7 G

zˆ”—“•ŽG
A survey may be conducted by either of two methods
1. Census Method or Parametric method and
2. Sampling method or Non-parametric method.

1. Census method:
It deals with the investigation of the entire population. Here the data
are collected for each and every unit of the universe. This method
provides more accurate and exact information as no unit is left out.

2. Sampling method:
Here a small group is selected as representative of the whole universe.
It works with the objective to obtain accurate and reliable information
about the universe with minimum of cost, time and energy and to set
out the limits of accuracy of such estimates. It makes exhaustive and
intensive study possible with much less time, money and material. Its
more popular in research work.

Population:
Population or universe means, the entire mass of observations, which is
the parent group from which a sample is to be formed. The term
population or universe conveys a different meaning than a traditional
one. In census survey, the count of individuals (men, women and
children) is known as population.

40
But in Research Methodology population means characteristics of a
specific group. For example secondary school teachers of, who have
some specific features like teaching experience, teaching attitudes etc.
Sampling means selecting a given number of subjects from a
defined population as representative of that population.
One type of population distinguished by educational
researchers is called the target population.
By target population distinguished by educational researchers is
called the target population.
By target population, also called universe, we mean all the
members of a real or hypothetical set of people , events or objects to
which we wish to generalize the results of our research.

The first step in sampling is to define the target population.

Research work is guided by inductive thinking. The researcher proceeds
from specificity to generality. The sample observation is the specific
situation, which is applied to the population, it is the general situation.
The measures of a sample are known as statistics and measures
of a population are termed as parameter. Mean, S.D., coefficient of
Correlation of sample observation known as Statistics and Mean, S.D.,
coefficient of correlation of population are known as parameters.
Generally parameters are estimated on the basis of sample statistics.
Sampling is indispensable technique in behavioral research and
not so common in physical sciences. It is fundamental to all statistical
methodology of behavioral and social research. It makes research
findings economical and accurate. Sampling means selection of
individuals from the population in such a way that every individual has
equal chance to be taken into the sample.
Term sample should be reserved for a set of units or portion of
an aggregate of material which has been selected in the belief that it

41
will be representative of the whole aggregate. By Frank Yates “Sample
is set of units of an aggregate.”

Assumptions of Sampling:
1. Homogeneity amidst complexity:
Social phenomenon is very complex in nature and every unit appears to
be different from another. But at the same time they also possess
similarities in many respects. It is, therefore, assumed that there is the
possibility of such representative types in the whole population that
makes sampling possible.

2. Possibility of Representative Selection:

Sampling has its origin in the mathematical theory of probability and
law of statistical regularity. The law of statistical regularity lays down
that a group of objects chosen at random from a large group tend to
possess the characteristics of that large group (universe) by
L. R. Conner.

3. Absolute accuracy not essential but relative or significant accuracy

i.e. needed in case of large scale observations. Because it is practically
impossible to achieve because of errors in measurement, collection of
data , its analysis, interpretation.

Definition:
“A statistical sample is a miniature picture or cross –section of the entire
group or aggregate from which the sample is taken.”
P. Y. Young

42
A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation
and analysis .It is a collection consisting of a part or sub-set of the
objects or individuals of population which is selected for the express
purpose of representing the population.
By observing the characteristics of the sample, one can make
certain inferences about characteristics of the population from which it
is drawn.
Sampling,”It is the process of selecting a sample from the
population. For this purpose, the population is divided into a number of
parts called sampling units.”
Sampling designs means the joint procedure of selection and
estimation. Sampling is a part of the strategy of research.
Sampling should be such that the error of estimation is minimum.
Good and Hatt, “A sample as the name implies, is a smaller
representation of a larger whole.”
W. G. Cocharn, “In every branch of science we lack the
resources, to study more than a fragment of the phenomenon that
might advance our knowledge.” i.e. fragment is sample and
phenomenon is population. The sample observations are applied to the
phenomenon i.e. generalization.
David S. Fox, “In the social sciences, it is not possible to collect
data from every respondent relevant to our study but only from some
fractional part of the respondents. The process of selecting the
fractional part is called sampling.”

Need of Sampling:
1. Economy of time.
2. Economy of money.
3. True detailed knowledge.
4. Utility in experimental study.
43
 5. It has reliability because it is based on probability theory.

Advantages of Sampling:
1. It has a greater adaptability.
2. It is an economical technique.
3. It has high speed for generalization.
4. According to W.G. Cocharan, “It has greater precision and
accuracy in the observation”.
5. This technique has great accuracy.
6. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.
7. It has a greater scope in the field of research.
8. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.

Disadvantages or Limitation of Sampling:

1. Scope of biasness.(Less accuracy)
2. Problem of representative sample-Difficulty in selecting a truly
representative sample.
3. Need of eligible researchers.
4. Instability of sample subjects or changeability of units i.e. in
heterogeneous population.
5. There are certain situations where sampling is possible.

Essentials of an Ideal Sample:

¾ Homogeneity: The units included in sample must be as likeness with
other units.
¾ Adequacy: A sample having 10% of the whole data is adequate.
¾ Independence: Every unit should be free to be included in the
sample.

44
¾ Representativeness; An ideal sample must be such that it
represents the whole data adequately.

In the number of units included in a sample should be sufficient to

enable derivation of conclusions applicable to the whole data.
Economical in terms of time and money.
High level of reliability.

Characteristics of a Good Sample:

1. A good sample is the true representative of the population
corresponding to its properties.
2. The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and
sample is called sub-aggregate of the universe.
3. A good sample is free from bias; the sample does not permit
prejudices, the learning and pre-conception, imaginations of the
investigator to influence its choice.
4. A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting
procedure or absence of subjective elements from the situation.
5. A good sample maintains accuracy .It yields an accurate estimates
or statistics and does not involve errors.
6. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a closely
linked with true-representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality
of a sample which is controlled by specific purpose of the
investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not
be a good representative of the population.
7. A good sample has the practicability for research.

45
 Types of Sampling Designs/Methods of Sampling

Sampling

A Probability Sampling B Non-Probability Sampling

A 1 Random Sampling B-1 Incidental or Accidental Sampling
A-2 Systematic Sampling B-2 Judgment Sampling
A-3 Stratified Sampling B- 3 Purposive Sampling
A-4 Multistage Sampling B-4 Quota Sampling
A-5 Purposive Sampling
A-6 Cluster Sampling
A-7 Multiple Sampling or Double Sampling

Difference between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling
It is a method of sampling which gives In the absence of any idea of
1. the probability that a sample is probability the method of sampling is
representative of population. known as non-probability sampling.
It is generally used in action
Probability sampling is generally used
researches in which one studies a
2. in fundamental research in which the
class without any generalization
purpose is to generalize the results.
purpose.
It refers from the sample as well as
3. There is no idea of population.
the population.
Every individual of the population has
There is no probability of selecting
4. equal probability to be taken into the
any individual.
sample.
It may be representative of the
5. It has free distribution.
population.
Its observations (data) are used for the The observations are not used for
6.
inferential purpose. generalization purpose.
7. Inferential or parametric statistics are Non-inferential or non-parametric

46
 used. statistics are used.
There is no risk for drawing
8. There is a risk of drawing conclusion.
conclusions.
It is based on Law of probability
sampling i.e. Law of Statistical It is not based on law of probability
9.
Regularity and Law of Inertia of the sampling.
Large Sample.

Probability Sampling:

G.C. Halmstadter, “A probability sample is one that has been used

selected in such a way that every element chosen has a known
probability of being included.”

Probability sampling is of different types:

(1) Simple Random Sampling :
It is one in which each element of the population has an equal and
independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample
selected by randomization method is known as simple random sample
and this technique is simple randomizing.
Randomization is done by using the following techniques:
(a) Tossing a coin (b) Throwing a dice
(b) Lottery method (d) Blind folded method
(c) Tippett’s table method
Merits of Randomization:
1. It requires the minimum knowledge of population.
2. It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.
3. It provides appropriate data for one’s purpose.
4. The observations of the sample can be used for inferential
purpose.

47
Demerits of Randomization:
1. It cannot ensure the representativeness of a sample.
2. It does not use the knowledge about the population.
3. Its inferential accuracy depends upon the size of the sample.

(2) Systematic Sampling:

Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random
sampling. This method requires the complete information about the
population. There should be a list of information of all the individuals of
the population in any systematic way.
Now we decide the size of the sample:
Let the size of sample is = n and population size is = N
Now we select each N/n individual from the list and thus we have the
desired size of sample which is known as systematic sample. Thus for
this technique of sampling population should be arranged in any
systematic way.
Merits:
1. This is a simple method of selecting a sample.
2. It reduces the field cost.
3. Inferential statistics may be used.
4. Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.
5. Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions
and generalizations.
Demerits:
1. This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to
different ways of systematic list by different individuals.
2. Knowledge of population is essential.
3. Information of each individual is essential..

48
 4. This method can’t ensure the representativeness.
5. There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of
the sample.

(3) Stratified Sampling:

It is an improvement over the earlier methods. When we employ this
technique, the researcher divides his population into strata on the basis
of some characteristics and from each of these smaller homogenous
groups (strata) draws at random a predetermined number of units.
Researcher should choose that characteristic as criterion which seems
to be more relevant in his research work.
Stratified sampling may be of three types;
(a) Disproportionate:
Means that the size of the sample in each unit is not proportionate to
the size of the unit but depends upon considerations involving personal
judgement and convenience. This method of sampling is more effective
for comparing strata which have different error possibilities. It is less
efficient for determining population characteristics.
(b) Proportionate:
It refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is
proportionate to the size of the unit. Advantages of this procedure
includes representativeness with respect to variables used as the basis
of classifying categories and increased chances of being able to make
comparisons between strata. Lack of information on proportion of the
population in each category and faulty classification may be listed as
disadvantages of this method.
(c) Optimum allocation:
Stratified sampling is representative as well as comprehensive than
other stratified samples. It refers to selecting units from each stratum.
Each stratum should be in proportion to the corresponding stratum the

49
population. Thus sample obtained is known as optimum allocation
sample.
Merits:
(i) It is a good representative of the population.
(ii) It is an improvement over the earlier technique of sampling.
(iii) It is an objective method of sampling.
(iv) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Demerits:
(i) Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the
researcher to decide the relevant criterion for stratification.
(ii) Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but generally it
seems more than one criterion relevant for stratification.
(iii) It is costly and time consuming method.
(iv) Selected samples may be representative with reference to the
used criterion but not for the other.
(v) There is a risk of generalization.

(4) Multiple or Double Repetitive Sampling:

Generally this is not a new method but only a new application of the
samplings. This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of
a sample. When employing a mailed questionnaire, double sampling is
sometimes used to obtain a more representative sample. This is done
because some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires
may not return them.
Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study, if
the people who fail to reply the query differ in some fundamental way
from the others in respect to the phenomenon being studied.
To eliminate this bias, a selected sample may be drawn at
random from the non-respondents and the people interviewed to

50
obtain the desired information. Thus this technique is also known as
repeated or multiple sampling.
This double sampling technique enables one to check on the
reliability of the information obtained from first sample. Thus, double
sampling, where in one sample is analyzed and information obtained is
used to draw the next sample to examine the problem further.
Merits:
(i) Thus sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free
determine precision based on a number of observations.
(ii) This technique of sampling reduces the error.
(iii) This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate
the reliability of the sample.
Demerits:
(i) This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample . It
is applicable only for small sample.
(ii) This technique is time consuming and costly.
(iii) Its planning and administration is more complicated.

(5) Multi Stage Sampling:

This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the
population. In this type of sampling primary sample units are inclusive
groups and secondary units are sub-groups within these ultimate units
to be selected which belong to one and only one group.
Stages of a population are usually available within a group or
population, whenever stratification is done by the researcher. The
individuals are selected from different stages for constituting the multi
stage sampling.
Merits:
(i) It is a good representative of the population.

51
 (ii) Multistage sampling is an improvement over the earlier
methods.
(iii) It is an objective procedure of sampling.
(iv) The observations from multi stage sample may be used for
inferential purpose.
Demerits:
(i) It is a difficult and complex method of sampling.
(ii) It involves errors when we consider the primary stages.
(iii) It is again a subjective technique of sampling.

(6) Cluster Sampling:

To select the intact group as a whole is known as a cluster sampling. In
cluster sampling the sample units contain groups of element (cluster)
instead of individual members or items in the population. Rather than
listing all elementary school children in a given city and randomly
selecting 15 % of these students for the sample, a researcher lists all of
the elementary schools in the city, selects at random 15 % of these
clusters of units, and uses all of the children in the selected schools as
the sample.
Merits:
(i) It may be a good representative of the population.
(ii) It is an easy method.
(iii) It is an economical method.
(iv) It is practicable and highly applicable in education.
(v) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Demerits:
(i) Cluster sampling is not free from errors.
(ii) It is not comprehensive.

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Non-Probability Sampling Method:
Samples which are selected through non-random methods are called
non probability samples. Depending upon the technique used it may be;

(1) Incidental or Accidental Sampling:

The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples that are
taken because they are most frequently available i.e. this refers to the
groups which are used as samples of a population because they are
readily available or because the researcher is unable to employ more
acceptable sampling methods.
Merits:
(i) It is very easy method of sampling.
(ii) It is frequently used method in behavioural sciences.
(iii) It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical
method.
Demerits:
(i) It is not representative of the population.
(ii) It is not free from errors.
(iii) Parametric statistics cannot be used.

(2) Judgment Sampling:

This involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis
of available information assuming as if they are representative of the
entire population. Here group may also be selected on the basis of
intuition or on the basis of the criterion deemed to be self-evident.
Generally investigator should take the judgment sample so this
sampling is highly risky.

53
Merits:
(i) Knowledge of investigator can be best used in this technique of
sampling.
(ii) This method of sampling is economical.
Demerits:
(i) This technique is objective.
(ii) It is not free from errors.
(iii) It includes uncontrolled variation.
(iv) Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observation of this
sampling, so generalization is not possible.

(3) Purposive Sampling:

The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary method because
it is known to be representative of the total population, or it is known
that it will produce well matched groups. The idea is to pick out the
sample in relation to criterion which are considered important for the
particular study. This method is appropriate when the study places
special emphasis upon the control of certain specific variables.
Merits:
(i) Use the best available knowledge concerning the sample
subjects.
(ii) Better control of significant variables.
(iii) Sample groups data can be easily matched.
(iv) Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.
Demerits:
(i) Reliability of the criterion is questionable.
(ii) Knowledge of population is essential.
(iii) Errors in classifying sampling subjects.
(iv) Inability to utilize the inferential parametric statistics.
(v) Inability to make generalization concerning total population.

54
(4) Quota Sampling:
This combines both judgment sampling and probability sampling: on the
basis of judgment or assumption or the previous knowledge, the
proportion of population falling into each category is decided.
Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the observer is
allowed to sample as he likes. Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely
to figure in municipal surveys.
Merits:
(i) It is an improvement over the judgment sampling.
(ii) It is an easy sampling technique.
(iii) It is not frequently used in social surveys.
Demerits:
(i) It is not a representative sample.
(ii) It is not free from errors.
(iii) It has the influence of regional , geographical and social factors.

(5) Snowball Sampling:

The term; snow ball sampling’ has been used to describe a sampling
procedure in which the sample goes on becoming bigger and bigger as
the observation or study proceeds. The term snowball stems from the
analogy of a snowball sample which would allow computation of
estimates of sampling error and use of statistical test of significance.
For example, an opinion survey is to be conducted on smokers
of a particular brand of cigarette. At the first stage, we may pick up a
few people who are known to us or can be identified to be the smokers
of that brand. At the time of interviewing them, we may obtain the
names of other persons known to the first stage subjects. Thus the
subjects go on serving an informant for the identification of more
subjects and the sample goes on increasing.

55
Merit:
Snowball sampling which is generally considered to be non-
probabilistic can be converted into probabilistic by selecting subjects
randomly within each stage.

Demerits:
Sampling errors may creep in.

(6) Purposive or Expert Choice Sampling:

Samples are sometimes expressly chosen because, in the light of
available information, these mirror some larger group with reference to
one or more given characteristics. The controls in such samples are
usually identified as representative areas (city, country, state, district),
representative characteristics of individuals (age, sex, marital status,
socio-economic status, race) or types of groups (administrator,
counselors, teachers etc.).
These controls may be further sub-divided by specified
categories within classes such as amount of training, years of experience
or attitudes towards a specific phenomenon. Up-to this stage, these
controls are somewhat similar to those used in satisfaction. Purposive
sampling differs from stratified random sampling in that the actual
selection of the units to be included in the sample in each group is done
purposively rather than by random method.

56
 8 G
{––“šG–Gkˆ›ˆGj–““ŒŠ›–•
G
A researcher requires many data – gathering tools or techniques. Tests
are the tools of measurement and it guides the researcher in data
collection and also in evaluation. Tools may vary in complexity,
interpretation, design and administration. Each tool is suitable for the
collection of certain type of information.
One has to select from the available tools those which will
provide data he seeks for testing hypothesis. It may happen that
existing research tools do not suit the purpose in some situation, so
researcher should modify them or construct his own.
Different tools used for data collection may be;
1. Questionnaires
2. Interviews
3. Schedules
4. Observation Techniques
5. Rating Scales

1. Questionnaire:
It is list of questions related to one topic. It may be defined as;

“A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions that are

submitted to a sampling of population from which information is
desired.”
Barr, Davis & Johnson

57
“In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing
answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills in
himself.”
W. J. Goode & K. Hall

The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused of the data
gathering devices .It is easy to prepare and to administer.
The questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure
responses to certain questions. It is a device for securing answers to
questions by using a form which the respondent will fill by himself.
It is a systematic compilation of questions. It is an important
instrument being used to gather information from widely scattered
sources. Normally used where one cannot see personally all of the
people from whom he desires responses or where there is no particular
reason to see them personally.

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire:

1. It deals with an important or significant topic.
2. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself or on its
covering letter.
3. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources
like books, reports and records.
4. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data.
5. It is attractive in appearance, nearly arranged and clearly duplicated
or printed.
6. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are clarified.
7. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints or suggestions.
8. Questions are presented in a order from simple to complex.
9. Double negatives, adverbs and descriptive adjectives are avoided.
10. Double barreled questions or putting two questions in one question
are also avoided.
58
11. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives.
12. It is easy to tabulate, summarize and interpret.
Merits of Questionnaire Method:
1. it’s very economical.
2. It’s a time saving process.
3. It covers the research in wide area.
4. It’s very suitable for special type of responses.
5. It is most reliable in special cases.
Demerits of Questionnaire Method:
1. Through this we get only limited responses.
2. Lack of personal contact.
3. Greater possibility of wrong answers.
4. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more.
5. Sometimes answers may be illegible.
6. It may be useless in many problems.

The Interview:
Interview is a two way method which permits an exchange of ideas and
information.

“Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction.”

W. J. Goode & P.K. Hatt
“The interview constitutes a social situation between two persons, the
psychological process involved requiring both individuals mutually
respond though the social research purpose of the interview call for a
varied response from the two parties concerned.”
Vivien Palmar

59
“The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a
person enters more or less imaginatively into the inner life of a
comparative stranger.”
P.V. Young

In an interview a rapport is established between the interviewer and the

interviewee. Not only is physical distance between them annihilated,
the social and cultural barrier is also removed; and a free mutual flow of
ideas to and fro takes place. Both create their respective impression
upon each other.
The interview brings them both on the same level and an
emotional attachment supervenes between them.
In an interview all formalities are laid down and the gate is
opened for delivering into the intellectuals, emotional and subconscious
stirrings of the interviewee. Thus here the ‘depth’ of subject (man) is
gone to the very bottom of his emotional pool and may check his
truthfulness of responses.

Difference between Interview and Questionnaire

Questionnaire Method Interview Method
1. Data is gathered indirectly. 1. Data is gathered directly.
2. No face to face contact between two. 2. There is face to face contact between
3. Interviewer should have the general interviewer and interviewee.
knowledge of the topic. 3. Skillful interviewer is needed.
4. Interviwee will hesitate to write it. 4. Some confidential information can
5. We get written information only. also be obtained.
5. We get written and oral both type of
information.

Characteristics of an Interview:
1. The interviewer can probe into casual factors, determine attitudes,
discover the origin of problem.

60
2. Its appropriate to deal with young children and illiterates person.
3. It can make cross questioning possible.
4. It helps the investigator to gain an impression of the person
concerned.
5. It can deal with delicate, confidential and even intimate topics.
6. It has flexibility.
7. Sincerity, frankness, truthfulness and insight of the interviewee can
be better judged through cross questioning.
8. It gives no chance for respondent to modify his earlier answer.
9. It is applicable in survey method, but it is also applicable in
historical, experimental, case studies and clinical studies.
Merits of Interview:
1. Direct research.
2. Deep research
3. Knowledge of past and future.
4. Knowledge of special features.
5. Mutual encouragement is ossible.
6. Supra-observation is possible.
7. Knowledge of historical and emotional causes.
8. Examination of known data.
Disadvantage of Interview:
1. May provides misleading information.
2. Defects due to interviewee(low level of intelligence or may be
emotionally unbalanced)
3. Result may be affected due to prejudices of interviewer.
4. Result may be affected due to the difference in the mental
outlook of interwee and interviewer.
5. One sided and incomplete research.

61
 6. Art rather than science.
Schedule:
When a researcher is using a set of questionnaires for interview purpose
it is known as schedule.

“Schedule is the name usually applied to set of questions, which are

asked and filled by an interviewer in a face to face situation with
another.”
W.J. Goode & P. K. Hatt
By a schedule we cannot, however, obtain information about many
things at once. It is best suited to the study of a single item thoroughly.
According to Thomas Carson Macormie, “The schedule is
nothing more than a list of questions which, it seems necessary to test
the hypothesis.”
Thus schedule is a list of questions formulated and presented
with the specific purpose of testing an assumption or hypothesis.
In schedule method interview occupies a central and plays a vital role.
As a matter of fact success in the use of schedule is largely
determined by the ability and tact of the interviewer rather than by the
quality of the questions posed.
Because the interviewer himself poses the questions and notes
down the answers all by himself, the quality of questions has not any
great significance.

Important Features of Schedule:

1. The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are
asked and the answers are noted down by him.
2. The list of questions is a mere formal document, it need not be
attractive.
3. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.
62
4. It aids to delimit the scope of the study and to concentrate on the
circumscribed elements essential to the analysis.
5. It aims at delimiting the subject.
6. In the schedule the list of questions is preplanned and noted down
formally and the interviewer is always armed with the formal
document detailing the questions.
Thus interviewer not to depend upon the memory.
Points to be kept in mind while designing schedule;
1. Interviewer should not frame long, complex, defective questions.
2. Unrelated and unnecessary questions should not be asked.
3. Schedule should not contain personal and upsetting questions.
4. Its questions should be simple, clear and relevant to topic.
5. Questions be suitable to respondent’s intelligence level.
6. Impersonal, indirect and unambiguous questions should be included
in schedule.
Merits of Schedule:
1. Higher percentage of responses.
2. Possible to observe personality factors.
3. Through interview personal contact is possible.
4. It is possible to give human touch to schedule.
5. Removal of doubts is possible because face to face interaction is
there.
6. It is possible to know about the defects of the interviewee.

Observation Technique:
This is most commonly used technique of evaluation research. It is used
for evaluating cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of a person. It is used
in evaluation performance, interests, attitudes, values towards their life
problems and situations. It is most useful technique for evaluating the
behaviors of children.
63
It is technique of evaluation in which behavior are observed in a natural
situations.
“It is thorough study based on visual observation. Under this
technique group behaviours and social institutions problems are
evaluated.”
C. Y. Younge
“Observation employs relatively more visual and senses than
audio and vocal organs.”
C.A. Mourse
The cause- effect relationship and study of events in original
form, is known as observation.
Observation seeks to ascertain what people think and do by
watching them in action as they express themselves in various situations
and activities.
Observation is recognized as the most direct means of studying
people when one is interested in their overt behavior.
In questionnaires and interview people may write answer as
they think, they do but this is often different from what they actually
do. These restrictions are missing in observation so observation is a
more natural way of gathering data. Artificiality and formality of
questionnaires and interview is replaced by reality and informality in
observation. Data obtained through observation are more real and true
than the data collected by any other method. It also plays a particular
part in survey procedure.

Characteristics of Observation Schedule:

According to Jahoda it has many characteristics;
1. It serves a formulated research purpose.
2. It is planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly.

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 3. It is systematically recorded and related to more general
propositions.
4. It is subjected to checks and controls with respect to validity ,
reliability and precision.
5. It is a direct technique to study an object, an event or a
problem.
6. It is based mainly on visual –audio scene.
7. It employs own experiences.
8. It establishes cause-effect relationship.
9. It is an objective technique of data collection.
10. It is both objective and subjective evaluation technique.
11. It is formal as well as informal technique.
12. It is quantitative as well as qualitative technique for data
collection.
Advantages:
1. It is reliable and valid technique of collecting data and
information.
2. We get first hand data through this method.
3. Record of observation is also available immediately.
4. It is simple, broad and comprehensive method.
5. It is an oldest technique of data collection and getting direct
information.
Limitations:
1. It has a limited scope for its use because all the events cannot
be observed directly.
2. It is subjective method.
3. It is very time consuming process.
4. Costly so energy consuming also.

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 5. Presence of observer influences the behavior of the person i.e.
subject becomes conscious.
6. In case covert behavior, which can’t be observed, it is not
useful.
7. Observer should be trained and experienced.
Rating Scale:
Ratting is term applied to express opinion or judgment
regarding some situation, object or character. Opinions are usually
expressed on a scale of values; rating techniques are devices by which
such judgments may be quantified.
“Rating is an essence and direct observation.”
Ruth Strong
“A rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity and frequency of
a variable.”
Von Dallen
Rating techniques are more commonly used in scaling traits and
attributes.
A rating method is a method by which one systematizes, the
expression of opinion concerning a trait.
The rating is done by parents, teachers, a board of interviewers
and judges and even by the self as well.
The special feature of rating scale is that the attitudes are
evaluated not on the basis of the opinions of the subjects but on the
basis of the opinions and judgments of the experimenter himself.
In rating scale data are collected by; Verbal behavior, facial
expression, personal documents, clinical type interview, projective
techniques and immediate experiences as emotions, thoughts and
perceptions.
Advantages:
1. Writing reports to parents.
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 2. Filling out admission blanks for colleges.
3. Finding out students’ needs.
4. Making recommendations to employers.
5. Supplementing other sources of under taking about child.
6. Stimulating effect upon the rates.
Limitations:
1. Difference in rating abilities.
2. Difference in reliability as subjects for rating.
3. Agreement among raters of one type of contact only.
4. Average superior than single.
5. Impact of emotions.
6. Limits of self-rating.
7. Over rating.
8. Limits of rating of specific qualities.
9. Limits of justifications.
Activities Involved in Data Collection:
Data must be collected and recorded in a form suitable for the
intended analysis. The collection of data requires time and substantial
effort for acquiring skills and making the necessary arrangements for
collection and to ensure adequate quality.
Access to Data:
Generally it is a problem for researcher to get access to data
because the institutions or the persons who generally control the data
are not willing to provide him data for one or the other reason or
excuse. Some necessary steps are required to motivate such institutions
or persons to provide necessary data willingly. Some educational
problems are of such nature that the subjects specially girls are not
willing to disclose correct information. Similarly a researcher of any
board or university may not have access to confidential data.
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Adequate Standard:
The researcher should demonstrate that his data were properly
collected. It is possible if the following conditions are fulfilled.
(i) It should be ensured that the supplied data met e requirement of
validity. In other words the data should, ensure what they claimed
to measure.
(ii) Proper attention should be paid to measurement error.
The following types of error are possible in data collection;
(a) Errors due to malfunctioning of measuring equipment/
instrument.
(b) Error of bias.
(c) Deliberate falsehood.
(d) Distortion of facts.
(e) Random errors.
(iii) It should be ensured that a suitable sample was drawn out of the
population so that proper generalization could be made.
(iv) It should also be checked that the data were properly recorded. The
conditions under which the data were gathered should be properly
noted and suitable data recording method should be used. The
efforts should be made to detect and eliminate errors arising during
recording. The data are generally recorded in the following forms;
(a) notes of the researcher
(b) Log books and journals are used by a researcher doing the
experiment or conducting a field study
(c) Interview notes
(d) Responses to questionnaires
(e) Recording on tape recorder.
(f) Video cameras
(g) Transcribing data for computer input

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Data Organization:
Whatever method is used for collection of data it will be necessary that
an extensive set of supplementary notes should be made for the
following;
(a) Sources of data
(b) Conditions under which data were gathered.
There should be stored in such a way as offer some reasonable
prospects of retrieval when required.
Collecting Primary Data and Secondary Data:
The primary data can be collected through laboratory measurement,
field observation, questionnaires, interviews, opinionnaires, schedules
etc.
The secondary data can be collected from technical publications
such as manuals, handbooks, data sheets, and standards, books and
journals, official publications of the Central government, state
governments, local bodies, private data services and computer data
base.
General Rules:
There are some general rules that apply to all types of data collection.
They are as follows;
(i) Do not collect more information than is required for the research
problem.
(ii) Make sure the wording of the data collection instrument is clear and
unambiguous.
(iii) Use clear and explicit instructions in data collection instruments.
(iv) Design the response options as carefully as the items stems
themselves.
(v) Make responding to the measuring instrument as alternative as
possible.
(vi) Make sure that the final products look professional.

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 9 G
kˆ›ˆGh•ˆ“ šš
G
Data analysis embraces a whole range of activities of both the
qualitative and quantitative type. It is usual tendency in behavioral
research that much use of quantative analysis is made and statistical
methods and techniques are employed. The statistical methods and
techniques are employed. The statistical methods and techniques have
got a special position in research because they provide answers to the
problems.
Kaul defines data analysis as, ”Studying the organized material
in order to discover inherent facts. The data are studied from as many
angles as possible to explore the new facts.”

Purpose:
The following are the main purposes of data analysis:

(i) Description:
It involves a set of activities that are as essential first step in the
development of most fields. A researcher must be able to identify a
topic about which much was not known; he must be able to convince
others about its importance and must be able to collect data.

(ii) Construction of Measurement Scale:

The researcher should construct a measurement scale. All numbers
generated by measuring instruments can be placed into one of four
categories:

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(a) Nominal: The number serves as nothing more than labels. For
example no 1 was not less than no 2 .Similarly no 2 was neither
more than no 1 and nor less than no 3.
(b) Ordinal: Such numbers are used to designate an ordering along
some dimensions such as from less to more, from small to large,
from sooner to later.
(c) Interval: The interval provides more précised information than
ordinal one. By this type of measurement the researcher can make
exact and meaningful decisions. For example if A,B and C are of 150
cm, 145cm and 140 cm height, the researcher can say that A is 5 cm
taller than B and B is 5 cm taller than C.
(d) Ratio Scale: It has two unique characteristics. The intervals between
points can be demonstrated to be precisely the same and the scale
has a conceptually meaningful zero point.

(iii) Generating empirical relationships:

Another purpose of analysis of data is identification of regularities and
relationships among data. The researcher has no clear idea about the
relationship which will be found from the collected data. If the data
were available in details it will be easier to determine the relationship.
The researcher can develop theories if he is able to recognize pattern
and order of data. The pattern may be showing association among
variables, which may be done by calculating correlation among variables
or showing order, precedence or priority. The derivation of empirical
laws may be made in the form of simple equations relating one interval
or ratio scaled variable to a few others through graph methods.

(iv) Explanation and prediction:

Generally knowledge and research are equated with the identification
of causal relationships and all research activities are directed to it. But in
many fields the research has not been developed to the level where
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causal explanation is possible or valid predictions can be made. In such a
situation explanation and prediction is construct as enabling the values
of one set of variables to be derived given the values of another.
Functions:
The following are the main functions of data analysis:
(i) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining
the statement of the problem.
(ii) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining
each hypothesis of the problem.
(iii) The researcher should study the original records of the data
before data analysis.
(iv) The researcher should analyze the data for thinking about the
research problem in lay man’s term.
(v) The researcher should analyze the data by attacking it through
statistical calculations.
(vi) The researcher should think in terms of significant tables that
the available data permits for the analysis of data.

Statistical Calculations:
The researcher will have to use either descriptive statistics or inferential
statistics for the purpose of the analysis.

(i) The descriptive statistics may be on any of the following forms:

(a) Measures of Central Tendency:
These measures are mean, median, mode geometric mean and
harmonic mean. In behavioral statistics the last two measures are not
used. Which of the first three will be used in social statistics depends
upon the nature of the problem.

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(b) Measures of Variability:
These measures are range, mean deviation, quartile deviation and
standard deviation. In social statistics the first two measures are rarely
used. The use of standard deviation is very frequently made for the
purpose of analysis.

(c) Measures of Relative Position:

These measures are standard scores (Z or T scores), percentiles and
percentile ranks .All of them are used in educational statistics for data
analysis.

(d) Measures of Relationship:

There measures are Co-efficient of Correlation, partial correlation and
multiple correlations. All of them are used in educational statistics for
the analysis of data. However the use of rank method is made more in
comparison to Karl pearson method.

(ii)The inferential statistics may be in any one of the following forms:

(a) Significance of Difference between Means:
It is used to determine whether a true difference exists between
population means of two samples.

(b) Analysis of Variance:

The Z or t tests are used to determine whether there was any significant
difference between the means of two random samples. The F test
enables the researcher to determine whether the sample means differ
from one another to a greater extent then the test scores differ from
their own sample means using the F ratio.

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(c) Analysis of Co-Variance:
It is an extension of analysis of variance to test the significance of
difference between means of final experimental data by taking into
account the Correlation between the dependent variable and one or
more Co-variates or control variables and by adjusting initial mean
differences in the group.

(d) Correlation Methods:

Either of two methods of correlation can be used for the purpose of
calculating the significance of the difference between Co-efficient of
Correlation.

(e) Chi Square Test:

It is used to estimate the like hood that some factor other than chance
accounts to the observed relationship. In this test the expected
frequency and observed frequency are used for evaluating Chi Square.

(f) Regression Analysis:

For calculating the probability of occurrence of any phenomenon or for
predicting the phenomenon or relationship between different variables
regression analysis is cone.

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