the combustion chamber shape
and geometry are modified to improve the squish and
swirl motions of the charge, the combustion efficiency
can be increased.
The piston design should be such that it
concentrates the combustion in the center and
strengthens turbulence by means of squishing.
Daisuke Akihisa and Daisaku Sawadas research
paper shows that a prototype piston which improves
the squish rate by 23% improves the IMEP by 13%.
This can be justified by the fact that turbulence
improves fuel conversion efficiency and from
Equation (1) we can say it increases the power.
Drawbacks of increasing the length of the
piston are that the timing of the valves has to be
changed such that full lift does not coincide with the
piston being at TDC. Also, structural durability needs
to be taken into consideration while redesigning the
piston.

Intake & Exhaust Tuning with VVT
By changing the lengths of the intake/exhaust
appropriately, the breathing capability, and therefore
the torque of an engine, can be increased by
harnessing the energy in the oscillations of the flow,
without the use of superchargers or turbochargers.
Tuning can influence engine performance by:
a) Variation of mass of air trapped in the
cylinder at intake valve closing (IVC) by affecting
i. residuals in the cylinder from the previous cycle
ii. pressure and temperature of the gas mixture at
IVC
b) Reduction in pumping losses by affecting
the pressure history in the ports when the valves are
open for gas exchange. Pumping losses are
relatively small under WOT conditions so the
dominant contribution that tuning produces under this
condition is the mass of air trapped into the cylinder.
The mass of trapped air is directly proportional to
volumetric efficiency. Tuning is also able to contribute
to the thermal efficiency of the engine by affecting
pumping losses and this is mostly apparent at part
load conditions.
The trapped mass of air in the cylinder can be
expressed as:

AFR, R, xr, pivc, Vivc, , Tivc, are air-fuel ratio,
gas constant, residual fraction and pressure, volume
and temperature at IVC respectively. Tuning has the
ability to alter pivc, xr, Tivc.
Intake length changes affect all three
parameters to different degrees but the most
dominant effect is the change of pressure at intake
valve closing where the pressure inside the cylinder
can vary as much as 125% of the corresponding in-
cylinder pressure with no intake effects (no or very
short pipes). This increase in pressure is caused by
the presence of a positive pressure pulse upstream
of the valve just before intake valve closing.
The exhaust tuning helps to scavenge hot
residual gases from the clearance volume at valve
overlap (which allows for more air to be trapped in
the subsequent cycle). The only possible scenario
that the exhaust is able to increase the pressure at
inlet valve closing would be for very aggressive valve
timing where air that short circuits the cylinder into
the exhaust port, is pushed back in the cylinder
before exhaust valve closing due to the wave action
in the exhaust.
Being able to raise the pressure above
atmospheric pressure intake tuning therefore has a
more dominant role over exhaust. It is found that,
intake length variation increases volumetric efficiency
as high as +12% whereas exhaust length variation
increases the same by only +5%. Also under WOT,
Intake and exhaust tuning are mutually independent
and the net effect on the engine is a summation of
their individual contributions. It is found that, tuning of
intake lengths is more forgiving than for tuning of the
exhaust. Intake tuning exhibits positive contributions
for a wide range of intake lengths for a given engine
speed. Exhaust tuning has smaller multiple length-
speed regions of positive contribution, separated by
equal regions of negative contribution.
Theories of Tuning
The two main theories of tuning are the
Helmholtz theory and the reflective wave theory.
Helmholtz Theory:
Engelman adapted the Helmholtz theory to
include the variation of the resonator chamber to be
the volume inside the cylinder at mid-stroke position
hence the resulting relationship between engine
speed and intake/exhaust length:
`
Where c is the acoustic speed, k is a constant
which ranges from 2 to 2.5 [8], A is the pipe cross-
sectional area, L is the length of pipe, Vd is the
displacement volume and rc is the compression ratio
of the engine.
10/31/2011 Vignesh Gopal-Shanbhag & Arees Uthayasurian 4
Reflective wave Theory:
This theory deals with the time it takes for the
wave moving at the acoustic speed to travel down
the length of intake/exhaust pipe and be reflected
back to generate the maximum benefit from this
reflected wave. Thus the relation between engine
speed and pipe length for a tuned condition is:

is the wave travel period in crank angle degrees
for tuned conditions. For an i
th
order pulse the
equation becomes:

Where, i is the order of the pulse.
[x] also gives the relationship between the engine
speed and length of the intake/exhaust derived from
the above equations.

Figure 4 - Graph illustrates how header tube diameter and length
influence the shape of power curve

Intake and Exhaust Tuning for VVT
Variation in valve duration does not affect the
relationship between length and engine speed for
intake tuning. Intake tuning correlations are affected
by the motion of the piston and the resonance
characteristics of the intake but are not affected by
valve events. Hence intake tuning correlations are
valid even when valve timing is varied. Valve duration
only affects the magnitude of the contributions
achieved by intake tuning.
Exhaust tuning is affected by variation in valve
duration. The time of exhaust valve opening dictates
commencement of the pressure pulse and therefore
the crank angle degrees for wave travel. Any
empiricism for exhaust tuning must account for
exhaust valve events. For tuning conditions, valve
duration variation still maintained a linear relationship
between the ratio of mean acoustic velocity to engine
speed and the exhaust length.

COSTING AND BUDGET
To begin with, the following costs and budget
analysis are assumptions and are to the best of the
little credible information found on the internet. The
unit costs are all the MSRPs of each part. The
production cost is, by rule of thumb, 15% of the
MSRP. This is in accord with the assumption while
calculating the BOM cost of the DO3 vehicle. Also,
dyno-testing costs have been assumed to be 8
sessions of $50 dollars each.
The Table 2 is a cost analysis of the parts and
modifications for each of the discussed areas of
concentration.
Table 3 is a relative analysis of cost-to-power
ratio. It is just a manner of portraying the price paid
for each system for an increase of 1% in the power. It
is not a direct indicator of the cost for each kW.
Table 2


Table 3

CONCLUSIONS
After analyzing the all the data and
discussions, we can confidently say that increasing
the power of the engine is well within our capabilities
both in terms of complexity and finances. The
following conclusions were drawn:-
Part/Modification Unit Cost

Production
cost Increase in power
Turbocharger
Intercooler
Piping
Mounting
New Manifold 339.00 $ 50.85 $
Injector 37.50 $ 5.63 $
High pressure fuel lines 299.00 $ 44.85 $
Dyno Cost (Calibration) NA 400.00 $
Dyno Cost (Calibration) NA 400.00 $
4 Piston redesigned 1,832.00 $ 274.80 $
Piping 217.00 $ 10.85 $
Manifold 234.00 $ 11.70 $
Welding NA 30.00 $
Manifold 339.00 $ 50.85 $
Performance Air Filter 169.00 $ 25.35 $
5.00%
Intake Manifold Tuning
12.00%
Turbocharging
Manifold Injection
Compression Ratio and Piston Geometry
Exhaust Manifold Tuning
726.75 $
15.00%
4,845.00 $
6.00%
8.00%
Package/System Cost to Power Ratio
Turbocharging 51.84 $
Manifold Injection 56.31 $
CR and Piston 112.47 $
Exhaust Manifold Tuning 10.51 $
Intake Manifold Tuning 6.35 $
10/31/2011 Vignesh Gopal-Shanbhag & Arees Uthayasurian 5
- Changing the compression ratio and
redesigning the piston works out to be the
most expensive method of increasing power.
While intake manifold tuning is the cheapest
and most efficient.
- We can achieve greater power increase with
just the turbocharger alone. But the
complexity in mounting this system onto the
engine and ensuring safe and optimum
performance is a major drawback.
- As said before, the intake and exhaust tuning
are independent modifications and do not
affect each other in any way. So
implementing both is just summating the
individual effects on the power increase
(~17%).
-
REFERENCES
1. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals -
John B. Heywood
2. Four Stroke Performance Tuning A.
Graham Bell
3. Fuel Properties -
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/fueltabl
e.pdf
4. Manifold Injection -
http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&vi
d=USPAT4201167&id=NHg7AAAAEBAJ&oi=f
nd&dq=methanol+injection+in+manifold&print
sec=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
5. Water Injection in IC - SI Engines to Control
Detonation and to Reduce Pollutant
Emissions - S. Brusca, R. Lanzafame, SAE
2003-01-1912
6. A numerical study of fuel evaporation and
transportation in the intake manifold of a port-
injected spark-ignition engine - C N Brown
and N Ladommatos. Journal of Automobile
Engineering, 1991.
7. A new era in Spark-Ignition engines featuring
High-Pressure Direct injection Yasuo Takagi
Nissan R&D
8. Effects of Ignition Timing, Equivalence Ratio
and Compression Ratio on RDH Engine
Performance - Eric Tribbett, Ed Froehlich, Lex
Bayer
9. Research on Improving Thermal Efficiency
through Variable Super-High Expansion Ratio
Cycle - Daisuke Akihisa and Daisaku Sawada
SAE International - 2010-01-0174.
10. Combustion Chamber Geometry Effects on
the Performance of an Ethanol Fueled HCCI
Engine - Andreas Vressner, Rolf Egnell and
Bengt Johansson - SAE 2008-01-1656
11. Cooled EGR for a Turbo SI Engine to Reduce
Knocking and Fuel Consumption - Sebastien
Potteau, Philippe Lutz and Samuel Leroux,
Stephanie Moroz and Eva Tomas SAE
International 2007-01-3978
12. www.turbobygarrett.com Turbocharger
Calculations
13. Mazda Parts costs -
http://www.thefind.com/cars/info-mazda-2-
turbo#price=$68-$19000&page=1&local=0
14. Winterbone D. and Yoshitomi M. The
Accuracy of Calculating Wave Action in
Engine Intake Manifolds, SAE paper 900677,
1990.
15. Sammut, G. and Alkidas, A.C., Relative
Contributions of Intake and Exhaust Tuning
on SI Engine Breathing A Computational
Study, SAE Paper, 2007-01-0492.
16. Engelman H. Design of a Tuned Intake
Manifold, ASME paper 73-WA/DGP-2, 1973.
17. Bush P., Telford c., Boam D. and Bingham J.,
A Design Strategy for Four Cylinder SI
Automotive Engine Exhaust Systems, SAE
paper 2000-01-0913, 2000.
18. Bell, A.G., Four-Stroke Performance Tuning,
Haynes, Great Britain, 2006.


10/31/2011 Vignesh Gopal-Shanbhag & Arees Uthayasurian 6
APPENDIX
1. Engine Specifications


2. Turbocharger calculations




3. Compression Ratio and IMEP calculations


4. Piston Geometry Calculations


5. Intake Tuning


Bore 78.4 mm
Stroke 78 mm
Compression Ratio 10:01
Displacement 1498 cc
Horsepower 100hp @6000prm
Torque 132Nm @4000rpm
Fuel Delivery Gasoline Direct Injection
Number of Valves 4 per cyl.
IVO -9 to 31 BTDC VVT
IVC 59-19 ABDC VVT
EVO 40 BBDC
EVC -1 ATDC
Intake 7 mm
Exhaust 6 mm
Valve lift
Valve Timing
115 hp
84.56 kW
1500 cc
91.5 cu in
0.00015 m^3
Redline 6300 rpm
300 K
27 degC
80.6 F
100 kPa
1 bar
14.7 psi
Volumetric Eff 95.00%
333 K
57 degC
134.6 F
0.00009 kg/kw.s
0.3268 kg/kWh
0.9635 lb/hp.hr
A/F Ratio 14.7
Engine Disp.
HP target
BSFC
Inlet Manifold temp
Ambient temp
Ambient pressure
Turbo Calculations
6000 RPM
Actual air flow 27.15 lb/min
MAP req 39.59 psi
Boost req 24.89 psi
Pressure loss 2 psi
MAP req (after losses) 41.59 psi
Compressor inlet Pr. 13.7 psi
Pressure ratio 3.035841662
Lower RPM point 4000 RPM
Air Flow 19.01 lb/min
Compressor operating point
Compression Ratio BTE IMEP factor Change of IMEP
9 50.50% 1.775 -1.94%
10 52.14% 1.810 0.00%
11 53.57% 1.842 1.73%
12 54.85% 1.870 3.29%
13 55.99% 1.896 4.71%
14 57.02% 1.919 6.01%
11.5 54.23% 1.856 2.53%
Current New
Bore 78 78 mm
Stroke 78.4 78.4 mm
CR 10 11.5
0.000374 0.000374 m^3
374 374 cc
0.000042 0.000036 m^3
42 35.7 cc
Displaced Vol
Clearance Vol