rEXTENSION PROGRAMMING

Planning and evaluating extension programmes

Reasons for planning
1. If work is not planned, day-to-day procedures can result in the job becoming your master
instead of you being the master of the job.
2. Planning can increase the efficiency of extension efforts by improving the allocation of
manpower and resources.
3. Planning is a means of bridging the gap between the level of technology available to farmers
and what is actually being used.
4. A written plan allows for continuity of extension activities in the event of the resignation or
transfer of personnel.
5. Planning increases job satisfaction by farmers setting targets and attempting to achieve them.
6. Planning helps extension workers to have an influence and impact on agricultural
development in their work areas.
7. Documentation of plans helps develop and maintain public support and credibility of
extension service and its role in the community.
8. If farmers and local organizations are involved in the planning process, it gives them a
chance to influence agricultural development on their own farms and in the area as a whole.
9. Effective planning ensures that farmers felt and real needs in extension education are catered
for.
10. Planning ensures that training of extension workers is directed in terms of tasks.
11. Activities of extension workers and others involved in achieving objectives are integrated
and organized as effectively as possible.

What is extension programming?

A process of working with farmers to help them gain and apply knowledge and skills to solve their
problems, and improve the quality of life.

It involves the planning of a strategy to facilitate change, designing and implementing efforts
towards facilitating change and evaluating the consequences of the efforts implemented.
Extension programmes must be practical and flexible to meet ever-changing conditions.

Planning

Evaluation Implementation

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The extension education process model
Consists of three major sub processes
 Planning
 Design and implementation
 Evaluation

Planning
Refers to the sequence of activities through which the extension worker acquires an understanding of
and commitment to the functions of the Department of agriculture and extension service, its
structures and management process.
The two dimensions of planning about which the extension worker should be knowledgeable are;
 The extension organization and its development, and
 Linkages between the extension service and the communities it serves.

Organization development
Involves identifying and analyzing the needs of rural communities served by the extension service as
well as the functions, structure, operating procedures, philosophy and objectives of the Department
of agriculture and its extension service
In order to be successful in programme planning, all levels of extension workers need to understand
and be committed to the functions, structures and operational processes of extension, as well as to
using a proven frame work for extension programming.

The mission, philosophy and objectives of extension

Since ministerial policy sets the frame work within which extension will function, all levels of
extension workers need to be familiar with the mission, philosophy and objectives of the
organization and incorporate these in the planning process.

The philosophy of agricultural extension is to “help farmers to help themselves” by creating a

teaching and learning climate in which farmers are helped to come to groups with their problems and
needs, to identify resources and adopt methods and strategies to do something about solving defined
problems and needs. The aim is to teach people to become independent decision makers.
Objectives are concerned with defining what the organization and its extension services are trying to
accomplish.
All extension work should be planned to achieve stated national and departmental objectives
If the objectives are not known, then there is no basis for planning.

In short, the starting point in extension planning is to have a clear definition of the department’s
mission, philosophy and extension objectives

The structure and processes of extension

 The extension workers need to have a clear understanding of the role of various categories of
extension workers, specialists and administrators and to be aware that their expected roles are
tied to extension objectives.
 It follows that all staff members should have clear written job descriptions of all categories of
staff in the organization and how each complements the other.
 A key factor for success is a planned in-service training programme related to the role of
each level extension worker in order to meet the constantly changing requirements of their
respective roles in the programme.

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Linking extension to communities
Success in programming depends on the interrelationships between the extension service and the
rural communities so that they become one system to achieve a common purpose.
To a chieve effective linkage it is necessary to;
Study, analyze, and document information on the physical environment and human potential
Identify target groups
Identify and liaise with leaders and farmers in the target groups
Identify, assess and analyze the collaborative needs of the specific target groups.

Study and analysis of the rural situation

An initial major task of extension worker in the linkage process is to become acquainted with the
knowledge about the physical and technical situation as well as the personal characteristics and
social, economic, institutional and cultural environments of rural communities with in which
extension operates.

Physical potential
- An essential element of planning is knowledge of agricultural potential of the area
- Ideally there should be detailed maps available of each extension officers work area, and of
the soils and arable areas, water supplies and infrastructure development such as roads
- Subject matter specialists should determine from soils and climate data the potential for
various field crops, fruit vegetables, type of livestock suited to the area and where these can
be produced

Farming systems
- As a basis for setting objectives, selecting target groups and planning and evaluating
programmes, it is necessary whenever possible to build up a record system of individual
farmers and farming systems
- Different ways of gathering information can be used, such as interviewing farmers and key
informants, focused group discussions, observing representative farms etc.

Human potential
Information on farmers and farm families is another set of data essential for planning
- Farmer characteristics
- Community structure and leadership (influential persons)
- Institutional factors (other government departments, their personnel, commercial firms,
available input suppliers, credit agencies etc)

The first phase of planning is to consider departmental objectives and policies. The following are
pertinent
 What is the stated agricultural policy of the department?
 What are Uganda’s trends in agricultural production, marketing, costs and prices?
 How do the local leaders and organizations view agriculture?
 What are national priorities in agricultural production and marketing?
 What subject matter specialists and researchers are available for consultations?
 What role can private sector play in extension programming?
 Are extension workers competent in implementing extension programmes?
 What training do they need?

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Target groups
A category of farmers who are sufficiently similar (homogeneous) with regard to a number of
characteristics to be able to benefit from the information and learning skills offered by the extension
service
The idea of using target groups comes from the knowledge that not all farmers have similar interests
and needs.

Needs identification
A need is a deficiency or gap between the present situation and a situation believed to be more
desirable
A need, then in agricultural terms is the difference between the present situation and what situation
ought to be.
Target groups needs should be determined by an analysis of the present agronomic situation and
human potential in consultation with leaders and farmers as well as subject matter specialists.
Once needs have been diagonised, these should be discussed with the target groups to ensure that the
basic sets of seasonal recommendations are acceptable for each target group.

Designing the planned programme

In the design and implementation process, action is taken to fulfill the identified needs of various
groups.
A planned programme towards which extension officers will focus their efforts requires a written
statement of identified needs, educational objectives and strategies to meet these needs.

Work plans and extension strategies

Work plans are the logical extension work objectives and extension strategies
The wok plan designates what is to be done, who is responsible for the work, when activities are to
take place or what methods are to be used, where activities will take place and which target group
will be involved.

Implementing the planned programme

Learning styles: it is important to take into account in action plans the way in which farmers learn
best. Most farmers learn best by interacting with fellow farmers in the group and observing
demonstrations and models.

Implementation strategy: implementation of a specific plan of action entails action strategies in

which extension worker engages to ensure that the plan of action is carried throughout to
completion.
Putting plans on paper is extremely important, but putting the plan into action is the ultimate test of
success in agricultural extension work.

Developing and using available resources

Identifying, development and utilization of available resources are other important tasks that must be
carried out when implementing programmes and plans of action.
The extension officers own technical knowledge is another resource. This needs to be developed to
the full by on-the-job training directly related to the programme content.
Farmers themselves constitute a wealth of experience and information, and should be considered as a
critical resource in implementing plans of action.

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Monitoring
Provision needs to be made for ongoing monitoring of the planned activities, to ensure that the
activities are implemented as intended.
The feed back obtained from the target groups provides information on which to base informed
decisions about any activity.

Planning visits/technical back up or supervision

Ensure these are made on regular basis to guide groups of farmers through out the entire season.

Review meetings
This should be conducted together with farmers and all other stake holders so that informed
decisions are made concerning the programme.

Programme evaluation
Evaluation for the programme must be anticipated and planned for through put the education
process.
Without a planned extension programme, there is nothing to evaluate.
In simple terms, evaluation is a means of identifying the strength and the weaknesses of a particular
programme in relation to objectives with the aim of making decisions about what can be done to
improve or modify the situation.
Also a means of determining the degree to which extension objectives have been achieved as a result
of national and local efforts.

Basic assumptions about evaluation of a planned programme

 The primary purpose of the programme is to bring about desirable changes in the target
groups.
 Out puts and results of planned extension programmes can be identified and evaluated.
 Evaluation should be planned on a continuous basis and built into each step of the extension
programme.
 Management and development of extension services depends upon continuous generation of
feed back through evaluating the impact of extension programmes
 Participation of organizations and groups in evaluating how well their educational
experiences meet the planned programme objectives is both desirable and necessary.

Purpose of evaluation
 To provide useful feed back for extension officers to constantly improve their
effectiveness, professionalism and impact

The purpose is to answer the following questions

 Did a planned programme and action plan result in measurable change in the target
groups?
 Were the plans of action, inputs and programme activities associated with learner’s
behavioral change?
 Were the organizations’ mission, philosophy, structures and processes effective in
producing the out comes intended in the planned programme and action plan?

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Evaluation model
Evaluation starts by specifying the progamme objectives and action plan in measurable terms. This
is followed by collection of evidence which is related to the specific programme out comes.
The most useful approach is to measure results which are relevant.

At a broad level, three key steps in the extension programme can be evaluated; objectives, methods
and results.
- An evaluation of objectives focuses on the aims of the programme.
- An evaluation of the methods examines whether the activities were relevant to the objectives and
how they were carried out
- Results evaluation concentrates on the changes that have taken place in farming.

Below are seven categories resulting from the impact of extension action plans.

End results
-the end results of practice change e.g. increase in yields, farm incomes etc.

Practice changing (adoption) followed by……

The adoption of new practices, technology, change in behavior

Knowledge, attitudes, skills and /or aspirations lead to…..

A change in peoples knowledge, attitudes etc.

Reactions which may result in a change in the

Peoples reaction e.g. interest in education activity

People who have….

- level of contact between clients and advisory services
- No. of people or groups participating in activities
- Characteristics of participants e.g. farm type enterprises

Activities which involve

- performance of specified activities e.g. field days, demonstrations plots collecting data

Inputs required for

- allocation of kinds and mount of resources to programme e.g. time, cost etc.

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How detailed should evaluation be?
It should be sufficiently detailed tosses the impact of the action of the programme accurately.
Record practice change, activities which have taken place, number of participants, degree of contact
reactions, interest and change in knowledge, attitudes and skills.

Reporting system
Should include;
 Number of participating target groups, members and composition
 Degree of members participation and leadership development
 Activities of target groups, including knowledge and skills gained
 The use of purchased in put and credit, adoption of practices, yields and the production levels
 improvement in agricultural practices
 extension activities of workers, including time spent with target groups, demonstrations
organized and visits to individual farmers’
 training received and training required
 special problems encountered

Techniques of collecting evidence of programme results

- asking farmer groups to monster what they have learnt, and asking what individuals tend to
do after each group session
- non-extension sources of information, such s in puts purchased and crops sold can provide
indicators of extension impact
- personal interviews
- detailed and systematic recording of evidence before and after a farmer participates in an
extension programme

Summary
 a good knowledge of extension organization as well as the environment and communities in
which it takes place
 establishing linkage between the extension organization, farming communities and research
 formulating clear education objectives based of farmer target group needs
 planning a regular schedule of visits to target groups
 esrablishing target groups, and formulating technological packages suited to the needs of
various targets groups
 adopting a variety of communication methods to needs of the extension programme
 in-service training of all extension staff directly related to the needs of extension programmes
 regular evaluation of the impact of the programme

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THE ADOPTION PROCESS

New ideas, knowledge and farming practices must pass through several stages before they
can be accepted.
Each stage requires the use of different communication channels and techniques.

The five stages of adoption

The adoption process is a mental process through which an individual passes from first hearing
about a new idea and to its final adoption.
 Awareness: The individual knows of the existence of a new idea but has little or no
information about it
 Interest: The individual becomes interested in the idea and seeks more information about it.
 Evaluation/comparison: The individual considers the advantages and the disadvantages of
putting the idea in practice. He obtains more information and makes the decision whether to
try it out or not.
 Trial: The idea is tried on a limited scale, to find out how it works in practice and ascertain
whether it works and is profitable on the individual farms.
 Adoption: If the trial brings satisfaction, the idea is used to full scale and incorporated into
the farming system for continued use.
- After adoption, the idea may subsequently be rejected because it no longer brings the desired
results, becomes unprofitable, or is replaced with an improved technology.
- Progression through the five stages is related to the provision of information; a task of an extension
agent.

Rates of adoption
The rate at which an innovation will be adopted depends on the characteristics of the farmers, the
social system, farmers’ view of the nature of the innovation, exposure to communication channels
and the extension workers efforts.

Characteristics of the farmers: Adoption curve.

 In any society or population large enough for statistical analysis, the population is normally
distributed about many characteristics.
 Consider education of a traditional community; a few people have post-school education, and
many may have little or no education. Most of the population is grouped around the average
education level of primary school say standard four. The same applies to age and adoption
practices.
 When a new farming practice is introduced in a community, not all people adopt it at the
same time.
 The figure below illustrates the pattern of adoption as first few innovators, early adopters,
then majority adopt the practice. These are followed by a declining number of late adopters
until a few non-adopters (laggards) are left.

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 Approximately
 2% of the population will be innovators
 13% of the population will be early adopters
 34% of the population will be early majority adopters
 34% of the population will be late majority adopters
 16% of the population will be laggards

 The first 2% to adopt an innovation, the innovators, tend to be younger and better educated
than the average farmer, tend to read more, travel outside their areas, mix with high status
people in the community and have frequent contact with extension workers.
 In contrast, the last 16% are laggards who tend to be older and less well educated than the
average. The land holdings and resources are also less than the average. This group is not
exposed to formal information sources and they tend to look to their neighbors and kinships
for advice.
 The stage of life of a farmer can affect his farming decisions; a young well-educated farmer
with a family to educate is generally keen to increase his farm income, while an older with
little education and with adult children may have little interest in improving his farming and
increasing his income.
 In most traditional communities there are fewer innovators, early adopters, and early majority
categories, with most farmers falling into the late majority and laggard categories. This is
because people are reluctant to adopt new practices and be seen as different from others.
 One can not readily say that an idea has diffused through a population properly until it is
adopted by at least half the farmers.
 Awareness programmes of extension approaches need to be continued until say 30%-40% of
farmers have adopted a new idea.
 In planning extension programmes, extension workers need to be aware of the number of
adopters and potential adopters of various practices. This continuous evaluation effectively
monitor progress in extension programmes.

Farmers views of the nature of the innovation.

 The speed of adoption of a new idea depends partly up on the farmer’s view of the idea,
technology or practice.
 Some characteristics may speed up the rate of adoption while some may have retarding
factors.
 The following factors influencing the adoption process and acceptance of ideas.
1. Cost: New practices that are high in cost generally tend to be adopted more slowly. The
subjective risk that a farmer associates with a new practice may also be related to his
adoption of it; the degree of risk is probably related to the cost of the practice.
2. Complexity: New practices that are relatively simple to understand and use will generally be
accepted more quickly than more complex ideas.
3. Visibility: Practices also vary in the extent to which their operation and results are visible or
can be shown. A new practice will generally be adopted quickly if it can be seen, hence the
importance of demonstrations and visual aids.
4. Divisibility: Some practices such as use of fertilizers, weed spray or seed variety may be
divided for comparison of trial results with the previous practices. However, certain other
new ideas can not be easily be tried out on a small scale. A practice that is divisible for trial
will generally be adopted more rapidly. Full scale adoption always follows trial stage.

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5. Compatibility: A farmers’ attitudes towards a new idea are often by his past experience with
similar ideas. Thus, a farmer who has already adopted hybrid maize seed is familiar with the
concept of hybrid vigor and is more likely to adopt hybrid pigs and hybrid chicken.
6. Utility: If a new practice is viewed as a major improvement over existing methods, it is likely
to be adopted rapidly.
7. Group action: Some ideas require group consensus and acceptance before they will be
adopted; others may be accepted on an entirely individual basis provided they do not conflict
with community norms.
8. The level of development of a society: The pattern of communication and the methods used
will obviously not be the same in a small-scale farming area, on an irrigation project and in a
commercial farming community. Extension worker must know his area and allow for these
differences, even between different communities in the same area.
9. The educational level of the audience: This is not the same as the level of development, as
one sometimes finds poorly educated people in highly developed society and vice versa. This
affects the type of media to be used. Obviously the written media have limited use in largely
illiterate communities. It is useless even producing written material for people who do not
read easily, even if they can read.
10. The channels of communication: The more intelligently used channels available, the faster
the diffusion of the idea through an area. It has been shown that there is a great increase in
awareness if the number of channels is increased up to five.
11. Coverage by extension worker: If the area under consideration is understaffed, the extension
staff cannot devote the time he should to the process of diffusion, and this will be slowed
down.

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 BASIC CONCEPTS OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY

Rural sociology (RS)

Rural sociology is a branch of a broader discipline known as sociology.

Definition
Sociology is a scientific study of people in group relationships.

Sociologists utilize the scientific method in their research studies to develop a body of accurate
reliable knowledge about human relations.

Therefore sociology from its definition above is scientific and is concerned with the people who are
studied not as individuals but rather as members of a group.

Sociologists study people organized in families, friendship networks, churches, schools,

manufacturing plants and other organizations.

Rural sociology is a branch of sociology (these are many others e.g. family sociology, industrial
sociology, criminology and educational sociology).

“Therefore rural sociology is the scientific study of rural people in group relationships”

In relation to its companion fields’ rural sociology is more often applied to the solution of social
problems.

The focus of rural sociology is therefore on social change and problems.

The scientific Nature of R.S:

In studying human society, rural Sociologists use the following scientific principles:

1. Problem specification/identification e.g. It may be a land tenure problem specifically land

lord- tenant relationships.
2. Formulation of hypothesis – this regards stating relationships between particular items e.g.
low productivity is due to disease, poor farming methods, soil fertility loss. etc.
3. Reason (deduction) – this is the logical connection between what is to be explained and
factors affecting it.
4. Observation (data)-this is making observations or conducting research (experiments). This is
the stage where empirical tests are carried out. This is done to verify the hypothesis stated
earlier on.

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Emergency of R.S
Rural sociology emerged as a problem oriented and applied discipline. It started as a result of the
need to bridge the gap between scientists (researchers) and farmers i.e. technology generating
institutions and technology users.

Characteristic of rural societies (problem areas addressed by RS)

a) Rural poverty.
b) Low fractural production
c) Insecurity (typical, economic, social etc)
d) Poor health conditions.
e) Poor nutrition status.
f) Poor losing facilities.
g) Poor education facilities.
h) Poor marketing arrangements.
i) Poor access to water.
j) Poor communication symptoms.
k) Large families etc.

Rural Sociology and development

Rural .sociology can contribute to rural development in several ways.

1. It involves population studies i.e. demographic situations

a. Mortality rates,
b. Birthrates,
c. Dependency ratios

2. Rural sociology studies the diffusion of innovation

a. Socio-economic factors which affect the improved recommendations
b. Provides feedback from the field.
c. Application of social-scientific knowledge about how to introduce innovations.

3. explores factors influencing rural urban migration

a. Who are the migrants? In terms of age categories or sex.
b. What affects rural urban migration?
c. Urban remittance compared to loss of direct production.

4. Participation in farming systems research.

a. Appropriate technology to small holders.

Rural sociology in rural development

Rural sociologists have led a major role in shaping rural development. Rural development
encourages the enhancement of local resources and leadership within the broader context of national
and international events. Rural Sociologists specialize in studying how leadership functions in the
community and how the community organizes itself to carry out what benefits the community.

Rural sociologists also study the social and economic trends of the large society and the impact of
these on the local areas. So rural sociologists are qualified to plan, conduct and evaluate rural
development programes.

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They conduct research directed towards the improvement of development programmes.

Role of community involvement and directed social charge

Rural development:
Rural development is a policy goal aimed at purposive changes in the conditions of rural life in a
society. Being a policy goal, it lacks a universally acceptable definition.

It is perceived as a process that enhances rural people’s creative capacity such that they involve
dynamic productive forces which enables them to effectively manipulate their environment in order
to achieve durable changes in their welfare.

Irrespective of how rural development is conceived and defined, there is the brooder and more
fundamental concern of how to achieve the economic, social and psychological wellbeing of the
entire rural population.

Development among rural people involves in addition to changes in their technology and economy
changes in the social and political structure of their local environments.

All such changes require for their acceptance the acquisition of relevant (often new) knowledge by
the people concerned and the decision on their parts as individuals and community groups. This
implies the existence of appropriate channels and methods which give the rural people access to
available and relevant information and the opportunity to learn and use the means by which they can
influence decisions on possible beneficial changes.

Rural development is the organized efforts to improve the wellbeing of the rural people. It is based
on the judgment that people in the rural areas should have the same opportunities for a desirable
quality of life as urban areas.

Rural development includes improvements in:-

- Employment.
- Income.
- Health
- Education
- Housing
- Nutrition
- Services such as police, fire protection, solid waste disposal.
Physical facilities such as water, roads, bridges, ports, play grounds etc.

Rural development encourages the use and enhancement of local resources and leadership, but at the
same time recognizes that much of what happens in the local communities is due to national
international events. Improvement in rural areas will occur only to the degree that rural people
recognize their interdependence with the larger system. Rural people must determine how their
communities can best benefit from these linkages.

Community development (CD)

To understand community development, one must consider the meaning of the terms Community
and Development.

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Community – the Greek meaning of Community is fellowship. In this context it may be thought of
more as an experience than as a place or locality. Thus essential to the definition of community is an
experiential dimension, and expectation of a special quality of interpersonal relationships involving
shared understanding and obligations.

Development – refers to the process of gradual change, a planned evolution or inducement towards,
progressive improvement. Development is more than physical change but includes above all the
improved competence of the people involving especially non formal education.

Thus community Development draws its essential meaning from the two concepts, community
involving the quality in human relationships and development involving gradual and planned
progressive change.

Generally community development can be defined as (process)-causes of action, procedures or series

of steps that lead to change in society. However, there are variations in interpretation of and
approaches to community development which stem largely from the value of orientation and goals of
those using the term. In many case community development deals with such matters as improving
public services and facilities, creating more responsive local government, increasing citizen
participation, improving leadership, modifying existing human, physical and economic
developments program, creating new institutions and developing environmental and physical plans.

It’s the process by which the efforts of the people themselves are united by those of government
authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of communities, to integrate
these communities into the life of the nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national
progress. This complex of process is made up of two essential elements:
a) The participation of the people themselves in efforts to improve their level of living
with as much reliance as possible on their own initiative.
b) The provision of technical and other services in ways which encourage initiatives,
self-help and mutual help to make these more effective.

Though there is no widely accepted definition of community development, the following elements or
aspects of community development appear repeatedly through out the literature on community
development and generally provide accepted definition of the process of community development.

(i) Community is a unit of action

(ii) Community initiatives and leadership as resources.
(iii) Use of both internal and external resources.
(iv) Inclusive participation.
(v) An organized comprehensive approach that attempts to involve the entire community.
(vi) Democratic rational task accomplishment.

Directed social change

Society is defined as a collection of individuals and social groups that perform different functions
and that work together in joint problem solving towards common goals.

Structure of society is the pattern of the relationships between individuals and social groups.

Function refers to consequences of these social relationships.

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Social change is the process by which alterations occur in the structure and functions of society.

Examples of social change include:

- adaptation to international terrorism , use of new plant variety or any other technology being
introduced, funding of a village improvement council, the adaptation of contraceptive methods
by peasant family, and the emergency of farmer movements.

Social change can occur in such rural institutions like family, church, or community. Emphasis is on
consequences (of social change) as they affect rural people and social groups and the way in which
technological innovations are diffused and adopted.

Directed social change

Direct social change (planed change) it defined as a conscious, deliberate and collaborative effort to
improve the operations of a human system (e.g. self systems, social systems, or cultural system)
through the utilization of valid knowledge. It is the process of making deliberate efforts to improve
the system and to obtain the help of an outside agent in making this improvement.

Planed social change is the fore the conscious, deliberate and collaborative effort to improve the
operations of social systems.

Directed change is caused by outsiders who on their own or as representatives of change agencies
seek to introduce new ideas in order to achieve the goals they have defined.

The innovations as wells as the recognition of the need for change originates outside the community.

Examples are the government sponsored development programmes in the third world countries
designed to introduce technological innovations in agriculture, educations, health, industry etc.

This development programmes usually rely on changer agents to diffuse innovations.

A change agency is a professional who influences innovation decisions in the direction deemed
desirable by the change agency.

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