PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Syllabus

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Instruction
A basic command/order. An instruction is a segment of code that contains
steps that need to be executed by the computer processor. For a computer to do
something, instructions have to be given to the computer processor so it knows how
to do what it is being asked to do.

For example, if you were to ask the computer to draw a square, it would need a set
of instructions on how to draw the square, so it can complete the task.

Computer Program
A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific
task when executed by a computer. A computer requires programs to function and
typically executes the program's instructions in a central processing unit. A
computer program is usually written by a computer programmer in a programming
language.

Programming
It is a process of writing set of rules/instructions that provides a way of
telling a computer what operations to perform.

Programmer
A computer programmer, or coder, is someone who writes computer
software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of
computer programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of
software.

Role of a Programmer
The programmer's job is to convert problem solutions into instructions for the
computer. That is, the programmer prepares the instructions of a computer program
and runs those instructions on the computer, tests the program to see if it is working
properly, and makes corrections to the program. The programmer also writes a
report on the program. These activities are all done for the purpose of helping a user
fill a need, such as paying employees, billing customers, or admitting students to
college.

Programming Language
All the human beings in this world communicate with each other by a
language. Similarly, in order to communicate with computer user also needs a
language that should be understandable by computers.
PL is an interface between human & computer they allow us to communicate
with computer in order to perform task. This are used to develop system and
applications software’s.

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A set of rules that provides a way of telling a computer what operations to

perform is called a programming language.

Types of Computer language

1. Low level language/Machine Level/1st GL

2. Assembly Level Language/Middle Level Language/2nd GL.
3. High Level Language/3rd GL.
4. 4th Generation Language.

Low Level Language:

Low level languages are the machine codes in which the instructions are given in
machine language in the form of 0 and 1 to a Computer system. It is mainly designed
to operate and handle all the hardware and instructions set architecture of a
Computer. The main function of the Low level language is to operate, manage and
manipulate the hardware and system components.

Middle Level or Assembly Language

The second generation programming language that has almost similar
structure and set of commands as Machine language. Instead of using numbers like
in Machine languages here we use words or names in English forms and also
symbols. The programs that have been written using words, names and symbols in
assembly language are converted to machine language using an Assembler. Because
a Computer only understands machine code languages that’s why we need an
Assembler that can convert the Assembly level language to Machine language so the
Computer gets the instruction and responds quickly.

The main disadvantage of this language is that it is written only for a single type of
CPU and does not run on any other CPU. But its speed makes it the most used low
level language till today which is used by many programmers.

High Level Language:

The high level languages are the most used and also more considered
programming languages that helps a programmer to read, write and maintain. It is
also the third generation language that is used and also running till now by many
programmers. They are less independent to a particular type of Computer and also
require a translator that can convert the high level language to machine language.
The translator may be an interpreter and Compiler that helps to convert into binary
code for a Computer to understand. There is various high level programming
languages like C, FORTRAN or Pascal that are less independent and also enables
the programmer to write a program.

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4th Generation Language
4GLs are closer to human language than other high-level languages and are
accessible to people without formal training as programmers. They allow multiple
common operations to be performed with a single programmer-entered command.
They are intended to be easier for users than machine languages (first-
generation), assembly languages (second-generation), and older high-level
languages (third-generation). 4GLs are designed to reduce the overall time, effort
and cost of software development.

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UNIT – 1

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Introduction of C Programming
Overview of C language
C is a structured, general purpose, high level programming language
developed by American programmer Dennis M. Ritchie in the year 1972 at AT &
T’s (American Telephone & Telegraph) Bell Laboratories. C is a powerful, flexible,
portable programming language. It is one of the most popular computer languages
today because of its structure, high-level abstraction, machine independent feature.
C language was developed with UNIX operating system, so it is strongly associated
with UNIX, which is one of the most popular network operating system in use today
and heart of internet data superhighway.

C programming is considered as the base for other programming languages, that is

why it is known as mother language.

It can be defined by following ways:

1. Mother language
2. System programming language
3. Procedure-oriented programming language
4. Structured programming language
5. Mid-level programming language

History of C Programming Language

C language has evolved from three different structured language ALGOL
(Algorithmic Language), BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language) and B
Language. Both BCPL & B were “typeless” languages. Basically they are known as
low level languages. It uses many concepts from these languages and introduced
many new concepts such as data types, struct, and pointer. In 1988, the language
was formalised by American National Standard Institute (ANSI). In 1990, a version
of C language was approved by the International Standard Organisation (ISO) and
that version of C is also referred to as C89, C99 & C11 (C1X) is the latest version of C
language.

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Why Name “C” was given to Language?

✓ Many of C’s principles and ideas were derived from the earlier language B.
(Ken Thompson was the developer of B Language.)
✓ BCPL and CPL are the earlier ancestors of B Language
✓ CPL is common Programming Language. In 1967, BCPL Language ( Basic
CPL ) was created as a scaled down version of CPL
✓ As many of the features were derived from “B” Language that’s why it was
named as “C”.
✓ After 7-8 years, C++ came into existence, which was first example of object-
oriented programming.

Importance/Characteristics or features of C Language

1. Modular Programming
Modular programming is a software design technique that increases the
extent to which software is composed of separate parts, called Modules. C
Program consist of different modules that are integrated together to form
complete program.
2. Case sensitivity:
C is a case sensitive language. It means that it can differentiate uppercase and
lowercase words.
3. Machine independent:
It is a machine independent language. It means that the program written in C
language can be executed on different types of computers.

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4. Hardware control:
C programming language provides close control on hardware. It can be used
to write efficient programs to control hardware components of computer
system.
5. Small language:
C is a small language. It has a small number of keywords and programming
controls. But still it is very powerful for developing different types of
programs.
6. Portability:
C Programs are portable i.e. they can run on any Compiler with little or No
Modification. Compiler and Pre-processor make it possible for C Programs to
run it on Different Platforms.
7. More Efficient:
C Programming language is more efficient to other languages.
8. Powerful:
Provides wide verity of “Data Types”
Provides wide verity of “Functions”
Provides useful Control and Loop Control Statements.
9. Fast code generation:
The compilers of C language generate very fast code. The code executes very
efficiently. So the programs take less time to execute.
10. Extensibility:
C language has the ability to extend itself, it is the collection of functions
which are supported by the C library this makes us easier to add our own
functions to C library, Because of the availability of large number of functions,
the programming task becomes simple.
11. Easy to Learn:
C programming language is easy to learn (Syntax is near to English
Language), C language syntax is very easy to understand, and it uses
keywords that we are using in our day-to-day life to convey meaning or to get
some decisions.
12. POP: Procedure Oriented Paradigm
C programming language is procedure oriented language, so, the user creates
procedures or functions to execute their task, the procedure-oriented
language is very much easy to learn because it follows algorithm to execute
your statements.
13. Bit Manipulation:
C Programs can be manipulated using bits. We can perform different
operations at bit level. It provides wide verity of bit manipulation Operators.
We have bitwise operators to manage Data at bit level.
14. Efficient Use of Pointers:
Pointers have direct access to memory. C supports efficient use of pointer.

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1. A sample C Program:
Below C program is a very simple and basic program in C programming
language. This C program displays “Hello World!” in the output window. And, all
syntax and commands in C programming are case sensitive. Also, each statement
should be ended with semicolon (;) which is a statement terminator.

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3{
4 /* Our first simple C basic program */
5 printf("Hello World! ");
6 getch();
7 return 0;
8}

Output:
Hello World!

2. Steps to write C programs and get the output:

Below are the steps to be followed for any C program to create and get the
output. This is common to all C program and there is no exception whether its a very
small C program or very large C program.

1. Create
2. Compile
3. Execute or Run
4. Get the Output

3. Creation, Compilation and Execution of a C program:

Let us see how to save the source code in a file, and how to compile and run it.
Following are the simple steps −

• Open a TC editor and add the above-mentioned code.

• Save the file as hello.c
• Open a command prompt and go to the directory where you have saved the
file.
• Press Alt + F9 enter to compile your code.
• If there are no errors in your code, the command prompt will take you to the
next line and would generate hello.obj executable file.
• Now, press Ctrl+F9 to execute your program.
• You will see the output "Hello World" printed on the screen.

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C Programming basic concepts

Structure of C Program

OPTIONAL

Documentation Section
The documentation section contains a set of comment lines which contain the
name of the program other necessary details. Comment lines are used for readability
and understand ability. Comments are ignored by compiler and are used to provide
documentation to people who reads that code. Documentation section helps anyone
to get an overview of the program. Comment lines are of two types:

1. Single Line Comment

Comments are non-executable code used to provide documentation to
programmer. Single Line Comment is used to comment out just Single Line in the
Code. It is used to provide One Liner Description of line.
Some Important Points:
1. Single Line Comment Can be Placed Anywhere
2. Single Line Comment Starts with ‘//’
3. Any Symbols written after ‘//’ are ignored by Compiler.
4. Comment cannot hide statements written before ‘//’ and On the Successive
new line

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//This is single line comment
2. Multi Line Comment
Multiple Line Comment is used to comment in more than one Line in the
Code. It is used to provide Multi liner Description of line.

Multi Line Comment

1. Multi line comment can be placed anywhere.
2. Multi line comment starts with /*.
3. Multi line comment ends with */.
4. Any symbols written between '/*' and '*/' are ignored by Compiler.
5. It can be split over multiple lines

/*This is
multi line
comment */

Link Section or Pre-processor Section & Definition Section

The link section provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from the
system library such as using the #include directive.
• This section is comprised of both link section and definition section
• This section mainly contains Header files and Pre-processors. This link passes
instructions to the compiler to link files or functions or pre-processors from
the system library.
• The pre-processor command starts with a symbol “#”. C Pre-processors are
not a part of a compiler, but they are separate steps in the compilation
process.
• C pre-processor may include symbolic constants also. Definition Section may
include all the symbolic constants defined with the #define directive.
• For Executing a C program, we must include Header files in this Link section.
Each and Every Header file is a file with Extension .h.

Example:

Global Declaration Section

• Many of the variables may be used in more than one function. Such variables
are known as Global variables. Global variables are always declared above the
main ( ). They must be declared in this Global Declaration section.
• Global variables may be Constant, Static, Extern…, etc.
• We can include User-defined functions and User-defined data types here.

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Syntax:
<datatype> variable name;
Example:
const int a=10;
int b=10;

In the above example, a and b are two Global variables which may be used
anywhere in the C program. ‘a’ value is constant throughout the program while ‘b’
value changes.

main() Function Section:

• Each and Every C program must have only one main function. Program
Execution always starts from the main() function only.
• The main() should be written in small letters only since it is case sensitive. The
main() function should be opened and closed with the left and right flower
braces( { and } ).
• The main function shouldn’t be terminated with colon(:) or semi colon(;) .
• main() function may contains Local variables, Global variables, User-defined
functions….etc.
• Execution Process starts from main() function, and it may call other User-
defined functions or System defined functions.
• The return type of the main function is of any type in C. If it is void we don’t
include the return statement.

Subprogram section:
•This section contains all the User-defined functions that are called and
declared in the other functions like main().
• User-defined functions must be placed immediately after the main() function
even they may appear in order.
• This section may or may not be included in the C program. It is optional.
• These functions perform user tasks, and this also contains a set of program
statements.
Sample C Program Explanation
This is a pre-processor command that includes standard
#include <stdio.h> input output header file(stdio.h) from the C library
before compiling a C program
This is the main function from where execution of any C
void main()
program begins. void means returning nothing.
{ This indicates the beginning of the main function.
whatever is given inside the command “/* */” in any
/*_some_comments_*/ C program, won’t be considered for compilation and
execution.
printf(“Hello_World! “); printf command prints the output onto the screen.
This command waits for any character input from
getch();
keyboard.

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This command terminates C program (main function)

return 0;
and returns 0.
} This indicates the end of the main function.

C Programming Introduction: Tips

1. Every C Program Should have exactly one main function
2. C Program Execution always starts from main.
3. Execution of C Program begins at Opening brace of function and ends at
closing brace of the function.
4. Generally, all statements in c are written in Lowercase Letters.
5. Uppercase Letters are used for Symbolic names, output strings and messages
6. Every C statement must end with semicolon
7. All variables must be declared with respective data types before using.
8. C is free form-Language
9. Comments can be inserted anywhere in C Program, but nested comments are
not supported by C.
10. Braces are Generally Used for the Grouping of statements

Character set of C
character: - It denotes any alphabet, digit or special symbol used to represent
information.

Use: - These characters can be combined to form variables. C uses constants,

variables, operators, keywords and expressions as building blocks to form a basic C
program.

Character set: - The character set is the fundamental raw material of any language
and they are used to represent information. Like natural languages, computer
language will also have well defined character set, which is useful to build the
programs.

Character Set Consists of –

Types Character Set
Lowercase Letters a-z
Uppercase Letters A to Z
Digits 0-9
Special Characters !@#$%^&*
White Spaces Tab Or New line Or Space

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C Tokens
• In a C source file, each word, and punctuations mark are called as Tokens.
• As we know, some the smallest individual units in a program are known as
Tokens.
• Tokens are also called as Lexical Units.
• These are the building blocks in C language which are used to write a
program.

C Tokens can be classified as follows:

1. Keywords (eg: int, while),
2. Identifiers (eg: main, total),
3. Constants (eg: 10, 20),
4. Strings (eg: “total”, “hello”),
5. Special symbols (eg: (), {}),
6. Operators (eg: +, /,-,*)
Keywords or Reserve words
• Every C word is classified as either a Keyword or an Identifier.
• All Keywords in C have fixed to mean, and these meanings can’t be changed
anywhere in the C program.
• Keywords play a vital role in Programming, and these are the essential
building blocks to write a C program.
• There are 32 keywords in C language. Keywords are pre-defined words in the
compiler.
• The keywords cannot be used as variable names because they assign a new
meaning to the keyword which is not allowed.
• All the keywords must be written in lowercase only.
• Some compilers may use additional keywords that must be identified from
the C manual.

List of Keywords:

Identifier or Variables
Identifiers are the names that are given to various program elements such as
variables, symbolic constants and functions. Variable or function identifier that is
called a symbolic constant name.

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Rules for using identifiers
1. First character should be an alphabet or underscore ( _ ).
2. Succeeding characters might be digits or letter.
3. Punctuation and special characters are not allowed except underscore.
4. A keyword cannot be used as a variable name or an identifier name. (such as
int , float, if ,break, for etc)
5. Identifiers are also case sensitive in C. For example, name and Name are two
different identifiers in C.
6. Successive underscores are not allowed( __ ).

Valid Names
num
Num
Num1
_NUM
NUM_temp2
Int

Invalid Identifiers
1num
1_num
365_days
Reason : First Character must be underscore or Alphabet

number 1
num 1
addition of program
Reason : blanks are not allowed

int
char
continue
Reason: Reserve words are not allowed

Constants or Literals
Constants refer to fixed values that don’t change during its execution. These
fixed values are also called literals. DOB is considered as constant.

Constants can be of any of the basic data types like an integer constant, a floating
constant, a character constant, or a string literal. There are enumeration constants as
well.

Constants are treated just like regular variables except that their values cannot be
modified after their definition.

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Types of Constants

Integer Constants
An integer constant is a sequence of digits from 0 to 9 without decimal points
or fractional part or any other symbols. The number may be positive or negative.
These constants are combination of digits from 0 to 9.
There are 3 types of integers namely decimal integer, octal integers and
hexadecimal integer.

Decimal Integers consists of a set of digits 0 to 9 preceded by an optional + or - sign.

Spaces, commas and non-digit characters are not permitted between digits. Example
for valid decimal integer constants are
Decimal constants: int a=0, b=-9,c= 22 etc

Octal Integers constant consists of any combination of digits from 0 through 7 with a
O at the beginning. Some examples of octal integers are
Octal constants: int a=021, b=077, c=033 etc

Hexadecimal integer constant is preceded by OX or Ox, they may contain alphabets

from A to F or a to f. The alphabets A to F refers to 10 to 15 in decimal digits.
Example of valid hexadecimal integers are
Hexadecimal constants: int a=0x7f, b=0x2a, c=0x521 etc

Real Constants
Real Constants consists of a fractional part in their representation. Integer
constants are inadequate to represent quantities that vary continuously. These values
are represented by numbers containing fractional parts like 26.082. Example of real
constants are
float x=6.3; //here 6.3 is a double constant.
float y=6.3f; //here 6.3f is a float constant.

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float z=6.3e+2; //here 6.3 e + 2 is a exponential constant.
float s = 6.3L ; //here 6.3L is a long double constant
Real Numbers can also be represented by exponential notation. The general
form for exponential notation is mantissa exponent. The mantissa is either a real
number expressed in decimal notation or an integer. The exponent is an integer
number with an optional plus or minus sign.

Single Character Constants

A Single Character constant represent a single character, which is enclosed in
a pair of quotation symbols.
Example for character constants are
char y ='u'; // y will hold the value 'u'
char k ='34' ; // k will hold the value '3, and '4' will be omitted
char p ='ok' ; // p will hold the value 'O' and k will be omitted
char e =' '; // e will hold the value ' ' , a blank space
chars ='\45'; // swill hold the value ' ' , a blank space

All character constants have an equivalent integer value, which are called ASCII
(AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE) Values.

String Constants
A string constant is a set of characters enclosed in double quotation marks.
The characters in a string constant sequence may be a alphabet, number, special
character and blank space. Example of string constants are
"VISHAL" "1234” “God Bless" "!.....?"

Datatypes
What is Data Type in C Programming?
1. A Data Type is a Type of Data.
2. Data Type is a Data Storage Format that can contain a Specific Type or Range
of Values.
3. When computer programs store data in variables, each variable must be
assigned a specific data type.
4. Datatype is a set of value with predefined characteristics. Datatypes are used
to declare variable, constants, arrays, pointers and functions.

Explanation:
1. Whenever we declare variable in Computer’s memory, Computer must know
the type of the data to be stored inside the memory.
2. If we need to store the single character, then the size of memory occupied will
be different than storing the single integer number.
3. The memory in our computers is organized in bytes. A byte is the minimum
amount of memory that we can manage in C.
4. A byte can store a relatively small amount of data one single character or a
small integer (generally an integer between 0 and 255).

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Different Data Types

Basic Data Types or Primary or Fundamental or Pre Defined

The basic data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C language
supports both signed and unsigned literals.
The memory size of basic data types may change according to 32 or 64 bit operating
system.
int - Integer data types
Integers are whole numbers that can have both positive and negative values
but no decimal values. The size of int is 2 bytes. The range of integer is −32,768 to
32,767.
Example: 0, -5, 10
In C programming, keyword int is used for declaring integer variable. For example:
int id;
Here, id is a variable of type integer.
You can declare multiple variable at once in C programming. For example:
int id, age;

float - Floating types

Floating type variables can hold real numbers such as: 2.34, -9.382, 5.0 etc.
You can declare a floating point variable in C by using float keyword. The size of float
(single precision float data type) is 4 bytes. Floating point variables has a precision of
6 digits.
For example:
float accountBalance;
float bookPrice;
Here, both accountBalance and bookPrice are floating type variables.
In C, floating values can be represented in exponential form as well. For example:
float normalizationFactor = 22.442e2;

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char - Character types
Keyword char is used for declaring character type variables. For example:
char test = 'h';
Here, test is a character variable. The value of test is 'h'.
The size of character variable is 1 byte.

double – double precision types

Double type variables can hold real numbers such as: 2.335874, -9.382124,
5.00054 etc. You can declare a floating point variable in C by using double keyword.
The size of double (double precision float data type) is 8 bytes. Double variables has a
precision of 14 digits.
double accountBalance;
double bookPrice;

Data Type Qualifiers

Apart from the primitive data types mentioned above, there are certain data
type qualifiers that can be applied to them in order to alter their range and storage
space and thus, fit in various situations as per the requirement.
The data type qualifiers available in c are:
• short
• long
• signed
• unsigned
Size qualifiers
Size qualifiers alter the size of a basic type. There are two size qualifiers, long
and short. For example:
long double i;
The size of double is 8 bytes. However, when long keyword is used, that variable
becomes 10 bytes.
Learn more about long keyword in C programming.
There is another keyword short which can be used if you previously know the value
of a variable will always be a small number.
Sign qualifiers
Integers and floating point variables can hold both negative and positive
values. However, if a variable need to hold positive value only, unsigned data types
are used. For example:
// unsigned variables cannot hold negative value
unsigned int positiveInteger;
There is another qualifier signed which can hold both negative and positive only.
However, it is not necessary to define variable signed since a variable is signed by
default.
An integer variable of 4 bytes can hold data from -231 to 231-1. However, if the
variable is defined as unsigned, it can hold data from 0 to 2 32-1.

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It is important to note that, sign qualifiers can be applied to int and char types only.

Let's see the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32-bit architecture.

Derived Datatypes
Derived datatypes are user-defined data types. The derived datatypes are also
called as user defined datatypes or secondary datatypes. In c programming
language, the derived datatypes are created using the following concepts...
• Arrays
• Structures
• Unions
• Enumeration
void Datatype
The void datatype means nothing or no value. Generally, void is used to
specify a function which does not return any value. We also use the void datatype to
specify empty parameters of a function.

Variables
Variable is a value which changes during the execution of program. Variables
in c programming language are the named memory locations where user can store
different values of same datatype during the program execution. That means,
variable is a name given to a memory location in which we can store different values
of same datatype. In other words, a variable can be defined as a storage container to
hold values of same datatype during the program execution. The formal definition of
datatype is as follows...

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Variable is a name given to a memory location where we can store different values of
same datatype during the program execution.
Every variable in c programming language must be declared in the
declaration section before it is used. Every variable must have a datatype that
determines the range and type of values to be stored and size of the memory to be
allocated.

A variable name may contain letters, digits and underscore symbol. The following
are the rules to specify a variable name...
1. Variable name should not start with digit.
2. Keywords should not be used as variable names.
3. Variable name should not contain any special symbols except underscore (_).
4. Variable name can be of any length but compiler considers only the first 31
characters of the variable name.

Declaration of Variable
Declaration of a variable tells to the compiler to allocate required amount of
memory with specified variable name and allows only specified datatype values into
that memory location. In C programming language, the declaration can be
performed either before the function as global variables or inside any block or
function. But it must be at the beginning of block or function.

Declaration Syntax:
datatype variableName;
Example
int i, j, k;
char c, ch;
float f, salary;
double d;

The line int i, j, k; declares and defines the variables i, j, and k; which instruct the
compiler to create variables named i, j and k of type int.

Initializing or Assigning values to variables Variables can be initialized

(assigned an initial value) in their declaration. The initializer consists of an equal
sign followed by a constant expression as follows −
datatype variable_name = value;

Some examples are −

extern int d = 3, f = 5; // declaration of d and f.
int d = 3, f = 5; // definition and initializing d and f.
byte z = 22; // definition and initializes z.
char x = 'x'; // the variable x has the value 'x'.

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For definition without an initializer: variables with static storage duration are
implicitly initialized with NULL (all bytes have the value 0); the initial value of all
other variables are undefined.

Symbolic Constant
A symbolic constant is a symbol, often similar to a variable name, which
represents one and only one value. You can think of them as variables that never
change (not while the program is running anyway). Often times in a program you
might want to use a single value for something over and over. Well, that is what
symbolic constants are for. Before I go on, let us see how to make a symbolic
constant.

A C program consists of the following symbolic constant definitions.

#define PI 3.141593
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0

#define PI 3.141593 defines a symbolic constant PI whose value is 3.141593. When

the program is pre-processed, all occurrences of the symbolic constant PI are
replaced with the replacement text 3.141593.

Note that the pre-processor statements begin with a #symbol, and are not end with
a semicolon. By convention, pre-processor constants are written in UPPERCASE.

Input & Output in C

In any programming language, the interface forms a very important part. It
deals with taking data from the user and displaying back the output.
When we say Input, it means to feed some data into a program. An input can
be given in the form of a file or from the command line. C programming provides a
set of built-in functions to read the given input and feed it to the program as per
requirement.
When we say Output, it means to display some data on screen, printer, or in
any file. C programming provides a set of built-in functions to output the data on
the computer screen as well as to save it in text or binary files.

Unformatted I/O functions

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Formatted I/O functions: –

The formatted I/O functions read & write all types of data values. They require
conversion symbol to identify the data type.

Formatted input statement or functions

scanf( )
This is formatted input function, which can read data from the standard input device
into the variable in different formats by the user.

The function is used to read data more than one variable at a time.

Syntax:–
scanf(“control string”, &arg);

Ex:–
scanf(“%d”, &no);

1. It reads all types of data values.

2. It is used for run time assignment of variables.
3. It requires conversion symbol to identify the data to be read by the program during
execution.
4. The ampersand (&) symbol is used to indicate the memory location of the variable. So
that the value read would be placed at that location.
5. The control string may contain format code, escape sequence & width specifier.
6. The format code specifies the type of input data.
7. For each variable there must be a format code.

Syntax:
scanf(“control stirng”&arg1, &arg2, . . . ,&argn);

The control string specifies the field format in which the data is to be entered & the args
arg1,…. arg n specify the addition of the locations where the data is stored.

Control string & arguments are separated by commas.

Control string contains filed specifications, which direct the interpretation of i/p data. If
may include:

1. Field (or format) specifications, consisting of the conversion character %, a data type
character and an optional number specifying the field width.

2. Blanks, tabs, or new lines.

The data character indicates the type of data that is to be assigned to the variable
associated with the corresponding argument.
The field width specifies is optional.

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Commonly used scanf ( ) FORMAT CODES are:
Code or Control Strings Meaning
%c Read a single character
%d Read decimal integer
%f Read a floating point value
%e Read a floating point value
%O Read a octal integer
%s Read a string
%u Read an unsigned decimal integer
%x Read a hexadecimal integer
%[“] Read a string of word(s)

Backslash Character Constants [Escape Sequences]

Backslash character constants are special characters used in output functions.
Although they contain two characters they represent only one character. Given below is
the table of escape sequence and their meanings.
Character ASCII value Escape Sequence Result
Null 000 \0 Null

Alarm (bell) 007 \a Beep Sound

Back space 008 \b Moves previous position

Horizontal tab 009 \t Moves next horizontal

tab

New line 010 \n Moves next Line

Vertical tab 011 \v Moves next vertical tab

Form feed 012 \f Moves initial position of

next page

Carriage return 013 \r Moves beginning of the

line

Double quote 034 \" Present Double quotes

Single quote 039 \' Present Apostrophe

Question mark 063 \? Present Question Mark

Back slash 092 \\ Present back slash

Octal number \000

Hexadecimal number \x

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Inputting integer numbers: –

The field specification for reading a integer is:

Syntax: – %wd

The % sign indicates that a conversion specification follows. W is a integer number that
specifies the field width of the number to be read and d, known as data type character,
indicates that the number to be read is in integer mode.

Ex:– scanf(“%2d%5d”, &no1, &no2);

An input field may be skipped by specifying in the place of field width.
Ex:– scanf(“%d%*d%d”, &a, &b);
Will assign the data 123 456 789
Now 123 is assigned to ‘a’ 456 is skipped (because of *) 789 is to ‘b’.
Inputting real numbers: –
The field width of real numbers is not to be specified and therefore scanf reads real
numbers using the simple specification %f for both the notification.

Ex:– scanf(“%f%f%f”, &x, &y, &z);

With the input data 475.1 43.21–1 678

Will assign the values:475.1 to x
4.321 to y and
678.0 to z

Inputting character strings:

It is done in 2 ways, by using getchar function and by using scanf function.
A scanf function can input strings containing more than one character.

Syntax: %ws or %wc

The corresponding argument should be a pointer to a character array.
%c is used to read a single character.
%s is used to read words or paragraphs.
Reading mixed data types: –
It is possible to use one scanf statement to input a data line containing mixed mode
data. in such cases, care should be exercised to ensure that the i/p data items match the
control specifications in order and type.

Ex:– scanf(“%d%c%f%s”, &no, &code, & ration, name);

Detection of errors in input:

Only one error is encountered while reading i/p i.,e mismatch of format specifier &
arguments.

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Rules while using scanf: –

1.Every variable to be read must have field specification.
2. For each field specification there must be variable address of proper type.
3. Never end the format string with white space. It is a fatal error.
4. Scanf read until.
· A white space character is formed.
· The maximum no of characters has been read.
· An error is detected.
· The end of file is reached
Formatted output:
printf():–
pritnf function is used to print the data (or) more than one data item in different formats
on the standard o/p device.

Syntax:–
printf(“control string”, arg1, arg2,….,argn);

Control string consists of 3 types of items:

1. Characters that will be printed on the screen as they appear.

2. Format specifications that define the o/p format for display of each item.
3. Escape sequence characters such as \n, \t & \b.
The control string indicates how many arguments follow & printed according to the
specifications of the control string.

The arguments should match in number, order and type with format specifications.
Output of integer numbers:
The format specification for printif on integer number is:

%wd

Where w specifies the minimum field width for the o/p d specifies that the value to be
printed is an integer.

The number is written right–justified in the given field with:

Ex:– printf(“%6d”,9876); 9 8 7 6

it is possible to force the printing to be left–justified by placing a minus sign directly after
the %character.

Ex:– printf(“%–6d”,9876); 9 8 7 6

it is also possible to pad with zero’s the leading blanks by placing a 0 before the field
width specifier.

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Ex:– printf(“%06d”,9876); 0 0 9 8 7 6

The minus (–) & zero are known as flags.

Ex:– printf(“%d”,9876); 9 8 7 6

Output of real numbers: –

The output of a real no may be displayed in decimal notation using the following
format specification

%w.pf

The integer w indication the minimum number of positions that are to be used for the
display of the value and the integer p indicates the number of digits to be displayed after
the decimal point (precision) f format specifies.
We can also display a real no in exponential notation by using the specification.

%w.pe

Ex:– y=98.76546 9 8 . 7 6 5 4
printf(“%7.4f”, y);
printf(“%7.2f”,y); 9 8 . 7 7
printf(“%-7.2f”, y); 9 8 . 7 7
Printing of a single character:
A single character can be displayed in a desired position using the format:

%wc

The character will be displayed right justified in the field of w columns. We can make
the display left–justified by placing a minus sign before the integer w the minus sign
before the integer w. The defaults value for w is 1.

Printing of strings:
The format specification for out putting strings is similar to real numbers

%w.ps

Where w specifies the field width for display and p instructs that only the first P
characters of the string are to be displayed. The display is right–justified.

Ex:

%20s N E W D E L H I 1 1 0 0
%20.10s N E W D E L H I

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Mixed data output: –

printf uses its control string to decide how many variables to be printed and what
their types are. Therefore, the format specifications should match the variables in
number, order and type.

If there are not enough variables or if they are of the wrong type, the o/p results will be
incorrect.
Ex:– printf(“%d%f%s%c”,a, b, c, d);

Unformatted Input Output Functions

Unformatted input and output functions are only work with character data
type. Unformatted input and output functions do not require any format specifiers.
Because they only work with character data type.

Reading A Character or Unformatted Input Function

The simplest of all input/output operations is reading a character from the
standard input unit (usually the keyboard) and writing it to the standard output
unit (usually the screen). Reading a single character can be done by using the
function getchar. The getchar takes the following form:

variable_name = getchar();

variable_name is a valid C name that has been declared as char type. When this
statement is encountered, the computer waits until a key is pressed and then
assigns this character as a value to getchar function. Since getchar is used on the
right-hand side of an assignment statement, the character value of getchar is in
turn assigned to the variable name on the left.
For example
char name;
name = getchar();
will assign the character 'H' to the variable name when we press the key H on the
keyboard. Since getchar is a function, it requires a set of parentheses as shown.
Example program:

# include < stdio.h > // assigns stdio-h header file to your program
void main ( ) // Indicates the starting point of the program.
{
char C, // variable declaration
printf (“Type one character:”) ; // message to user
C = getchar () ; // get a character from key board and Stores it in variable C.
printf (” The character you typed is = %c”, C) ; // output
} // Statement which displays value of C on
// Standard screen.
C supports testing of the character keyed in by the user by including the file
ctype.h & the functions which can be used after including this file are

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isalnum(c) Is c an alphanumeric character?
isalpha(c) Is c an alphabetic character?
isdigit(c) Is c a digit?
islower(c)Is c a lower case character?
isprint(c)Is c a printable character?
ispunct(c)Is c a punctuation mark?
isspace(c)Is c a white space character?
isupper(c) Is c a upper case character?

Writing a character or Unformatted Output Function

The simplest of all output operations writing it to the standard output unit
(usually the screen). Writing a single character can be done by using the
function putchar. The putchar takes the following form:
putchar (variable name);

Where variable is a valid C type variable that has already been declared Ex:-

putchar ( );

Displays the value stored in variable C to the standard screen.

Program shows the use of getchar function in an interactive environment.

#include < stdio.h > // Inserts stdio.h header file into the Pgm
void main ( ) // Beginning of main function.
{
char in; // character declaration of variable in.
printf (” please enter one character”); // message to user
in = getchar ( ) ; // assign the keyboard input value to in.
putchar (in); // output ‘in’ value to standard screen.
}

String input and output:

The gets function relieves the string from standard input device while put S
outputs the string to the standard output device. A strong is an array or set of
characters.
The function gets accepts the name of the string as a parameter, and fills the
string with characters that are input from the keyboard till newline character is
encountered. (That is till we press the enter key). All the end function gets appends a
null terminator as must be done to any string and returns.

The puts function displays the contents stored in its parameter on the standard
screen.
The standard form of the gets function is

gets (str)

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Here "str" is a string variable.

NOTE: It is recommended NOT to make use of gets() function. It is unsafe and can
even crash the C program itself. Above description is for theoretical illustration
purpose only.

The standard form for the puts character is

puts (str)
Where str is a string variable.

Example program (Involving both gets and puts)

# include < stdio.h >

void main ( )
{
char s [80];
printf (“Type a string less than 80 characters:”);
gets (s);
printf (“The string types is:”);
puts(s);
}

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

UNIT – 2

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

C Operators& Expressions
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific
mathematical or logical operations.
C programming language has wide range of operators to perform
various operations. For better understanding of operators, these operators can
be classified as:
Types of Operators

Unary Operator
A unary operator, in C, is an operator that takes a si ngle operand in an
expression or a statement.

Types of Unary Operator

1. Unary Minus (-)
2. Increment (++)
3. Decrement (--)
Unary Minus (-)
The - (unary minus) operator negates the value of the operand. The
operand can have any arithmetic type. The result is not an lvalue.
For example, if quality has the value 100, -quality has the value -100.

Increment and decrement operators

Increment Operators are used to increase the value of the variable by
one and Decrement Operators are used to decrease the value of the variable
by one in C programs.
Both increment and decrement operator are used on a single operand
or variable, so it is called as a unary operator. Unary operators are having
higher priority than the other operators it means unary operators are executed
before other operators.

Increment operator (++)

1. Increment operator is used to increment the current value of variable by
adding integer 1.
2. Increment operator can be applied to only variables.
3. Increment operator is denoted by ++.

Type of Increment Operator

• pre-increment
• post-increment

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
pre-increment (++ variable)
In pre-increment first increment the value of variable and then used
inside the expression (initialize into another variable).
Syntax
++ variable;
post-increment (variable ++)
In post-increment first value of variable is used in the expression
(initialize into another variable) and then increment the value of variable.
Syntax
variable ++;

Decrement operator (--)

1. Decrement operator is used to decrease the current value of variable by
subtracting integer 1.
2. Like Increment operator, decrement operator can be applied to only
variables.
3. Decrement operator is denoted by –.

Type of Decrement Operator

1. pre-decrement
2. post-decrement
Pre-decrement (-- variable)
In pre-decrement first decrement the value of variable and then used
inside the expression (initialize into another variable).
Syntax
-- variable;
post-decrement (variable --)
In Post-decrement first value of variable is used in the expression
(initialize into another variable) and then decrement the value of variable.
Syntax
variable --;
Difference between ++ and -- operator as postfix and prefix
When i++ is used as prefix (like: ++var ), ++var will increment the value
of var and then return it but, if ++ is used as postfix (like: var++), operator will
return the value of operand first and then only increment it. This can be
demonstrated by an example:
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int c=2,d=2;
printf("%d\n",c++); //this statement displays 2 then, only c incremented by 1 to 3.
printf("%d",++c); //this statement increments 1 to c then, only c is displayed.
getch();
}
Output 2 4

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Binary Operators

Compound Assignment
Operators

= Assignment Operator

Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators, in C, are operators used to perform arithmetic
operations that include multiplication, division, addition and subtraction. All these
operators are binary operators which means they operate on two operands.
Following table shows all the arithmetic operators supported by C language.
Assume variable A=10 and variable B=20, then:

Operator Description Example

+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30

- Subtracts second operand from the first A - B will give -10

* Multiplies both operands A * B will give 200

/ Divides numerator by de-numerator B / A will give 2

Modulus Operator and remainder of after an integer

% B % A will give 0
division

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Example of working of arithmetic operators

/* Program to demonstrate the working of arithmetic operators in C. */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,add,sub,mul,mod;
float div;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the values of a & b\n");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
add=a+b;
sub=a-b;
mul=a*b;
div=(float)a/(float)b;
mod=a%b;
printf("Addition of two numbers=%d\n",add);
printf("Subtraction of two numbers=%d\n",sub);
printf("Multiplication of two numbers=%d\n",mul);
printf("Division of two numbers=%f\n",div);
printf("Modulus of two numbers=%d\n",mod);
getch();
}
------------------------------------------------OUTPUT-----------------------------------------
Enter the values of a & b
15
10
Addition of two numbers=25
Subtraction of two numbers=5
Multiplication of two numbers=150
Division of two numbers=1.5
Modulus of two numbers= 0

Explanation
Here, the operators +, - and * performed normally as you expected. In
normal calculation, 15/10 equals to 1.5. And, finally a%b is 0, i.e., when a=15 is
divided by b=10 , remainder is 0.
Suppose a=5.0, b=2.0, c=5 and d=2
In C programming,
a/b=2.5
a/d=2.5
c/b=2.5
c/d=2

Note: % operator can only be used with integers.

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Assignment Operators

The most common assignment operator is = . This operator assigns the

value in right side to the left side. For example:
var=5 //5 is assigned to var
a=c; //value of c is assigned to a
5=c; // Error! 5 is a constant.

Operator Description Example

Simple assignment operator, Assigns
C = A + B will assign value of A + B
= values from right side operands to left side
into C
operand
Add AND assignment operator, It adds
+= right operand to the left operand and C += A is equivalent to C = C + A
assign the result to left operand
Subtract AND assignment operator, It
subtracts right operand from the left
-= C -= A is equivalent to C = C - A
operand and assign the result to left
operand
Multiply AND assignment operator, It
multiplies right operand with the left
*= C *= A is equivalent to C = C * A
operand and assign the result to left
operand

Divide AND assignment operator, It

/= divides left operand with the right operand C /= A is equivalent to C = C / A
and assign the result to left operand

Modulus AND assignment operator, It

%= takes modulus using two operands and C %= A is equivalent to C = C % A
assign the result to left operand
<<= Left shift AND assignment operator C <<= 2 is same as C = C << 2
>>= Right shift AND assignment operator C >>= 2 is same as C = C >> 2
&= Bitwise AND assignment operator C &= 2 is same as C = C & 2
bitwise exclusive OR and assignment
^= C ^= 2 is same as C = C ^ 2
operator
bitwise inclusive OR and assignment
|= C |= 2 is same as C = C | 2
operator
Example

Try the following example to understand all the assignment operators

available in C programming language:

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a = 21;
int c ;
c = a;
printf("Line 1 - = Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
c += a;
printf("Line 2 - += Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
c -= a;
printf("Line 3 - -= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
c *= a;
printf("Line 4 - *= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
c /= a;
printf("Line 5 - /= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
c = 200;
c %= a;
printf("Line 6 - %= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
c <<= 2;
printf("Line 7 - <<= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
c >>= 2;
printf("Line 8 - >>= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
c &= 2;
printf("Line 9 - &= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
c ^= 2;
printf("Line 10 - ^= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
c |= 2;
printf("Line 11 - |= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
getch();
}

When you compile and execute the above program it produces the following result:

Line 1 - = Operator Example, Value of c = 21

Line 2 - += Operator Example, Value of c = 42
Line 3 - -= Operator Example, Value of c = 21
Line 4 - *= Operator Example, Value of c = 441
Line 5 - /= Operator Example, Value of c = 21
Line 6 - %= Operator Example, Value of c = 11
Line 7 - <<= Operator Example, Value of c = 44
Line 8 - >>= Operator Example, Value of c = 11
Line 9 - &= Operator Example, Value of c = 2
Line 10 - ^= Operator Example, Value of c = 0
Line 11 - |= Operator Example, Value of c = 2

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Relational Operator
Relational operator’s checks relationship between two operands. If the
relation is true, it returns value 1 and if the relation is false, it re turns value 0.
For example: a>b
Here, > is a relational operator. If a is greater than b, a>b returns 1 if not then,
it returns 0.

Following table shows all the relational operators supported by C language. Assume
variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then:
Operator Description Example
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes (A == B) is not
==
then condition becomes true. true.
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if
!= (A != B) is true.
values are not equal then condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value (A > B) is not
>
of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of

< (A < B) is true.
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to
(A >= B) is not
>= the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes
true.
true.
Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to
<= the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes (A <= B) is true.
true.

Example
Try the following example to understand all the relational operators available in C
programming language:
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a = 21; int b = 10;
int c ;
if( a == b )
{
printf("Line 1 - a is equal to b\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Line 1 - a is not equal to b\n" );
}
if ( a < b )

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
{
printf("Line 2 - a is less than b\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Line 2 - a is not less than b\n" );
}
if ( a > b )
{
printf("Line 3 - a is greater than b\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Line 3 - a is not greater than b\n" );
}
/* Lets change value of a and b */
a = 5; b = 20;
if ( a <= b )
{
printf("Line 4 - a is either less than or equal to b\n" );
}
if ( b >= a )
{
printf("Line 5 - b is either greater than or equal to b\n" );
}
}

When you compile and execute the above program it produces the following result:

Line 1 - a is not equal to b

Line 2 - a is not less than b
Line 3 - a is greater than b
Line 4 - a is either less than or equal to b
Line 5 - b is either greater than or equal to b

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 40 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to combine expressions containing relation
operators. In C, there are 3 logical operators:

Following table shows all the logical operators supported by C language. Assume
variable A holds 1 and variable B holds 0, then:
Operator Description Example
Called Logical AND operator. If both the operands are
&& (A && B) is false.
non-zero, then condition becomes true.
Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two operands is
|| (A || B) is true.
non-zero, then condition becomes true.
Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to reverses the logical
! state of its operand. If a condition is true then Logical !(A && B) is true.
NOT operator will make false.

Example
Try the following example to understand all the logical operators available in C
programming language:
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a = 5; int b = 20; int c ;
if ( a && b )
{
printf("Line 1 - Condition is true\n" );
}
if ( a || b )
{
printf("Line 2 - Condition is true\n" );
}
/* lets change the value of a and b */
a = 0; b = 10;
if ( a && b )
{
printf("Line 3 - Condition is true\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Line 3 - Condition is not true\n" );
}
if ( !(a && b) )
{
printf("Line 4 - Condition is true\n" );
}}
When you compile and execute the above program it produces the following result:

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 41 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Line 1 - Condition is true

Line 2 - Condition is true
Line 3 - Condition is not true
Line 4 - Condition is true

Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators are special types of operators that are used in
programming the processor. In processor, mathematical operations like:
addition, subtraction, addition and division are done using the bitwise
operators which makes processing faster and saves power.

Operator Description
Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result if it exists in both
&
operands.

| Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it exists in either operand.

Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it is set in one operand but not
^
both.
Binary Ones Complement Operator is unary and has the effect of
~
'flipping' bits.

Binary Left Shift Operator. The left operands value is moved left by the
<<
number of bits specified by the right operand.

Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operands value is moved right by
>>
the number of bits specified by the right operand.

Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation. The truth tables
for &, |, and ^ are as follows:
P Q p&q p|q p^q
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Bitwise AND operator in C programming.
The output of logical AND is 1 if both the corresponding bits of
operand is 1. If either of bit is 0 or both bits are 0, the output will be 0. It is a
binary operator (works on two operands) and indicated in C programming
by & symbol. Let us suppose the bitwise AND operation of two integer s 12
and 25.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bit Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
&00011001
________
00001000 = 8 (In decimal)
As, every bitwise operator works on each bit of data. The corresponding
bits of two inputs are check and if both bits are 1 then only the output will be
1. In this case, both bits are 1 at only one position, i.e, fourth position from the
right, hence the output bit of that position is 1 and all other bits are 0.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a=12,b=39;
printf("Output=%d",a&b);
getch();
}
Output
Output=4

Bitwise OR operator in C
The output of bitwise OR is 1 if either of the bit is 1 or both the bits are 1.
In C Programming, bitwise OR operator is denoted by |.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)

Bitwise OR Operation of 12 and 25

00001100
|00011001
________
00011101 = 29 (In decimal)

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a=12,b=25;
printf("Output=%d",a|b);
return 0;
}
Output
Output=29

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 43 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
C Programming Bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) operator
The output of bitwise XOR operator is 1 if the corresponding bits of two
operators are opposite (i.e., To get corresponding output bit 1; if
corresponding bit of first operand is 0 then, corresponding bit of second
operand should be 1 and vice-versa.). It is denoted by ^.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)

Bitwise XOR Operation of 12 and 25

00001100
| 00011001
________
00010101 = 21 (In decimal)

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a=12,b=25;
printf("Output=%d",a^b);
return 0;
}
Output=21

Bitwise compliment operator

Bitwise compliment operator is an unary operator (works on one
operand only). It changes the corresponding bit of the operand to opposite bit,
i.e., 0 to 1 and 1 to 0. It is denoted by ~.
35=00100011 (In Binary)

Bitwise complement Operation of 35

~ 00100011
________
11011100 = 220 (In decimal)

Twist in bitwise complement operator in C Programming

Output of ~35 shown by compiler won't be 220, instead it shows -36. For any
integer n, bitwise complement of n will be -(n+1). To understand this, you
should understand the concept of 2's complement.

2's Complement
Two's complement is the operation on binary numbers which allows
number to write it in different form. The 2's compleme nt of number is equal to
the complement of number plus 1. For example:
Decimal Binary 2's complement
0 00000000 -(11111111+1) = -00000000 = -0(decimal)
1 00000001 -(11111110+1) = -11111111 = -256(decimal)
12 00001100 -(11110011+1) = -11110100 = -244(decimal)
220 11011100 -(00100011+1) = -00100100 = -36(decimal)
Note: Overflow is ignored while computing 2's complement.

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 44 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
If we consider the bitwise complement of 35, 220(in decimal) is converted into
2's complement which is -36. Thus, the output shown by computer will be -36
instead of 220.

How is bitwise complement of any number N=-(N+1)?

bitwise complement of N= ~N (represented in 2's comple ment form)
2'complement of ~N= -(~(~N)+1) = -(N+1)
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("complement=%d\n",~35);
printf("complement=%d\n",~-12);
return 0;
}
complement=-36
Output=11
Shift Operator in C programming
There are two shift operators in C programming: Right shift operator and Left
shift operator.

Right Shift Operator

Right shift operator moves the all bits towards the right by certain number of
bits which can be specified. It is denoted by >>.
212 = 11010100 (In binary)
212>>2 = 00110101 (In binary) [Right shift by two bits]
212>>7 = 00000001 (In binary)
212>>8 = 00000000
212>>0 = 11010100 (No Shift)

Left Shift Operator

Left shift operator moves the all bits towards the left by certain number
of bits which can be specified. It is denoted by <<.
212 = 11010100 (In binary)
212<<1 = 10101000 (In binary) [Left shift by one bit]
212<<0 =11010100 (Shift by 0)
212<<4 = 01000000 (In binary) =3392(In decimal)
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int num=212,i;
for (i=0;i<=2;++i)
printf("Right shift by %d: %d\n",i,num>>i);
printf("\n");
for (i=0;i<=2;++i)
printf("Left shift by %d: %d\n",i,num<<i);
getch();
}
Right Shift by 0: 212

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 45 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Right Shift by 1: 106
Right Shift by 2: 53
Left Shift by 0: 212
Left Shift by 1: 424
Left Shift by 2: 848
Interesting thing to note in Left and Right Shift
For any positive number, right shift is equal to integer division of that number
by (shift bit plus one) and for any integer left shift is equal to the
multiplication of that number by (shift bit plus one)

Conditional operators (?:) or Turnery Operator

Conditional operators are used in decision making in C programming,
i.e, executes different statements according to test condition whether it is
either true or false.

• They are also called as Ternary Operator.

• They also called as ?: operator
• Ternary Operators takes on 3 Arguments

Syntax of conditional operator

where
• expression1 is Condition
• expression2 is Statement Followed if Condition is True
• expression2 is Statement Followed if Condition is False

Meaning of Syntax:
• Expression1 is nothing but Boolean Condition i.e it results into either TRUE
or FALSE
• If result of expression1 is TRUE then expression2 is Executed
• Expression1 is said to be TRUE if its result is NON-ZERO
• If result of expression1 is FALSE then expression3 is Executed
• Expression1 is said to be FALSE if its result is ZERO

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 46 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Example of conditional operator
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
char feb;
int days;
printf("Enter l if the year is leap year otherwise enter 0: ");
scanf("%c",&feb);
days=(feb=='l')?29:28;
/*If test condition (feb=='l') is true, days will be equal to 29. */
/*If test condition (feb=='l') is false, days will be equal to 28. */
printf("Number of days in February = %d",days);
getch();
}
OUTPUT
Enter l if the year is leap year otherwise enter n: l
Number of days in February = 29
Other operators such as &(reference operator), *(dereference operator) and -
>(member selection) operator will be discussed in pointer chapter.

Special or Other Operators

There are few other important operators including sizeof and ? : supported by C
Language.
Operator Description Example
sizeof(a), where a is interger,
sizeof() Returns the size of an variable.
will return 4.
&a; will give actaul address of
& Returns the address of an variable.
the variable.
* Pointer to a variable. *a; will pointer to a variable.
If Condition is true ? Then
?: Conditional Expression
value X : Otherwise value Y

Comma Operator
Comma operators are used to link related expressions together. For example:
int a,c=5,d;

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

The sizeof operator

It is a unary operator which is used in finding the size of data type,
constant, arrays, structure etc. For example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
float b;
double c;
char d;
printf("Size of int=%d bytes\n",sizeof(a));
printf("Size of float=%d bytes\n",sizeof(b));
printf("Size of double=%d bytes\n",sizeof(c));
printf("Size of char=%d byte\n",sizeof(d));
return 0;
getch();
}
Output
Size of int=4 bytes
Size of float=4 bytes
Size of double=8 bytes
Size of char=1 byte

Expressions
Operands are variables or expressions which are used in operators to evaluate the
expression.
Combination of operands and operators form an Expression. Statements like a = b +
3, ++z and 300 > (8 * k) are all expressions.
Every expression consists of at least one operand and can have one or more
operators. Operands are values, whereas operators are symbols that represent
particular actions. In the expression
x+5
x and 5 are operands, and + is an operator.
Expressions are used in programming languages, database systems, and
spreadsheet applications.

Arithmetic Expressions
Arithmetic expression in C is a combination of variables, constants and
operators written in a proper syntax. C can easily handle any complex mathematical
expressions but these mathematical expressions have to be written in a proper
syntax. Some examples of mathematical expressions written in proper syntax of C
are:

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 48 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Types of Expressions

1) Arithmetic expressions – expressions which contain operands and arithmetic

operators
a) Integer expressions – expressions which contains integers and operators
b) Real expressions – expressions which contains floating point values and
operators
c) Mixed mode arithmetic expressions – expressions which contain both integer
and real operands
2) Relational expressions – expressions which contain relational operators and
operands
3) Logical expressions – expressions which contain logical operators and operands
4) Assignment expressions and so on… – expressions which contain assignment
operators and operands

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 49 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Expression Evaluation
Expressions are evaluated using an assignment statement of the form:

In the above syntax, variable is any valid C variable name. When the
statement like the above form is encountered, the expression is evaluated first and
then the value is assigned to the variable on the left hand side. All variables used in
the expression must be declared and assigned values before evaluation is attempted.
Examples of expressions are:

Expressions are evaluated based on operator precedence and associativity rules

when an expression contains more than one operator.

Type Conversion/Casting in Expressions

Type casting is a way to convert a variable from one data type to another data
type. For example, if you want to store a long value into a simple integer then you
can type cast long to int. You can convert values from one type to another explicitly
using the cast operator.
New data type should be mentioned before the variable name or value in brackets
which to be typecast.

Why do we need type casting?

Type casting would be pretty handy when your inputs to an operation is of a
particular type and you need more precision in the output. Let's see the use of type casting
through a simple example
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int value1 = 10, value2 = 3;
float result;
result = value1 / value2;
printf("Result without type casting: %f", result);
return 0;
}
Output:
Result without type casting: 3.000000
In the above example we assign the result of division operation to float type
variable result. The result is supposed to be 3.333333. But we get the result as
3.000000. Can you think why? Because the two operands of the
expression, value1 and value2 are of int type. This causes compiler to treat the result
also as integer; that means, it will ignore the decimal part of the result and store the
integer result in float variable.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
So how do you get the result with correct precision? Just cast the type of expression to the
type you need! You can see the solution below.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int value1 = 10, value2 = 3;
float result;
result = (float) value1 / value2;
printf("Result without type casting: %f", result);
getch();
}
Output:
Result without type casting: 3.333333
One important thing to notice here is that, type casting has more precedence than the divide
operation (/). At first, value1 will be converted to float type and then division operation is
performed on the float variable

Operator Precedence and Associativity

Every C operator has a precedence (priority) associated with it. This
precedence is used to determine how an expression involving more than one
operator is evaluated. There are different levels of operator precedence and an
operator may belong to one of these levels. The operators at the higher level of
precedence are evaluated first. The operators in the same level of precedence are
evaluated from left to right or from right to left, based on the associativity property
of an operator. In the below table we can look at the precedence levels of operators
and also the associativity of the operators within the same level. Rank 1 indicates the
highest precedence and Rank 9 indicates lowest precedence. Priority
Operator Priority Associativity
{}, (), [] 1 Left to right
++, --, ! 2 Right to left
*, /, % 3 Left to right
+, - 4 Left to right
<, <=, >, >=, ==, != 5 Left to right
&& 6 Left to right
|| 7 Left to right
?: 8 Right to left
=, +=, -=, *=, /=, %= 9 Right to left

Suppose, we have an arithmetic expression as:

x = 9 – 12 / 3 + 3 *2 - 1
This expression is evaluated in two left to right passes as:
First Pass

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Step 1: x = 9-4 + 3 * 2 – 1
Step 2: x = 9 – 4 + 6 – 1

Second Pass
Step 1: x = 5 + 6 – 1
Step 2: x = 11 – 1
Step 3: x = 10
But when parenthesis is used in the same expression, the order of evaluation gets
changed.
For example,
x = 9 – 12 / (3 + 3) * (2 – 1)
When parentheses are present then the expression inside the parenthesis are
evaluated first from left to right. The expression is now evaluated in three passes as:

First Pass
Step 1: x = 9 – 12 / 6 * (2 – 1)
Step 2: x= 9 – 12 / 6 * 1

Second Pass
Step 1: x= 9 – 2 * 1
Step 2: x = 9 – 2

Third Pass
Step 3: x= 7
There may even arise a case where nested parentheses are present (i.e.
parenthesis inside parenthesis). In such case, the expression inside the innermost set
of parentheses is evaluated first and then the outer parentheses are evaluated.
For example, we have an expression as:
x = 9 – ((12 / 3) + 3 * 2) – 1
The expression is now evaluated as:

First Pass:
Step 1: x = 9 – (4 + 3 * 2) – 1
Step 2: x= 9 – (4 + 6) – 1
Step 3: x= 9 – 10 -1

Second Pass
Step 1: x= - 1 – 1
Step 2: x = -2
Note: The number of evaluation steps is equal to the number of operators in the
arithmetic expression.

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 52 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Example 1:

Example 2: where a=5

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 53 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Control Structures
Control statements enable us to specify the flow of program control; i.e., the
order in which the instructions in a program must be executed. They make it
possible to make decisions, to perform tasks repeatedly or to jump from one section
of code to another.

Types of Control Statements

CONDITIONAL CONTROL STATEMENTS:

• Conditional Control Statements involves performing a Logic Test.
• This Test results either a TRUE or FALSE.
Depending upon the truthness or falsity of the condition, the statements to be
executed is determined. After that, the control transfers to the statement in the
program and start executing the statements. This is known as Conditional Execution.

Decision Making or Branching Control Statements

Decision-making statements are the statements that are used to verify a given
condition and decides whether a block of statements gets executed or not based on
the condition result.

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 54 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
In C four conditional control statements are widely used:
❖ If-statement
❖ If-else statement
❖ Nested-if-else statement
❖ else-if ladder

Simple if statement or One way Branching

Simple if statement is used to verify the given condition and executes the
block of statements based on the condition result. The simple if statement evaluates
specified condition. If it is TRUE, it executes the next statement or block of
statements. If the condition is FALSE, it skips the execution of the next statement or
block of statements.

The general syntax and execution flow of the simple if statement is as follows...

Where
Condition: is a logical expression that results in TRUE or FALSE.
Statement: a simple statement (single statement) or compound statement (collection
of two or more statement).
Explanation: If the logical condition is TRUE then statement1 is executed and If the
logical condition is FALSE then control transfers to the next executable statement.
Simple if statement is used when we have only one option that is executed or
skipped based on a condition.

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 55 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
//Program to convert negative value to absolute using simple if
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int number;
printf( " Type a number: ");
scanf( "%d", &number);
// check whether the number is negative number
if (number < 0)
{
// If it is a negative then convert it into positive.
number = -number;
printf( " The absolute value is % d\n ", number);
}
getch();
}
OUTPUT

if - else statement OR Two Way Branching

The if - else statement is used to verify the given condition and executes only one out
of the two blocks of statements based on the condition result. The if-else statement
evaluates the specified condition. If it is TRUE, it executes a block of statements
(True block). If the condition is FALSE, it executes another block of statements (False
block). The general syntax and execution flow of the if-else statement is as follows...

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 56 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Where
Condition: is a logical expression that results in TRUE or FALSE.
Statement: a simple statement (single statement) or compound statement (collection
of two or more statement).
Explanation: If the condition specified in the if statement evaluates to true, the
statements inside the if-block are executed and then the control gets transferred to
the statement immediately after the if-block. Even if the condition is false and no
else-block is present, control gets transferred to the statement immediately after the
if-block.
The else part is required only if a certain sequence of instructions needs to be
executed if the condition evaluates to false. It is important to note that the condition
is always specified in parentheses and that it is a good practice to enclose the
statements in the if block or in the else-block in braces, whether it is a single
statement or a compound statement.
The if-else statement is used when we have two options and only one option
has to be executed based on a condition result (TRUE or FALSE).

//Program to find the largest of two numbers using if-else statement

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the values of a & b\n");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
if(a>b)
printf("%d is larger than %d\n",a,b);
else
printf("("%d is larger than %d\n",b,a);
getch();
}
OUTPUT
Run 1:
Enter the values of a & b
25
15
25 is larger than 15.

Run 2:
Enter the values of a & b
35
45
45 is larger than 35.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Nested If-Else Statement:

Writing a if statement inside another if statement is called nested if statement.
It is used if there are more than two alternatives to select. The nested if statement can
be defined using any combination of simple if & if-else statements.
The syntax of nested-if statement is
if( condition1 )
{
if( condition2 )
{
statement block1;
}
else
{
statement block2;
}
}
else
{
statement block3;
}

Where
Condition: is a logical expression that results in TRUE or FALSE.
Statement: a simple statement (single statement) or compound statement (collection
of two or more statement).
Explanation: if 'condition1' is false the 'statement-block3' will be executed, otherwise
it continues to perform the test for ‘condition2’. If the 'condition2' is true the
'statement-block1' is executed otherwise 'statement-block2' is executed.
// Example for Nested If in C Programming
#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int age;
printf("Please Enter Your Age Here:\n");
scanf("%d",&age);
if ( age < 18 )
{
printf("You are Minor.\n");
printf("Not Eligible to Work");
}
else
{
if (age >= 18 && age <= 60 )
{
printf("You are Eligible to Work \n");
printf("Please fill in your details and apply\n");
}

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
else
{
printf("You are too old to work as per the Government rules\n");
printf("Please Collect your pension! \n");
}
}
getch();
}
OUTPUT

OUTPUT 2: Enter the age 27. First If condition is FALSE. Nested IF condition is
TRUE

OUTPUT 3: Enter the age 61. Both If condition and also Nested IF condition failed
here

else-if ladder
The Else If Statement in C is very useful when we have to check several
conditions. We can also use the Nested If statement to achieve the same but as the
number of conditions increase, code complexity will also increase. Let us see the
syntax of the Else if statement:
The general format of a nested if-else statement is:
if(condition1)
{
// statement(s);
}
else if(condition2)
{
//statement(s);
}
.
.
else if (conditionN)
{
//statement(s);
}

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 59 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
else
{
//statement(s);}
Else If statement handle multiple statements effectively by executing them
sequentially. It will check for the first condition, if the condition is TRUE then it will
execute the statements present in that block. If the condition is FALSE then it will
check the Next one (Else If condition) and so on.

There will be some situations where condition 1, condition 2 is TRUE, for example:
x= 20, y=10
Condition 1: x > y //TRUE
Condition 2: x != y //TRUE
In these situations, statements under the Condition 1 will be executed because ELSE
IF conditions will only be executed if its previous IF or ELSE IF statement fails.

//Program to find the grade of Student using Else If ladder statement.

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int Totalmarks;
//Imagine you have 6 subjects and Grand total is 600
printf("Please Enter your Total Marks\n" );
scanf( "%d", &Totalmarks );
if (Totalmarks >= 540)
{
printf("You are eligible for Full Scholarship\n");
printf("Congratulations\n");
}
else if (Totalmarks >= 480)
{
printf("You are eligible for 50 Percent Scholarship\n");
printf("Congratulations\n");
}
else if (Totalmarks >= 400)
{
printf("You are eligible for 10 Percent Scholarship\n");
printf("Congratulations\n");
}
else
{
printf("You are Not eligible for Scholarship\n");
printf("We are really Sorry for You\n");
}
getch();
}

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 60 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
OUTPUT
OUTPUT 1: We are going to enter Totalmarks = 570. Here first If condition is TRUE

OUTPUT 2: We are going to enter Totalmarks = 490 means first IF condition is

FALSE. It will check the else if (Totalmarks >= 480), which is TRUE so it will print
the statements inside this block. Although else if (Totalmarks >= 400) condition is
TRUE, but it won’t check this condition.

OUTPUT 3: We are going to enter Totalmarks = 401 means first IF condition, else if
(Totalmarks >= 480) are FALSE. So, It will check the else if (Totalmarks >= 401),
which is TRUE so it will print the statements inside this block.

OUTPUT 4: We are going to enter Totalmarks = 380 means all the IF conditions Fail.
So, It will print the statements inside the else block.

Note: When we use conditional control statement like if statement, condition might
be an expression evaluated to a numerical value, a variable or a direct numerical
value. If the expression value or direct value is zero the condition becomes FALSE
otherwise becomes TRUE.

To understand more consider the following statements...

➢ if(10) - is TRUE
➢ if(x) - is FALSE if x value is zero otherwise TRUE
➢ if(a+b) - is FALSE if a+b value is zero otherwise TRUE
➢ if(a = 99) - is TRUE because a value is non-zero
➢ if(10, 5, 0) - is FALSE because it considers last value
➢ if(0) - is FALSE
➢ if(a=10, b=15, c=0) - is FALSE because last value is zero

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 61 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

SELECT STATEMENT – SWITCH CASE

Consider a situation in which we have more number of options out of which
we need to select only one option that is to be executed. Such kind of problems can
be solved using nested if statement. But as the number of options increases, the
complexity of the program also gets increased. This type of problems can be solved
very easily using switch statement. Using switch statement, one can select only one
option from more number of options very easily. In switch statement, we provide a
value that is to be compared with a value associated with each option. Whenever the
given value matches with the value associated with an option, the execution starts
from that option. In switch statement, every option is defined as a case.

The switch statement has the following syntax and execution flow diagram...

The switch statement contains one or more number of cases and each case has
a value associated with it. At first switch statement, compares the first case value
with the switchValue, if it gets matched the execution starts from the first case. If it
does not match the switch statement compares the second case value with the
switchValue and if it is matched the execution starts from the second case. This
process continues until it finds a match. If no case value matches with the
switchValue specified in the switch statement, then a special case called default is
executed.
When a case value matches with the switchValue, the execution starts from
that particular case. This execution flow continues with next case statements also. To
avoid this, we use "break" statement at the end of each case. That means
the break statement is used to terminate the switch statement. However, it is
optional.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
//Program to check whether the given character is vowel or not using switch case.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any character\n");
scanf("%c",&ch);
switch(ch)
{
case 'A':
case 'a':
case 'E':
case 'e':
case 'I':
case 'i':
case 'O':
case 'o':
case 'U':
case 'u':printf("%c is a vowel\n",ch);
break;
default :printf("%c is not a vowel\n",ch);
break;
}
getch();
}
OUTPUT
Run 1:
Enter any character E
E is a vowel

Run 2:
Enter any character s
s is not a vowel

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 63 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

LOOPING OR ITERATIVE OR REPITITIVE STATEMENTS

Consider a situation in which we execute a single statement or block of
statements repeatedly for required number of times. Such kind of problems can be
solved using looping statements in C.
For example, assume a situation where we print a message for 100 times. If
we want to perform that task without using looping statements, we have to either
write 100 printf statements or we have to write the same message for 100 times in a
single printf statement. Both are complex methods. The same task can be performed
very easily using looping statements.
The process of repeatedly executing a single statement or collection of
statement until the given condition is FALSE is called looping. The statements gets
executed many number of times based on the condition. But if the condition is given
in such a logic that the repetition continues any number of times with no fixed
condition to stop looping those statements, then this type of looping is called infinite
looping.

C language provides four looping statements

1. while statement
2. do-while statement
3. for statement
4. Nested for loop

While or Entry Control or Pre Check Loop

The while loop is used to repeat a block of statements for given number of
times, until the given condition is False. While loop start with the condition, if the
condition is True then statements inside the while loop will be executed. If the given
condition is false then it will not be executed at least once. It means, while loop may
execute zero or more time and the
Syntax
while ( Condition )
{
statement 1;
statement 2;
………….
}
Where

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Statement: simple or compound statement

while: keyword
Condition : results in TRUE or FALSE
This is the statement Outside the While Loop but inside the main() Function
First compiler will check for the condition inside the While loop. If the
Condition is True then the statement or group of statements under the while loop
block will be executed. If the Condition is False then compiler will come out of the
loop and execute other statements outside the while loop.

TIP: For single statement, curly braces are not required but if we omit them for
multiple statements then it will execute the first statement only. It is always good
practice to use braces all the time.

Flow Chart for While loop in C Programming

➢ While loop will check for the condition at the beginning of the loop.
➢ If the condition is True then it will execute the statements inside the loop.
➢ Next we have to use Increment and Decrement Operator inside the while loop
to increment and decrements the value. Please refer Increment and Decrement
Operator in C article to understand the functionality
➢ Again it will check for the condition after the value incremented. As long as
the condition is True, the statements inside the while loop will be executed.
➢ If the condition is False then it will exit from the While loop

//Program to display1 to n natural numbers and its sum-using while loop.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i,sum=0;
clrscr();

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
printf("Enter the stop value for natural number series\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
i=1; //initialize
while(i<=n) //condition check
{
printf("%d\t",i);
sum=sum+i;
i++; //increment i by 1
}
printf("\nSum of %d natural numbers=%d",n,sum);
getch();
}
OUTPUT
Enter the stop value for natural number series
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

Sum of 100 natural numbers=5050

Points to be remembered
When we use while statement, we must follow the following...
✓ while is a keyword so it must be used only in lower case letters.
✓ If the condition contains variable, it must be assigned a value before it is used.
✓ The value of the variable used in condition must be modified according to the
requirement inside the while block.
✓ In while statement, the condition may be a direct integer value, a variable or a
condition.
✓ A while statement can be an empty statement.

Do While or Exit Control or Post check loop

The Do While loop in C Programming will test the given condition at the end
of loop so, Do While loop executes the statements inside the code block at least once
even if the given condition Fails.
The While loop that test the condition before entering into the code block. If
the condition is True then only statements inside the loop will be executed
otherwise, statements will not be executed at least once. There are some situation
where it is necessary to perform some operations (execute some statements) first and
then check for the condition. In these cases we can go for Do While loop.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
do while Syntax
The syntax of the Do While Loop in C Programming is as shown below:
do
{
statement 1;
statement 2;
………….
statement n;
} while (condition);
Where
Statement: simple or compound statement
do: keyword
while: keyword
Condition : results in TRUE or FALSE
First it will execute the statements inside the loop and then after reaching the end, it
will check the condition inside the while. If the condition is true then it will repeat
the process. If the condition fails then Do While Loop will be terminated.
NOTE: We have to place semi-colon after the While condition.

Do While Loop in C Programming Flow Chart

Flow chart sequence is:

➢ First, we initialize our variables, next it will enter into the Do While loop.
➢ It will execute the group of statements inside the loop.
➢ Next, we have to use Increment and Decrement Operator inside the loop to
increment or decrements the value. Please refer Increment and Decrement
Operator in C article to understand increment and decrement operator
➢ Now it will check for the condition. If the condition is True, then the
statements inside the do while loop will be executed again. It will continue
the process as long as the condition is True.
➢ If the condition is False then it will exit from the loop.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
// Program to print the Fibonacci series for first n terms using do while loop
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a ,b,c,i,n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the final value\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
a=0; b=1;
printf(" Fibonacci Series....\n");
if(n==0)
printf(“0\n”);
else if(n==1)
printf(“0\n1\n”);
else
{
printf("%d\n",a);
printf("%d\n",b);
i=2;
do
{
c=a+b;
printf("%d\n",c);
a=b;
b=c;
i++;
} while(i<=n);
}
getch();
}
OUTPUT
Run 1:
Enter the final value 7
Fibonacci value.... 0 1 1 2 3 5 8
Run 2:
Enter the final value 1
Fibonacci value.... 0 1

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 68 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Points to be remembered
When we use do-while statement, we must follow the following...
✓ Both do and while are keywords so they must be used only in lower case
letters.
✓ If the condition contains variable, it must be assigned a value before it is used.
✓ The value of the variable used in condition must be modified according to the
requirement inside the do block.
✓ In do-while statement the condition may be, a direct integer value, a variable
or a condition.
✓ A do-while statement can be an empty statement.
✓ In do-while, the block of statements are executed atleast once.

For Loop in C Programming

The for loop is used to repeat a block of statements for given number of times,
until the given condition is False. For loop is one of the mostly used loop in any
programming language.
For loop Syntax
for (initialization; test condition; increment/decrement operator)
{
//Statement 1
//Statement 2
………
//Statement n
}
If you observe the above syntax, In for loop there are three expressions separated by
the semi-colons (;) and the execution of these expressions are as follows:
➢ Initialization: For loop starts with the initialization statement so, initialization
of counters variables is done first (For example counter = 1 or i = 1.). The
initialization section is executed only once at the beginning of the for loop.
➢ Test Condition: The value of the counter variable is tested against the test
condition. If the condition is True then it will execute the statements inside
the For loop. If the condition fails, then for loop will be terminated.
➢ Increment and decrement operator: This expression is executed after the end
of each iteration. This operator helps to increase or decrease
the counter variable as per our requirement. Please refer Increment and
decrement operator in C article to understand the operator

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Flow Chart for loop in C
Below screenshot will show you the flow chart of the For Loop

The execution process of the for loop is:

Initialization: We initialize the counter variable(s) here. For example i=1.

Test condition: It will check for the condition against the counter variable. If the
condition is True then it will execute the statements inside the for loop. If the
condition is False then it will exit from the loop

After completing the iteration it will execute the Increment and Decrement Operator
inside the for loop to increment or decrement the value.
Again it will check for the condition after the value incremented. As long as the
condition is True, the statements inside the for loop will be executed.
//Program to find the factorial of a given number using for loop.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
long int fact=1,n,i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the number\n");
scanf("%ld",&n);
if(n<=0)
fact=1;
else
{
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
fact=fact*i;
}
printf("\nFactorial of %ld=%ld\n",n,fact);
getch();
}
OUTPUT
Enter the number 7
Factorial of 7=5040

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 70 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED
When we use for statement, we must follow the following...
✓ for is a keyword so it must be used only in lower case letters.
✓ Every for statement must be provided with initialization, condition and
modification (They can be empty but must be separated with ";")
Ex: for ( ; ; ) or for ( ; condition ; modification ) or for ( ; condition ; )
✓ In for statement, the condition may be a direct integer value, a variable or a
condition.
✓ The for statement can be an empty statement.

NESTED FOR LOOP

A for loop inside another for loop is called a nested for loop. We can have
any number of nested loops as required. Consider a nested loop where the
outer loop runs n times and consists of another loop inside it. The inner loop runs m
times. Then, the total number of times the inner loop runs during the program
execution is n*m.

Syntax of Nested for loop

for (initialization; condition; increment/decrement)
{
statement(s);
for (initialization; condition; increment/decrement)
{
statement(s);
... ... ...
}
... ... ...
}

Flowchart of Nested for loop

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

We have nested a for loop inside another for loop, this is called nesting of loops.
Such type of nesting is often used for handling multidimensional arrays.

//Program to illustrate nested for loop.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<=i;j++)
{
printf("*");
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
OUTPUT
*
**
***
****
*****

Difference between while loop and do while loop

Sl.no While Do while
1 In While loop the condition is In do while the statements are
tested first and then the statements are executed for the first time and then
executed if the condition turns out to the conditions
be true. are tested, if the condition turns out to
be true then the statements are
executed again.
2 while is more commonly A do while is used for a block
used. of code that must be executed at least
once.
These situations tend to be
relatively rare.
3 while loop do not run in case the A do while loop runs at least once
condition given is false even though the the condition given is
false
4 In a while loop the condition is In a do-while loop the condition is
first tested and if it returns true then it tested at the last.
goes in the loop
5 While loop is entry control loop do while is exit control loop.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
6 It is called as Pre Check loop It is called as Post Check loop
7 while (condition) do
{ {
Statements; Statements;
} }while(condition);

Un-conditional control statements or Jumping or Skipping

In c, there are control statements which does not need any condition to
control the program execution flow. These control statements are called
as unconditional control statements. C has four statements that perform
an unconditional control transfer. They are return, goto, break and continue. Of
these, return is used only in functions. The goto and return may be used anywhere
in the program but continue and break statements may be used only in conjunction
with a loop statement.
C programming language provides the following unconditional control statements...
• break
• continue
• goto
• return

break statements
In C programming, break statement is used with conditional if statement.
The break is used in terminating the loop immediately after it is encountered.
it is also used in switch...case statement. which is explained in next topic.
1. break statement is used to terminate switch case statement
2. break statement is also used to terminate looping statements like while, do-
while and for.

//Program to implement break statement

#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
char ch ;
clrscr() ;
do
{
printf("Enter Y / N : ") ;

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
scanf("%c", &ch) ;
if(ch == 'Y')
{
printf("Okay!!! Repeat again !!!\n") ;
}
else
{
printf("Okay !!! Breaking the loop !!!") ;
break ;
}
} while( 1 ) ;
getch() ;
}
OUTPUT
Enter Y / N : Y
Okay!!! Repeat again !!!
Enter Y / N : Y
Okay!!! Repeat again !!!

continue statement
The continue statement is used to move the program execution control to the
beginning of looping statement. When continue statement is encountered in a
looping statement, the execution control skips the rest of the statements in the
looping block and directly jumps to the beginning of the loop.
The continue statement can be used with looping statements like while, do-while
and for.
When we use continue statement with while and do-while statements the
execution control directly jumps to the condition. When we use continue statement
with for statement the execution control directly jumps to the modification portion
(increment / decrement / any modification) of the for loop. The continue statement
execution is as shown in the following figure.

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 74 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
//Program to illustrate continue statement.
#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int number ;
clrscr() ;
while( 1 )
{
printf("Enter any integer number: ") ;
scanf("%d", &number) ;
if(number%2 == 0)
{
printf("Entered number is EVEN!!! Try another number!!!\n") ;
continue ;
}
else
{
printf("You have entered ODD number!!! Bye!!!") ;
exit(0) ;
}
}
getch() ;
}

OUTPUT
Enter any integer numbers: 50
Entered number is EVEN!!! Try another number!!!
Enter any integer number: 15
You have entered ODD number!!! Bye!!!
goto statementsstatement
The goto statement is used to jump from one line to another line in the
program. Using goto statement we can jump from top to bottom or bottom to top. To
jump from one line to another line, the goto statement requires a label. Label is a
name given to the instruction or line in the program. When we use goto statement in
the program, the execution control directly jumps to the line with specified label.

Syntax:
goto label;
.............
.............
.............
label:
statement;
In this syntax, label is an identifier.
When, the control of program reaches to goto statement, the control of the program
will jump to the label: and executes the code below it.

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 75 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Forward Backward

//Program to illustrate goto statement.

#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int age;
Vote:
printf("you are eligible for voting");
NoVote:
printf("you are not eligible to vote");
printf("Enter you age:");
scanf("%d", &age);
if(age>=18)
goto Vote;
else
goto NoVote;
getch();
}
Explanation: In the above example, Vote and NoVote are labels. When the input is
>= 18, the goto statement is transferring the control to label – Vote, otherwise it
transfers the control to label-NoVote.
Points to be remembered
When we use break, continue and goto statements, we must follow the following...
• The break is a keyword so it must be used only in lower case letters.
• The break statement cannot be used with if statement.
• The break statement can be used only in switch case and looping statements.
• The break statement can be used with if statement, only if that if statement is
written inside the switch case or looping statements.
• The continue is a keyword so it must be used only in lower case letters.
• The continue statement is used only within looping statements.
• The continue statement can be used with if statement, only if that if
statement is written inside the looping statements.
• The goto is a keyword so it must be used only in lower case letters.
• The goto statement must require a label.
• The goto statement can be used with any statement like if, switch, while, do-
while and for etc.,

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 76 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

UNIT – 3

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 77 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Derived Datatypes in C
Array
Array is a collection of variables belongings to the same data type. You can
store group of data of same data type in an array. Array is set of homogenous
elements.
• It allocates sequential memory locations.
• Individual values are called as elements.

Need of array
Consider a scenario wherein you have to store 100 integer numbers, entered by
user, in order to find out the average of them. To program this scenario, you have
two ways – 1) Define 100 variable of integer type and at last perform the average
operation. 2) Have a single integer array to store all the values.
Which solution is better as per you? Obviously the second solution, it is
convenient to store same data types in one single variable and later access them
using array index.
• Array might be belonging to any of the data types
• Array size must be a constant value.
• Always, Contiguous (adjacent) memory locations are used to store array
elements in memory.
• It is a best practice to initialize an array to zero or null while declaring, if we
don’t assign any values to array.

Some examples where arrays can be used are

1) List of temperatures recorded every hour in a day, or a month, or a year.
2) List of employees in a company.
3) List of products and their cost sold by a store.
4) List of students in a class.
5) List of customers and their telephone numbers.

Characteristics of Arrays in C
1) An array holds elements that have the same data type.
2) Array elements are stored in subsequent memory locations.
3) Two-dimensional array elements are stored row by row in subsequent memory
locations.
4) Array name represents the address of the starting element.
5) Array size should be mentioned in the declaration. Array size must be a constant
expression and not a variable.

TYPES OF C ARRAYS:
There are 3 types of C arrays. They are,
1. One dimensional array.
2. Two dimensional array.
3. Multi-dimensional array
a. Three dimensional array

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
b. four dimensional array etc…
1. ONE DIMENSIONAL or 1-D ARRAY
• Single or One Dimensional array is used to represent and store data in a linear
form.
• Array having only one subscript variable is called One-Dimensional array
• It is also called as Single Dimensional Array or Linear Array
Syntax:
datatype array_name[array_size];

• datatype: What kind of values array can store (Example: int, float, char).
• array_name:To identify the array.
• array_size(INDEX): The maximum number of values that the array
can hold.

Example:
int number[5];
number

0 1 2 3 4
MEMORY REPRESENTATION OF ONE DIMENSIONAL ARRAY

• The above statement declares a number variable to be an array.

containing 5 elements.

• The array INDEX (also known as subscripts) starts from zero.

• This means that the array number will contain 5 elements in all.
• The first element will be stored in number[0].
• The second element will be stored in number[4].

Initialization of one dimensional array

• Arrays may be initialized when they are declared, just as any other variables.
• Place the initialization data in curly { } braces following the equals sign. Note
the use of commas in the examples below.
• An array may be partially initialized, by providing fewer data items than the
size of the array. The remaining array elements will be automatically
initialized to zero.
• If an array is to be completely initialized, the dimension of the array is not
required. The compiler will automatically size the array to fit the initialized
data.
Syntax for creating an array with size and initial values
datatype arrayName [ size ] = {value1, value2, ...} ;

Syntax for creating an array without size and with initial values

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

datatype arrayName [ ] = {value1, value2, ...} ;

In the above syntax, the datatype specifies the type of values we store in that
array and size specifies the maximum number of values that can be stored in that
array. The values in the list care separated by commas.

Example
int number [5] = { 35, 20, 40, 57, 19 };
Will declare the array size as an array of size 5 and will assign different values
to each element if the number of values in the list is less than the number of
elements, then only that many elements are initialized. The remaining elements will
be set to zero automatically.

In the declaration of an array the size may be omitted, in such cases the
compiler allocates enough space for all initialized elements.

Example
int counter [ ] = {1,1,1,1};
Will declare the array to contain four elements with initial values 1. this
approach works fine as long as we initialize every element in the array.

Example
char studentName [ ] = "MedhaBCA”;
In the above example declaration, size of the array studentName is 8. This is
because in case of character array, compiler stores one extra character
called \0 (NULL) at the end.

The initialization of arrays in c suffers two draw backs

1. There is no convenient way to initialize only selected elements.
2. There is no shortcut method to initialize large number of elements.

// Program to accept 5 array elements and display it.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[5],i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the array elements\n");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 80 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

scanf("%d",&a[i]);
printf("Array elements are....\n");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
printf("a[%d]=%d\n",i,a[i]);
getch();
}
------------------------------------------------OUTPUT-----------------------------------------
Enter the array elements 10 20 30 40 50
Array elements are....
a[0]=10
a[1]=20
a[2]=30
a[3]=40
a[4]=50

2. TWO DIMENSIONAL or 2-D ARRAY

• Two Dimensional array is used to represent and store data in a matrix form.
• Array having two subscripts variable is called Two-Dimensional array
• It is also called as Multi-Dimensional Array
• For two dimensional arrays, the first dimension is commonly considered to be
the number of rows, and the second dimension the number of columns.
Syntax:
datatype array_name[row_size] [column_size];

• datatype: What kind of values array can store (Example: int, float, char).
• array_name:To identify the array.
• row_size(INDEX): The maximum number of rows that the array
can hold.
• column_size(INDEX): The maximum number of columns that the array
can hold.
Example:
int number[3][3];
• The above statement declares a number variable to be an array.
containing 5 elements.
• The array INDEX (also known as subscripts) starts from zero.
• This means that the array number will contain 5 elements in all.
• The first element will be stored in number[0].
• The second element will be stored in number[4].
Reserved Space
number [0] [1] [2]

[0]
[1]
[2]
MEMORY REPRESENTATION OF TWO DIMENSIONAL ARRAY

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Initialization of Two dimensional array

We have divided the concept into three different types –

Method 1: Initializing all Elements row wise

For initializing 2D Array we can need to assign values to each element of an
array using the below syntax.

datatype arrayName [rows][colmns] = {

{r1c1value, r1c2value, ...},
{r2c1, r2c2,...},
{rncn, rncn,...}
};

Example:
int number[3][3] = {
{ 1 , 4 , 8 },
{ 5 , 2 , 9 },
{ 6 , 5 , 10}
};
The following array: Storing values after initialization
number [0] [1] [2]
[0] 1 4 8
[1] 5 2 9
[2] 6 5 10

Method 2: Combine and Initializing 2D Array

Initialize all Array elements but initialization is much straight forward. All
values are assigned sequentially and row-wise
datatype arrayName [rows][columns] = {value1, value2, value3,……,valuen} ;

Example:
int a[3][2] = {1 , 4 , 5 , 2 , 6 , 5 };

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
//Program to read a matrix and display its transpose implementation of 2D array.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[10][10],r,c,i,j;
printf("\n Enter the order of the matrix");
scanf("%d %d",&r,&c);
printf("Enter %d matrix elements\n",r*c);
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
printf("Matrix A is\n");
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
printf("%3d",a[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
printf("Transpose of A is\n");
for(i=0;i<c;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<r;j++)
{
printf("%3d",a[j][i]);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
------------------------------------------------OUTPUT-----------------------------------------
Enter the order of the matrix 2 3
Enter 6 matrix elements
123
456
Matrix A is
1 2 3
4 5 6
Transpose of A is
1 4
2 5
3 6

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

STRING
• C Strings are nothing but array or collection of characters ended with null
character (‘\0’).
• This null character indicates the end of the string.
• Strings are always enclosed by double quotes. Whereas, character is enclosed
by single quotes in C.

EXAMPLE FOR C STRING:

Memory Representation of Above Defined String in C

Declaration of strings:
Declaring a string is as simple as declaring a one dimensional array. Below is
the basic syntax for declaring a string.
char str_name[size];
In the above syntax str_name is any name given to the string variable and size
is used define the length of the string, i.e the number of characters’ strings will store.
Please keep in mind that there is an extra terminating character which is the
Null character (‘\0’) used to indicate termination of string which differs strings from
normal character arrays.
Example: char str [50],name [25];

Initializing String [Character Array]:

Whenever we declare a String then it will contain garbage values inside it. We
have to initialize String or Character array before using it. Process of Assigning some
legal default data to String is Called Initialization of String. There are different ways
of initializing String in C Programming –
1. Initializing Unsized Array of Character
2. Initializing String Directly
3. Initializing String Using Character Pointer
Way 1: Unsized Array and Character
• Unsized Array: Array Length is not specified while initializing character array
using this approach
• Array length is Automatically calculated by Compiler
• Individual Characters are written inside Single Quotes, separated by comma
to form a list of characters. Complete list is wrapped inside Pair of Curly braces
• Please Note: NULL Character should be written in the list because it is ending
or terminating character in the String/Character Array
char name [] = {'M','E','D','H','A','\0'};

Way 2: Directly initialize String Variable

• In this method we are directly assigning String to variable by writing text in
double quotes.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
• In this type of initialization, we don’t need to put NULL or Ending /
Terminating character at the end of string. It is appended automatically by the
compiler.
char name [ ] = "MEDHA";

Way 3: Character Pointer Variable

• Declare Character variable of pointer type so that it can hold the base address
of “String”
• Base address means address of first array element i.e (address of name [0] )
• NULL Character is appended Automatically
char *name = "MEDHA";

gets() function : Reading or Accepting String From User in C

Reads characters from the standard input (stdin) and stores them as a C string
into str until a newline character or the end-of-file is reached.

Syntax for Accepting String:

char * gets ( char * str );
OR
gets( <variable-name> )

Live Example:
#include<stdio.h>
void main ( )
{
char name [20];
printf("\n Enter the Name : ");
gets(name);
}
Explanation:
• Whenever gets() statement encounters then characters entered by user (the
string with spaces) will be copied into the variable.
• If user start accepting characters, and if new line character appears then the
newline character will not be copied into the string variable (i.e name).
• A terminating null character is automatically appended after the characters
copied to string variable (i.e name)
• gets() uses stdin (Standard Input Output) as source, but it does not include
the ending newline character in the resulting string and does not allow to
specify a maximum size for string variable (which can lead to buffer overflows).

Some Legal Declarations:

Statement Use Size Terminates

Accepting Name of Person with No After Enter

gets(name)
Spaces Specification Key

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Statement Use Size Terminates

No After Enter
gets(city) Accepting Name of City
Specification Key

No After Enter
gets(address) Accepting address with Spaces
Specification Key

No After Enter
gets(bname) Accepting book name
Specification Key

Some Rules and Facts:

A. %s is not Required:
Like scanf statement %s is not necessary while accepting string.
scanf("%s",name);
and here is gets() syntax which is simpler than scanf() –
gets(name);

B. Spaces are allowed in gets() :

gets(name);
Whenever the above line encounters then interrupt will wait for user to enter
some text on the screen. When user starts typing the characters then all characters
will be copied to string and when user enters newline character then process of
accepting string will be stopped.

Sample Input Accepted by Above Statement:

Value Accepted: MEDHA COLLEGE\n
Value Stored: MEDHA COLLEGE (\n Neglected)

Scanf : Reading or Accepting String From User in C

In C Programming we can use scanf function from stdio.h header file to read
string. Scanf function is commonly used for accepting string.

Syntax for Accepting String:

scanf("%s",Name_Of_String_Variable);
Live Example:
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char name[20];
printf("\nEnter the Name : ");
scanf("%s",name);
}

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Explanation: Scanf Program

In the above program we are accepting string from user using scnaf()
function. We cannot use string ampersand address operator in the scanf() because
string itself can be referred by address.

printf >> Displaying String in C Programming:

Syntax:
Way 1: Messaging
printf (" Type your Message / Instruction " ) ;

Way 2: Display String

printf ("Name of Person is %s ", name ) ;

Notes or Facts:
1. printf is included in header file “stdio.h”
2. As name suggest it used for Printing or Displaying Messages or Instructions
Uses:
1. Printing Message
2. Ask user for entering the data (Labels. Instructions)
3. Printing Results

Live Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char str[10];
printf("Enter the String : ");

scanf("%s",str); // Accept String

printf("String is : %s ",str);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter the String : Pritesh
String is : Pritesh

Puts >> Displaying String in C Programming :

Way 1 :Messaging
puts (" Type your Message / Instruction ");
• Like printf Statement puts() can be used to display message.

Way 2: Display String

puts(string_Variable_name) ;

Notes or Facts:

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

• puts is included in header file “stdio.h”

• As name suggest it used for Printing or Displaying Messages or Instructions
Uses:
• Printing Message
• Ask user for entering the data (Labels. Instructions)
• Printing Results

Live Example:
#include< stdio.h>
#include< conio.h>
void main()
{
char string [ ] = "This is an example string\n";
puts(string); // String is variable Here
puts("String"); // String is in Double Quotes
getch();
}
Output:
String is: This is an example string
String is: String

STRING HANDLING/MANIPULATION FUNCTIONS

string.h header file supports all the string functions in C language. All the
string functions are given below.

C – strlen() function
• strlen( ) function in C gives the length of the given string. Syntax for strlen( )
function is given below.
len = strlen ( str );
• strlen( ) function counts the number of characters in a given string and
returns the integer value.
• It stops counting the character when null character is found. Because, null
character indicates the end of the string in C.

C – strlwr() function
• strlwr( ) function converts a given string into lowercase. Syntax for strlwr( )
function is given below.
char strlwr(string);
• strlwr( ) function is non standard function which may not available in
standard library in C.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
C – strupr() function
• strupr( ) function converts a given string into uppercase. Syntax for strupr( )
function is given below.
char *strupr(char *string);
• strupr( ) function is non standard function which may not available in
standard library in C.

C – strrev() function
• strrev( ) function reverses a given string in C language. Syntax for strrev( )
function is given below.
char *strrev(char *string);
• strrev( ) function is non standard function which may not available in
standard library in C.
C – strdup() function
• strdup( ) function in C duplicates the given string. Syntax for strdup( )
function is given below.
char *strdup(const char *string);
• strdup( ) function is non standard function which may not available in
standard library in C.

C – strcmp() function
• strcmp( ) function in C compares two given strings and returns zero if they
are same.
• If length of string1 < string2, it returns < 0 value. If length of string1 > string2,
it returns > 0 value. Syntax for strcmp( ) function is given below.
int strcmp ( const char * str1, const char * str2 );
• strcmp( ) function is case sensitive. i.e, “A” and “a” are treated as different
characters.
Return Type
Return Type Condition

-ve Value String1 < String2

+ve Value String1 > String2

0 Value String1 = String2

C – strcmpi() function
• strcmpi( ) function in C is same as strcmp() function. But, strcmpi( ) function
is not case sensitive. i.e, “A” and “a” are treated as same characters. Where as,
strcmp() function treats “A” and “a” as different characters.
• strcmpi() function is non standard function which may not available in
standard library in C.
• Both functions compare two given strings and returns zero if they are same.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

• If length of string1 < string2, it returns < 0 value. If length of string1 > string2,
it returns > 0 value. Syntax for strcmp( ) function is given below.
int strcmpi ( const char * str1, const char * str2 );

C – strcat() function
• strcat( ) function in C language concatenates two given strings. It concatenates
source string at the end of destination string. Syntax for strcat( ) function is
given below.
char * strcat ( char * destination, const char * source );
• Example:
strcat ( str2, str1 ); – str1 is concatenated at the end of str2.
strcat ( str1, str2 ); – str2 is concatenated at the end of str1.
• As you know, each string in C is ended up with null character (‘\0’).
• In strcat( ) operation, null character of destination string is overwritten by
source string’s first character and null character is added at the end of new
destination string which is created after strcat( ) operation.

C – strcpy() function
• strcpy( ) function copies contents of one string into another string. Syntax for
strcpy function is given below.
char * strcpy ( char * destination, const char * source );
• Example:
strcpy ( str1, str2) – It copies contents of str2 into str1.
strcpy ( str2, str1) – It copies contents of str1 into str2.
• If destination string length is less than source string, entire source string value
won’t be copied into destination string.
• For example, consider destination string length is 20 and source string length
is 30. Then, only 20 characters from source string will be copied into destination
string and remaining 10 characters won’t be copied and will be truncated.

C – strncpy() function
• strncpy( ) function copies portion of contents of one string into another string.
Syntax for strncpy( ) function is given below.
char * strncpy ( char * destination, const char * source, size_t num );
• Example:
strncpy ( str1, str2, 4) – It copies first 4 characters of str2 into str1.
strncpy ( str2, str1, 4) – It copies first 4 characters of str1 into str2.
• If destination string length is less than source string, entire source string value
won’t be copied into destination string.
• For example, consider destination string length is 20 and source string length
is 30.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

• If you want to copy 25 characters from source string using strncpy( ) function,
only 20 characters from source string will be copied into destination string and
remaining 5 characters won’t be copied and will be truncated.

C – strncat() function
• strncat( ) function in C language concatenates (appends) portion of one string
at the end of another string. Syntax for strncat( ) function is given below.
char * strncat ( char * destination, const char * source, size_t num );
• Example :
strncat ( str2, str1, 3 ); – First 3 characters of str1 is concatenated at the end of
str2.
strncat ( str1, str2, 3 ); – First 3 characters of str2 is concatenated at the end of
str1.
• As you know, each string in C is ended up with null character (‘\0’).
• In strncat( ) operation, null character of destination string is overwritten by
source string’s first character and null character is added at the end of new
destination string which is created after strncat( ) operation.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

UNIT – 4

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 92 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Introduction to Functions or Sub Routines

When we write a program to solve a larger problem, we divide that larger
problem into smaller sub problems and are solved individually to make the program
easier. In C, this concept is implemented using functions. Functions are used to
divide a larger program into smaller subprograms such that program becomes easy
to understand and easy to implement. A function is defined as follows...

Function is a subpart of program used to perform specific task and it is executed

individually.

Every C program must contain at least one function called main ( ). However, a
program may also contain other functions.

Advantages of functions:
1. Program development made easy: Work can be divided among project
members thus implementation can be completed in parallel.
2. Program testing becomes easy : Easy to locate and isolate a faulty
function for further investigation
3. Code sharing becomes possible: A function may be used later by many
other programs this means that a c programmer can use function written
by others, instead of starting over from scratch.
4. Code re-usability increases: A function can be used to keep away from
rewriting the same block of codes which we are going use two or more
locations in a program. This is especially useful if the code involved is
long or complicated.
5. Increases program readability: It makes possible top down modular
programming. In this style of programming, the high-level logic of the
overall problem is solved first while the details of each lower level
functions is addressed later. The length of the source program can be
reduced by using functions at appropriate places.
6. Function facilitates procedural abstraction: Once a function is written, it
serves as a black box. All that a programmer would have to know to
invoke a function would be to know its name, and the parameters that it
expects
7. Functions facilitate the factoring of code: Every C program consists of
one main( ) function typically invoking other functions, each having a
well-defined functionality.

Every function in C has the following

1. Function Declaration (Function Prototype)
2. Function Definition
3. Function Call

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Function Declaration or Function Prototype

The function declaration tells the compiler about function name, datatype of
the return value and parameters. The function declaration is also called as function
prototype. The function declaration is performed before main function or inside
main function or inside any other function.

Function declaration syntax -

return_type function_name(parametersList or ArgumentList);
In the above syntax, return_type specifies the datatype of the value, which is
sent as a return value from the function definition. The function_name is a user-
defined name used to identify the function uniquely in the program.
The parametersList is the data values that are sent to the function definition.

Function Definition
The function definition provides the actual code of that function. The function
definition is also known as body of the function. The actual task of the function is
implemented in the function definition. That means the actual instructions to be
performed by a function are written in function definition. The actual instructions of
a function are written inside the braces "{ }". The function definition is can be written
before main function or after main function.

Function definition syntax -

return_type function_name(parametersList or argumentList)
{

Actual code...

}
Note: If the function definition is defined before main function then function
prototyping is ignored or not required.

Function Call
The function call tells the compiler when to execute the function definition.
When a function call is executed, the execution control jumps to the function
definition where the actual code is executed and returns to the same functions call
once the execution completes. The function call is performed inside main function,
inside any other function, or inside the function itself.

Function call syntax -

functionName(parameters); of Functions
✓ Using functions, we can implement modular programming.
✓ Functions makes the program more readable and understandable.
✓ Using functions, the program implementation becomes easy.
✓ Once a function is created, it can be used many times (code re-usability).
✓ Using functions larger program can be divided into smaller modules.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Types of Functions in C
In C Programming Language, based on providing the function definition,
functions are divided into two types. Those are as follows.

➢ System Defined Functions or Pre Defined.

➢ User Defined Functions

System Defined Functions

The C Programming Language provides pre-defined functions to make
programming easy. These pre-defined functions are also known as system defined
functions. The system defined function is defined as follows...
The function whose definition is defined by the system is called as system defined
function.
The system-defined functions are also called as Library
Functions or Standard Functions or Pre-Defined Functions. The implementation of
system-defined functions is already defined by the system.
In C, all the system defined functions are defined inside the header
files like stdio.h, conio.h, math.h, string.h etc., For example, the
funtions printf() and scanf() are defined in the header file called stdio.h.
Whenever we use system-defined functions in the program, we must include
the respective header file using #include statement. For example, if we use a system
defined function sqrt ( ) in the program, we must include the header file
called math.h because the function sqrt ( ) is defined in math.h.

Points to be remembered
✓ System defined functions are declared in header files
✓ System defined functions are implemented in .dll files. (DLL stands
for Dynamic Link Library).
✓ To use system-defined functions the respective header file must be included.

User Defined Functions

In C programming language, users can also create their own functions. The
functions that are created by users are called as user-defined functions. The user
defined function is defined as follows...
“The function whose definition is defined by the user is called as user defined
function.”
That means the function that is implemented by user is called as user defined
function. For example, the function main is implemented by user so it is called as
user defined function.
In C every user defined function must be declared and implemented.
Whenever we make function call the function definition gets executed. For example,
consider the following program in which we create a function called addition with
two parameters and a return value.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
//program to implement functions
#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int addition(int,int) ; // function declaration
void main()
{
int num1, num2, result ;
clrscr() ;
printf("Enter any two integer numbers : ") ;
scanf("%d%d", &num1, &num2);
result = addition(num1, num2) ; // function call
printf("SUM = %d", result);
getch() ;
}

int addition(int a, int b) // function definition

{
return a+b ;
}
In the above example program, the function declaration statement "int
addition (int, int)" tells the compiler that there is a function with name addition,
which takes two integer values as parameters and returns an integer value. The
function call statement takes the execution control to the addition ( ) definition along
with values of num1 and num2. Then function definition executes the code written
inside it and comes back to the function call along with return value.
In the concept of functions, the function call is known as "Calling
Function" and the function definition is known as "Called Function".
When we make a function call, the execution control jumps from calling
function to called function. After executing the called function, the execution control
comes back to calling function from called function. When the control jumps from
calling function to called function it may carry one or more data values called
"Parameters" and while coming back it may carry a single value called "return
value". That means the data values transferred from calling function to called
function are called as Parameters and the data value transferred from called function
to calling function is called Return value.

Based on the data flow between the calling function and called function, the
functions are classified as follows

Types of User Defined Functions

➢ Function without Parameters and without Return value
➢ Function with Parameters and without Return value
➢ Function without Parameters and with Return value
➢ Function with Parameters and with Return value

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Function without Parameters and without Return value

In this type of functions, there is no data transfer between calling function and
called function. Simply the execution control jumps from calling function to called
function and executes called function, and finally comes back to the calling function.

//Program to find using simple interest using functions.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void si() //function definition without parameters & without return value
{
int year,period;
float rate,sum,prin;
clrscr();
printf("Enter principle amt,rate & period\n");
scanf("%f%f%d",&prin,&rate,&period);
sum=prin;
year=1;
while(year<=period)
{
sum=sum*(1+rate);
year++;
}
printf("Principal amt=%.2f\n",prin);
printf("Interest rate=%.2f\n",rate);
printf("Time period=%d\n",period);
printf("Amt for %d years=%.2f with interest\n",period,sum);
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
si(); //function call
getch();
}
--------------------------------------------OUTPUT-------------------------------------------
Enter principle amt, rate & period 5000 0.5 2
Principal Amt=5000.00
Interest rate=0.50
Time period=2
Amt for 2 years=11250.00 with interest

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Function with Parameters and without Return value

In this type of functions there is data transfer from calling function to called
function (parameters) but there is no data transfer from called function to calling
function (return value). The execution control jumps from calling function to called
function along with the parameters and executes called function, and finally comes
back to the calling function. For example, consider the following program.

/*Program to read 3 sides of triangle and find the area and parameter of triangle
using functions. */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void triangle(int a,int b,int c) //function definition
{
float s,area;
s=(a+b+c)/2.0;
area=sqrt(s*((s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c)));
printf("The area of triangle=%.2f\n",area);
if((a==b)&&(b==c))
printf("The given triangle is equilateral\n");
else if((a==b)||(b==c)||(c==a))
printf("The given triangle is isosceles\n");
else
printf("The given triangle is scalene\n");
}
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the 3 sides of triangle\n");
scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);
triangle(a,b,c); //function Call
getch();
}
------------------------------------------------OUTPUT----------------------------------------
Enter the 3 sides of triangle 6 6 6
The area of triangle=15.59
The given triangle is equilateral

Enter the 3 sides of triangle 5 5 4

The area of triangle=9.17
The given triangle is isosceles

Enter the 3 sides of triangle 4 5 6

The area of triangle=9.92
The given triangle is scalene

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Function without Parameters and with Return value

In this type of functions there is no data transfer from calling function to
called function (parameters) but there is data transfer from called function to calling
function (return value). The execution control jumps from calling function to called
function and executes called function, and finally comes back to the calling function
along with a return value. For example, consider the following program...

//Program to addition of two numbers using functions.

#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int addition() ; // function declaration
void main()
{
int result ;
clrscr() ;
result = addition() ; // function call
printf("Sum = %d", result) ;
getch() ;
}
int addition() // function definition
{
int num1, num2 ;
printf("Enter any two integer numbers : ") ;
scanf("%d%d", &num1, &num2);
return (num1+num2) ;
}
------------------------------------------------OUTPUT----------------------------------------
Enter any two integer numbers: 22 55
Sum = 77

Function with Parameters and with Return value

In this type of functions there is data transfer from calling function to called
function (parameters) and also from called function to calling function (return
value). The execution control jumps from calling function to called function along
with parameters and executes called function, and finally comes back to the calling
function along with a return value. For example, consider the following program.

//Program to addition of two numbers using functions.

#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int addition(int, int) ; // function declaration
void main()
{
int num1, num2, result ;
clrscr() ;
printf("Enter any two integer numbers : ") ;

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
scanf("%d%d", &num1, &num2);
result = addition(num1, num2) ; // function call
printf("Sum = %d", result) ;
getch() ;
}
int addition(int a, int b) // function definition
{
return (a+b) ;
}
------------------------------------------------OUTPUT----------------------------------------
Enter any two-integer numbers: 22 55
Sum = 77

Passing Argument to Function:

1. In C Programming, we have different ways of parameter passing
schemes such as Call by Value and Call by Reference.
2. Function is good programming style in which we can write reusable code
that can be called whenever require.
3. Whenever we call a function then sequence of executable statements gets
executed. We can pass some of the information to the function for
processing called argument.

Two Ways of Passing Argument to Function in C Language:

1. Call by Value
2. Call by Reference

Call by Value
1. While Passing Parameters using call by value, Xerox copy of original
parameter is created and passed to the called function.
2. Any update made inside method will not affect the original value of
variable in calling function.
3. In the below example, a and b are the original values, Xerox copy of these
values is passed to the function, and these values are copied into a, b
variable of sum function respectively.
4. As their scope is limited to only function so, they cannot alter the values
inside main function.
// Program to swap two integer values using function (call by value).
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void swap(int a,int b)
{
int temp;
temp=a;
a=b;

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
b=temp;
printf("Values inside the function a=%d and b=%d\n",a,b);
}

void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any two no's\n");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("Before swapping a=%d and b=%d\n",a,b);
swap(a,b);
printf("After swapping a=%d and b=%d\n",a,b);
getch();
}
------------------------------------------------OUTPUT-----------------------------------------
Enter any two no's
52
Before swapping a=5 and b=2
Values inside the function a=2 and b=5
After swapping a=5 and b=2
a

a
a
Parameter
In computer programming, a parameter is a special kind of variable, used in a
subroutine to refer to one of the pieces of data provided as input to the subroutine.
These pieces of data are called arguments.

Note:
• Parameter Means Values Supplied to Function so that Function can Utilize
These Values.
• Parameters are Simply Variables.
• Difference between Normal Variable and Parameter is that “These Arguments
are defined at the time of Calling Function“.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

• Syntactically we can pass any number of parameter to function.

• Parameters are specified within Pair of Parenthesis.
• These Parameters are Separated by Comma (,)
Example: display (a,b,c,d,e);

Parameter: The names given in the function definition are called Parameters.
Argument: The values supplied in the function call are called Arguments.

Types of Parameters or Arguments

1. Formal Parameter :

Parameter Written In Function Definition is Called “Formal Parameter”.

void main()
{
int num1;
display(num1);
}

void display(int para1)

{
-----------
-----------
}
Para1 is “Formal Parameter“

2. Actual Parameter :

Parameter Written In Function Call is Called “Actual Parameter”.

void main()
{
int num1;
display(num1);
}

void display(int para1)

{
-----------
-----------
}
num1 is “Actual Parameter“

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Call by Address or Reference method

1. While passing parameter-using call by address scheme, we are passing
the actual address of the variable to the called function.
2. Any updates made inside the called function will modify the original
copy since we are directly modifying the content of the exact memory
location.
//Program to swap two integer values using pointer and functions (Call by reference).
#include<stdio.h>
void swap(int *a,int *b)
{
int temp;
temp=*a;
*a=*b;
*b=temp;
printf("Values inside the function a=%d and b=%d\n",*a,*b);
}

void main()
{
int a,b;
printf("Enter any two numbers\n");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("Before swapping a=%d and b=%d\n",a,b);
swap(&a,&b);
printf("After swapping a=%d and b=%d\n",a,b);
getch();
}
------------------------------------------------OUTPUT-----------------------------------------
Enter any two numbers 9 5
Before swapping a=9 and b=5
Values inside the function a=5 and b=9
After swapping a=5 and b=9

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

a
a

Comparison between Call by Value and Call by Reference in Programming:

Call by Value Call by Reference
Description A function to pass data or A function to pass data or
value to other functions value to other functions
Languages used C based programming C based programming
languages languages such as C++,
Java, but not C itself
Purpose To pass arguments to To pass arguments to
another function another function
Arguments A copy of actual arguments Reference the location or
is passed to respective address of the actual
formal arguments arguments is passed to the
formal arguments
Changes Changes are made in the Any changes made in the
own personal copy. formal arguments will also
Changes made inside the reflect in the actual
function are not reflected on arguments. Changes made
other functions inside the function are
reflected outside the
function as well.
Value modification Original value is not Original value is modified.
modified.
Memory Location Actual and formal Actual and formal
arguments will be created in arguments will be created in
different memory location same memory location
Safety Actual arguments remain Actual arguments are not
safe, they cannot be safe. They can be
modified accidentally. accidentally modified.
Hence care is required when
handling arguments.
Default Default in most Supported by most
programming languages programming languages,
such as C++, PHP, Visual but not as default.
Basic .NET, C# and REAL
basic

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Summary of Call By Value and Call By Reference:
Point Call by Value Call by Reference

Duplicate Copy of Original Actual Copy of Original

Copy
Parameter is Passed Parameter is Passed

No effect on Original Original Parameter gets affected if

Modification Parameter after modifying value of parameter changed
parameter in function inside function

A Pointer is a variable that holds address of another variable of same data type.
Unlike other variables that hold values of a certain type, pointer holds the address of
a variable.
For example, an integer variable holds (or you can say stores) an integer value,
however an integer pointer holds the address of an integer variable. In this guide,
we will discuss pointers in C programming with the help of examples.

Benefits of using pointers

• Pointers are more efficient in handling Array and Structure.
• Pointer allows references to function and thereby helps in passing of function
as arguments to other function.
• It reduces length of the program and its execution time.
• It allows C to support dynamic memory management.

Concept of Pointer
Whenever a variable is declared in the program, system allocates a location
i.e. an address to that variable in the memory, to hold the assigned value. This
location has its own address number.

Let us assume that system has allocated memory location 80F for a variable a.
int a=10;

Value 10 Location

a
Name of the Location 80F
address
We can access the value 10 by either using the variable name a or the address 80F.
Since the memory addresses are simply numbers they can be assigned to some other
variable. The variable that holds memory address are called pointer variables. A
pointer variable is therefore nothing but a variable that contains an address, which is
a location of another variable. Value of pointer variable will be stored in another
memory location.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Address of a 80F
ptr
Pointer name 82C

Address of a pointer
DECLARING A POINTER VARIABLE
General syntax of pointer declaration is,
data-type *pointer_name;

Data type of a pointer must be same as the data type of a variable to which the
pointer variable is pointing. void type pointer works with all data types, but is not
used often used.
Initialization of Pointer variable
Pointer Initialization is the process of assigning address of a variable to
pointer variable. Pointer variable contains address of variable of same data type. In
C language address operator & is used to determine the address of a variable. The &
(immediately preceding a variable name) returns the address of the variable
associated with it.
int a = 10 ;
int *ptr ; //pointer declaration
ptr = &a ; //pointer initialization
or, i
nt *ptr = &a ; //initialization and declaration together
float a;
int *ptr;
ptr = &a; //ERROR, type mismatch

Note: If you do not have an exact address to be assigned to a pointer variable while
declaration, It is recommended to assign a NULL value to the pointer variable. A
pointer which is assigned a NULL value is called a null pointer.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Points to remember:
➢ While declaring/initializing the pointer variable, * indicates that the variable
is a pointer.
➢ The address of any variable is given by preceding the variable name with
Ampersand '&'.
➢ The pointer variable stores the address of a variable. The declaration int *a
doesn't mean that a is going to contain an integer value. It means that a is
going to contain the address of a variable storing integer value.
➢ To access the value of a certain address stored by a pointer variable, * is used.
Here, the * can be read as 'value at'.
/*Program to show the declaration of the pointer and access the values and
display its value. */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,*iptr;
float f1,*fptr;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the integer\n");
scanf("%d",&i);
printf("Enter the floating no\n");
scanf("%f",&f1);
iptr=&i;
fptr=&f1;
printf("\n Value of i=%d\n",i);
printf("\n Address of i=%u\n",iptr);
printf("\n Value of f=%f\n",f1);
printf("\n Address of f=%u\n",fptr);
getch();
}
------------------------------------------------OUTPUT-----------------------------------------
Enter the integer 123
Enter the floating no 147.4
Value of i=123
Address of i=65524
Value of f=147.4
Address of f=65518

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

UNIT – 5

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 108 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

STRUCTURE

Structure is a collection of different data types which are grouped together.

Structure is set of heterogeneous elements. Each element in a C structure is called
member.
Let’s say we need to store the data of students like student name, age,
address, id etc. One way of doing this would be creating a different variable for each
attribute, however when you need to store the data of multiple students then in that
case, you would need to create these several variables again for each student. This is
such a big headache to store data in this way.
We can solve this problem easily by using structure. We can create a structure
that has members for name, id, address and age and then we can create the variables
of this structure for each student. This may sound confusing, do not worry we will
understand this with the help of example.
• If you want to access structure members in C, structure variable should
be declared.
• Many structure variables can be declared for same structure and memory
will be allocated for each separately.
• It is a best practice to initialize a structure to null while declaring, if we
don’t assign any values to structure members.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN C VARIABLE, C ARRAY AND C STRUCTURE:

• A normal C variable can hold only one data of one data type at a time.
• An array can hold group of data of same data type.
• A structure can hold group of data of different data types and Data types
can be int, char, float, double and long double etc.

DECLARATION OF STRUCTURE
We use struct keyword to create a structure in C. The struct keyword is a
short form of structured data type.
struct struct_name
{
DataType member1_name;
DataType member2_name;
DataType member3_name;
…
};
Here struct_name can be anything of your choice. Members data type can be
same or different. Once we have declared the structure we can use the struct name as
a data type like int, float etc.
First we will see the syntax of creating struct variable, accessing struct
members etc and then we will see a complete example.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
Example of Structure
struct Book
{
char name[15];
int price;
int pages;
};
Here the struct Book declares a structure to hold the details of book which
consists of three data fields, namely name, price and pages. These fields are
called structure elements or members. Each member can have different data type,
like in this case, name is of char type and price is of int type etc. Book is the name of
the structure and is called structure tag.

DECLARE VARIABLE OF A STRUCTURE

It is possible to declare variables of a structure, after the structure is
defined. Structure variable declaration is similar to the declaration of variables of
any other data types. Structure variables can be declared in following two ways.

1) Declaring Structure variables separately

struct struct_name var_name;
Example:
struct Student
{
char[20] name;
int age;
int rollno;
};

struct Student S1, S2; //declaring variables of Student

2) Declaring Structure Variables with Structure definition

struct struct_name
{
DataType member1_name;
DataType member2_name;
DataType member3_name;
} var_name;
Example:
struct Student
{
char[20] name;
int age;
int rollno;
} S1, S2 ;
Here S1 and S2 are variables of structure Student. However, this approach is
not much recommended.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
ACCESS DATA MEMBERS OF A STRUCTURE USING A STRUCT VARIABLE
Structure members can be accessed and assigned values in number of ways.
Structure member has no meaning independently. In order to assign a value to a
structure member, the member name must be linked with the structure variable
using dot. operator also called period or member access operator.

var_name.member1_name;
var_name.member2_name;

Example:
struct Book
{
char name[15];
int price;
int pages;
} b1 , b2 ;

b1.price=200; //b1 is variable of Book type and price is member of Book

We can also use scanf() to give values to structure members through terminal.
scanf(" %s ", b1.name);
scanf(" %d ", &b1.price);

ASSIGN OR INITIALIZATION OF VALUES TO STRUCTURE MEMBERS

There are three ways to do this.

1) Using Dot(.) operator

var_name.memeber_name = value;
Example:
struct patient p1;
p1.height = 180.75; //initialization of each member separately
p1.weight = 73;
p1.age = 23;

2) All members assigned in one statement

struct struct_name var_name = {value for memeber1, value for memeber2 …so on
for all the members}
Example:
struct Patient
{ float height;
int weight;
int age; };
struct Patient p1 = { 180.75 , 73, 23 }; //initialization
ARRAY OF STRUCTURE
Structure is collection of different data type. An object of structure represents
a single record in memory, if we want more than one record of structure type, we

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
have to create an array of structure or object. As we know, an array is a collection of
similar type, therefore an array can be of structure type.

SYNTAX FOR DECLARING STRUCTURE ARRAY

struct struct-name
{
datatype var1;
datatype var2;
----------
----------
datatype varN;
};

struct struct-name obj [ size ];

ARRAY WITHIN STRUCTURE

As we know, structure is collection of different data type. Like normal data
type, it can also store an array as well.

SYNTAX FOR ARRAY WITHIN STRUCTURE

struct struct-name
{
datatype var1; // normal variable
datatype array [size]; // array variable
----------
----------
datatype varN;
};

struct struct-name obj;

POINTER TO STRUCTURE
Like we have array of integers, array of pointers etc, we can also have array of
structure variables. And to make the use of array of structure variables efficiently,
we use pointers of structure type. We can also have pointer to a single structure
variable, but it is mostly used with array of structure variables.
struct Book
{
char name[10];
int price;
}

void main()
{
struct Book a; //Single structure variable
struct Book* ptr; //Pointer of Structure type
ptr = &a;

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

struct Book b[10]; //Array of structure variables

struct Book* p; //Pointer of Structure type
p = &b;
}

ACCESSING STRUCTURE MEMBERS WITH POINTER

To access members of structure with structure variable, we used the
dot. operator. But when we have a pointer of structure type, we use arrow -> to
access structure members.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
struct my_structure {
char name[20];
int number;
int rank;
};

struct my_structure variable = {"StudyTonight",35,1};

struct my_structure *ptr;
ptr = &variable;
printf("NAME: %s\n",ptr->name);
printf("NUMBER: %d\n",ptr->number);
printf("RANK: %d",ptr->rank);
}

OUTPUT:
NAME: StudyTonight
NUMBER: 35
RANK: 1

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)
UNION
C Union is also like structure, i.e. collection of different data types which are
grouped together. Each element in a union is called member.
• Union and structure in C are same in concepts, except allocating memory for
their members.
• Structure allocates storage space for all its members separately.
• Whereas, Union allocates one common storage space for all its members
• We can access only one member of union at a time. We can’t access all
member values at the same time in union. But, structure can access all
member values at the same time. This is because, Union allocates one
common storage space for all its members. Whereas Structure allocates
storage space for all its members separately.
• Many union variables can be created in a program and memory will be
allocated for each union variable separately.
• Below table will help you how to form a C union, declare a union, initializing
and accessing the members of the union.

Using normal variable Using pointer variable

Syntax: Syntax:
union tag_name union tag_name
{ {
data type var_name1; data type var_name1;
data type var_name2; data type var_name2;
data type var_name3; data type var_name3;
}; };

Example: Example:
union student union student
{ {
int mark; int mark;
char name[10]; char name[10];
float average; float average;
}; };

Declaring union using Declaring union using

normal variable: pointer variable:
union student report; union student *report, rep;

Initializing union using Initializing union using

normal variable: pointer variable:
union student report = {100, union student rep = {100,

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

“Mani”, 99.5}; “Mani”, 99.5};

report = &rep;

Accessing union members Accessing union members

using normal variable: using pointer variable:
report.mark; report -> mark;
report.name; report -> name;
report.average; report -> average;

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

Question Paper Pattern

Blue Print for BCA NEP – 60Marks

No of Questions Weightage
Sl. No Module
1M 5M 10M (Marks)
1 Unit - 1 2 1 1 17
2 Unit – 2 2 1/2 1 17/22
3 Unit – 3 2 1/2 1 17/22
4 Unit – 4 2 1/2 1 17/22
5 Unit – 5 2 1/2 1 17/22
60 (without Choice)
Grand Total 10 30 50
90 (with choice)

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

From the Desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli , S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 118 of 120
 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

BCA I SEMESTER (NEP) DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY – 2023

COMPUTER SCIENCE
PROGRAMMIN IN C (MODEL QUESTION PAPER - I)
Time : 2hrs Max Marks : 60

1. Answer all the questions. Each question carries 1 mark.

a. Who and when was C language developed
b. Mention different fundamental datatypes in C
c. Write symbol for BITWISE AND operator
d. Write syntax for simple if statement.
e. What is an array? Give example.
f. Define String.
g. What is do you mean by function prototyping.
h. Write syntax to declare a pointer.
i. What is array of Structures.
j. Define Union.

Answer any 4 questions. Each question carries 5 marks.

2. Explain any 5 characteristics of C language
3. Explain different logical operators available in C.
4. Write a short note on Arrays.
5. Explain advantages of User defined functions.
6. Write syntax for defining a Structure and Union
7. Explain Switch statement in C.

Answer any 3 questions. Each question carries 10 marks.

8. Explain Structure of C program with an example.
9. a) What are looping statements? Explain any two looping statements.
b) Write a program to find biggest of 3 numbers.
10. Explain various different string handling functions in C
11. What is user defined function? Explain any 3 user defined functions?
12. Write a short note on (i) Structure (ii) Union.

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 PROGRAMMING IN C FOR BCA I SEM (NEP)

BCA I SEMESTER (NEP) DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY – 2023

COMPUTER SCIENCE
PROGRAMMIN IN C (MODEL QUESTION PAPER - II)
Time : 2hrs Max Marks : 60

1. Answer all the questions. Each question carries 1 mark.

a. What is Constant? Mention types of constants.
b. How much memory size is required to store integer and float value.
c. Write symbol for address operator
d. Differenciate between = and ==.
e. Write memory represtation of 1D array.
f. Write any two string handling functions.
g. What is User defined function.
h. Define Pointer.
i. Which operator is used to access Structure members.
j. Define Union.

Answer any 4 questions. Each question carries 5 marks.

2. Write Structure of a C Program.
3. Differenciate between while and do while looping
4. Explain types of array with syntax and example
5. Explain advantages of User defined functions.
6. Write syntax for defining a Structure and Union
7. Write a program in C to two numbers using pointers.

Answer any 3 questions. Each question carries 10 marks.

8. Explain characteristics of C language.
9. Explain in else if ladder statement with an example.
10. Explain various different string handling functions in C
11. With syntax and explain to declare and initialize pointers in C.
12. How to define Structure and Union explain with an example.

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