Earth Science 11 Quarter 4

Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
Self-Learning Module 1
Weathering
EXPECTATIONS
Welcome to Earth Science- our interrelation to Earth and its

neighbors in space. In this module, you will learn about how rocks undergo
weathering. This consists of activities that will help you enhance your
character, critical thinking skills, communication skills, collaboration and
creativity.
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. describe how rocks undergo weathering;

2. enumerate the different types of weathering; and
3. recognize the importance of weathering on Earth.
PRETEST
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. Which of the following processes is the breaking down of rocks, soil, and
minerals on Earth’s surface?
a. Deposition
b. Erosion
c. Metamorphism
d. Weathering
2. Which among the choices is NOT a main type of weathering?
I. Chemical
II. Mechanical
III. Mineral
IV. Practical
a. I and II b. II and III c. I and IV d. III and IV
3. What happens during Hydrolysis?
a. During hydrolysis, water chemically reacts with minerals and breaks them
down to form other minerals
b. During hydrolysis, when the heat of an intense forest fire bakes a rock, the
outer layer of the rock expands.
c. During hydrolysis, dissolved salt in groundwater precipitates and grows as
crystals in open pore spaces in rocks.
d. During hydrolysis, rocks transform iron bearing minerals into a rusty
brown mixture of various iron-oxide and iron-hydroxide minerals.
4. Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks, often transforming
them when water interacts with minerals to create various chemical reactions.
Which of the following is NOT a Chemical weathering?
a. Dissolution
b. Frost wedging
c. Hydration
d. Hydrolysis
5. Why is weathering important on Earth?
a. Because weathering causes soil or layers of soil to be moved or worn away.
b. Because weathering provides the sediments that form sedimentary rocks
c. Because weathering comprises recrystallization, deformation,
fragmentation, and alternation of rocks.
d. Because weathering helps the sediments compact under pressure, expel
connate fluids, and gradually become solid rock.
RECAP
From your lessons in First quarter, you have learned about rocks and minerals.
Can you still remember the different types of rocks and what are the different
processes how each types of rocks are formed? What is a mineral? Why are minerals
important to society? Let’s have a simple activity to refresh your mind.
Direction: Identify the term/s that are being described in each number. Write your
answer on a separate paper.
1. Rocks form from the cooling of molten rock at or below the surface of the earth.
2. Rocks are formed by great heat and pressure.
3. Rocks form from compaction and cementation.
4. Naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, definite chemical composition,
and ordered internal structure.
5. The most abundant group of minerals and it contains oxygen and silicon atoms.
Congratulations! Now, let us explore our new lesson for today!
LESSON
In first-quarter lessons, you have already learned about different types of

rocks and how each type is formed. Rocks have different properties such as sizes,
shapes, textures, and mineral compositions. Now, let us describe how rocks undergo
weathering.
Do this!
1. Get two glasses of water and a pinch of salt and sugar.
2. Put the pinch of sugar in one glass of water and put the salt in another glass
of water.
3. Stir each glass
4. Observe what will happen
With the simple activity, you determined these pinch of salt and sugar changed
its sizes and why did it change? Due to water the salt and sugar changed its sizes.
When the salt and sugar begin to break down and dissolve, it is called weathering.
What is Weathering?
Weathering is a process where rocks, soil, and minerals are broken down into
pieces.
Now identify if the following is an example of weathering or not.
1. 3.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/common https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:KharazaArch.jpg
2. 4.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tafoni_03.jpg https://www.nellis.af.mil/News/Art/igphoto/2000834789/
Pictures 1, 2 and 3 are all examples of weathering while picture 4 is not because the
picture showed compaction.
The agents of weathering are water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and
changes in temperature whether it is cold or hot.
What are the different types of Weathering?
The different types of weathering are physical weathering, and chemical
weathering.
1. Physical Weathering
Sometimes called mechanical weathering, is the process that breaks rocks
apart without changing their chemical composition.
Physical weathering happens especially in places where there is little soil and
few plants grow, such as in mountain regions and hot deserts.
The examples of physical weathering
a. Frost Wedging or Freeze-Thaw
Causes many rocks to break. This refers to the repeated freezing and
melting of water within small narrow crack or space in the rock surface.
Water expands by 9 percent when it freezes into ice. As it expands, it
exerts up to 4.3 million pounds per square foot of the pressure, enough to
open cracks and fissures in rocks.
Cracks may also allow entry of roots, agents of biological weathering
that can also pry apart rock.
b. Crystal Formation or Salt Wedging
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Tafoni_03.jpg
Crystal formation similarly cracks the rock. Most water contains dissolved salts.
When the water in rock fissures evaporates, salt crystals form that, like ice, can force
open fissures. This “salt wedging” tends to be most pronounced in arid regions given
the high evaporation rates; it also occurs along seacoasts.
c. Swiftly moving water
Rapidly moving water can lift, for short periods, rocks from the stream bottom. When
these rocks drop, they collide with other rocks, breaking tiny pieces off.
d. Plant roots
Plant roots can grow in cracks. The pressure of a confined growing root can be
substantial. These pressures make cracks in the rocks larger, and, as roots grow,
they can break rocks apart.
e. Exfoliation
This occurs as cracks develop parallel to the land surface a consequence of the
reduction in pressure during uplift and erosion.
2. Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering changes the molecular structure of rocks and soil.
a. Solution or dissolution - removal of rock in solution by acidic rainwater. In

particular, limestone is weathered by rainwater containing dissolved CO2,
(this process is sometimes called carbonation).
b. Hydrolysis - the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and

soluble salts.
c. Oxidation - is the reaction of a substance with oxygen. The breakdown of rock

by oxygen and water, often giving iron-rich rocks a rusty-colored weathered
surface.
d. Acid Rain-Acids react with rock and strip away essential chemicals from the
structure of minerals that rocks are made of. Acids are particularly effective
at removing calcium from minerals.
e. Carbonation-is a type of chemical weathering. It is the process of combining
water with carbon dioxide to make carbonic acid. This is important in making
caves. Dissolved carbon dioxide in water or moist air forms carbonic acid, and
this acid reacts to minerals in rocks.
Factors that Affect the Rate of Weathering

1. Properties of the Parent Rock
The mineralogy and structure of rock affect it’s susceptibility to weathering.
Different minerals weather at different rates
2. Climate
This is the most important factor affecting the weathering of rocks. The extent of
weathering is dependent on the average atmospheric condition prevailing in a region
over a long period
3. Soil
Affect the rate in which rock weathers. Soils retain rainwater so that rocks covered
by soil are subjected to chemical reactions with water much longer than rocks not
covered by soil.
4. Length of Exposure
The longer a rock is exposed to the agents of weathering, the greater the degree of
alteration, dissolution, and physical breakup. Lava flows that are quickly buried by
subsequent lava flows are less likely to be weathered than a flow that remains
exposed to the elements for long periods.
Importance of weathering
1. most important in the formation of soils
2. major forces that shape the Earth’s surface
3. an important part of the rock cycle
4. provides the sediments that form sedimentary rocks
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1-A
Direction: Classify each number whether the following is a Physical Weathering or a
Chemical Weathering. Write PW for physical Weathering and CW for Chemical
Weathering.
1 Hydrolysis
2 Frost wedging
3 Thermal Expansion
4 Microbial Activity
5 Carbonation
6 Acid rain
7 Burrowing Animals
8 Gravitational Impact
9 Salt wedging
10 Oxidation
Now, compare and contrast the three types of weathering. Do Activity I-B.
Activity 1-B
Direction: Use the Venn diagram to compare and contrast the two types of
weathering.
Activity I-C
Modified True or False
DIRECTION: Write TRUE if the underline word/s is correct but if it is False change
the underlined word/s to make the sentence/s correct.
______________________1. Physical weathering, also called mechanical weathering

or disaggregation, is a class of processes that cause rocks to break up without
chemical change.
______________________2. Heating causes rock to expand and cooling causes it to
contract.
______________________3. Oxidation is a type of chemical weathering and it is the
process of mixing water with carbon dioxide to make carbonic acid.
______________________4. Physical weathering change the molecular structure of
rocks and soil.
______________________5. Freeze-Thaw is the reaction of a substance with oxygen.
______________________6. Salt Wedging is the chemical breakdown of a substance
when combined with water.
______________________7. Root Wedging is the process in which roots grow into the
cracks in rocks and force the cracks open as they continue to grow.
______________________8. The factors that affect the rate of weathering are
properties of the parent rock, climate, soil and length of exposure.
______________________9. Biological weathering Is a natural phenomenon or
disintegration process that occurs on rocks due to living things.
______________________10. Soil is the most important factor affecting weathering of
rocks.
WRAP-UP
To summarize what you have learned about weathering answer the activity by
completing the concept map below.
VALUING
Weathering is a process where rocks, soil, and minerals are broken down into
pieces. Suggest any benefits of weathering to us through writing an acrostic poem.
W___________________________________________________________________
E___________________________________________________________________
A___________________________________________________________________
T___________________________________________________________________
H___________________________________________________________________
E___________________________________________________________________
R___________________________________________________________________
I____________________________________________________________________
N___________________________________________________________________
G___________________________________________________________________
POSTTEST
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. What is physical weathering?
a. is changes the molecular structure of rocks and soil
b. is the most important factor affecting weathering of rocks
c. is changes the molecular structure of rocks and soil the process that
breaks rocks apart without changing their chemical composition.
d. is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by plants, animals
and microbes.
2. Which of the following is NOT a type of Mechanical/Physical Weathering?
a. Carbonation
b. Exfoliation
c. Frost wedging
d. Salt wedging
3. Which of the following chemical weathering is the process of combining water
with carbon dioxide to make carbonic acid?
a. Carbonation
b. Hydrolysis
c. Oxidation
d. Solution
4. Why is weathering important on comprises Earth?
a. Because weathering causes soil or layers of soil to be moved or worn away.
b. Because weathering provides the sediments that form sedimentary rocks
c. Because weathering recrystallization, deformation, fragmentation, and
alternation of rocks.
d. Because weathering helps the sediments compact under pressure, expel
connate fluids, and gradually become solid rock.
5. What happens during Hydrolysis?
a. During hydrolysis, water chemically reacts with minerals and breaks them
down to form other minerals
b. During hydrolysis, when the heat of an intense forest fire bakes a rock, the
outer layer of the rock expands.
c. During hydrolysis, dissolved salt in groundwater precipitates and grows as
crystals in open pore spaces in rocks.
d. During hydrolysis, rocks transform iron bearing minerals into a rusty
brown mixture of various iron-oxide and iron-hydroxide minerals.
KEY TO CORRECTION
Wrap-up
Valuing : The answer of the students about the benefits of weathering to

us may vary depending on the contents, opinions and style of the students
Posttest 1. c 2. a 3. a 4. b 5. a
Pretest 1. a 2. d 3. a 4. b 5. a
Recap 1. Igneous 2.Metamorphic 3.Sedimentary 4. 5.
Rocks Rocks Rocks Minerals Silicates
For Activity I-A,
1. CW 2. PW 3.PW 4. PW 5. CW
6. CW 7. PW 8. PW 9. PW 10. CW
Activity 1-B
Answers may vary depending on the answer of the students.
Activity 1-C
1. TRUE 2. TRUE 3. 4. Chemical 5. Oxidation

Carbonation weathering
6. 7. TRUE 8. TRUE 9. TRUE 10. Climate
Hydrolysis
References
n.d. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/geology/weathering-of-rocks-5-factors-
geology/91154.
n.d. https://uh.edu/~geos6g/1330/weath.html (accessed July 31, 2020).
National Geographic. April 19, 2018.
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/weathering/ (accessed
July 30, 2020).
Plant and Soil Science elibrary. n.d.
https://passel2.unl.edu/view/lesson/edd25385ca3d/4 (accessed July 31,
2020).
The American Geosciences Institute. n.d.
https://www.americangeosciences.org/education/k5geosource/content/roc
ks/what-is-physical-weathering (accessed July 30, 2020).
The Geological Society of London. n.d.
https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/ks3/gsl/education/resources/rockcycle/page3
561.html (accessed July 31, 2020).
Zamboni, Jon. Sciencing. n.d. https://sciencing.com/biological-weathering-
5633317.html (accessed July 31, 2020).
Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
Why the Earth’s Interior Is Hot
EXPECTATIONS
Welcome to Earth Science- our interrelation to Earth and its

neighbors in space. In this module, you will learn about why the Earth’s
interior is hot. This consists of activities that will help you enhance your
character, critical thinking skills, communication skills, collaboration and
creativity.

1. explain why the Earth’s interior is hot;
2. identify different reasons why Earth’s interior hot;
3. value importance of studying the Earth’s interior.
PRETEST
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. How hot is the Earth’s Core?
a. around 4,000 to 5,000 degrees Celsius
b. around 5,000 to 7,000 degrees Celsius
c. around 7,000 to 10,000 degrees Celsius
d. around 10,000 to 15,000 degrees Celsius
2. Which of the following is caused by the heat inside the Earth?

I. builds mountains
II. causes earthquakes.
III. fewer volcanoes
IV. moves continents
a. I, II, III and IV
b. I, II, and III
c. I, II and IV
d. II, III and IV
3. Which of the following is NOT a reason why the interior of Earth is very hot?
a. The heat from the decay of radioactive elements
b. The heat from when the planet formed
c. The heat from the Moon
d. Frictional Heating
4. Which of the following is a special kind of element because when it decays,
heat is produced?
a. Helium
b. Hydrogen
c. Oxygen
d. Uranium
5. Where does the Earth’s heat come from?

a. From less dense core material sinking to the center of the planet.
b. Leftover from when our planet formed
c. From the energy of the Sun
d. From low viscosity fluid
RECAP
Classify whether the following is a Physical Weathering or a Chemical Weathering
Write PW for Physical weathering and CW for Chemical weathering
PW OR CW EXAMPLES
1. Freeze-thaw
2. Hydrolysis
3. Salt wedging
4. Plant roots
5. Acid rain
6. Oxidation
7. Carbonation
8. Swiftly moving water
9. Solution
10 Exfoliation
LESSON
The Earth's interior is made-up of four layers, three solid and one liquid—not
magma but molten metal, nearly as hot as the surface of the sun.
The crust is everything we can see and study directly. The thinnest layer of the
Earth, the crust still measures about 40 km on average, ranging from 5–70 km (~3–
44 miles) in depth. The temperatures of the crust vary from air temperature on top
to about 1600 degrees Fahrenheit (870 degrees Celcius) in the deepest parts of the
crust. The crust of the Earth is broken into many pieces called plates. The plates
"float" on the soft, plastic mantle which is located below the crust
The mantle extends down 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of Earth. It is
the largest layer of the Earth, 1800 miles thick. The mantle is composed of very hot,
dense rock. The temperature of the mantle varies from 1600 degrees Fahrenheit at
the top to about 4000 degrees Fahrenheit near the bottom!
The outer core is so hot that the metals in it are all in the liquid state. The outer
core is located about 1800 miles beneath the crust and is about 1400 miles thick.
The outer core is composed of the melted metals nickel and iron. The outer core is a
low viscosity fluid
The inner core of the Earth has temperatures and pressures so great that the
metals are squeezed together and are not able to move about like a liquid, but are
forced to vibrate in place as a solid. The inner core begins about 4000 miles beneath
the crust and is about 800 miles thick. The temperatures may reach 9000 dgrees F.
and the pressures are 45,000,000 pounds per square inch. This is 3,000,000 times
the air pressure on you at sea level!
Why is the interior of the Earth hot?
But before we answer the question let us define heat first. Heat is energy that is
transferred from one body to another as the result of a difference in temperature. A
movement of atoms. Remember that the faster the movement of atoms the more heat.
The heat beneath the Earth moves continents, builds mountains and causes
earthquakes. Earth’s core temperature is estimated to be around 5,000 to 7,000
degrees Celsius.
Study Figure 1.
Figure 1: Main Reasons Why The Interior Of The Earth Is Very HOT
THREE MAIN REASONS WHY THE

INTERIOR OF EARTH IS VERY HOT
The heat from when The heat from the

Frictional Heating decay of radioactive
the planet formed elements
1. HEAT FROM WHEN THE PLANET FORMED AND ACCRETED, WHICH

HAS NOT YET BEEN LOST
A lot of Earth’s heat is left over from when our planet having been
made, four-and-a-half billion years ago. Earth formed from a cloud of gas and dust
in space. Solid particles, called “planetesimals” condensed out of the cloud. They’re
thought to have stuck together and created the early Earth. Bombarding
planetesimals heated Earth to a molten state.
• The Earth was formed by the process of accretion a portion of the
original heat was trapped inside the Earth’s crust and has not yet
been lost.
• Meteoroids attracted each other and formed bigger masses. This
process accumulated a lot of heat.
2. FRICTIONAL HEATING
• Frictional heating, caused by denser core material sinking to the
center of the planet.
• Some of the heat in the middle layers of the interior are hot because
the deeper core is cooling and releasing heat.
• Earth is cooling now – but very, very slowly. Earth is close to a steady
temperature state. Over the past several billion years, it might have
cooled a couple of hundred degrees. Earth keeps a nearly steady
temperature, because it makes heat in its interior.
3. RADIOACTIVE DECAY
• It involves the decomposing of natural radioactive elements inside
Earth – like uranium. Uranium is a special kind of element because
when it decays, heat is produced. It’s this heat that keeps Earth from
cooling off completely.
• Without this process of radioactive decay, there would be fewer
volcanoes and earthquakes – and less building of Earth’s vast
mountain ranges. This process contributes more than half of the heat
in the earth.
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1-A
TRUE OR FALSE
Write T if the statement is true or write F if the statement is false.

________________1.The temperature of the core reaches more than 5,000 to 7,000
degrees Celsius.
_________________2. A lot of Earth’s heat is left over from when our planet formed
_________________3. The Earth's interior is composed of four layers, two solid and two
liquid.
_________________4. The temperatures and pressures of the inner core are absolutely
extreme.
_________________5. With the process of radioactive decay, there would be fewer
volcanoes and earthquakes.
________________6. Uranium is a special kind of element because when it decays, heat
is produced.
________________7. Frictional heating, caused by less dense core material sinking to
the center of the planet.

_________________8. Earth is open to a steady temperature state.
_________________9. The outer core is a high viscosity fluid.
_________________10. Some of the heat in the middle layers of the interior are hot
because the deeper core is cooling and releasing heat
Now, Do Activity I-B.
Activity 1-B
Answer the following questions.

1. How hot is the Earth’s interior?
2. Where can we compare the heat of Earth’s interior? Why?
3. How does radioactive decay affect the surface of the earth?
4. What would happen if the Earth’s core went cold?
5. Enumerate the three main reasons why the Earth’s interior is hot.
Activity I-C
Complete the concept mapping about the three main reasons why the interior
of the Earth is very hot. After completing the concept mapping choose one reason
and explain why Earth’s interior is hot. Write your answer on the space provided for.
THREE MAIN REASONS

WHY THE INTERIOR OF
EARTH IS VERY HOT
WRAP-UP
To summarize what you have learned about reasons why the interior of the Earth
is very hot. Answer the wrap-up activity by completing the 3-2-1 Chart.
3- Things I found out about 2- Interesting things 1-Question I still have

the lesson today
1.__________________________ 1. _______________________ 1. ___________________
2.__________________________ 2.________________________
3.__________________________
VALUING
The heat beneath the Earth moves continents, builds mountains and causes
earthquakes. Suggest ways why it is important for us to study the heat inside the
Earth.
Finally, you are done! You may now answer the posttest.
POSTTEST
paper.
1. What are the main reasons why the interior of earth is very hot?
I. The heat from the decay of radioactive elements
II. The heat from when the planet formed
III. The heat from the moon
IV. Frictional heating
a. I, II, III, and IV
b. I, II, and III
c. I, II, and IV
d. I, III, and IV
2. How hot is the Earth’s Core?

a. around 4,000 to 5,000 degrees Celsius
b. around 5,000 to 7,000 degrees Celsius
c. around 7,000 to 10,000 degrees Celsius
d. around 10,000 to 15,000 degrees Celsius
3. Which of following does NOT belong to the importance of heat beneath the
Earth?
a. builds mountains
b. causes earthquakes.
c. fewer volcanoes
d. moves continents
4. Which of the following is a special kind of element because when it decays,

heat is produced?
a. Helium
b. Hydrogen
c. Oxygen
d. Uranium
5. Where does the heat inside the Earth come from?

a. From less dense core material sinking to the center of the planet.
b. Leftover from when our planet formed
c. From the energy of the Sun
d. From low viscosity fluid
KEY TO CORRECTION
Wrap-up
The answer of the students about wrap-up activity may vary depending on the
contents, opinions and style of the students. Consult your Earth Science Teacher
3- Things I found out about 2- Interesting things 1-Question I still have

the lesson today
1.__________________________ 1. _______________________ 1. ___________________
2.__________________________ 2.________________________
3.__________________________
Valuing : The answer of the students about the ways why it is important for us to study
the heat inside the Earth may vary depending on the contents, opinions and style of the
students. Consult your Earth Science Teacher.
Posttest 1.c 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. b
Pretest 1. b 2. c 3. c 4. d 5. b
Recap 1. PW 2.CW 3.PW 4.PW 5.CW
6. CW 7.CW 8.PW 9.CW 10.PW
Activity I-A
1. T 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.F

6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.T
Activity 1-B
1. around 7,000 to 10,000 degrees Celsius

2. The surface of the sun
3. mountain ranges, volcanoes and earthquakes are produced
4. when the earth has cooled completely, the movement in the
mantle will also stop eventually. then, the plates on the surface
will no longer move and there will be fewer earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions
5. The heat from the decay of radioactive elements
The heat from when the planet formed
Frictional heating
Activity 1-C
1. The heat from the decay of radioactive elements
The heat from when the planet formed
Frictional heating
Answers may vary depending on the answer of the students.
References
Earth Observatory of Singapore, NTU. n.d. https://www.earthobservatory.sg/faq-on-earth-
sciences/why-interior-earth-hot (accessed August 06, 2020).
Andrei, Mihai. ZME SCIENCE. August 21, 2018. https://www.zmescience.com/other/science-

abc/layers-earth-structure/ (accessed August 6, 2020).
OSO Oregon State University. n.d. http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/earths-layers-lesson-1 (accessed

August 11, 2020).
SCIENTIFIC AMERICANA. n.d. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-the-earths-core-so/

(accessed August 7, 2020).
Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
How Magma Is Formed Within The Ear
EXPECTATIONS
Welcome to Earth Science- our interrelation to Earth and its neighbors in space.
In this module, you will learn about how magma is formed within the Earth.This
consists of activities that will help you enhance your character, critical thinking
skills, communication skills, collaboration and creativity.
1. explain how magma is formed within the Earth;

2. identify different characteristics of magma;
3. appreciate the importance of how is magma formed within the Earth.
PRETEST
1. Which among the choices is the molten or semi-molten rock beneath or within
the Earth’s crust from which igneous rocks are formed?
a. Lava
b. Magma
c. Mineral
d. Rock
2. Which among the choices is the most abundant element in magma?
a. Aluminum
b. Iron
c. Oxygen
d. Silicon
3. Which of these statements is NOT correct about magma?
a. Magma never contains dissolved gases.
b. It’s easiest for magma to make its way to the surface through the rift zones.
c. Magma generated by the hot spot rises through the rigid plates of the
lithosphere and produces active volcanoes at the Earth's surface.
d. Magmas are generally made up of only eight elements the oxygen, silicon,
aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium, and potassium.
4. Viscosity is the resistance to flow. What will happen to the viscosity of the magma
if it has a high silica content?
a. The higher silica content, the lower viscosity
b. The higher silica content, the higher viscosity
c. The higher silica content, no changes in its viscosity
d. The higher silica content, the intermediate viscosity
5. Where does magma form?
I. subduction zone
II. hot-spot volcanism
III. magmatism along rift zones
IV. Deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface
a. I, II, III, and IV
b. I, II, and III
c. I, III and IV
d. II, III, and IV
RECAP
From your lessons in SLM 2 you have learned about Why the Earth’s interior is
hot? Let’s have a simple activity to refresh your mind.
Identification
Identify the word/s that is being describe in each number
______________________1. How hot is the Earth’s interior?
______________________2. Is a special kind of element because when it decays, heat
is produced.
______________________3. Where can we compare the heat of Earth’s interior?
______________________4. Three main reasons why the interior of Earth is very hot
______________________5. Caused by denser core material sinking to the center of
the planet
LESSON
What is magma?
Magma is molten material beneath or within

the Earth’s crust from which Igneous rocks
are formed
And magma is a mixture of minerals,
Gases like carbon dioxide, water vapor and sulfur.
Magmas form by partial melting of silicate rocks
either in Earth's mantle, the continental crust or the
oceanic crust.
All types of magma have a significant percentage of
Silicon dioxide.
Magma is from Ancient Greek μάγμα (mágma) meaning "thick unguent"
Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth. The high temperatures and
pressure beneath the Earth's crust keeps magma in its fluid state.
Magmas are generally made up of only eight elements; in order of importance:
oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium, and potassium.
Oxygen is the most abundant element in magma.
Magmatism is the emplacement of magma within and at the surface of the outer
layers of a terrestrial planet, which solidifies as igneous rocks. Due to magmatism
the mountains formed.
Origin of Magma
To understand how magmas are formed. We must focus with the origin of
magmas. As what we have learned about the layers of the Earth the only liquid
layer is the outer core. But the core is not likely to be the source of magmas
because it does not have the right chemical composition. The outer core is mostly
Iron, but magmas are silicate liquids. Since the rest of the Earth is solid, in order
for magmas to form, some part of the Earth must get hot enough to melt the rocks
present. Geologist concluded that magma forms when rocks reach temperatures
high enough to melt them. Most rocks begin to melt at a temperature between 800
and 1200 degrees Celsius. Magma can form only under special circumstances. We
believed that the temperature rises as we go deeper and deeper into the Earth.
As pressure increases in the Earth, the melting temperature changes as well.
For a pure dry (no H2O or CO2 present) mineral, the melting temperature
increases with increasing pressure.
For a mineral with H2O or CO2 present, the melting temperature first
decreases with increasing pressure
Since rocks are mixtures of minerals, they behave somewhat

differently. Unlike minerals, rocks do not melt at a single temperature, but instead
melt over a range of temperatures. Thus it is possible to have partial melts, from
which the liquid portion might be extracted to form magma.
The two general cases are:
Melting of dry rocks is similar to melting of dry

minerals, melting temperatures increase with
increasing pressure, except there is a range of
temperature over which there exists a partial
melt. The degree of partial melting can range
from 0 to 100%
Melting of rocks containing water or carbon

dioxide is similar to melting of wet minerals,
melting temperatures initially decrease with
increasing pressure, except there is a range of
temperature over which there exists a partial
melt.
In order for magma to form, wet or dry melting of rocks or minerals must occur.
Dry melting occurs when minerals or rocks, with no carbon dioxide or water in them,
are heated to a specific temperature. This temperature increases as pressure in the
Earth’s layers increases.
Wet melting occurs when rocks or minerals containing water are heated. It
occurs over a variety of temperatures rather than at only one temperature — as dry
melting does. The temperatures in which wet melting occurs decreases with
increased pressure or depth initially. This temperature then starts to increase again
the higher the pressure rises or the lower the depth is. A partial melt can occur with
both wet and dry melting of rocks but can’t occur with minerals. A partial melt occurs
when only part of the rock material melts.
PROCESSES THAT FORM MAGMA BY MELTING OF MANTLE ROCK

• Increase in temperature
• Decrease in pressure
• Addition of water
Three different types of magma generation

1. subduction zone
2. hot-spot volcanism
3. magmatism along rift zones.
How is magma produced in subduction zones?
FIGURE 1: Subduction Zone
SOURCE: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Common_Cross_Section_of_a_Subduction_Zone.jpg
A subduction zone forms when continental crust and oceanic crust collide.
The continental crust is thicker and more buoyant than the oceanic crust so the
oceanic crust wear away beneath the continental crust. As a tectonic plate slides into
the mantle, the hotter layer beneath Earth's crust, the heating releases fluids trapped
in the plate. These fluids, such as seawater and carbon dioxide, rise into the upper
plate and can partially melt the overlying crust, forming magma.
How is magma produced in hot-spot volcanism?
A hot spot is fed by a region deep within

the Earth’s mantle from which heat rises
through the process of convection. This
heat facilitates the melting of rock at the
base of the lithosphere, where the brittle,
upper portion of the mantle meets the
Earth’s crust. The melted rock, known as
magma, often pushes through cracks in
the crust to form volcanoes.
Magma generated by the hot spot

rises through the rigid plates of the
lithosphere and produces active
volcanoes at the Earth's surface. As
oceanic volcanoes move away from the
hot spot, they cool and subside,
producing older islands, atolls, and
seamounts. As continental volcanoes
move away from the hot spot, they cool,
subside, and become extinct.
SOURCE:https://seattlecentral.edu/qelp/sets/073/073.html
How is magma produced along rift zones?
FIGURE 3: Volcanic Rift Zone in Hawaii
SOURCE:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Volcanic_Rift_Zone_in_Hawaii.jpg
Rift zones are areas where the volcano is rifting or splitting apart. The rock
in a rift zone has many cracks and is relatively weak, and thus it is easiest for magma
to make its way to the surface through these rift zones.
There are three basic types of magma

1. Basaltic- formed through dry partial melting of the mantle
2. Andesitic- formed through wet partial melting of the mantle
3. Rhyolitic- formed as a result of wet melting of continental crust
TABLE 1: Characteristics of Magma

TYPES OF CHEMICAL TEMPERATURE VISCOSITY GAS
MAGMA COMPOSITION CONTENT
Basaltic SiO2 45-55 %, 1000 to 1200oC Low Low

high in Fe, Mg,
Ca, low in K, Na
Andesitic SiO2 55-65 %, 800 to 1000oC Intermediate Intermediate
intermediate. in
Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K
Rhyolitic SiO2 65-75%, 650 to 800oC. High High
low in Fe, Mg,
Ca, high in K, Na
Viscosity is the resistance to flow (opposite of fluidity). Viscosity depends on

primarily on the composition of the magma, amount of dissolved gases, and
temperature.
High Viscosity – flows very slowly.

Low Viscosity – flows rapidly
Study figure 4
FIGURE 4: The Factors That Affects The Viscosity Of Magma
FACTORS THAT
AFFECTS THE
VISCOSITY OF
MAGMA
CHEMICAL
COMPOSITIO Amount of
Temperature dissolved
N/Silica
content gases
The higher the

The higher
Temperature The loss of
silica content,
of the magma, gases, makes
the more
the lower its more viscous
viscous
viscosity
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1-A
How magma is formed within the Earth?
Direction: explain how magma is formed within the Earth

1. How is magma formed in subduction zones?
2. How is magma formed along rift zones?
3. How is magma formed in hot-spot volcanism?

Activity 1-B
All About Magma
Identification
Identify the following term/s that is being asked in each number.
_________________________1. Is the resistance to flow.
_________________________2. Is the emplacement of magma within and at the
surface of the outer layers of a terrestrial planet, which
solidifies as igneous rocks
_________________________3.Is a type of magma where formed through dry partial
melting of the mantle.
_________________________4. Are areas where the volcano is rifting or splitting apart.
_________________________5. Is fed by a region deep within the Earth’s mantle from
which heat rises through the process of convection.
_________________________6. Forms when continental crust and oceanic crust
collide.
_________________________7. Is the most abundant element in magma.
_________________________8. A type of magma where formed as a result of wet
melting of continental crust.
_________________________9. What is the estimated temperature of Andesitic
magma?
_________________________10. Occurs when rocks or minerals containing water are
heated
Activity I-C
Characteristics of magma
Fill in the blanks
1. In Low Viscosity, the magma flows _________________________.
2. The higher the silica content, the ______________________viscosity.
3. The higher the temperature, the _______________________viscosity.
4. The higher the amount of dissolved gas, the _________________viscosity.
5. In high viscosity, the magma flows _________________________________.
Complete the table of characteristics of magma
TYPES OF CHEMICAL TEMPERATURE VISCOSITY GAS

MAGMA COMPOSITION CONTENT
Basaltic SiO2 45-55 %, 1000 to 1200oC Low
high in Fe, Mg, 6.__________
Ca, low in K, Na
Andesitic SiO2 55-65 %, Intermediate
intermediate. in 7.______________ 8.__________
Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K
Rhyolitic SiO2 9._______%, High High
low in Fe, Mg, Ca, 10._____________
high in K, Na
WRAP-UP
To summarize what you have learned about how magma is formed within the Earth.
Answer the wrap-up activity by completing the crossword puzzle below.
1. 2.
3.
4. 5.
ACROSS
1. Occurs when minerals or rocks, with no carbon dioxide or water in them, are
heated to a specific temperature
3. Is the most abundant element in magma
4. Formed through dry partial melting of the mantle
DOWN
2. Is molten materials beneath or within the Earth’s crust from which Igneous
rocks is formed
5.Formed through wet partial melting of the mantle
VALUING
To appreciate the importance of how is magma formed within the Earth.

Each can cut a picture where it shows the importance of magma. Paste it on a
short bond paper. Write something about the picture.
POSTTEST
paper.
1. Which of the following can occur when rocks or minerals containing water are
heated?
a. Dry Melting
b. Melting of magma
c. Partial Melting
d. Wet Melting
2. Which of the following is NOT a type of magma?
a. Andesitic
b. Basaltic
c. Magmatic
d. Rhyolitic
3. Where does magma form?
I. subduction zone
II. hot-spot volcanism
III. magmatism along rift zones
IV. Deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface
a. I, II, III, and IV c. I, II, and IV
b. I, II and III d. II, III, and IV
4. Viscosity is the resistance to flow. What happens to the viscosity of the magma
if there is a lower silica content?
a. The lower silica content, the lower viscosity
b. The lower silica content, the higher viscosity
c. The lower silica content, no changes in its viscosity
d. The lower silica content, the intermediate viscosity
5. Magmas are generally made up of only eight elements. Which among the
choices does NOT belong to the elements found in magma?
a. Aluminum c. Silicon
b. Oxygen d. Uranium
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pretest I-B 1. b
ACTIVITY 2. c 3. a
ACTIVITY I-C4. b 5. b
1. Viscosity 6. Subduction 1. Rapidly 6. low

Recap zone 2.
1. 5 000- 3. Sun 4. Radio 5.
2. Magmatism
7000 C7. Oxygen
Uranium 2. Higher
Surface Active7. 800-1000 C
Frictional
Decay, heating
3. Basaltic 8. Rhyolitic 3. lower 8. Intermediate
Frictional
4. Rift zone 9. 800-1000 4. Lower 9.65-75%
Heating
degree C and,
5. Hot spot 10. Wet melting 5. very slowlyThe heat
10. 650-800 C
Heat
WRAP-UP
ACTIVITY I-A
1. Dry 2. Magma 3. Oxygen 4Basaltic 5.Andesitic
The answer of the students about How magma is formed within the
Melting
Valuing Earth? may vary
: The answer depending
of the studentson the the
about contents, opinionswhere
cut a pictures and style of the
it shows
students
the importance of magma may vary depending on the contents, opinions and
style of the students.
Posttest 1. d 2. c 3. b 4. a 5. d
References
University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo. 2020. https://hilo.hawaii.edu/natural-
hazards/volcanoes/riftzones.php (accessed August 17, 2020).
Earth Science Australia. n.d.

http://earthsci.org/education/teacher/basicgeol/igneous/igneous.html (accessed
August 17, 2020).
Harris, Tom. HowStuffWorks.com. January 15 , 15 January 2001.

https://science.howstuffworks.com/nature/natural-disasters/volcano1.htm
National Geographic. n.d. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/hot-spot-volcanism/

Nelson, Prof. Stephen A. Tulane University. Sep 15, 2015.

http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Natural_Disasters/volcan&magma.htm
OSU Oregon State University. 2020. http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/what-is-a-hot-spot.
Wikipedia. June 8, 2020. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma.

Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
What Happens Inside The Earth After Magma Is
Formed?
EXPECTATIONS
Welcome to Earth Science- our interrelation to Earth and its neighbors in

space. In this module, you will learn about what happens inside the Earth after
magma is formed? This is consists of activities that will help you enhance your
character, critical thinking skills, communication skills, collaboration and creativity.
1. describe what happens inside the Earth after magma is formed;

2. define Plutonism;
3. enumerate different intrusive structures;
4. recognize the importance of studying what happens inside the Earth after
magma is formed.
PRETEST
1. What happens inside the Earth after magma is formed?
a. When the magma cools and solidifies within the Earth it forms plutonic
igneous rocks.
b. When the magma cools and solidifies within the Earth it forms volcanic
igneous rocks.
c. When the magma cools and solidifies within the Earth it forms sedimentary
rocks.
d. When the magma cools and solidifies within the Earth it forms
metamorphic ocks.
2. Which of the following is defined as the process by which magma gets out
through the crust and crystallizes as an intrusive igneous rock beneath the
Earth's surface?
a. Magmatism
b. Metamorphism
c. Plutonism
d. Volcanism
3. Who first proposed the theory of Plutonism before 1750?
a. Abbé Anton Moro
b. Alfred Wegener
c. Charles Lyell
d. James Hutton
4. Plutons can have different shapes and different relationships with the
surrounding country rock. Which type of pluton is a relatively narrow tabular
discordant body, often nearly vertical?
a. Batholith
b. Dike
c. Laccolith
d. Sill
5. What happens when magma cools underground?
a. It cools very slowly and produces large crystals.
b. It cools very rapidly and produces large crystals.
c. It cools very slowly and produces small crystals.
d. it cools very fast and produces different sizes and shapes of crystals.
RECAP
Let us have a recap! You have learned about how magma is formed within the
Earth. Can you still remember that lesson? Let’s have a simple activity to refresh
your mind.
Complete the puzzle below and identify the word/s that is being describe in each
number.
1. M
2. A
3. G
4. M
. 5 A
1. Occurs when rocks or minerals containing water are heated

2. formed through dry partial melting of the mantle
3. Is the most abundant element in magma
4. Occurs when minerals or rocks, with no carbon dioxide or water in them, are
heated to a specific temperature
5. Is the emplacement of magma within and at the surface of the outer layers of
a terrestrial planet, which solidifies as igneous rocks
Congratulations! You got it! Now, let us explore our new lesson for today!
LESSON
What happens inside the Earth after magma is formed?

To most Geologists it is important for them to understand the igneous
processes that occur within the Earth, so they study if what happens inside the Earth
after magma is formed. The two Igneous processes are Volcanism-volcanic
eruptions, and Plutonism-Igneous intrusions
When magma cools and solidifies, it crystallizes into a solid rock form. The
rocks that formed from the cooling and solidifying of molten rock are called Igneous
rocks as what we learned from First Quarter: The Igneous Rocks. Remember that
when the magma cools and solidifies within the Earth, it is called Plutonic Igneous
Rocks. The examples of Plutonic Igneous rocks are Granite, Pegmatite, Diorite,
Gabbro, and Aplite.
When magma cools underground, it cools very slowly and produces large
crystals because the crystals had enough time to grow to a large size.
Plutonism is defined as the process by which magma get out through the crust
and crystallizes as an intrusive igneous rock beneath the Earth's surface. The name
plutonism references Pluto, the classical ruler.
Abbé Anton Moro, who had studied volcanic

islands, first proposed the theory of Plutonism
before 1750
James Hutton was not the first to

propose plutonism, he was the scientist
responsible for expounding this theory to
the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the
general scientific community.
https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/225856/view/james-hutton
Based on Hutton’s theory of plutonism, processes that create and arrange rocks
into the current landscape are driven by heat concealed within Earth’s interior.
Another fundamental aspect of Hutton’s theory of plutonism is that rock-forming
processes are constant and slow. As a farmer, Hutton observed how resilient the land
was to rain and wind. He recognized that Earth’s landscape is very slowly eroded
away and deposited downhill due to gravity.
The Intrusive Structures
Intrusions are also classified according to size, shape, depth of formation,
and geometrical relationship to the country rock.
Intrusions are one of the two ways igneous rock can form.
Shallow intrusion is defined as intrusions that formed at depths of less
than 2 kilometers.
Study the Figure 3
Figure 3: Types Of Intrusive Igneous Rocks
SOURCE: http://www.geologyin.com/2018/03/types-of-intrusive-igneous-rock.html
In most cases, a body of hot magma is less dense than the rock surrounding it, so
it has a tendency to creep upward toward the surface. It does so in a few different
ways:
• Filling and widening existing cracks

• Melting the surrounding rock (called country rock)
• Pushing the rock aside (where the rock is hot enough and under enough
pressure to deform without breaking)
• Breaking the rock.
When magma forces itself into cracks, breaks off pieces of rock, and then envelops
them, this is called stoping. The resulting fragments are called xenoliths.
Figure 4: Example of Xenolith
SOURCE: https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/31932878798
A xenolith is a piece of rock trapped in another type of rock
A pluton is an intrusion of magma that wells up from below the surface.
Pluton is a generic word for any igneous intrusive rock body
Plutons can have different shapes and different relationships with the surrounding
country rock. These characteristics determine what name the pluton is given.
Table 1: Type of Plutons
Plutons Characteristics
Batholith a large irregular discordant intrusion
Boss a small stock
Chonolith an irregularly-shaped intrusion with a demonstrable base
Cupola a dome-shaped projection from the top of a large subterranean
intrusion
Dike a relatively narrow tabular discordant body, often nearly vertical
Laccolith concordant body with roughly flat base and convex top, usually
with a feeder pipe below
Lopolith concordant body with roughly flat top and a shallow convex base,
may have a feeder dike or pipe below
Phacolith a concordant lens-shaped pluton that typically occupies the crest of
an anticline or trough of a syncline
Sill a relatively thin tabular concordant body intruded along bedding
planes
Stock a smaller irregular discordant intrusive
Volcanic pipe tubular roughly vertical body that may have been a feeder vent for
or volcanic a volcano
neck
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1-A
Direction: Define the following terms.
1. Plutonism
2. Xenoliths
3. Pluton
4. Shallow intrusion
5. Plutonic Igneous rocks

Activity I-B
TYPE OF PLUTONS
Matching Type
Match column A with the correct characteristics on column B. Write only the
letter of the correct answer in the space provided.
A B
1 Batholith a. a small stock

a relatively narrow tabular discordant body,
Boss
2 b. often nearly vertical
a concordant lens-shaped pluton that typically
Chonolith occupies the crest of an anticline or trough of a
3 c. syncline
4 Cupola d. a smaller irregular discordant intrusive
a relatively thin tabular concordant body
Dike
5 e. intruded along bedding planes
an irregularly-shaped intrusion with a
Laccolith
6 f. demonstrable base
concordant body with roughly flat top and a
Lopolith shallow convex base, may have a feeder dike or
7 g. pipe below
concordant body with roughly flat base and
Phacolith
8 h. convex top, usually with a feeder pipe below
a dome-shaped projection from the top of a large
Sill
9 i. subterranean intrusion
10 Stock j. a large irregular discordant intrusion
Activity I-C
Direction: Answer the essay question at least 50 words only.
Explain why you need to study what happens inside the Earth after magma is
formed?
WRAP-UP
To summarize what you have learned about what happens inside the Earth after
magma is formed, answer the wrap-up activity by writing Yes or No.
QUESTIONS ANSWER
YES or
NO
1.The rocks that formed from the cooling and solidifying of molten
rock are called igneous rocks
2.A pluton is a piece of rock trapped in another type of rock
3.James Hutton was the first to propose plutonism
4. Plutonism is defined as the process by which magma get out
through the crust and crystallizes as an intrusive igneous rock
beneath the Earth's surface
5. When magma cools underground, it cools very rapidly and
produced a large crystals
VALUING
Aside from Geologists, we as Pasigueños must need to understand the different

igneous processes and be knowledgeable about what happens inside the Earth
after magma is formed. In return from ideas and learning from the lessons that we
gain today, make a slogan that recognizes the importance of what happens inside
the Earth after magma is formed. Do the slogan in one, short bond paper.
POSTTEST
paper.
1. Which of the following can describe Plutonism?

a. An igneous intrusions
b. A volcanic eruptions
c. A smallest planet
d. A magmatism
2. What happens inside the Earth after magma is formed?
a. When the magma cools and solidifies within the Earth it forms plutonic
igneous rocks.
b. When the magma cools and solidifies within the Earth it forms volcanic
igneous rocks.
c. When the magma cools and solidifies within the Earth it forms sedimentary
rocks.
d. When the magma cools and solidifies within the Earth it forms
metamorphic rocks.
3. Which of the following is defined as the process by which magma gets out
through the crust and crystallizes as an intrusive igneous rock beneath the
Earth's surface?
a. Magmatism
b. Metamorphism
c. Plutonism
d. Volcanism
4. Plutons can have different shapes and different relationships with the
surrounding country rock. Which type of pluton is a relatively thin tabular
concordant body intruded along bedding planes?
a. Batholith
b. Dike
c. Laccolith
d. Sill
5. Which of the following is a piece of rock trapped in another type of rock?
a. Dike
b. Pluton
c. Sill
d. Xenoliths
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pretest 1. a 2. c 3. a 4. b 5. a
Recap 1. Wet 2. 3. Oxygen 4. Dry 5. No

Melting Basaltic Melting
Activity1-A
1. Plutonism- Igneous intrusion
2. Xenoliths- is a piece of rock trapped in another type of rock
3. Pluton- is an intrusion of magma that wells up from below the
surface.
4. Shallow intrusions- as intrusions that formed at depths of less than
2 kilometers.
5. Plutonic Igneous rocks- when the magma cools and solidifies within
the Earth surface
Activity 1-B
1.j 6. g
2.a 7. h
3.f 8. c
4.i 9. e
5.b 10.d
Activity 1-C
The answer and explanation of the students about the what happens
inside the Earth after magma is formed may vary depending on the
contents, opinions and style of the students
Wrap-up 1. Yes 2. No 3. No 4. Yes 5. No

Valuing : The answer of the students about the Slogan may vary
depending on the contents, opinions and style of the students
Posttest 1. a 2. a 3. c 4. d 5. d
Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
Volcanic Eruption/ Magma Expulsion
EXPECTATION
This module is designed and written to help you master the lesson on how magma is
expelled out to the surface of the Earth. The scope of this module permits it to be
used in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes your
diverse vocabulary level. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence
of the course.
The module is about how magma is expelled out to the surface of the Earth.

a. explain how magma is expelled out to the Earth’s
surface,
b. differentiate the types of volcanic eruption,
c. cite and apply some safety precautions during volcanic
eruption.
PRETEST
Give it some thought! Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter
on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What makes magma different from lava?

a. The temperature c. The location
b. The composition d. The color
2. Which of the following statements is correct about magma?
a. Typical magma temperature exceeds 10,000 degrees Celsius.
b. Magma always comes from the lower mantle.
c. Magma never contains dissolved gases.
d. Magma forms when rocks melt.
3. What are the solid fragments that are ejected during volcanic
eruption?
a. Lahar b. Magma c. Pyroclastic material d. Silica
4. How do you call the chain of volcanos around the edge of the Pacific
Plate?
a. Circle of Fire c. Ring of Fire
b. Circle of Magma d. Ring of Lava
5. Which statement is true about volcanic eruption??
a. Volcanic eruption happens when lava and gas are discharged from a
volcanic vent.
b. It is a sudden violent shaking of the ground which causes destruction.
c. A series of waves that may cause by earthquakes.
d. All of the above.
RECAP
Let’s Review! Answer the cross-word puzzle: The Formation of Magma
Across:
1. Hot liquid and semi-liquid
rock.
3. Significant in forming
magma
4. Thickness of magma
5. High in iron, potassium
and calcium
6. High in potassium, and
sodium
Down:
2. Moderate amounts of
minerals
LESSON
I. Warm-up: Guess the title: Listed here are some of the famous Philippine
movies and MTV video. Write their title
with the given clues.
Taal Volcano and other
In what 2014 Philippines film places like El Nido, Palawan
did the majestic Mayon was seen in what single of
Volcano become a witness to Katy Perry’s music video?
Kenji and Athena’s tear-
jerking declaration of love?
Not only was Mt. Pinatubo and its lake a

beautiful setting to Jackie and Kiko’s
budding relationship in this 2015
Philippines film it also proved to be the
most accurate representation of the
former’s personality - “a beautiful
disaster.”
II. CONCEPTS:
Magma is extremely hot liquid and semi-liquid rock located under Earth’s surface.
When magma flows onto Earth’s surface, it is called lava. But, have you wondered
how magma was expelled from the Earth’s surface?
Volcanic Eruptions
• In general, magmas that are generated deep within the Earth begin to rise
because they are less dense than the surrounding solid rocks.
• As they rise they may encounter a depth or pressure where the dissolved gas
no longer can be held in solution in the magma, and the gas begins to form a
separate phase (i.e. it makes bubbles just like in a bottle of carbonated
beverage when the pressure is reduced).
• When a gas bubble forms, it will also continue to grow in size as pressure is
reduced and more of the gas comes out of solution. In other words, the gas
bubbles begin to expand.
• If the liquid part of the magma has a low viscosity, then the gas can expand
relatively easily. When the magma reaches the Earth's surface, the gas bubble
will simply burst, the gas will easily expand to atmospheric pressure, and a
non-explosive eruption will occur, usually as a lava flow (Lava is the name we
give to a magma when it is on the surface of the Earth).
• If the liquid part of the magma has a high viscosity, then the gas will not be
able to expand very easily, and thus, pressure will build up inside of the gas
bubble(s). When this magma reaches the surface, the gas bubbles will have a
high pressure inside, which will cause them to burst explosively on reaching
atmospheric pressure. This will cause an explosive volcanic eruption.
Types of Eruption:
A. Effusive (Non-explosive) Eruptions
Non explosive eruptions are favored by low gas content and low
viscosity magmas (basaltic to andesitic magmas). If the viscosity is
low, non-explosive eruptions usually begin with fire fountains due to
release of dissolved gases.
B. Explosive Eruptions
Explosive eruptions are favored by high gas content and high viscosity
(andesitic to rhyolitic magmas). Explosive bursting of bubbles will
fragment the magma into clots of liquid that will cool as they fall
through the air. These solid particles become pyroclasts (meaning -
hot fragments) and tephra or volcanic ash, which refer to sand-
sized or smaller fragments.
Types of Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanic eruptions, especially explosive ones, are very dynamic phenomena. That is
the behavior of the eruption is continually changing throughout the course of the
eruption. This makes it very difficult to classify volcanic eruptions. Nevertheless
they can be classified according to the principal types of behavior that they
exhibit. An important point to remember, however, is that during a given eruption
the type of eruption may change between several different types.
• Hawaiian - These are eruptions of low viscosity basaltic magma. Gas
discharge produces a fire fountain that shoots incandescent lava up to 1 km
above the vent. The lava, still molten when it returns to the surface flows
away down slope as a lava flow. Hawaiian Eruptions are considered non-
explosive eruptions. Very little pyroclastic material is produced.
• Strombolian - These eruptions are characterized by distinct blasts of basaltic
to andesitic magma from the vent. These blasts produce incandescent bombs
that fall near the vent, eventually building a small cone of tephra (cinder
cone). Sometimes lava flows erupt from vents low on the flanks of the small
cones. Strombolian eruptions are considered mildly explosive, and produce
low elevation eruption columns and pyroclastic fall deposits.
• Vulcanian - These eruptions are characterized by sustained explosions of
solidified or highly viscous andesite or rhyolite magma from the
vent. Eruption columns can reach several km above the vent, and often
collapse to produce pyroclastic flows. Widespread pyroclastic falls are
common that contain mostly angular blocks. Vulcanian eruptions are
considered very explosive.
• Pelean - These eruptions result from the collapse of an andesitic or
rhyolitic lava dome, with or without a directed blast, to produce glowing
avalanches or nuée ardentes, as a type of pyroclastic flow known as a block-
and-ash flow. They may also produce surges with resulting surge
deposits. Pelean eruptions are considered violently explosive.
• Plinian - These eruptions result from a sustained ejection of andesitic to
rhyolitic magma into eruption columns that may extend up to 45 km above
the vent. Eruption columns produce wide-spread fall deposits with thickness
decreasing away from the vent, and may exhibit eruption column collapse to
produce pyroclastic flows and surges. Plinian ash clouds can circle the Earth
in a matter of days. Plinian eruptions are considered violently explosive.
• Phreatomagmatic - These eruptions are produced when magma comes in
contact with shallow groundwater causing the groundwater to flash to steam
and be ejected along with pre-existing fragments of the rock and tephra from
the magma. Because the water expands so rapidly, these eruptions are
violently explosive although the distribution of pyroclasts around the vent is
much less than in a Plinian eruption. Surge deposits are usually produced.
• Phreatic (also called steam blast eruptions) - result when magma encounters
shallow groundwater, flashing the groundwater to steam, which is explosively
ejected along with pre-exiting fragments of rock. No new magma reaches the
surface. Surge deposits may result from these eruptions.
ACTIVITIES
Philippines Volcanic Map and Data
Activity 1.1
I. Objectives
a. Make a list of active volcanoes in the Philippines.
b. Create a map showing their location in the Philippines, and
c. Draw a table of their elevations and eruption (description and current
status).
II. Materials
Internet Cellphone or laptop The Philippines Map
III. Procedure
1. Make a research about the active volcanoes in the Philippines.
2. Using what you have researched, create a map showing their location.
3. Draw table of their elevation and eruption data.
4. Answer the succeeding questions and make your conclusion.
A. Philippines Active Volcanoes Location Map:
B. Philippines Volcanic Data:

Volcano Elevation Location Eruption ( Description and
current state)
IV. Guide Questions:

1. Based on your research, what province/s in the Philippines has the
most active volcanoes?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. What are some of the thermal listed features that are evident on those
places?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. From your table (eruption), what are some of the active volcanoes that
have the latest explosion or eruption?
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
V. Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
The Eruption: The Case of Taal Volcano
Activity 1.2
I. Objectives
a. Cite some effects that are listed from the recent Taal Volcano eruption.
b. Make a mind map/concept map showing how those hazards affects
human and the environment.
II. Materials
Internet
Cellphone or laptop
Other available resources e.g. books, magazines, newspapers, etc.
III. Procedure
1. Using internet, books, and other available references make a research
about the effects of the recent Taal Volcano eruption.
2. To give a clear presentation make a mind map/concept map showing
the effects of the eruption to human and the environment.
3. You can use online resources to help with your research (Do not forget
to cite your references/sources.) and then complete the following
questions below.
Concept Map: The Case of Taal Volcano

1. What are some of the effects of Taal Volcano eruption that were included in
your mind/ concept map?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Which among those effects do you think will take a longer consequence?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. From these, what lesson can you get that will be beneficial for you as part of
the society?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
V. Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Volcanic Eruption Precautions
Activity 1.3
I. Objectives
a. Make a slide show of some safety precautions before, during and after
the volcanic eruption.
B. Share the importance of learning those safety precautions.
II. Materials
Internet
Cellphone or laptop
III. Procedure
1. Make a checklist of what to do before, during and after volcanic
eruption.
2. Look for a picture, take your own picture or you can make your own
illustration on how will you do it.
5. Put all your data on a power point presentation.
4. Report it online during the class and with the presence of your teacher.
IV. Guide Questions
1. While doing your activity, what do you think is the importance of being
informed about the precautions before, during and after volcanic eruption?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What do you think are some of the challenges that may be encountered
while following the safety precautions?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Why do you think your work will become useful for others?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
V. Conclusion
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Let us summarize all, by doing the wrap-up activity below.
WRAP –UP
Answer the following questions:
1. What happens to magma during volcanic eruption?
2. What causes volcanoes to erupt?
3. Compare and contrast the different types of volcanic eruptions.
VALUING
Let me know your thought!
News Analysis about “New Eruption from Taal, One of the Most Dangerous
Volcanoes in the Philippines”.
Click on this link for the complete news.

https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/new-eruption-from-one-of-the-
most-dangerous-volcanoes-in-the-philippines
Guide Questions:
1. Why is Taal Volcano considered as one of the dangerous volcano in
our country?
2. What are some of the potentials that made this volcano hazardous to
the people living nearby?
3. What misconception was given to Taal Volcano, according to the
article?
4. If you were to decide, are you going to allow the residents living
nearby the crater of Taal? How about the famous crater adventure for
tourists?
POSTTEST
paper.
1. Which among the following statements describe effusive eruption?
a. If a magma has a lot of gas which becomes trapped in the magma,
the pressure will build and build until eventually the magma
erupts explosively out of the volcano.
b. If a magma has low viscosity (it is runny), gas can escape easily,
therefore, when the magma erupts at the surface, it forms lava flows.
c. Can form pyroclastic flows which sweep down valleys destroying
everything in their path.
d. It is favored by high gas content and high viscosity
2. What type of eruptions are characterized by distinct blasts of basaltic to

andesitic magma from the vent?
a. Hawaiian c. Strombolian
b. Plinian d. Vulcanian
3. Mt. Pinatubo eruption in June 1991, which complex is surrounded

by pyroclastic flow and lahar deposits is considered as what type of eruption?
a. Effusive Eruption c. Both effusive and explosive
b. Explosive Eruption d. None of the above.
4. Which among the choices is an eruption that is produced when magma

comes in contact with shallow groundwater causing the groundwater to flash
to steam and be ejected along with pre-existing fragments of the rock and
tephra from the magma?
a. Hawaiian c. Phreatomagmatic
b. Plinian d. Vulcanian
5. The recent Taal Volcano eruption in January 2020, characterized by steady

steam emission and infrequent weak explosions, and intense seismic
activity likely signifies continuous magmatic intrusion beneath its edifice,
is considered as what type of explosive eruption?
a. Hawaiian c. Strombolian
b. Phreatic d. Vulcanian
KEY TO CORRECTION
Wrap up Warm-up
Answers may vary Pretest
depending on the 1. I’m dating a 1. c
views and Gangster. 2. d
observations of the 2. Roar 3. c
3. Crazy Beautiful You 4. c
students. You may
5. a
consult your Science Review:
teacher through your For Activities. Answers
class group chat. may vary depending 1.magma
on the views and 2.silicon oxide
Post-test
observations of the 3.viscosity
1. b
students. You may 4.basaltic
2. c
3. b consult your Science 5.rhyolitic
4. c teacher through your 6.andesitic
5. b class group chat.
REFERENCES
Webpages
Geoffrey Hill; Malinda Schaefer Zarske; Denise W. Carlson, 2006 by Regents of the
University of Colorado, Volcanic Panic!, Teaching Engineering, STEM Curriculum
K12, https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/cub_natdis_lesson04
Education, National Geographic Society, April 5, 2019
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/magma/#:~:text=There%20are
%20three%20basic%20types,low%20in%20potassium%20and%20sodium.
Gautam Priyadarshi, M. Sc. Environmental Science, Published on April 6, 2017,
https://www.slideshare.net/GautamParghi/volcanic-eruption-74587697
Yannah Hidalgo, Published on May 19, 2015 through
Slideshare,https://www.slideshare.net/ilovepuffs06/types-of-volcanic-eruption-ppt
Prof. Stephen A. Nelson, “Volcanoes, Magma and Volcanic Eruption”, Natural
Disasters, Tulane University, Last Updated: September 14, 2015,
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Natural_Disasters/volcan&magma.htm
Erik Kelmetti, Rocky Planet, Discover Magazine, January 12, 2020, 7:31
AM,https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/new-eruption-from-one-of-
the-most-dangerous-volcanoes-in-the-philippines
Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
Stress and Strain
EXPECTATIONS
This module is designed and written to help you master the lesson on the formation
of folds when rocks are subjected to stress. The scope of this module permits it to
be used in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes your
diverse vocabulary level. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence
of the course.
The module is about the formation of folds when rocks are subjected to stress.

a. explain the descriptive features of folds,
b. compare and contrast the types of folds,
c. cite some economic implications of folds.
PRETEST
1. How do you call the force applied to a rock and may cause
deformation?
a. Compression c. Strain
b. Magmatism d. Stress
2. Many rocks flow in response to stress like higher temperature and
pressures, this scenario is an example of what type of deformation?
a. Brittle c. Compression
b. Ductile d. Stress
3. Which among the following best describes syncline folds?
a. linear, strata normally dip toward axial center, the youngest strata
in the center
b. linear ,strata dip away from axial center, age unknown, or inverted.
c. linear, strata dip toward axial center, age unknown, or inverted.
d. angular fold with straight limbs and small hinges
4. Rocks deforming plastically under compressive stresses crumple into

what kind of geological structure?
a. Brittle c. Fault
b. Ductile d. Fold
5. The following are the classification of folds, which is an exemption?
a. Tightness of folding c. Geological class of folds
b. Thickness of folded beds d. Orientation of axial plane
RECAP
Let’s Review! Word search. Find the following words.
LESSON
I. Warm-up: Take a look at the following pictures. Here are some of the famous
rock formations that you might have visited already or you’ve known already.
II. CONCEPTS:
Forces and stress

Rocks change their shape and volume when they are subjected to stress. Stresses
are caused by forces that are exerted on the edges or interior of a material. A wide
variety of physical processes exert stresses on rocks. For example, gravity
constantly exerts downward stress on all rocks. Temperature changes cause
thermal expansion and contraction that can cause rocks to fracture. Wetting and
drying similarly can induce or enhance rock fractures. On a large scale, horizontal
plate movement exerts lateral (horizontal) and vertical stresses on rocks. The
accumulation of thick layers of sediment can exert immense downward pressure on
rocks that are buried underneath.
Rocks exhibit two principal responses to stresses that are exerted on them. They
may deform like a brittle material, meaning that they fracture and
fault. Alternatively, at higher temperatures and pressures, many rocks flow in
response to stress. This type of deformation is referred to as ductile. Layers of
sediments that are only weakly consolidated or cemented might also flow when
stressed.
In geology, fold is characterized as the undulation or waves in the

stratified rocks of Earth’s crust. Stratified rocks were originally formed from
sediments that were deposited in flat horizontal sheets, but in a number of places
the strata are no longer horizontal but have been warped.
Descriptive Features of Folds:
Fold Size: Minor folds are quite frequently seen in outcrop; major folds seldom are
except in the more arid countries. Minor folds can, however, often provide the key
to the major folds they are related to. They reflect the same shape and style, the
direction in which the closures of the major folds lie, and their cleavage indicates
the attitude of the axial planes of the major folds and their direction of overturning
Fold Shape: A fold can be shaped like a chevron, with planar limbs meeting at an
angular axis, as cuspate with curved limbs, as circular with a curved axis, or as
elliptical with unequal wavelength.
Fold Tightness: Fold tightness is defined by the size of the angle between the fold's
limbs (as measured tangential to the folded surface at the inflection line of each
limb), called the interlimb angle. Gentle folds have an interlimb angle of between
180° and 120°, open folds range from 120° to 70°, close folds from 70° to 30°, and
tight folds from 30° to 0°.[5] Isoclines, or isoclinal folds, have an interlimb angle of
between 10° and zero, with essentially parallel limbs.
Fold Symmetry: Not all folds are equal on both sides of the axis of the fold. Those
with limbs of relatively equal length are termed symmetrical, and those with highly
unequal limbs are asymmetrical. Asymmetrical folds generally have an axis at an
angle to the original unfolded surface they formed on.
Facing and Vergence: Vergence is calculated in a direction perpendicular to the
fold axis.
Deformation style classes: Folds that maintain uniform layer thickness are
classed as concentric folds. Those that do not are called similar folds. Similar folds
tend to display thinning of the limbs and thickening of the hinge zone. Concentric
folds are caused by warping from active buckling of the layers, whereas similar
folds usually form by some form of shear flow where the layers are not
mechanically active. Ramsay has proposed a classification scheme for folds that
often is used to describe folds in profile based upon the curvature of the inner and
outer lines of a fold and the behavior of dip isogons. that is, lines connecting points
of equal dip on adjacent folded surfaces
Fold Classification
Folds are classified on the basis of several geometric factors:
Tightness of folding
the tightness of folds can be described as open (limbs
dip gently), tight (limbs dip steeply) or isoclinal (limbs
are parallel).
Orientation of axial
plane
The orientation of the
axial plane relative to
the horizontal together with the orientation of fold
limbs allow subdivision into upright (axial plane
vertical, limbs symmetric), overturned (axial plane
moderately inclined, one limb overturned), or recumbent (axial plane near
horizontal, one limb inverted).
Thickness of folded beds

Thickly-bedded, brittle units tend to form concentric folds with the bed thickness
preserved normal to bedding surfaces. Thinly-bedded, clay-rich units have a
tendency to develop a foliation parallel to the axial plane and form similar folds
with the vertical distance between top and bottom of the unit preserved through the
deformation
Types of Folds
• Anticline: linear, strata normally dip away from axial center, oldest
strata in center.
• Syncline: linear, strata normally dip toward axial center, youngest strata
in center.
• Antiform: linear, strata dip away from axial center, age unknown, or
inverted.
• Synform: linear, strata dip toward axial centre, age unknown, or
inverted.
• Dome: nonlinear, strata dip away from center in all directions, oldest
strata in center.
• Basin: nonlinear, strata dip toward center in all directions, youngest
strata in center.
• Monocline: linear, strata dip in one direction between horizontal layers
on each side.
• Chevron: angular fold with straight limbs and small hinges
• Recumbent: linear, fold axial plane oriented at low angle resulting in
overturned strata in one limb of the fold.
• Slump: typically monoclinal, result of differential compaction or
dissolution during sedimentation and lithification.
• Ptygmatic: Folds are chaotic, random and disconnected. Typical of
sedimentary slump folding, migmatites and decollement detachment
zones.
• Parasitic: short wavelength folds formed within a larger wavelength fold
structure – normally associated with differences in bed thickness
• Disharmonic: Folds in adjacent layers with different wavelengths and
shape
ACTIVITIES
Classification of Folds: Compare and Contrast

Activity 1.1
I. Objectives
a. Compare and contrast the different classification of folds.
b. Make an illustration showing their differences (e.g. fold limbs)
II. Materials
Internet Cellphone or laptop drawing materials
III. Procedure
1. Make a research about the different classification of folds
2. Using what you have researched, illustrate the folds showing their
differences.
3. Make your conclusion.
A. Classification of Folds
IV. Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Economic Implications of Folds
Activity 1.2
I. Objectives
a. Cite some of the economic implications of folds in mining and oiling
industry.
b. Answer the succeeding questions and make a conclusion.
II. Materials
Internet
Cellphone or laptop
III. Procedure
about the economic implication of folds in mining and oil industry.
questions and make a conclusion.

1. Why is geological folding important in the mining industry?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. What is the importance of folds in the formation of hydrocarbons?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Why is fold important in the oil industry?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
V. Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Folds Representation using Playdough

Activity 1.3
I. Objectives;
The focus of this activity is on the folding and faulting of layered playdough which
is used to represent layered rocks. Folds show up best in layered rocks but can
also occur in unaltered rock such as granite.
a. Learn why and how rock layers are folded.

b.. Share the importance of learning the during the online class with your
teacher.
II. Materials
Internet
Cellphone or laptop
For the activity:
Play Dough (no-cooking recipe)
2 cups flour
2 Tablespoons oil
1 cup salt
1 cup cold water
6 teaspoons alum or cream of tartar
food colorings (as above)
III. Procedure
1. Prepare the materials for the activities.
2. Make a playdough by following this procedure:

a. Make this large batch one color or divide ingredients in half to make 2
colors. You will need 4 colors total.
b. Mix ingredients and knead until smooth and elastic.
c. Store in air tight containers.
3. You should begin by layering four colors of playdough to represent a horizontally

layered rock mass with the oldest layer at the bottom. By pushing on the
playdough block from two opposite side, the students apply a compressive stress
resulting in the folding of the layers into an anticline. An anticline is a fold in rock
that resembles an arch
4.. After you have created an anticline in the layered playdough they will shave off
the top, draw a map of the surface, and infer the interior structure. The fold is
convex upward so the oldest rocks are in the middle.
5. Put all your data by taking pictures or illustration while doing the activity, and
the result.
IV. Guide Questions

1. While doing your activity, what do you think is the importance of learning
what happens during folding?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What happened to your playdough when you pushed it on both sides?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What output have you made after following the directions given?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
V. Conclusion
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
WRAP-UP
Complete the sentence. Choose the words from the following inside the box.
1. Folds are classified on the basis of several ________________.

2. Rocks change their shape and volume when they are subjected to ______.
3. Rocks may deform like a _____ material, meaning that they fracture and
fault.
4. _______________ is defined by the size of the angle between the fold's
limbs (as measured tangential to the folded surface at the inflection line of
each limb), called the interlimb angle.
5. Folds that maintain uniform layer thickness are classed as __________
folds.
6. Temperature changes cause thermal expansion and contraction that can
cause rocks to __________.
7. ____________is calculated in a direction perpendicular to the fold axis.
8. In ____________, folds in adjacent layers with different wavelengths and
.shape
9. _________ are quite frequently seen in outcrop.
10. ___________ is angular fold with straight limbs and small hinges.
Chevron Geometrical factors Stress Minor folds Brittle

Fold tightness Disharmonic Concentric Fracture Vergence
VALUING
Talk it over:
Share:
Process:
What are the
How folds do forms?
advantages of learning
about the different
folds in rocks?
Generalize:
Can you think of a

landform you have Apply:
visited or seen that has How can your knowledge
formed as a result of fold of folds help you safely
occurring on the Earth’s handle flexible /brittle
surface? material in the future?
POSTTEST
paper.
1. Folds are classified on the basis of following geometric factors. Which of
the following is not an example of it?
a. Deformation of style classes
b. Orientation of axial plane
c. Thickness of folded beds
d. Tightness of folds
2. Which best describes the deformation style classes of folds?
a. Minor folds are quite frequently seen in outcrop; major folds
seldom are except in the more arid countries
b. Folds that maintain uniform layer thickness are classed
as concentric folds.
c. Not all folds are equal on both sides of the axis of the fold
d. Folds in adjacent layers with different wavelengths and shape.
3. Thickly-bedded, brittle units tend to form concentric folds with the bed
thickness preserved normal to bedding surfaces, this happen in what
geometrical factor of fold?
a. descriptive features of fold
b. Orientation of axial plane
c. Thickness of folded beds
d. Tightness of folds
4. The following are descriptive features of fold, which one is an exemption?
a. Fold Size c. Fold Tightness
b. Fold Shape d. Fold Features
5. A wide variety of physical processes exert stresses on rocks. Which of the
following supports this statement?
a. Similar folds tend to display thinning of the limbs and thickening
of the hinge zone.
b. Short wavelength folds formed within a larger wavelength fold
structure.
c. Folds in adjacent layers with different wavelengths and shape.
d. Gravity constantly exerts downward stress on all rocks.
KEY TO CORRECTION
Wrap up Warm-up Pretest

1. Geometrical factors 1. d
2. Stress 2. b
3. Brittle For Activities. Activity 3. a
4. Fold tightness 4. d
1: Slate, 2. Marble, 3.
5. Concentric 5. c
6. Fracture Schist 4. Quartzite 5.
Hornfels, other Review:
7. Vergence
8 Disharmonic answers may vary
9.Minor folds depending on the
10.Chevron views and
observations of the
Post-test students. You may
1. a consult your Science
2. b teacher through your
3. c class group chat.
4. d
5. d
REFERENCES
Books/ e-Books
Steven Earle, Physical Geology – 2nd Edition , Gabriola Island, 2015,BP Campus
https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/7-1-controls-over-metamorphic-processes/
Webpages
Introduction to Stress and Strain. Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning. Provided by:
Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-geology/chapter/outcome-stress-and-strain/
Wikipedia, Fold (Geology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fold_(geology)#:~:text=Folds%20in%20the%20rock%20are,are%20mea
sured%20in%20the%20field.
Geological Folds, Geology Page, December 26,205

http://www.geologypage.com/2015/12/geological-folds.html
Lecture #3, How do Rocks deform?, Forces and Stress,

http://geoscience.wisc.edu/~chuck/Classes/Mtn_and_Plates/rock_deformation.html
ER Services, Tectonic Forces, Geological Structure, Attributed with Dynamic Earth: Introduction to
Physical Geography. Authored by: R. Adam Dastrup. Located
at: http://www.opengeography.org/physical-geography.html. Project: Open Geography
Education. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-Share Alike
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-geophysical/chapter/geologic-structures/
Space grant, Hawaii Education,

http://www.spacegrant.hawaii.edu/class_acts/FoldsFaultsTe.html
Images
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-geophysical/chapter/geologic-structures/
http://www.geologypage.com/2015/12/geological-folds.html
Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
Faults in Rocks
EXPECTATIONS
This module is designed and written to help you master the lesson about earthquakes
and the formation of faults when rocks are subjected to stress. The scope of this
module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language
used recognizes your diverse vocabulary level. The lessons are arranged to follow the
standard sequence of the course.
The module is about the formation of faults when rocks are subjected to stress
and earthquakes.

a. explain the formation of faults,
b. compare and contrast the three types of faults,
c. cite some economic implication of faults and some
safety precautions for it.
PRETEST
1. How do you call the fault that occurs in response to extension?

a. Normal Fault c. Strike-Slip Fault
b. Reverse Fault d. Stress Fault
2. The shaking is caused by movements in Earth’s outermost
layer, is known as?
a. Earthquake c. Compression
b. Fault d. Stress
3. Which among the following best describes reverse fault?
a. This type of faulting occurs in response to extension, which occurs
when the “hanging wall” moves down relative to the “foot wall””
b. A type of faulting is common in areas of compression, when the dip
angle is shallow, a reverse fault is often described as a thrust fault.
c. The fault surface can be horizontal or vertical or some arbitrary
angle in between.
d. A fault on which the two blocks slide past one another
4. Listed below are some of the biggest fault lines in the Philippines,
which one is not?
a. Central Philippine Fault
b. The San Andres Fault
c. The Eastern Philippine Fault
d. The Western Philippine Fault
5. What is considered as a small earthquake in underground caverns
and mines that are caused by seismic waves produced from the
explosion of rock on the surface?
a. collapsed c. tectonic
b. explosion d. volcanic
RECAP
Let’s Review! Double-Trouble: Arrange the scrambled words and write it inside
the box provided. Copy the letters in the numbered boxes and write them in the
boxes at the bottom with the same number to discover the mystery phrase.
LESSON
I. Warm-up: Picture Analysis: Take a look at this picture data. This shows the list
of devastating faults that hits the Philippines in different years.
Guide Questions:
• What have you noticed

on the data and
description shown in the
picture/graphic?
• What are the results of

the high magnitudes
that were noted in
different years?
II. CONCEPTS:
A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow
the blocks to move relative to each other. Faults may range in length from a few
millimeters to thousands of kilometers. Most faults produce repeated
displacements over geologic time. During an earthquake, the rock on one side of
the fault suddenly slips with respect to the other. The fault surface can be
horizontal or vertical or some arbitrary angle in between.
o There are five active fault lines in the country namely the Western Philippine
Fault, the Eastern Philippine Fault, the South of Mindanao Fault, Central
Philippine Fault and the Marikina/Valley Fault System.
o There are two types of faults: Dip- slip Fault and Strike-slip Faults.
A. Dip-slip faults are inclined fractures where the blocks have mostly
shifted vertically. If the rock mass above an inclined fault moves down, the
fault is termed normal, whereas if the rock above the fault moves up, the
fault is termed reverse.
There are three different types of Dip-slip Faults:
• Normal faults: A dip-slip

fault in which the block
above the fault has moved
downward relative to the
block below. This type of
faulting occurs in response
to extension. “Occurs when
the “hanging wall” moves
down relative to the “foot
wall””
• Reverse faults form

when the hanging wall
moves up. The forces
creating reverse faults
are compressional,
pushing the sides
together.
• A thrust fault is a break

in the Earth's crust,
across which older rocks
are pushed above
younger rocks.
B. Transcurrent or Strike-slip faults A fault on which the two blocks slide

past one another. The San Andreas Fault is an example of a right lateral
fault.
Types of Strike-slip fault movements:
A left-lateral strike-slip fault A right-lateral strike-slip fault

If you were to stand on the fault and If you were to stand on the fault and look
along its length, this is a type of strike-slip
look along its length, this is a type of
fault where the right block moves toward you
strike-slip fault where the left block and the left block moves away.
moves toward you and the right block
moves away .
Fault Rock
All faults have a measurable thickness, made up of deformed rock characteristic of

the level in the crust where the faulting happened, of the rock types affected by the
fault and of the presence and nature of any mineralizing fluids. Fault rocks are
classified by their textures and the implied mechanism of deformation. A fault that
passes through different levels of the lithosphere will have many different types of
fault rock developed along its surface. Continued dip-slip displacement tends to
juxtapose fault rocks characteristic of different crustal levels, with varying degrees
of overprinting. This effect is particularly clear in the case of detachment faults and
major thrust faults.
The main types of fault rock include:
• Cataclasite – a fault rock which is cohesive with a poorly developed or absent

planar fabric, or which is incohesive, characterized by generally
angular clasts and rock fragments in a finer-grained matrix of similar
composition.
o Tectonic or Fault breccia – a medium- to coarse-grained cataclasite
containing >30% visible fragments.
o Fault gouge – an incohesive, clay-rich fine- to ultrafine-grained cataclasite,
which may possess a planar fabric and containing <30% visible fragments.
Rock clasts may be present
▪ Clay smear - clay-rich fault gouge formed in sedimentary sequences
containing clay-rich layers which are strongly deformed and sheared into
the fault gouge.
• Mylonite – a fault rock which is cohesive and characterized by a well-developed
planar fabric resulting from tectonic reduction of grain size, and commonly
containing rounded porphyroclasts and rock fragments of similar composition
to minerals in the matrix
• Pseudotachylyte – ultrafine-grained glassy-looking material, usually black
and flinty in appearance, occurring as thin planar veins, injection veins or as a
matrix to pseudoconglomerates or breccias, which infills dilation fractures in
the host rock. Pseudotachylyte likey only forms as the result of seismic slip
rates, and can act as a fault rate indicator on inactive faults.
ACTIVITIES
THE BIG ONE: An Analysis

Activity 1.1
I. Objectives
a. Make you own illustration/map of the famous Big One.
b. Give a short analysis about your work and the information gathered
about “The Big One”.
II. Materials
Internet Cellphone or laptop drawing materials
III. Procedure
1. Make a research about “The Big One”. You can read this article by
clicking on this link. https://business.inquirer.net/269314/devastating-
faults-of-the-big-one and http://www.nrcp.dost.gov.ph/feature-
articles/280-the-big-one-facts-and-impacts
2. Using what you have researched, make a map or illustration showing
how will the Big One affect Metro Manila particularly Pasig City.
3. Make an analysis and your conclusion.
A. THE BIG ONE: MAP
B. THE BIG ONE: ANALYSIS

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
IV. Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Economic Implications of Faults and Earthquakes in Pasig City
Activity 1.2
I. Objectives
a. Cite some of the economic implications of faults in humans and the
environment from your locality.
b. Make a research to get data about the effects of faults and earthquakes
to human and the environment.
II. Materials
Internet
Cellphone or laptop
III. Procedure
about the effect of fault and earthquake to human and the environment.
questions and make a conclusion.
Effects Earthquake and Fault in Pasig:
Year Happened: Magnitude/Fault: Effects:

1. What are some of the biggest effects of earthquakes/ faults in Pasig City that
you have researched about?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Based on your researched data, in what year does the Pasig City had the
most effect from earthquake?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What are some of the economic implications in Pasig City caused by

earthquakes and/or faults?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. If you were to assess your house location, how safe do you think your family
from earthquakes and fault? You can use numerical rating from one to ten
(highest is ten and one is the lowest? Explain.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
V. Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Earthquake Safety Precautions

Activity 1.3
I. Objectives
a. Make a slide show of some safety precautions before, during and after
the earthquakes.
B. Share the importance of learning those safety precautions.
II. Materials
Internet
Cellphone or laptop
III. Procedure
1. Make a checklist of what to do before, during and earthquake.
2. Look for a picture, take your own picture or you can make your own
illustration on how will you do it.
3. Put all your data on a power point presentation.
4. Report it online during the class and with the presence of your
teacher.
IV. Guide Questions
1. While doing your activity, what do you think is the importance of being
informed about the precautions before, during and after earthquake?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What do you think are some of the challenges that may be encountered
while following the safety precautions for earthquake?
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Why do you think your work will become useful for others?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. What suggestions can you give to City Government of Pasig with regards
to earthquake safety precautions?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. In general, why is it important to prepare for earthquakes?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
V. Conclusion
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

WRAP-UP
Answer the following questions:
1. What is the difference between earthquake and fault?

2. Why does earthquake happens?
3. Compare and contrast the different type of earthquakes?
4. Enumerate the different types of faults.
VALUING
Let me know your thought!
▪ Are you familiar with the earthquake drill?

▪ How many times have you participated the in this kind of drill?
▪ Why do you think it is important to conduct an earthquake drill?
▪ What can you learn from participating from this kind of activity?
POSTTEST
paper.
1. Fault are subdivided according to the movement of two blocks and there
are three primary fault types, which of the following is not included?
a. Normal Fault
b. Reverse Fault
c. Stress Fault
d. Strike-split Fault
2. What is the type of strike-split fault that is characterized when the right
block moves toward you and the left block moves away?
a. a left –lateral strike-slip fault
b. a right –lateral strike-slip fault
c. a strike everywhere fault.
d. none of the above.
3. Which major fault line in the Philippines do you think will have a big effect
in Pasig City?
a. Central Philippine Fault
b. Marikina/Valley Fault System
c. The Eastern Philippine Fault
d. The Western Philippine Fault
4. What do you call energy from an earthquake travels through Earth in

vibrations?
a. collapsed earthquake
b. volcanic earthquake
c. tectonic wave
d. seismic wave
5. Fault rocks are classified by their textures and the implied mechanism of
deformation, which of the following statements support about fault rocks?
a. A fault that passes through different levels of the lithosphere will
have many different types of fault rock developed along its
surface.
b. The forces creating reverse faults are compressional, pushing the
sides together.
c. Faults allow the blocks to move relative to each other
d. Gravity constantly exerts downward stress on all rocks.
KEY TO CORRECTION
Wrap up Warm-up Pretest

1. Geometrical factors 1. a
2. Stress 2. a
3. Brittle For Activities. Activity 3. b
4. Fold tightness 4. b
1: Slate, 2. Marble, 3.
5. Concentric 5. a
6. Fracture Schist 4. Quartzite 5.
Hornfels, other Review:
7. Vergence
8 Disharmonic answers may vary BASIN
9.Minor folds depending on the DOME
10.Chevron views and ANTICLINE
observations of the SYNCLINE
Post-test students. You may There are different
1. c consult your Science types of geological folds.
2. b teacher through your
3. b class group chat.
4. d
5. a
REFERENCES
Books/ e-Books
Steven Earle, Physical Geology – 2nd Edition , Gabriola Island, 2015,BP Campus
https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/7-1-controls-over-metamorphic-processes/
Webpages
https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-fault-and-what-are-different-types?qt-
news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products
Fault Types, Geology Page, October 17,2017 http://www.geologypage.com/2017/10/three-
main-types-faults.html#ixzz6VPOKH2Og
Different types of Fault, Copyright 2009 GNS Science,

https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Earthquakes/Earthquakes-and-
Faults/Different-types-of-Faults
What Is an Earthquake?. NASA Science, SpacePlace, Explore Earth and Space

NASA Official: Kristen Erickson, Program Manager: Heather Doyle Contact NASA Space
Place Last Updated: August 12th, 2020
https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/earthquakes/en/#:~:text=An%20earthquake%20is%20an%20
intense,movements%20in%20Earth's%20outermost%20layer.
Devastating Faults of the Big Ones, Marielle Medina – Researcher, Inquirer.Net, Inquirer
Research / 02:48 AM April 27, 2019
https://business.inquirer.net/269314/devastating-faults-of-the-big-one
Images
http://www.geologypage.com/2017/10/three-main-types-faults.html#ixzz6VPOKH2Og
https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Earthquakes/Earthquakes-and-
Faults/Different-types-of-Faults
Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
Sea-Floor Spreading
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about the evidences and processes of seafloor spreading.
1. Define sea floor spreading.

2. Cite some evidences supported by Hess’s theory about sea floor spreading.
3. Discuss the steps in the process of sea floor spreading.
PRETEST
Directions. Read the questions and encircle the letters of correct answers.
1. Who proposed that the sea floor is spreading?

a. Harry Hess c. Alfred Wegener
b. Sir Isaac Newton d. Sir Arthur Holmes
2. What kind of plate boundary occurs in sea floor spreading?

a. Convergent c. Transform
b. Divergent d. none of these
3. What is sea floor spreading?

a. A thing in the ocean.
b. A fracture separating one plate from another.
c. Mid-ocean ridges continually add new material to the ocean floor.
d. Mid-ocean trenches continually add new material to the ocean floor.
4. Which is NOT an evidence of sea floor spreading?

a. Fossil evidence c. Drilling samples of rocks
b. Magnetic stripes d. Molten magma constantly erupting
5. Which of the following supports the theory of sea floor spreading?

a. Crustal age c. correlation of rock layers
b. Magnetic reverse d. continuous mountain chains
RECAP
1.Classify the following rocks below whether it is Igneous, Sedimentary or

Metamorphic rocks. Write your answer in the corresponding column for each type of
rock.
Igneous rocks Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic rocks
Choices:
Granite Basalt Rhyolite Diorite
Shale Sandstone Conglomerate Quartzite
Marble Slate Gneiss Schist
II. Identify the layers of the earth.
1 2 3 4
LESSON
A plate boundary is a fracture separating plates from one another. One of the
boundaries known is divergent boundary. Mostly this kind of boundary occurs
along the crest of oceanic ridge. Magma is pushed up through cracks in the crust
along mid- ocean ridge. When that happens, upwelling of magma causing two
plates to move apart and new sea floor is created.
Sea floor spreading is a geologic process in which tectonic plates –large
slabs of Earth’s lithosphere-split apart from each other.
Heat from molten materials from the mantle and core is released towards the
lithosphere through convection current. The process on how the convection currents
in the interior of the Earth made the seafloor spreading was explained by Harry Hess,
an American geophysicist in 1960. He also mentioned that these currents ensure
that the materials formed in the lithosphere are “recycled” back into the mantle. He
called this recycling process as seafloor spreading, wherein the mid-oceanic ridges
are formed, spread sideways to form seafloor, and disappear into the ocean trenches.
Figure 1. It shows the processes on sea floor spreading
Rising of the molten materials made the seafloor spread sideways. Then, through
this motion, the seafloor above it will be pulled. Mid-ocean ridge, which is also known as
a break or an opening will be created, that will serve as the outlet for the molten materials
to go out. Formation of new oceanic crust occur from the outpouring of the molten
materials, and as the process continues, building of oceanic ridges or underwater
mountain ranges which are composed of volcanic rocks followed.
Rift valley is a central valley formed at the summit of the oceanic ridges as the
molten materials continuously flow out from the ridges. The molten materials push the
seafloor away from the ridges and towards the trenches. When you say trenches,
these are depressions on the ocean floor. Molten materials started to cool and become
denser after being brought near the trenches, then these materials will sink back down
into the Earth where it is heated and melted again. The spreading of the seafloor
continues as a “recycling” process. The process continues until it disappears back into
the deep ocean trenches together with the creation of new seafloor.
The seafloor is constantly recycled. This was proven by the records that show that
the oldest seafloor is relatively younger (about 170 million years old) than the oldest rocks
(about 3 billion years old) found on land. Through these, it was found out that the nearer
the ocean floor to the oceanic ridge, the younger it is compared to the ones farther from
the ridge. Thus, the oldest known ocean floor is dated at about 200 million years,
indicating that older ocean floor has been destroyed through subduction at deep-sea
trenches. The age of the sea-floor also supports sea-floor spreading. If sea-floor
spreading operates, the youngest oceanic crust should be found at the ridges and
progressively older crust should be found in moving away from the ridges towards
the continents.
ACTIVITIES
A. Label the illustration showing the ages of rock by looking on the choices below.
3
2 4
1 5
Choices:
Mid-Atlantic Ridge or Mid-Oceanic Ridge
Sea- floor Spreading Oldest Older Youngest
B. Direction. Modified True of False. Write TRUE if the statement is correct but if
it is false, underlined the word or group of words to make the statement true.
1. The molten material rises and makes the sea floor to be pulled apart and
creating a break or an opening that serves as an outlet for molten materials
to go out.
2. The oldest seafloor is farthest from the ocean ridge.
3. New crust is always formed at the asthenosphere.
4. Sea floor spreading is when new sea floor is formed when magma is forced
upward.
5. The rock that is located near the mid- ocean ridge is older and colder.
Model of Sea- Floor Spreading

Activity no. C
I.Objectives:
➢ Make a model of sea floor spreading by the use of a paper.
➢ Identify the parts of the model representing the sea floor spreading.
II.Materials:
Scissors Ruler 1 card board/folder
1 paper colored marker
III. Procedure:
1. Draw stripes across one sheet of paper, parallel to the short sides of the paper.
The stripes should vary in spacing and thickness.
2. Fold the paper in half lengthwise and write the word “Start” at the top of both
halves of the paper. Using the scissors carefully cut the paper in half along the fold
line to form two strips.
3. Lightly fold the second sheet of paper into eighths. Then unfold it, leaving creases
in the paper. Fold this sheet in half lengthwise.
4. Starting at the fold, draw lines 5.5 cm long on the middle crease and the two
creases closest to the ends of the paper.
5. Now carefully cut along the lines you drew. Unfold the paper. There should be
three slits in the center of the paper. Write slit A and B on both ends of the paper.
Figure 2. Making Slits on the paper
6. Put the two striped strips of paper together so their Start labels touch one
another. Insert the Start ends of the strips up through the center slit, and
then pull them toward the side slits.
7. Insert the ends of the strips into the side slits. Pull the ends of the strips, and
watch what happens at the center slit.
8. Practice pulling the strips through the slits until you can make the two strips
come up and go down at the same time.
Figure 3. Model of sea-floor spreading

1.What feature of the ocean floor does the center slit stand for?
2. What do the side slits stand for?
3. How does the ocean floor close to the center slit differ from the ocean floor near
the side slit?
4. What do the stripes stand for?
5. Why is it important that your model have identical pattern of stripes on both sides
of the center slit?
6. How do differences in density and temperature cause sea-floor spreading and
subduction?
V. Conclusion:
WRAP-UP
Identify the following:
1. A kind of plate boundary that moves away from each other.

2. American geophysicist explained how the convection currents in the
Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread
3. Depression on the ocean floor.
4. It is where the molten materials go out through the crack in the crust on
the ocean floor.
_______5. A geologic process in which tectonic plates –large slabs of Earth’s
lithosphere-split apart from each other.
VALUING
Sea floor spreading occurs at a divergent plate boundary. When tectonic plates
separate, magma rises up and cools down into rock forming new crust. New crust is
formed at the mid oceanic ridges, elsewhere on earth, the old crust is being destroyed
at the same rate it is created. This old crust will go on the region which is the
subduction zone and plunged into a high temperature and pressure environment.
Some materials melt and may migrate upward giving rise to volcanic eruption.
By looking on this illustration, you will see the beauty of this volcano. What if
this volcano will erupt again just like what happened in Taal. Do you think you are
prepared? Why and why not?
Figure 4 Shows the beauty of a volcano
POSTTEST
Directions. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1.What happens to the molten materials as it started to cool and become denser
after being brought to trenches?
a. Molten materials will become volcano.
b. Molten materials will stay as cool as it is.
c. Molten materials will be back again to the ridge.
d. Molten materials being heated and melted again.
2. Which of the following descriptions below best describes continental rise?

a. This is found rising above the ocean floor.
b. This is found at the ocean mid-ridge system.
c. It links the deep ocean basin floor to the continental slope.
d. It is boundary between continental slope and continental shelf.
3.What is the difference between seafloor spreading and subduction?
a. Sea-floor spreading and subduction destroys old crust.
b. Sea-floor spreading and subduction only create new crust.
c. Sea-floor spreading creates new crust while subduction destroys old crust.
d. Sea-floor spreading creates old crust while subduction destroys new crust.
4. How is rift valley formed?

a. It is formed on a divergent plate boundary.
b. It is formed due to emerging of volcanoes from the sea.
c. When two continents collide and undergo subduction zone.
d. When the rock that is located near the mid- ocean ridge is older and colder.
5. What internal process drives the molten rocks in the mantle to rise to the
lithosphere?
a. fusion c. conduction
b. radiation d. convection current
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pretest Review Activities Wrap up Post-

A1. Oldest test
2.Older
3.Youngest
4.Older
5.Oldest
6.Mid-Atlantic Ridge
7 Sea-floor Spreading.
B.1. True
2.True
3. Mid-ocean ridge
4. True
5. New/hotter
A Igneous: C. 1. Divergent 1. D
1. A 1.Granite 1. Mid ocean ridge 2. Harry 2. C
2. B 2.Basalt 2. Subduction zone Hess 3. C
3. C 3.Rhyolite 3. Center of the slit forms 3. Trenches 4. A
4. A 4. Diorite younger rock than far 4. Mid – 5. D
5. B Sedimentary ocean
from the ridge (older
Rocks: ridge
B. 1.Shale rock) 5. Sea-floor
1.crust 2.Sandstone 4. Rocks age spreading
2.mantle 3.Conglomerate 5. It shows normal and
3.outer Metamorphic reversed polarity on the
core rocks: ocean floor.
4.inner 1.Marble 6. The cooler denser
core 2.Slate mantle sinks causing
3. Gneiss subduction and the
4.Schist hotter mantle rises to
5.Quartzite
the surface causing sea
floor spreading.
Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
Ocean Basin
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about the structure and evolution of ocean basins.

1. Define ocean basin
2. Cite examples of ocean basin and describe each
3. Identify the various methods of measuring ocean depths
4. Describe the different features of ocean basin.
PRETEST
Read the questions and encircle the letters of the correct answers.
1. What do you call the boundary between the continental slope and shelf?
a. Ocean floor c. Continental slope
b. Continental crust d. Continental break
2. A relatively shallow gently sloping part of the continental crust that borders
the continent. It has a depth of 130m with a maximum width of about 1300
km.
a. Continental rise c. Continental shelf
b. Continental slope d. Continental break
3. It links the deep ocean basin floor to the continental slope.

a. Continental break c. Continental shelf
b. Continental slope d. Continental rise
4. What is formed at the base of the continental rise about 4000 to 6000 meters
deep?
a. Sea c. Ocean floor
b. Ocean d. Ocean basin
5. It leads to deep water and represents the true edge of the continent and
extends downward to a depth of about 4km.
a. Continental break c. Continental shelf
b. Continental slope d. Continental rise
RECAP
Pick the word/s in the box below to complete the meaning of sea-floor
spreading.
Mid -ocean ridge New Crust

Subduction zone Old crust
Molten/basaltic magma Convergent
Divergent Volcanic eruption
Upward Downward
Sea-floor spreading occurs at a (1) ___________ plate boundary. When tectonic plates
separate, (2) ______rises up and cools down into rock forming (3) _______. New crust
is formed at the (4) ________, elsewhere on earth, the (5) ______is being destroyed at
the same rate it is created. This (6) ______will go on the region which is the (7)
_________zone and plunged into a high (8) ______ and pressure environment.
Materials melt and the migrate (9) ______ giving rise to (10) __________.
LESSON
Ocean basins are regions that are below sea level. About 70% of these areas
hold the planet’s water. Ocean basins can be identified as active or inactive. If active,
there are a lot of new structures being created and shaped, or they can be inactive,
where their surface is slow to change and does little more than collect sediment .
There are different examples of ocean basins. One of these is the Pacific Ocean
which is considered as the largest and has the greatest depth. The Atlantic Ocean
which is about half the size of the Pacific not quite as deep. Another is the Indian
Ocean which is slightly smaller than the Atlantic largely a Southern Hemisphere
(water Hemisphere) and lastly, the Arctic Ocean about 7% of the size of the Pacific.
Figure 1: Shows the oceans of the Earth
Figure 2. Feature of ocean basin
Bathymetry- measurements of ocean depths and the charting of the shape or

topography of the ocean floor.
Various Methods of Measuring Ocean Depths

a. Sounding line- weighted rope lowered overboard until it touched the ocean
bottom; this old method is time-consuming and inaccurate.
b. Echo sounding- a type of SONAR that measures depth by emitting a burst of
high-frequency sound and listening for the echo from the seafloor. Sound is
emitted from the source on the ship and the returning echo is detected by a
receiver on the ship. Deeper water means a longer time for the echo to return
to the receiver.
c. Satellite Altimetry- profiles the shape of the sea surface by measuring the
travel time of a radar pulse from the satellite to the ocean surface and back to
the satellite receiver. The shape of the sea surface approximates the shape of
the seafloor.
Features of the Ocean
A. Continental margin- the submerged outer edge of the continent where

continental crust transitions into oceanic crust.
• Passive or Atlantic type features a wide, gently sloping continental shelf

(50-200m depth), a steeper continental slope (3000-4000m depth), and a
flatter continental rise. They are also known as aseismic or passive
margins because they have relatively little earthquake activity. It developed
when continents are drifted apart and form a new ocean. The continent
and adjacent ocean floor are part of the same plate. Areas of continental
crust may become completely isolated due to rifting and form
microcontinents.
• Active or Pacific type – characterized by narrow shelf and slope that

descends into a trench or trough. Also known as seismic or active margins
because they are seismically very active, forming where an oceanic plate is
being consumed beneath a continent plate at a subduction zone.
B. Abyssal plains and abyssal hills- abyssal plain is extremely flat sediment
covered stretches of the ocean floor, interrupted by occasional volcanoes,
mostly extinct, called seamounts. Abyssal hills are elongate hills, typically
50-300m high and common on the slopes of the mid-oceanic ridge.
C. Mid-ocean ridges – a submarine mountain chain that winds for more
than 65,000 km around the globe. It has a central rift valley and rugged
topography on its flanks. Mid-ocean ridges are cut and offset at many places
by transform faults. The trace of a transform fault may extend away from
either side of the ridge as a fracture zone which is older and seismically
inactive.
D. Deep-ocean trenches- narrow, elongated depressions on the sea-floor
many of which are adjacent to arcs of the island with active volcanoes;
deepest features of the seafloor.
E. Seamounts and volcanic islands – submerged volcanoes are called
seamounts while those that rise above the ocean surface are called volcanic
islands. These features may be isolated or found in clusters or chains.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1. Different Ocean Basin

I. Objectives: Locate or identify the different continents and ocean basins of the
world.
II. Materials:
Pseudo cylindrical map
Crayon/colored pencil or pen
III. Procedure:
Label and color the different ocean basins of the Earth.
Figure 3: Pseudo cylindrical map of the Earth

II. Guide Questions:
A. Identify the names of oceans and continents of the following symbols or

signs.
1. 7. 13.
2. 8. 14.
3. 9.
4. 10.
5. 11.
6. 12.
B. Which of the followings symbols are considered as continents of the world?

How about the ocean basins?
III. Conclusion:
ACTIVITY 2 Features of the Ocean

I. Objective: Identify the features of the ocean.
II. Material/s: Illustration of the ocean
III. Procedures:
1. Look and study the picture of the ocean basin.
2. Identify the features of the ocean basin by looking on the choices below.
CHOICES:
Continental rise continental slope abyssal plain trench
Volcanic island volcanic island coral reef Continental shelf
3.Write your answers on the numbers provided for.
IV. Guide questions:

1. What are the different features of the ocean basin? Describe each.
V. Conclusion:
ACTIVITY 3 What Am I?
What Am I? What am I? I have 2 words with 10 letters. I am in charge of this
lesson.
Direction. For you to answer what I am, you need to answer the 10 questions and
highlight the first letter of the word and you will answer what I am.
1. A body of water that composes much of a planet's hydrosphere.

2. The central or innermost portion of the Earth, lying below the mantle and
probably consisting of iron and nickel.
3.Type of SONAR that measures depth by emitting a burst of high- frequency
sound and listening for the echo from the sea floor.
4. An extremely flat sediment covered stretches of the ocean floor.
5. A kind of crust that is formed at the mid-oceanic ridge.
6. Measurements of ocean depths and the charting of the shape or topography of
the ocean floor.
7 Half size of the Pacific not quite as deep.
8. Profiles the shape of the sea surface by measuring the travel time of a radar
pulse from the satellite to the ocean surface and back to the satellite receiver.
9. Slightly smaller than the Atlantic largely a Southern Hemisphere (water
Hemisphere)
10. An element that makes up 78% of the atmosphere.
WRAP-UP
Encircle the letter of the correct answer:

1. Flat sediment that result in the spreading of the sea floor (plate tectonics) and
the melting of the lower oceanic crust.
a. seamounts c. abyssal plain
b. ocean basin d. continental slope
2. It is a type of SONAR which measures depth by emitting a burst of high-

frequency sound and listening for the echo from the sound floor
a. Echo sounding c. Satellite Altimetry
b. Sounding line d. none of the above
3. Which of the methods below is used to lower the weighted rope overboard until it
touches the ocean bottom and this is also considered as time-consuming and
inaccurate?
a. Echo sounding c. Satellite Altimetry
b. Sounding line d. none of the above
4. In what way can oceans provide food for humans?

a. provides for marine plants and animals
b. release energy for land plants and animals
c. provide water for the land animals and plants
d. serves as habitat for marine plants and animals
5. It is the submerged volcanoes.

a. Seamounts c. Volcanic islands
b. Abyssal plain d. Continental rise
VALUING
As we all know, the ocean basin has different features. One of the
parts of the continental margin is the continental shelf which contains mineral
deposits, petroleum, and gas. Because of those resources, our West Philippine Sea
is being occupied by the Chinese government and they are claiming that it is their
territory. What can you say about this issue?
POST TEST
Choose the best answers and encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which ocean is considered as the largest and has the greatest depth?
a. Arctic Ocean c. Pacific Ocean
b. Indian Ocean d. Atlantic Ocean
2. What kind of continental margin that has little earthquake activity and it is
also known as an aseismic margin?
a. Active c. None of the above
b. Passive d. Active and Passive margin
3. Slightly smaller than Atlantic Ocean, largely a Southern Hemisphere body.

a. Arctic Ocean c. Pacific Ocean
b. Indian Ocean d. Atlantic Ocean
4. Which among the following is considered the deepest feature of the ocean
floor?
a. Mid oceanic ridge c. Abyssal plains or abyssal hills
b. Deep ocean trenches d. Sea mounts or volcanic islands
5. What characteristics of the abyssal plain is mostly correct?

a. a vast, thin sediment covered areas of deep ocean floor
b. a vast, flat sediment covered areas of the shallow ocean floor.
c. a vast, flat sediment covered areas of the deep ocean floor.
d. none of the above
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pre- Review Activities Wrap up Post-

test test
A 1. Divergent A. 1. C 1. C
1.D 2. Magma 1.Antarctica 8. Equator 2. B 2. B
2.C 3. New crust 2. Australia 9. North Pacific Ocean 3. C 3. B
3.D 4. Mid oceanic 3.North America 10. Indian Ocean 4. A 4. B
4.C ridge 4.Africa 11. Equator 5. A 5. C
5.B 5. Old crust 5.South America 12. North Atlantic Ocean
6. Old crust 6. Europe 13. Asia
7. Subduction 7. Arctic Ocean 14. Southern Ocean or
zone Antarctic ocean
8. Temperature B.
9. Upward Continents Ocean
10. Volcanic 1.Antarctica 1. Arctic
eruption 2.North America 2. Pacific Ocean
3. Africa 3. Atlantic Ocean
4. South America 4. Indian Ocean
5. Europe 5 Antarctic/Southern Ocean
6. Asia
7. Australia
II.
1. Continental shelf
2. Continental slope
3. Abyssal plain
4. Volcanic arc
5. Volcanic island
6. Coral reef
7. Trench
8. Continental rise
9. Coastal plain
10. Continental break
III. 1. Ocean 6. Bathymetry
2. Core 7. Atlantic Ocean
3. Echo sounding 8. Satellite Altimetry
4. Abyssal plain 9.Indian Ocean
5.New Crust 10.Nitrogen
Answer: Ocean Basin
Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
Movement of Plates
EXPECTATIONS

1.Differentiate the types of boundaries according to their movement.
2. Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds, faults,
trenches, volcanoes, rift valleys and mountain ranges.
3. Identify and give examples of the different geological features.
PRETEST
Directions. Read the questions and encircle the letters of correct answers.
1. What happens when two plates collide each other?

a. they form convergent boundary c. they form transform boundary
b. they form divergent boundary d. they form both transform and convergent
2. Which boundary occurs when two plates move away.
b. Divergent d. Convergent and divergent
3. What type of plate movement is in the San Andreas Fault?

b. Divergent d. Convergent and Transform
4.In what type of convergent boundary is the Himalayan range?

a. Oceanic convergence c. Oceanic-Continental convergence
b. Oceanic-oceanic convergence d. Continental-continental convergence
5. How are rift valleys formed?

a. When divergent boundaries occur in continental plates.
b. When two oceanic plates collide, the older denser plate subducts.
c. When two continental plates converge, neither of the buoyant plates can
give way and subduct beneath the other.
d. When oceanic plates collide with continental plates, the denser oceanic
plate is forced under the lighter continental plate.
RECAP
Direction. For you to answer what I am, you need to answer the 10 questions and
highlight the first letter of the word and you will answer what I am. Clue: I have 2
words with 10 letters. I am in charge of this lesson.
1. A body of water that composes much of a planet's hydrosphere.

2. The central or innermost portion of the Earth, lying below the mantle and
probably consisting of iron and nickel.
3.Type of SONAR that measures depth by emitting a burst of high- frequency
sound and listening for the echo from the sea floor.
4. An extremely flat sediment covered stretches of the ocean floor.
5. A kind of crust that is formed at the mid-oceanic ridge.
6. Measurements of ocean depths and the charting of the shape or topography of
the ocean floor.
7 Half size of the Pacific not quite as deep.
8. Profiles the shape of the sea surface by measuring the travel time of a radar
pulse from the satellite to the ocean surface and back to the satellite receiver.
9. Slightly smaller than the Atlantic largely a Southern Hemisphere (water
Hemisphere)
10. An element that makes up 78% of the atmosphere
LESSON
Types of Geographic Features at a Plate Boundary
The theory of plate tectonics, formulated in the 1960s, describes how the
Earth’s crust is fractured into at least a dozen distinct plates. As these plates slowly
move about, they interact with each other, forming boundary zones. A plate
boundary is a fracture separating one plate from another. All major interactions
among individual plates occur along their boundaries.
Types of boundaries according to their movement
1.Convergent boundary- occurs when two plates move toward each other. The crust
is destroyed when two plates converge. The heavier plate dives (subducts) beneath
the more buoyant plate. Convergent boundaries are also subduction zones.
Kinds of Convergent Boundaries:
a. Oceanic-continental convergence- forms trenches, destructive
earthquakes, and rapid uplift of mountain ranges, as well as the building
of volcanic arc. When oceanic plates collide with continental plates, the
denser oceanic plate is forced under the lighter continental plate. This
process has three geological results. The continental plate is lifted
upwards, creating mountains. As the oceanic plate subducts, a trench is
formed. Finally, as the descending plate melts, it leads to volcanic
activity on the surface of the continental plate. This is occurring where
the oceanic Nazca Plate is subducting under the South American Plate,
creating the Andes Mountains and the Peru-Chile Trench.
b. Oceanic –oceanic convergence also forms trenches (Marianas Trench) and
volcanic arc. When two oceanic plates collide, the older denser plate
subducts. The results of this tectonic collision are similar to those
involving oceanic and continental plates. A deep trench is formed on the
seafloor. For example, the formidable Marianas Trench has been formed
by the subduction of the Philippine Plate under the Pacific Plate. There
is also undersea volcanic activity, which over time can form island
chains. The Aleutian Peninsula in Alaska is an example of this type of
island arc.
c. Continental – continental convergence forms mountain range like the
Himalayan range. When continental plates collide into one another,
neither plate can subduct under the other because they are equally light
and buoyant. Instead, they are pressed together under intense pressure.
This pressure creates buckling and slipping, both vertically and
horizontally. This is the process by which the largest mountains on Earth
have been formed. For example, when the Indian and Eurasian Plates
collided around 50 million years ago, the result was the formation of the
Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau
2.Divergent boundary- occurs when two plates move away. Most divergent
boundaries occur along the crest of oceanic ridges. When the plates move apart, there
is an upwelling of magma from the hot mantle. As the magma cools, new seafloor is
created called seafloor spreading. Divergent plate boundaries can also occur within
a continent forming a rift. Continental rifting may initiate volcanic activity and
generate a rift valley. Further rifting may form the narrow sea and eventually result
in an ocean basin and ridge system. The diverging plates are separated from 2 to 5
cm. (1-2) inches per year as they carried along with the flowing plastic asthenosphere
in the mantle. Divergent boundaries occur where plates are spreading apart. This
spreading is caused by convective forces in the molten magma below them. As they
slowly spread apart, this fluid basalt lava fills the gap and quickly solidifies,
forming a new oceanic crust. When this occurs with continental plates, a rift valley
is formed, such as the East African Rift. When this occurs with oceanic plates, a
ridge is formed on the seafloor, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Iceland sits atop
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Eventually, the island will be split into two separate
landmasses.
3.Transform Fault boundary- occurs when plates slide horizontally and past one
another. Most transform faults occur within the ocean basin, but there are a few that
can be found in continental plates. Transform faults commonly affect the active
spreading ridges, producing zigzag plate margins. They are generally defined by
shallow earthquakes. The San Andreas Fault is one of the few transform faults found
on land. Transform faults are caused as adjacent plates travel at variable rates,
causing lateral movement of one plate relative to each other. The most rapid place
motion is on the East Pacific rise where the rate of movement is more than 15
centimeters (6 in.) per year. Transform boundaries occur where plates are sliding
past one another. They are also called conservative boundaries because the crust
is neither destroyed nor created along with them. Transform boundaries are most
common on the seafloor, where they form oceanic fracture zones. When they occur
on land, they produce faults. These fracture and fault lines typically connect
offsetting divergent zones. For example, the San Andreas Fault connects the South
Gorda divergent zone, north, to the East Pacific Rise, to the south. On the north
end, this fault continues out into the Pacific Ocean as the Mendocino Fracture
Zone. Along the San Andreas Fault, the Pacific Plate is moving to the northwest and
the North American Plate is moving to the southeast .
Each of these different types of plate boundaries produces unique

geographical features on the surface, including fault lines, trenches,
volcanoes, mountains, ridges, and rift valleys.
Geological Features includes the following:

1.Faultlines
A transform boundary connects two diverging boundaries, creating a fault line. This
line represents an area of shear, where two plates are moving horizontally against
one another. An example of a fault line is the San Andreas Fault, which connects the
East Pacific Rise, to the south, with the South Gorda, Juan de Fuca, and Explorer
Ridges, to the north.
2.Trenches
They are geological features formed by convergent boundaries. When two tectonic
plates converge, the heavier plate is forced downward, creating a subduction zone.
This process results in the formation of a trench. The Marianas Trench is an example
of a trench formed by the convergence of two oceanic plates. The deepest part of this
trench, called the Challenger Deep, is over 36,000 feet deep, deeper than Mount
Everest is tall.
3.Volcanoes
Another geological feature that results from a subduction zone are volcanoes. When
the plate that is forced downward begins to melt, this magma rises to the surface,
forming volcanoes. Mount Saint Helens is an example of a volcano formed by an
oceanic plate that is subducting under the North American continental plate. When
two oceanic plates converge, both a trench and a string of volcanoes are formed.
These volcanoes can build to produce island chains, such as the Mariana Islands,
which are located alongside the Marianas Trench.
4.Mountain Ranges
When two continental plates converge, neither of the buoyant plates can give way
and subduct beneath the other. This results in a powerful collision that produces
tremendous, crushing pressure. Ultimately, this pressure causes large vertical and
horizontal displacements, forming towering mountain ranges. The Himalayas, one of
the tallest mountain ranges in the world, is an example of a geological feature that
is formed when continental plates collide.
5.Ridges
Opposite of a convergent boundary, a divergent boundary is formed by the spreading
of a tectonic plate. This process feeds magma to the surface, creating new crust.
Divergent zones in oceanic plates form a geological feature called a ridge, forced
upward by the pressure of the rising magma. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example
of an oceanic divergent boundary formation.
6.Rift Valleys
When divergent boundaries occur in continental plates, a different geological feature,
called a rift valley, is formed. These depressions slowly fill with water, forming lakes,
as their level drops. Ultimately, they will form the floor of a new ocean. An example
of this type of geological feature is the East African Rift Zone. This particular rift zone
is called a triple junction because it represents the divergence of three plates, forming
a “Y” shape. The plates involved are the Arabian Plate, and the two African Plates,
the Nubian and the Somalian.
.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY A
Formation of Geologic Features
(San Andreas Fault)
I. Objective: To be able to explain how the movement of plates leads to the

formation of faults.
II. Materials: Illustration of different geologic features, map
III. Procedure:
1. Study the illustration of different geologic features. An example is the

San Andreas Fault. Write your observations what you have learned or
your knowledge about San Andreas Fault. You may also use your map
as a guide for you to answer the given questions.
Map of Plate Boundary
Source: https://mapcollection.wordpress.com
The San Andreas Fault

Source: https://mapcollection.wordpress.com
1. What type of plate movement forms the San Andreas Fault?
2. The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that extends roughly
1,200 kilometers through California. By looking at the map of plate boundaries,
what two plates form the San Andreas Fault?
3. What is happening to these plates? What type of stress do these plates undergo?
4. What geological activity is associated with transform plate boundary’s
occurrence of earthquake?
5. If you are living near San Andreas Fault, what would you do to prepare and
ensure your safety and survival when earthquake strikes?
ACTIVITY B
Formation of Geologic Features
(Himalayas Mountain Ranges)
I. Objective: To be able to explain how the movement of plates leads to the

formation of mountain ranges.
II. Material/s: Illustration of mountain range.
IV.Procedure:
1. The president of the class or one of the students will perform a charade to
show how the Himalayas Mountain Range is formed.
2. After the presentation, the students who are viewing on-line will be the one
to explain what the student is showing on the charade.
V. Guide Questions:
1. As shown in the charade, what type of plate movement forms the Himalayas
Mountain Range?
2. What are the names of the converging continental plates that formed the
Himalayas?
3. What is happening to these plates? What type of stress do these plates
undergo?
4. Aside from mountain formation, what other geologic activity is associated
with this type of plate movement?
ACTIVITY C
Will you describe me?
I. Objective: Describe the following geological events or features by giving its exact
location, type of plate boundary and the plates involved in its formation.
II. Material/s: Map of Plate boundary
Map of Plate Boundary

https://mapcollection.wordpress.com
III. Procedures:
1. Look at the illustration. Answer the following by giving the exact location (A),
type of plate boundary(B) and the plates involved in the formation(c)
Geological Feature
1. Mt. St. Helens
A
C.
2. Andes Mountain
A.
B.
C.
3. Aleutian Islands
A.
B.
C.
WRAP-UP
Fill out the table below and choose your answers inside the circle.
Types of Margin Convergent Divergent Transform

1.Motion
2.Stress
3.Example
San Andreas Fault Spreading

Lateral Sliding Himalayas
Choices Shearing Mid- Atlantic Ridge
Tension Himalayas
Subduction
Compression
VALUING
Volcanoes serve as a tourist spot in the country. Many volcanoes are
considered active because they always erupt. One of these is Taal Volcano located in
Batangas erupted last January 12, 2020.Many areas were affected in the eruption of Taal
from its main crater that spewed ashes across Calabarzon, Metro Manila , and some
parts of Central Luzon and Ilocos Region, resulting in the suspension of school classes,
work schedules, and flights in the area. Not only that, residents nearby the volcano
experienced the devastation of the place. That is the reason why people living near the
volcano, always look at the disadvantages or the destructions that the volcano can give
to the environment or to the people. Always remember if there are disadvantages, there
are also advantages to it. What do you think will be the advantages or significance of
volcanic eruptions? Is there any significant contribution/s that a volcanic eruption can
give to us? Can you give one and explain it briefly?
POSTTEST
Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Himalayan Mountain Ranges, Andes Mountains and Marianas Trench are

examples of what plate boundary?
a. Divergent boundary c. Transform boundary
b. Convergent boundary d. none of the above
2. What is the result when two tectonic plates converge, the heavier plate is
forced downward, creating a subduction zone?
a. Formation of mountain with a crater c. Formation of trench
b. Formation of Rift valleys d. Formation of ridges
3. Which of the following is considered incorrect?
a. Convergent- Himalayas c. Transform-San Andreas Fault
b. Divergent-Rift Valley d. Convergent- Mid-Atlantic
Ridge
4. It is a mountain or hill formed around a vent or opening in the Earth’s crust
through which hot materials are expelled.
a. Plateau c. Valley
b. Volcano d. Plain
5. Which plate boundary occurs when plates slide horizontally and past one
another.?
b. Divergent d. Convergent, Divergent and Transform
Pre- Review KEY TO CORRECTION

Activities Wrap up Post test Post-
test 1.O A. Convergent
1.a 2.C 1. Transform fault Boundary 1.Subduction
2.b 3.E 2. North America Plate and 1.B
3.c 4.A Pacific Plate 2.Compression 2. c
4.d 5.N 3. Plates slide each other.They
5.a 6.B undergo shearing.
3.Himalayas
3.d
7.A 4. Occurrence of earthquake Divergent
1. Spreading 4.b
8.S 5.By joining in an earthquake
9.I drill 2. Tension 5.c
10.N B. 3. Mid
1. Convergent Boundary Atlantic
2. Eurasian plate and ridge
Australian plate Transform
3. These plates collide and 1.Lateral
undergo compression. Spreading
4. Occurrence of earthquake. 2.Shearing
C. 3.San
1. A. Washington, U.S Andreas
Fault
B. Convergent
C . Juan de Puca and the North
American Plate
2. A. Edge of South America from Venezuela
all the way along Chile and South America
southern tip.
B. Convergent
C. Nazca plate and American Plate
3. A. Alaska
B. Convergent
C. Pacific Plate and North American Plate
Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
Mechanisms that Drive the Movement of
Plates
EXPECTATIONS

1.Identify the different mechanisms that drive the movement of plates
2. Explain the mechanisms that drive the movement of plates.
PRETEST
Read the questions and encircle the letters of correct answers.
1.Slab pull forces occur at which type of plate boundary?
b. Divergent d. Convergent and Divergent
2. Why do researchers think that the slab pull is a major driving force of plate
motion?
a. Slab pull occurs in Mid-Atlantic ridge.

b. Plates experiencing more slab pull move faster.
c. Slab pull is the most common plate motion on Earth.
d. Researchers have no proof that slab pull is important.
3. What is the difference between slab pull and ridge push?

a. Slab pull is a divergent boundary at subduction zone while ridge push is a
convergent boundary at Mid-Oceanic ridge.
b. Slab pull is a divergent plate boundary at Mid-Atlantic ridge while Ridge
push is a convergent plate boundary at subduction zone.
c. Slab pull is the pull of sinking lithosphere plate at subduction zones while
Ridge push is the push intrusion, gravity at mid -oceanic ridges.
d. Slab pull is the push intrusion, gravity at mid-oceanic ridge while ridge
push is the pull of sinking lithosphere plate at subduction zones.
4. Where does the ridge push occur?

a. Moho c. Subduction zone
b. Asthenosphere d. Mid- Oceanic ridge
5. What is the term for the force exerted by a tectonic plate descending into the
mantle?
a. Slab push c. Plate divergence
b. Slab pull d. Plate resistance
RECAP
Find the concealed words in the table. They may be arranged vertically, horizontally,
or diagonally and slant position. Encircle these hidden words.
D I V E R G E N T
C C I F I C A A R
O E X N P Z R B A
N S A M C E L C N
V A D A U M T I S
E N B L P Z S F F
G A C T O Y A I O
E N X W X F N C R
N D B C Q R D T M
T R E N C H E S E
O E B E D S S M Z
P A P A C I F I C
Y S A F A U L T A
LESSON
The three forces that have been proposed as the main drivers of plate movements
are:
1. Mantle convection currents – mantle currents carrying plates of lithosphere
along on top, like shopping on a supermarket conveyor belt.
2. Ridge Push – newly-formed plates at oceanic ridges are warm, and so have a
higher elevation at the oceanic ridge than the colder, more dense plate material
farther away from the divergent boundary.
3. Slab Pull – older, colder plates sink at subduction zones because as they cool,
they become denser than the underlying mantle – so the sinking plate pulls the rest
of the plate along behind it.
Mechanisms that Drive the Movement of Plates
The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth where we live. It is a thin, rigid
layer that sits on top of a partially molten portion of the Earth’s mantle which makes up
the bulk of the Earth’s interior of the Earth. The crust is subdivided into older, thicker
continental crust and younger, denser oceanic crust. The next layer is the mantle which
is continuously churning due to convection within the Earth.
Convection is the circulation of material caused by the differences in density. It occurs
between the core and mantle or even between the asthenosphere and lithosphere.
Convection currents in the asthenosphere act like conveyor belts moving the lithosphere
above it. As the hot rock rises, it is removed from the heat source and cools down, which
causes an increase in density. Eventually, the rock becomes cool enough to begin
sinking to the core. The density of material shows that if the material is denser it sinks
while if it is less dense it rises. Aside from that, hot rock from deep within the Earth
rises but colder rock near the surface sinks. Earth’s plates move because the lithosphere
floats on the asthenosphere. It moves sideways and away from the mid-ocean ridge,
where the process starts all over. Examples of convections that occur on Earth are the
global wind, warm rising and local winds. The source of heat for convection currents are
radioactive materials found in the Earth’s core.
Slab pull is when the denser plate sinks, gravity pulls on the rest of the plate with a
force. The features associated with slab pull are the subduction and trench. Subduction
is a location where one plate is being pulled down into the mantle, melted, and recycled.
Ridge push is the result of gravitational forces acting on the young, raised oceanic
lithosphere around mid-ocean ridges, causing it to slide down because of the force of
gravity and similarly raised by weaker asthenosphere and push on lithospheric material
farther from the ridge. It is also the rising mantle material that creates the potential for
plates to move away from the ridge with a force. Because mid-ocean ridges are higher in
elevation, gravity pulls the surrounding rocks down and away from the ridge. The
features associated in ridge push are the Mid-Ocean ridge and rift valley. The mid-ocean
ridge is an elevated series of underwater volcanoes where new ocean crust is formed.
The rift valley is a location between two separating plates where new crust is formed
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1
Causes of Tectonic Plate Motion
I. Objectives:
To be able to identify the different mechanisms that drive the movement of
plates according to its illustration.
II. Procedures:
1. Identify the different mechanisms that drive the movement of plates based on
the illustration.
2. After identifying the illustration. Be sure to describe each.
Causes of Tectonic Plate Motion
A.
B.
C.
ACTIVITY 2
MECHANISMS
I. Objective: To identify and describe the illustration below.

II. Illustration:
3 5
2
1
III. Definition of terms based on the answers on the illustration:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ACTIVITY 3
What Do I Know?
A. Guide Questions:
1.What happens in the convection currents?
2.What would happen if there was no convection current in the mantle?

3. What is the difference between ridge push and slab pull?
4. What are the features associated in slab pull and ridge push??
5. Where is the asthenosphere located? Describe it
B. Write (R) for related and (NR) for not related to the pair of word/s
1. Ridge push- mid-oceanic ridge
2. Slab pull- subduction zone
3. Slab pull- divergent
4. Ridge push- convergent
5.Convection current- Warm less dense material rises and cooler more dense
material sinks.
WRAP-UP
Direction: Match Column A with the correct answer in Column B. Write only the
letter of the correct answer on the space provided.
A B
______ 1. Slab Pull a. heat-driven
______ 2. Ridge Push b. slab pull force

______ 3. Divergent c. ridge push force
______ 4. Convergent d. gravitational force at spreading ridges
______ 5. Convection in the mantle e. gravitational force at subduction zones
VALUING
Despite the current situation that we are facing nowadays, we should always
keep our hope and faith in God. We know that this kind of pandemic troubles a lot
of people, especially in the business environment. Not only that, but the educational
system has also been boiling news if we will continue in the opening of classes or
not. These become a problem for each of us teachers, parents, students, and also the
DepEd officials. We have learned about the mechanisms that drive the movement of
plates, the same with our educational system. Are we going to PUSH through the
opening of classes in spite that there is still coronavirus? Are you going to PULL it
down, not to continue your studies, and wait for the discovery of the corona vaccine?
Or you are the one, just like a CONVECTION CURRENT wherein you will follow the
flow?
POSTTEST
Encircle the letter of the correct answer:

1. The process by which heat from the Earth’s interior causes magma to rise and
sink.
a. Thermal convection
b. Ridge push
c. Slab pull
d. Trench suction
2. When the mantle pushes the edge of a tectonic plate higher, gravity can pull
down on it, causing the plate to move?
a. Slab pull
b. Ridge push
c. Trench suction
d. Thermal convection
3. Which layer of the Earth has convection currents?

a. Asthenosphere
b. Lithosphere
c. Mesosphere
d. Core
4.What is the composition of the lithosphere?
a. combination of the crust and mantle
b. composed of liquid core
c. a combination of mantle and core
d. composed of only continental crust
5. When a liquid become cooler, its particle moves more _______ and it becomes
_______.
a. quickly, denser
b. slowly, denser
c. quickly, less dense
d. slowly, less den
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pretest ACTIVITIES: Activity 3

1.A Activity 1 A.
2.B A. Convection currents 1.Warm less dense material rises, cooler denser
3.C result of heating of material sinks
4.D differential heating, 2. Answers may vary
5.B Lighter (less dense) 3. Slab pull exerted by the height of the
Warm material rises subdivided slab on the plate it is attached to.
Review while heavier (denser) Ridge push the pressure exerted by the excess
coal material sinks. height of the mid-ocean ridge.
Vertical: B. Slab Pull is the part 4.Slab pull-subduction zone and trench.
1. Convergent of the motion of a Ridge push- Mid-ocean ridge and rift valley
2. Transform tectonic plate caused 5. Asthenosphere-is a part of the upper mantle
3. San Andreas by its subduction. located below the crust of the earth. Came from
4. Andes C. Ridge Push or sliding the word asthen which means weak and sphaira
plate force is a means layer.
Horizontal proposed driving force
1.Divergent for plate tectonics that B.
2.Pacific occurs at mid-ocean 1.R
3. Trenches ridge of the rigid 2.R
4.Fault lithosphere sliding 3.NR
down the hot, raised 4.NR
Slant atmosphere below mid 5. R
1.Nazca ocean ridge. Wrap up Post test
2.Foldsa 1.A 1.A
2.A 2.B
3.A 3.C
4.A 4.D
5.B 5.B
Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
Stratified Rocks
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about the stratified rocks.

1. describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed;
2. identify and describe sedimentary layering; and
3. appreciate the importance of rocks as the evidence of our history.
PRETEST
sheet of paper.
1. Most important feature of a sedimentary rock is
a. Composition b. Kind c. Size d. Stratification
2. Formation of sedimentary rock can be identified by its

a. Features b. Grains c. Shape d. Texture
3. Sedimentary rocks provide clues about:

a. Polar Climates
b. Tropical climates
c. Temperate Climates
d. Earth surface conditions at the time the sediment was deposited.
4. A layer in which the grain size changes vertically through the layer is called ----
a. Foliated b. Cross-bedded
c. Graded bedding d. Is not observed in nature
5. The process whereby rocks are changed to sediment is called ----

a. Compaction b. Deposition c. Lithification d. Weathering
RECAP
What drives the movement of tectonic plates?
Mechanisms that drive the movement of the plates.
There are a number of competing theories that attempt to explain what drives the
movement of tectonic plates. Three of the forces that have been proposed as the main
drivers of tectonic plate movement are;
mantle convection currents— warm mantle currents drive and carry plates of
lithosphere along a like a conveyor belt;
• ridge push (buoyant upwelling mantle at mid-ocean ridges) — newly-formed
plates at oceanic ridges are warm, and so have a higher elevation at the oceanic
ridge than the colder, denser plate material further away; gravity causes the
higher plate at the ridge to push away the lithosphere that lies further from
the ridge;
• slab pull — older, colder plates sink at subduction zones, because as they cool,
they become denser than the underlying mantle. The cooler sinking plate pulls
the rest of the warmer plate along behind it.
Recent research has shown that the major driving force for most plate movement is
slab pull, because the plates with more of their edges being sub ducted are the
faster-moving ones. However, ridge push is also presented in recent research to be
a force that drives the movement of plates.
LESSON
Stratigraphy deals with the study of any layered (stratified) rock, but primarily with
sedimentary rocks and their;
• composition
• origin
• age relationships
• geographic extent
Stratum is a layer of sedimentary rock or soil, or igneous rock that was formed at
the Earth's surface, with internally consistent characteristics that distinguish it from
other layers.
Bedding, Stratification, Lamination - refers to layering that occurs in sedimentary

rocks.
Igneous rocks can also exhibit layering especially when formed at the surface of the
Earth (volcanic rocks).
• Stratification - general term for layering in sedimentary rocks.
• Beds - layering in sedimentary rocks, which are greater than 1 cm thick.
• Lamination - layering in sedimentary rocks, which are less than 1 cm thick.
Stratification the layering that occurs in most sedimentary rocks and in those
igneous rocks formed at the Earth's surface, as from lava flows and volcanic
fragmental deposits. The layers range from several millimeters to many meters in
thickness and vary greatly in shape.
Stratification (made in layers), layered structure formed by the deposition of
sedimentary rocks. Changes between strata are interpreted as the result of
fluctuations in the intensity and persistence of the depositional agent, e.g., currents,
wind, or waves, or in changes in the source of the sediment.
Stratification of sedimentary rock on the Rainbow Basin

syncline near Barstow, Calif., U.S.Mark A. Wilson
(Department of Geology, The College of Wooster)
Planes of parting, or separation between individual rock layers, are termed

stratification planes. They are horizontal where sediments are deposited as flat-lying
layers, and they exhibit inclination where the depositional site was a sloping surface.
The bottom surface of a stratum roughly conforms to irregularities of the underlying
surface; the stratification plane above the stratum, however, tends to be nearly
horizontal.
Stratification in sedimentary rocks may result from changes in texture

or composition during deposition; it also may result from pauses in deposition that
allow the older deposits to undergo changes before additional sediments cover them.
A sequence of strata, therefore, may appear as alternations of coarse and fine
particles, as a series of color changes resulting from differences
in mineral composition, or merely as layers of similar aspect separated by distinct
planes of parting. No direct relationship exists between the thickness and extent of
strata and the rate of deposition or the time represented;
For example, a stratum of limestone 2.5 cm (1 inch) thick may take longer to form
than a stratum of sandstone 3 m (10 feet) in thickness. The most common cause of
stratification is variation in the transporting ability of the depositing agent. Water
and wind sort sediments according to size, weight, and shape of particles, and these
sediments settle in layers of relative homogeneity. Differences in sediment
composition resulting from different sources, and variation in sediment brought
about by change in agents of deposition, also lead to stratification.
Where layers have been deformed, the record of past movements of the Earth’s
surface is preserved in the stratification, making possible the interpretation of
geologic events and permitting such practical results as the location of mineral
deposits, petroleum fields, and groundwater reservoirs.
Stratification in sedimentary rocks varies greatly both in degree of prominence and
in details of structure. In general, it is best developed in fine-grained sediments and
is least apparent and least persistent in coarse-grained materials such as
conglomerates. Two important and distinctive structural types are recognized as
characteristic of particular environments. These are cross-bedding, which is
common in fluvial or eonian deposits, and graded bedding, which reflects transport
by density (or turbidity) currents or, in certain cases, carved deposits.
Cross-bedding - also known as cross-stratification, is layering within a stratum and

at an angle to the main bedding plane. The sedimentary structures which result are
roughly horizontal units composed of inclined layer
Cross-beds or "sets" are the groups of inclined layers, which are known as cross-
strata.
Graded bedding - is one characterized by a systematic change in grain or clast size

from one side of the bed to the other. Most commonly this takes the form of normal
grading, with coarser sediments at the base, which grade upward into progressively
finer ones.
Stratification in volcanic rocks differs in some respects from that in sedimentary

rocks. Fragmental volcanic material becomes sorted in flight under the influence of
gravity, particle size, and wind. Falling to the ground, it may form well-sorted layers.
If it falls into lakes or the sea, it becomes layered like any other waterborne detrital
matter. Stratification also may result from successive flows of liquid lava or
alternations between flows and ash falls.
Sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers called beds or strata. A bed is defined as
a layer of rock that has a uniform lithology and texture. Beds form by the deposition
of layers of sediment on top of each other. The sequence of beds that
characterizes sedimentary rocks is called bedding.
Sedimentary rocks are rocks formed sediments. Sedimentary processes are

important for the formation of sedimentary rocks:
a. Weathering: The physical and chemical breakdown of rocks to form

sediments’
b. Erosion: In-situ removal of sediments from their sources
c. Transport: The movement of sediments using a medium such as water or
wind
d. Deposition: The settling of sediments due to the decrease in energy of the
medium
e. Diagenesis: The lithification of sediments to form a sedimentary rock ages
that are recorded in rocks.
Not all sedimentary deposits are stratified. Those transported by ice alone, landslide
deposits, and residual soils, for example, exhibit no stratification. Original
stratification may be destroyed by plants or animals, by recrystallization of
limestone’s, or by other disturbances subsequent to deposition.
Causes of Stratification
Stratified rocks are caused by different factors. For the purposes of simplicity and
clarification, let's start by exploring how layers of stratified rock are formed.
If you refer back to our picture, you may recognize this as sedimentary rock.
Sedimentary rock is a rock that was formed by layers of sediments being laid down
over the course of time. These sediment layers create the banding pattern visible in
stratified rock. The sediments themselves also teach us about the environment in
which the rock was formed.
For example, if we have a layer of shale overlain by a layer of limestone, then we
know the environment was once mud-covered before flooding and growing into a
shallow sea. This is because shale forms from old mud flats and limestone forms in
shallow seas. It's like if the Everglades were ever swallowed up by the Atlantic due to
rising sea levels. The same pattern of sedimentary rock could be expected to form
and evidence of the event would reside in the stratified layers.
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What defines a bed or layer? How do you distinguish one bed to another?
2. Why are sedimentary rocks called stratified rocks?
3. The history of the Earth is recorded in its rocks. Explain how.
Activity 2
Crossword Puzzle
Sedimentary Rocks
Across
1. is one characterized by a systematic change in grain or clast size from one side of
the bed to the other
3. general term for layering in sedimentary rocks
6. layering in sedimentary rocks, which are less than 1 cm thick
7. layering in sedimentary rocks, which are greater than 1 cm thick
8. The settling of sediments due to the decrease in energy of the medium
9. The physical and chemical breakdown of rocks to form sediments’
10. is a layer of sedimentary rock or soil, or igneous rock that was formed at the
Earth's surface
Down
2. In-situ removal of sediments from their sources
4. The movement of sediments using a medium such as water or wind
5. "sets" are the groups of inclined layers, which are known as cross-strata.
Activity 3
Double Puzzle
Unscramble each of the clue words.

Copy the letters in the numbered cells to other cells with the same number.
Stratified Rocks
WRAP-UP
Sedimentary rocks have layered or stratified structure. The thickness of strata
varies from few millimeters to several meters. So these rocks are also called stratified
rocks. These rocks are formed by successive deposition of sediments. These
sediments may be the debris eroded from any previously existing rock which may be
igneous rock, metamorphic or old sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks have layered
or stratified structure. The thickness of strata varies from few millimeters to several
meters. So these rocks are also called stratified rocks. Generally, these rocks have
some type of fossil between their strata. Fossil is the solid part or an impression of a
prehistoric animal or plant embedded in strata of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary
rocks are widely spread on the earth surface but to a shallow depth by hydrological
system. The individual rock particles are first broken from rocks and then
transported by running water, ocean currents, glaciers or even by wind from one
place to another. The process by which rock forming material is laid down is called
sedimentation or deposition.
Question 1: Why are sedimentary rocks also known as stratified rocks?

Question 2: How are the layers of rocks (stratified rocks) formed?
VALUING
Rocks are essential to the existence of man on this planet. From stone tools
to modern age of computers, rocks have provided man with the materials he needed
for survival. To understand how rocks are formed is to understand better how we
can utilize the things we acquire from the earth.
Stratigraphy is of paramount importance in the exploration for mineral
deposits in sedimentary rocks because the scientific exploration for any such deposit
requires that the geological events which determined its formation and location be
known. Where layers have been deformed, the record of past movements of the
Earth's surface is preserved in the stratification, making possible the interpretation
of geologic events and permitting such practical results as the location of mineral
deposits, petroleum fields, and groundwater reservoirs. Rocks tell us a great deal
about the Earth's history. Igneous rocks tell of past volcanic episodes and can also
be used to age-date certain periods in the past. Sedimentary rocks often record past
depositional environments (e.g deep ocean, shallow shelf, fluvial) and usually contain
the most fossils from past ages.
Question 1: How are rocks beneficial to us?

Question 2: How are rocks important to the environment?
POSTTEST
sheet of paper.
1. The term 'rock strata' refers to _____.

a. Lava flaws
b. Lake bed sediment only
c. Layers in any kind of rock
d. Layers of sedimentary rock
2. Which of the following statements is FALSE?

a. The word ‘stratum’ means spread out.
b. Sediment is deposited by surface processes.
c. Rock strata differ from one another only by their color.
d. Sediment is deposited in horizontal (or nearly – so) layers.
3. We cannot accurately measure time in years with stratigraphy for several reasons.
Which of the following is FALSE?
a. Many sedimentary rocks contain fossils that have not been identified.
b. Sediments accumulate at different rates in different sedimentary
environments.
c. Stratigraphy alone cannot be used to determine the relative ages of widely
separated beds.
d. The rock record does not tell us how many years have passed between periods
of deposition.
4. The general term for layering in sedimentary rocks is known as -----

a. Lithification b. Stratification
c. Stratigraphy d. Weathering
5. It is one characterized by a systematic change in grain or clast size from one side
of the bed to the other. Most commonly this takes the form of normal grading, with
coarser sediments at the base, which grade upward into progressively finer ones.
a. Cross bed b. Cross bedding

c. Graded bedding d. Sedimentary rocks
KEY TO CORRECTION
Activity 2 Activity 3
1. Graded 1. Stratification 6. Lava

Pretest Posttest
bedding 2. Layering 7. Deposit
2. Erosion 3. Rocks 8. Igneous 1. D
1. D 4. Sedimentary 9. Fragments
3. Stratification
5. Rocks 10. Surface 2. A
2. A 4. Transport
5. Cross beds Message: Stratification, the
3. D 6. Lamination 3. C
layering that occurs in most
4. C 7. Beds sedimentary rocks and in those 4. B
8. Deposition igneous rocks formed at the Earth's
5. D 9. Weathering surface, as from lava flows and 5. C
10. Stratum volcanic fragmental deposits.
References
Study.com. Accessed August 10, 2020.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/stratification-definition-theory-
examples.html.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Frasnian Stage.” Encyclopædia

Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., June 9, 2017.
https://www.britannica.com/science/Frasnian-Stage.
Guzman, Alfonso Vincent A., Ernesto A. Dizon, Zoraida S. Dizon, Eddie L. Listanco,
and Catherine c. Abon. “Teaching Guide for Senior High School Earth Science.”
Commission on Higher Education, 2016, n.d. Accessed August 13, 2020.
Earth Science. (n.d.). Retrieved August 24, 2020, from

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/14DiwRhFXD0wvdJjSiv9QNfVT0n70v
3Uc?fbclid=IwAR2XGSoS-44p-
dcKNW7J0lYOU7PHtxGxJBMoQCtoPXOrs9LjZMLcC9uCPyg
Iastoppers2016. (2019, May 05). Why sedimentary rocks are also known as stratified
rocks? Retrieved August 24, 2020, from
https://www.iastoppers.com/flashcard/why-sedimentary-rocks-are-also-
known-as-stratified-rocks/
Earth Science 11
Earth Science 11
Quarter 2
Relative and Absolute Dating
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about relative and absolute dating.

1. describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) of
determining the age of stratified rocks;
2. demonstrate an understanding of the principle of relative dating by
being able to reconstruct the sequence of events in a given formation;
and
3. appreciate the importance and uses of relative and absolute dating in
determining the age of stratified rocks.
PRETEST
sheet of paper.
1. According to the law of superposition, the oldest fossils are found ----
a. At the top of the rock layers.
b. Somewhat near the surface.
c. In the middle of the rock layers
d. Near the bottom of the rock layers.
2. If rock A cross-cuts rock B, then rock A is:

a. On top of rock B c. Younger than rock B
b. Older than rock B d. The same age as rock B
3. The statement "Layer B is younger than layer E" can

be determined by using which principle?
a. Principle of Inclusions
b. Principle of Horizontality
c. Principle of Superposition
d. Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
4. What happens during radioactive decay?

a. A stable isotope of one element changes into an unstable isotope of a different
element.
b. A stable isotope of one element changes into an unstable isotope of the same
element.
c. An unstable isotope of one element changes into a stable isotope of the same
element.
d. An unstable isotope of one element changes into a stable isotope of a different
element.
5. When tilted or folded sedimentary rocks are overlain by more flat-lying strata
a(n) _______ is said to exist.
a. Angular unconformity b. Conformity
c. Disconformity d. Nonconformity
RECAP
Stratification, the layering that occurs in most sedimentary rocks and in those
igneous rocks formed at the Earth's surface, as from lava flows and volcanic
fragmental deposits. The layers range from several millimeters to many meters in
thickness and vary greatly in shape.
Sedimentary rocks are formed by accumulation and hardening
of sediments such as mud, sand, silt and disintegrated rocks over a period of time
which are arranged in layers. Therefore, we call them stratified rocks. as the
deposition takes place in layers or strata, sedimentary rocks are also called stratified
rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are rocks formed sediments. Sedimentary processes are
important for the formation of sedimentary rocks:
1. Weathering 4. Deposition
2. Erosion 5. Diagenesis
3. Transport
LESSON
Relative Dating
• Determining how old something is compared to something else.

• Use words like “older” or “younger” instead of exact numbers.
Ever compared two things without their exact numerical ages? What made you
realize that one is older than the other? In knowing the sequential order of rocks, we
make use f different laws and principles:
1. Law of Superposition
The Law of Superposition states that in an
undisturbed sequence of rocks (not overturned or
faulted), the oldest strata/layer will be found on the
bottom of the basin. Google. Google. Accessed August 3, 2020.
https://www.google.com/search?as_st=y.
2. Principle of Original Horizontality
Principle of Original Horizontality states that
sediments (before they are lithified) will assume a
horizontal manner (due to gravity) and will assume
such orientation until lithification process
preserves it. Google. Google. Accessed August 3, 2020.
3. Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships
When faults/fractures cut through rocks, the event

of faulting/fracturing is always younger than the
rocks it cuts. Google. Google. Accessed August 3, 2020.
4. Inclusions
Inclusions are pieces of rocks contained within

another. In the same way, anything (mineral etc.)
that is enclosed/embedded in rocks are older than
the rock unit surrounding it.
5. Unconformities Google. Google. Accessed August 3, 2020.
Rocks that were deposited without interruption would follow the laws and principles
we have discussed earlier. Hence, an undisturbed sequence of rocks would look like
horizontal layers stacked on top of each other (conformable). Any disturbance to the
sequence (such as faulting or tilting) will be preserved in the rocks as any of the
following listed below:
a. Angular Unconformity – tilted strata overlain by more horizontal (younger
strata). This type of unconformity is easy to distinguish and represents tilting
or folding.
b. Disconformity – disconformities are evidences of erosive agents acting on the
surface of rocks (sometimes forming a soil layer) which represents a time when
deposition is at a minimum.
c. Nonconformity – igneous rocks sometimes intrude/cuts through layers of
rocks inserting a younger rock unit that cuts across older rocks. In the same
way, metamorphic rocks acting a base for younger rock units can define a
nonconformity.
d. Paraconformity – perhaps the most difficult unconformity to identify is the
Paraconformity. Paraconformity is the absence of horizon or strata based on
fossil assemblage. Paraconformity represents a period of non-deposition.
Absolute Dating
Absolute dating is determining the numerical age of materials using radioactive
isotopes. Radioactive isotopes are variants of the same element but with different
mass number. Because of the extra subatomic particles in the isotope, the atom
spontaneously breaks apart (“decay”) which produces a more stable daughter
product. This transformation of parent isotope to stable product varies from element
to element and is often measured in terms of half-lives. Half-life is the length of time
that will transform half of the parent isotope to its daughter product. To simply put
it in analogy, given 100 grams of the radioactive parent “X”, the half-life is simple the
time required for 50 grams of parent “X” to converted into daughter “Y”. Listed below
are some useful radioactive isotopes, stable daughter products and the respective
half-lives.
Radioactive Parent Stable Daughter Half-Life

Rubidium 87 Strontium 87 48.8 billion years
Thorium 232 Lead 208 12 billion years
Uranium 238 Lead 206 4.47 billion years
Potassium 40 Argon 40 1.25 billion years
Uranium 235 Lead 207 704 million years
Carbon 14 Nitrogen 14 5730 years
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1
Part 1: Principles of Relative Dating
Relative dating is an Earth science term that describes the set of principles and
techniques used to sequence geologic events and determine the relative age of rock
formations. Below are graphics that illustrate some of these basic principles used
by geologist. Identify each principle by analyzing the graphics.
a. b.
c. d.
e.
Part II. Match each principle to its explanation. Write the letter of the
explanation in the space provided before each number.
Explanations:
_____1. In undisturbed rock layers, the oldest layer is at the bottom, and the younger
is at the top.
_____2. In some rock formations, layers or parts of layers may be missing. This is
often to erosion. Erosion by water or wind removes sediment from exposed surfaces.
Erosion often leaves a new flat surface with some of the original material missing.
_____3. Sediments are originally deposited in horizontal layers.

_____4. Any feature that cuts across rock layers is younger than the layers.
_____5. Any part of a previous rock layer, like a piece of stone, is older than the layer
containing it.
Activity 2
RELATIVE AGE vs ABSOLUTE AGE

RELATIVE AGE: Age compared to the ages of other things. (1st, 2nd, 3rd,)
(younger or older)
Example: You say you are older than your brother but younger than your sister.
You are describing your relative age.
ABSOLUTE AGE: Specific Age using RADIO ACTIVE DECAY

Example: Your absolute age is how old you are based on your birth date. Rocks,
may be impossible to know a rock’s absolute age exactly. But can determine a
rock’s absolute age within a certain number of years.
HALF-LIFE – the length of time it takes for half of a radioactive isotope to decay
into a stable element.
Directions: Identify the given statement below whether it is Relative age or

Absolute age with the help of the example above.
1.The red car costs Php 1 290,000 and the Silver car costs Php 920,000
2.The red car costs more than the silver car
3.The red car is 4 times more expensive then the silver car
4.The silver car is 2 years old.
5.The red car is newer then the silver car.
Absolute or Relative Dating? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 3
Directions: Unscramble each of the clue words.

Copy the letters in the numbered cells to other cells with the same number.
Absolute Dating
WRAP-UP
The History of the earth is recorder in its rocks. Absolute dating involves the
determination of numerical ages while relative dating simply put them in chronologic
order.
The principles of original horizontality, superposition, and cross-cutting
relationships allow events to be ordered at a single location. However, they do not
reveal the relative ages of rocks preserved in two different areas. In this case, fossils
can be useful tools for understanding the relative ages of rocks. Each fossil species
reflects a unique period of time in Earth's history.
Using a variety of methods, geologists are able to determine the age of geological
materials to answer the question: "how old is this fossil?" Relative dating methods
are used to describe a sequence of events. These methods use the principles of
stratigraphy to place events recorded in rocks from oldest to youngest. Absolute
dating methods determine how much time has passed since rocks formed by
measuring the radioactive decay of isotopes or the effects of radiation on the crystal
structure of minerals.
True or False
1. A dike is younger than a stack of sediments it cross-cuts.
2. Most sediments are deposited in horizontal layers.
3. The Principle of Superposition says that the oldest sediments are on top.
4. Comparing fossils in rocks is part of the processes of relative dating and
correlation.
5. Determining an actual age for a rock unit using radiometric dating is called
absolute dating.
6. Sediments tend to be deposited in horizontal layers.
7. According to the principle of cross-cutting relationships, if a fault is found cutting
across sedimentary strata, the reasonable conclusion would be that the fault is older
than the sedimentary strata.
8. According to the principle of cross-cutting relationships, if a limestone rock is
found embedded within a granite intrusion, the reasonable conclusion would be that
the limestone is older than the granite, and the granite broke off a piece of
surrounding limestone "country rock" as it rose.
9.Sedimentary rocks are more likely to contain fossils than metamorphic rocks.
10. A clam is less likely to be fossilized than a jellyfish.
VALUING
Throughout the history of life, different organisms have appeared, flourished
and become extinct. Many of these organisms have left their remains as fossils in
sedimentary rocks. Geologists often need to know the age of material that they find.
They use absolute dating methods, sometimes called numerical dating, to give rocks
an actual date, or date range, in number of years. This is different to relative dating,
which only puts geological events in time order. Absolute age dating is like saying
you are 15 years old and your grandfather is 77 years old. To determine the relative
age of different rocks, geologists start with the assumption that unless something
has happened, in a sequence of sedimentary rock layers, the newer rock layers will
be on top of older ones. Most absolute dates for rocks are obtained with radiometric
methods. These use radioactive minerals in rocks as geological clocks.
Absolute Dating
• Helps us determine the age of the earth
• Helps us determine when specific events in the history of the earth happened
(ex. Extinction of the dinosaurs)
Relative Dating
• Can help us estimate the time span between major earthquakes, storms,
tsunamis etc.
• Can help us determine the order that life forms developed on earth
Question 1: How are relative and absolute dating used?
Question 2: What is the importance of relative and absolute dating?

POSTTEST
sheet of paper.
1. Which is the younger layer represented in the diagram?

a. A b. H c. L d. M
2. Which is the older layer represented in the diagram?

a. A b. H c. L d. M
3. An unconformity is located between which two layers?
a. D and B b. I and M
c. F and E d. J and G
4. Which relative dating principle best supports the statement that layer J was
deposited as a flat layer?
a. Principle of Superposition
b. Principle of Faunal Succession
c. Principle of Original Horizontality
5. Which relative dating principle best supports the statement that layer E is older
than layer M?
a. Principle of Superposition
b. Principle of Faunal Succession
c. Principle of Original Horizontality
KEY TO CORRECTION
Activity 1 Activity 3
1. Law of 1. Isotope
Superposition 2. Decay Wrap
2. Activity 2 3. Elements Up Post
Pretest Unconformities 4. Half life 1. True test
1. Relative
3. Principle of 5.Transformation 2. True
1. D Age
Inclusions 6. Radioactive 1. A
2. Absolute 7. Element
3. False
2. C 4. Principle of Age 4. False
8. Age 2. C
Original 3. Relative 5. True
9. Stable
3. D horizontality Age 6. True
10. Product
5. Cross-cutting 4. Relative The transformation
3. D
relationship
7. True
4. C Age of parent isotope to
Part 2 8. False 4. C
5. Absolute stable product
5. A 1. A Age
9. True
varies from element
2. B to element and is 10. True 5. D
3. D often measured in
4. E terms of half-life.
5. C
References
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time-scale/.
Refran, James Cesar., and Pamela Louise M. Tolentino. Earth Science. Quezon City:
Vibal Group Inc., 2016.
Nature News. Nature Publishing Group. Accessed August 13, 2020.
https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/dating-rocks-and-
fossils-using-geologic-methods-107924044/.
Accessed August 13, 2020.
https://www.westada.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid
=127572.
Earth Science. (n.d.). Retrieved August 24, 2020, from
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Tarbuck, Lutgens, and Tasa. Thirteenth Edition Earth Science. United States of
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of inclusions geology
of cross cutting relationships
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Earth Science 11

Welcome to Earth Science- our interrelation to Earth and its

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. describe how rocks undergo weathering;

In first-quarter lessons, you have already learned about different types of

Now identify if the following is an example of weathering or not.

a. Frost Wedging or Freeze-Thaw

b. Crystal Formation or Salt Wedging

a. Solution or dissolution - removal of rock in solution by acidic rainwater. In

b. Hydrolysis - the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and

c. Oxidation - is the reaction of a substance with oxygen. The breakdown of rock

Factors that Affect the Rate of Weathering

Modified True or False

______________________1. Physical weathering, also called mechanical weathering

Valuing : The answer of the students about the benefits of weathering to

1. TRUE 2. TRUE 3. 4. Chemical 5. Oxidation

Welcome to Earth Science- our interrelation to Earth and its

After going through this module, you are expected to:

2. Which of the following is caused by the heat inside the Earth?

5. Where does the Earth’s heat come from?

Congratulations! Now, let us explore our new lesson for today!

THREE MAIN REASONS WHY THE

The heat from when The heat from the

1. HEAT FROM WHEN THE PLANET FORMED AND ACCRETED, WHICH

Write T if the statement is true or write F if the statement is false.

the center of the planet.

Answer the following questions.

2. Where can we compare the heat of Earth’s interior? Why?

3. How does radioactive decay affect the surface of the earth?

4. What would happen if the Earth’s core went cold?

THREE MAIN REASONS

3- Things I found out about 2- Interesting things 1-Question I still have

1.__________________________ 1. _______________________ 1. ___________________

2. How hot is the Earth’s Core?

4. Which of the following is a special kind of element because when it decays,

5. Where does the heat inside the Earth come from?

3- Things I found out about 2- Interesting things 1-Question I still have

1.__________________________ 1. _______________________ 1. ___________________

1. T 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.F

1. around 7,000 to 10,000 degrees Celsius

Answers may vary depending on the answer of the students.

Andrei, Mihai. ZME SCIENCE. August 21, 2018. https://www.zmescience.com/other/science-

OSO Oregon State University. n.d. http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/earths-layers-lesson-1 (accessed

SCIENTIFIC AMERICANA. n.d. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-the-earths-core-so/

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. explain how magma is formed within the Earth;

Magma is molten material beneath or within

Since rocks are mixtures of minerals, they behave somewhat

Melting of dry rocks is similar to melting of dry

Melting of rocks containing water or carbon

PROCESSES THAT FORM MAGMA BY MELTING OF MANTLE ROCK

Three different types of magma generation

FIGURE 1: Subduction Zone

How is magma produced in hot-spot volcanism?

A hot spot is fed by a region deep within

Magma generated by the hot spot

FIGURE 3: Volcanic Rift Zone in Hawaii

1.______________ 1. _ 1. _________

1.______________ 1. _ 1. _________