The Trends affecting the organisation of the media, including cross-media

ownership, digitalisation, media Conglomerates and social media.

Cross-Media Ownership:
Concept can influence the narratives presented to the public.: Cross-media
ownership refers to the ownership of multiple forms of media (e.g., newspapers,
TV channels, radio stations) by a single entity
Example: In the United States, companies like Comcast, which owns
NBCUniversal, have a substantial presence in both cable television and film
production
Digitalization:
Concept: Digitalization involves the transformation of traditional media into
digital formats transformation.
Example: The decline of print newspapers due to the rise of online news
platforms like BuzzFeed.
Concept: Media conglomerates are large corporations that own various media
outlets across different platforms, including TV networks, film studios, and
publishing houses. They wield significant influence over what is produced and
distributed.
Example: Disney’s acquisition of Fox in 2019 created a media conglomerate with
immense power, controlling assets in film, television, and streaming services like
Disney+.
Social Media:
Concept: Social media platforms have become a primary source of news and
information for many. They allow for user-generated content and have the
potential to shape public discourse and opinions.
Example: Facebook’s role in disseminating news and information, as well as its
influence on political discourse and election outcomes, showcases the impact of
social media.

Debates about who controls the media.

Ownership of media outlets is often concentrated in the hands of a few
powerful individuals or corporations.
Theory: Conflict theory, proposed by Karl Marx, suggests that media ownership is
controlled by elites who use it to maintain their social and economic power.
Application: Media moguls, such as Rupert Murdoch or Jeff Bezos, are seen as
powerful elites who can shape media content and narratives to serve their
interests. This concentration of media ownership can limit diversity in voices and
perspectives.
Explanation: Functionalism is a theory that views society as a complex system
with various parts that serve specific functions. In media, functionalism suggests
that the media’s primary function is to inform and entertain the public,
contributing to the smooth functioning of society.
Application: While media serves an essential role in informing the public and
providing entertainment, the profit motive in commercial media can sometimes
lead to sensationalism, bias, or prioritizing content for higher ratings or
advertising revenue over the public interest.
Liberal Pluralism:
Explanation: Liberal pluralism is a theory that promotes a diverse media
landscape with various competing voices. It assumes that a multitude of
perspectives and opinions is essential for a healthy democracy.
Application: Countries like the United States and the United Kingdom have
traditionally adhered to liberal pluralism, with a wide range of media outlets
representing different political, social, and cultural viewpoints. This diversity aims
to ensure that citizens have access to a variety of information sources.
Network society theory, proposed by Manuel Castells, highlights the
transformative power of digital networks and their role in reshaping power
structures. This theory illustrates how individuals can now disseminate
information, mobilize movements, and challenge traditional media gatekeepers.
Examples include the Arab Spring protests facilitated by social media platforms
like Twitter and Facebook.
Differences between the traditional media and the new media.
See Notes…Table format

Theories of the media and influences on media content

• Pluralist theories of the media
Pluralists argue that in media, those in charge of day-to-day operations are
powerful for several reasons:
Ownership Structure: Media companies are often owned by groups of
shareholders rather than single individuals, giving rise to a managerial elite.
According to pluralists, because their job Depends on knowing what an audience
wants And being able to provide it. To survive, a business must compete
Successfully in a market place which means Consumers (the people who buy the
product Being sold – or not as the case may be).
For pluralists, the private ownership of The media is significant because it
promotes competition and diversity.
Managerial Elite: According to John Burnham, this managerial elite, including
directors and managers, shape media policy and content. They aim to run the
business in the shareholders’ best interests.
Understanding Audience: The managerial elite’s power lies in their ability to
understand audience preferences and provide content that appeals to them.
Market Competition: Survival in the media industry requires successful
competition in the market. Consumer behavior influences media organizations: if
the audience doesn’t like or buy what’s offered, changes are made to improve or
adapt.
Private Ownership Significance: Pluralists emphasize the importance of private
ownership in promoting competition and diversity in the media landscape. As
Bernard and McDermott (‘Media Ownership Rules’,2002) put it: ‘Current media
ownership rules In the UK prevent any one entity acquiring Excessive influence in
the sector, thereby Ensuring plurality of voice and diversity of Content.
Siebert, Peterson, and Schramm: These scholars, in their book “Four Theories of
the Press,” argued for the importance of a pluralistic media system, where
diverse media outlets ensure that a variety of voices can participate in the public
discourse.

Media Watchdog Groups: Organizations like Media Matters for America and
Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) actively monitor and critique media
coverage, advocating for diversity and accuracy in reporting.
In summary, pluralists contend that a diverse ownership structure, combined
with market competition and regulatory safeguards, promotes a pluralistic media
landscape with a variety of voices and content.

Counterarguments
Corporate Influence: Pluralists assume that media organizations prioritize public
interest over profit. However, critics - profit motives can lead to sensationalism,
clickbait, and prioritization of content that generates more revenue, potentially
sacrificing journalistic integrity.
-There is plenty of evidence that owners of the Press are not neutral when it
comes to the editorial line taken by their newspaper.
-Do the public get what they want, or come to want what they are given?
-In MBC Journalists and editors within state-owned media may practice self-
censorship to avoid running afoul of government authorities or facing
professional repercussions
provide editorial guidelines or directives to MBC, suggesting how certain topics
or events should be covered. These directives can impact the framing and tone of
news REPORTING.

Marxist and neo-Marxist theories of the media.

Karl Marx lived at a time when the only mass medium was the printing
press. Consequently, he wrote little or nothing about the media.
However, sociologists influenced by Marx’s idea wrote on the media:
Class Struggle and Capitalism: Marxist theory views society through the
lens of class struggle, with the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) controlling
the means of production and the working class (proletariat) subjected
to exploitation. In media, this theory suggests that media outlets
primarily serve the interests of the capitalist elite.
Ideological Hegemony: Marxist theorists argue that the ruling class
uses media to maintain ideological hegemony, promoting their values
and worldview as the dominant, natural, and desirable ones.
False Consciousness: Media, according to Marxists, can contribute to
“false consciousness” among the working class by diverting their
attention from the real issues of economic inequality and class
struggle.
Neo-Marxist Theory of the Media:
Explanation:
Critical Engagement: Neo-Marxist theory builds upon traditional
Marxism but engages more critically . It emphasizes the role of media
in shaping cultural norms and social identities, in addition to economic
factors.
Cultural Hegemony: Neo-Marxists like Antonio Gramsci introduce the
concept of cultural hegemony, suggesting that the ruling class
maintains control not only through economics but also through
cultural means, including media.
Ideological State Apparatus: Louis Althusser’s idea of the Ideological
State Apparatus (ISA) suggests that media, as part of ISA, helps
maintain the dominant ideology and social order.
Media Representations: Neo-Marxists argue that media
representations often reinforce stereotypes and cultural norms that
support the existing power structures. For example, the portrayal of
women and minorities in media can reinforce traditional gender and
racial hierarchies.
Both Marxist and Neo-Marxist theories of the media highlight the ways
in which media can serve the interests of the powerful, perpetuate
dominant ideologies, and influence culture and society.

Counterarguments:
- Media Pluralism
- Audience Agency: Critics argue that audiences are not passive
recipients of media messages but actively engage with and
interpret content. Individuals critically assess media narratives and
form their own opinions.
- Cultural Diversity: Neo-Marxist perspectives might overlook the
cultural diversity within societies. Different subcultures, identities,
and counter-cultures can exist and influence media content and
consumption.
Media’s impact on society cannot be solely attributed to capitalist or
hegemonic forces, as audiences, technological advancements, and
diverse ownership structures play significant roles in shaping media
content and its effects.
Mass manipulation may involve framing stories in a way that aligns
with a particular narrative or agenda.
Misinformation and Disinformation: Intentionally spreading false or
misleading information is a form of mass manipulation. This can be
done through false reporting, deepfake videos, or the amplification of
conspiracy theories.
Sensationalism: Overhyping or sensationalizing stories can capture
attention and generate emotional reactions, even if the news is not
particularly significant.
Censorship: Suppressing or controlling the dissemination of information
can prevent the public from accessing alternative viewpoints or critical
information.
Content Suppression: Censorship can involve the outright suppression
or prohibition of specific topics, stories, or information from being
published, broadcast, or distributed.
Forms:
Content Suppression
Self-Censorship
Selective Reporting
Legal Restrictions
Impact:
Limits access to information.
Discourages critical reporting.
Shapes the narrative in line with government agenda.
Challenges press freedom and freedom of expression.
The Turkish government has a history of suppressing media outlets
critical of its policies. In 2016, Turkey’s oldest newspaper, Cumhuriyet,
faced censorship and arrests of its journalists.
Russia – Internet Censorship (2021):
Russia has implemented extensive internet censorship measures,
including blocking access to websites and platforms that contain
political dissent or information critical of the government.
North Korea’s media is entirely state-controlled, with no independent
journalism. The regime tightly controls all information, and
international media outlets are not allowed to operate freely within
the country.
Saudi Arabia – Jamal Khashoggi (2018): Saudi journalist’s murder
raises press freedom concerns.
How the media may influence the political process, including agenda
setting, opinion polls, and news Reporting.
Media Influence on Political Process:
Agenda Setting:
Explanation: Media shapes public awareness by deciding which issues
to emphasize in their coverage.
Sociological Explanation: Gatekeeping function of media influences
public perception of critical political issues.
Example: In the 2016 U.S. election, media’s coverage of immigration
and email scandals made these key issues for voters.
Opinion Polls:
Explanation: Media reports on polls that gauge public sentiment,
influencing political campaigns and strategies.
Sociological Explanation: “Spiral of silence” theory suggests people
conform to perceived majority views.
Example: Consistent polls showing one candidate leading can sway
voters to support that candidate.
News Reporting:
Explanation: Media tone, framing, and content shape public perception
of political issues.
Sociological Explanation: Media framing and “priming” theory affect
issue portrayal and candidate evaluation.
Example: Negative framing of a politician’s actions as “scandals” can
influence public perception. During COVID-19, different media reports
on government actions influenced public opinions on the pandemic.
New Media and Globalization:

Information Exchange and Global Awareness:

New media enables rapid global information exchange.
Sociological concept: “Global village” by Marshall McLuhan.
Example: Social media platforms foster global awareness through news
sharing.
Cultural Exchange and Hybridization:
New media allows cultural content sharing and hybridization.
Sociological concept: Cultural globalization (Roland Robertson).
Example: K-pop’s global influence and cultural exchange via YouTube
Transnational Social Movements:
New media aids transnational activism and social movements.
Sociological concept:
Example: #BlackLivesMatter’s global impact through social media.
Global Business and E-commerce:
New media revolutionizes global commerce with online platforms.
According to Statista, the global e-commerce market is expected to
reach $5.5 trillion in 2027.
Example: Amazon and Alibaba connect businesses to international
customers.
Internet Penetration:
As of 2021, approximately 4.9 billion people, or 63.2% of the global
population, had internet access. This widespread connectivity has
facilitated global communication and information sharing.
For example, the hashtag #MeToo, used to raise awareness about
sexual harassment, became a global phenomenon, demonstrating the
power of new media in spreading social causes.(Positive side of
Media)
Cultural imperialism: Cultural imperialism is a sociological theory that
argues that dominant cultures tend to impose their values and beliefs
on other cultures. New media is often used to promote dominant
cultures. For example, American movies and TV shows are popular all
over the world. This can lead to the homogenization of global culture
New media plays a pivotal role in accelerating globalization, fostering
global connections, and reshaping how information, culture, activism,
business, and grassroots reporting interact on a global scale.