Spatial Referencing

AND
Positioning
⚫ One of the main features of GIS is their ability to combine
spatially referenced data and to combine spatial data from
different sources that use different spatial reference
systems.
Reference surfaces for mapping
⚫ The surface of the Earth is anything but uniform.
⚫ The oceans can be treated as reasonably uniform, but the
surface or topography of the land masses exhibits large
vertical variations between mountains and valleys.
⚫ These variations make it impossible to approximate the
shape of the Earth with any reasonably simple
mathematical model.
⚫ two main reference surfaces have been established to
approximate the shape of the Earth
⚫ The Geoid
⚫ The ellipsoid
 The Geoid
⚫ Imagine that the entire Earth’s surface is covered by water.
⚫ If we ignore tidal and current effects on this ‘global ocean’, the
resultant water surface is affected only by gravity.
⚫ This has an effect on the shape of this surface because the
direction of gravity more commonly known as plumb line–is
dependent on the mass distribution inside the Earth.
⚫ Due to irregularities or mass anomalies in this distribution the
‘global ocean’ results in an undulated surface.
⚫ This surface is called the Geoid.
⚫ The plumb line through any surface point is always
perpendicular to it.
⚫ The Geoid is used to describe heights.
⚫ In order to establish the Geoid as reference for heights, the
ocean’s water level is registered at coastal places over
several years using tide gauges (mareographs).
⚫ Averaging the registrations largely eliminates variations of
the sea level with time.
⚫ The resulting water level represents an approximation to
the Geoid and is called the mean sea level.
⚫ The height determined with respect to a tide-gauge station
is known as the orthometric height
The ellipsoid
⚫ Apart from the Geoid, as a reference surface for heights, we
also need a reference surface for the description of the
horizontal coordinates of points.
⚫ The reference surface for horizontal coordinates requires a
mathematical definition and description.
⚫ The most convenient geometric reference is the oblate ellipsoid
⚫ It provides a relatively simple figure which fits the Geoid to a
first order approximation, though for small scale mapping
purposes a sphere may be used.
⚫ An ellipsoid is formed when an ellipse is rotated about its
minor axis.
⚫ This ellipse which defines an ellipsoid or spheroid is called a
meridian ellipse.
 The Geoid, a

The Geoid, a globally best fitting ellilpsoid for it, and

a regionally best fitting ellipsoid for it, for a chosen
region.
Coordinate System
•Coordinates are used to identify locations on the
earth's surface
•It is based on measurements of displacement from a
given location
•They are of two types:
plane
global
Coordinate systems
⚫ Different kinds of coordinate systems are used to position
data in space.
⚫ Spatial coordinate system- Spatial (or global) coordinate
systems are used to locate data either on the Earth’s
surface in a 3D space, or on the Earth’s reference surface
(ellipsoid or sphere) in a 2D space.
⚫ Planar coordinate systems – it is used to locate data on the
flat surface of the map in a 2D space

⚫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YMqFhO3bluk
⚫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1malk0FL1AA
PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEMS
⚫ In this system location of map features are expressed in x and
y coordinates.
⚫ Cartesian coordinates are determined as follows:
1. locate an origin
2. set two axes through origin in fixed directions, at right angles to
each other
⚫ by convention these are usually:
⚫ identified as x and y
⚫ x is horizontal and y vertical
⚫ i.e. y is anticlockwise from x
⚫ x is east, y is north
3. measure linear displacement from the origin in directions defined
by the two axes
4. produce an ordered pair - (x,y)
2D Cartesian coordinates (X, Y )
⚫ A flat map has only two dimensions: width (left to right)
and length (bottom to top)
⚫ Transforming the three dimensional Earth into a
two-dimensional map is subject of map projections and
coordinate transformations
⚫ The 2D Cartesian coordinate system is a system of
intersecting perpendicular lines, which contains two
principal axes, called the X- and Y -axis.
⚫ The horizontal axis is usually referred to as the X-axis and
the vertical the Y -axis
2D Cartesian coordinate system
Geographic Coordinate System
⚫ Important terms
⚫ Meridian - line connecting N and S pole (lines of equal longitude)
⚫ Prime Meridian – has the reading of 0 degree.
⚫ parallel - line of equal latitude
⚫ Equator – line of 0 latitude.
⚫ longitude (l) - measures the angle on the equatorial plane between
the meridian of the point and the central meridian (through
Greenwich, England)
⚫ has range: -1800 (westerly) to +1800 (easterly)
⚫ latitude (j) - measures angle between the point and the equator along
the meridian1
⚫ has range: -900 (S pole) to +900 (N pole)
Geographic Coordinate System
⚫ It is the location reference feature for spatial feature on the
Earth’s surface.
⚫ It is defined by longitude and latitude which are angular
measures.
2D Geographic coordinates (φ, λ)
⚫ The most widely used global coordinate system consists of
lines of geographic latitude (phi or φ or ϕ) and longitude
(lambda or λ).
⚫ Lines of equal latitude are called parallels. They form
circles on the surface of the ellipsoid.
⚫ Lines of equal longitude are called meridians and they
form ellipses (meridian ellipses) on the ellipsoid
The latitude (φ) and longitude (λ) angles represent the 2D geographic coordinate system.
3D Geographic coordinates (φ, λ, h)
⚫ 3D geographic coordinates (φ, λ, h) are obtained by
introducing the ellipsoidal height h to the system.
⚫ The ellipsoidal height (h) of a point is the vertical distance
of the point in question above the ellipsoid.
⚫ It is measured in distance units along the ellipsoidal
normal from the point to the ellipsoid surface.
⚫ 3D geographic coordinates can be used to define a
position on the surface of the Earth
 The latitude
(φ) longitude (λ) angles and the ellipsoidal height (h)
represent the3D geographic coordinate system.
3D Geocentric coordinates (X, Y, Z)
⚫ An alternative method of defining a 3D position on the surface
of the Earth is by means of geocentric coordinates (X, Y, Z),
also known as 3D Cartesian coordinates.
⚫ The system has its origin at the mass-centre of the Earth with
the X and Y axes in the plane of the equator.
⚫ The X-axis passes through the meridian of Greenwich, and the
Z-axis coincides with the Earth’s axis of rotation.
⚫ The three axes are mutually orthogonal and form a
right-handed system.
⚫ Geocentric coordinates can be used to define a position on the
surface of the Earth
An illustration of the 3D geocentric coordinate system
2D Polar coordinates (α, d)
⚫ This is the distance d from the origin to the point
concerned and the angle α between a fixed (or zero)
direction and the direction to the point.
⚫ The angle α is called azimuth or bearing and is measured
in a clockwise direction.
⚫ It is given in angular units while the distance d is
expressed in length units.
⚫ Polar coordinates are often
used in land surveying
Map projection
⚫ A map simply is a miniature representation a part of the world.
⚫ A map projection is a system in which locations on the curved
surface of the earth are displayed on a flat sheet or surface
according to some set of rules
⚫ A map projection is a mathematically described technique of
how to represent the Earth’s curved surface on a flat map.
⚫ The reference surface for large-scale mapping is usually an
oblate ellipsoid, and for small-scale mapping, a sphere It
always involves distortion and no map projection is perfect.
⚫ Mapping onto a 2D mapping plane means transforming each
point on the reference surface with geographic coordinates (φ,
λ) to a set of Cartesian coordinates (x, y)
Mapping Equations
⚫ A forward mapping equation transforms the geographic
coordi nates (φ, λ) of a point on the curved reference
surface to a set of planar Cartesian coordinates (x, y),
representing the position of the same point on the map
plane:
⚫ (x, y) = f(φ, λ)
⚫ The corresponding inverse mapping equation transforms
mathematically the planar Cartesian coordinates (x, y) of a
point on the map plane to a set of geographic coordinates
(φ, λ) on the curved reference surface:
⚫ (φ, λ) = f(x, y)
Classification of map projections
⚫ Hundreds of map projections have been developed, each
with its own specific qualities.
⚫ Any map projection is associated with scale distortions
⚫ scale distortions -Flattening out a piece of ellipsoidal or
spherical surface Scale distortions by stretching some
parts of the surface more than others.
On the basis of projection surface
(use of geometric object and a globe)
1. Planar or azimuthal projection
⚫ a flat sheet is placed in contact with a globe, and points are
projected from the globe to the sheet
2. Conic projection
⚫ a cone is placed in contact with a globe
3. Cylindrical projection –
⚫ a cylinder is placed in contact with a globe
Case and Aspect
⚫ Simple case - if the developable surface touches the globe,
the projection is called tangent or simple.
⚫ Secant case - if the surface cuts into the globe, it is called
secant
⚫ Aspect – it describes the placement of the geometric shape
relative to the globe.
⚫ Polar aspect – it refers tangency at the pole.
⚫ Equatorial aspect – it refers tangency at the equator.
⚫ Oblique aspect – it refers tangency any where between the
equator and the pole.
⚫ normal projection - In the geometric depiction of map
projections, the symmetry axes of the plane, cone and
cylinder coincide with the rotation axis of the ellipsoid or
sphere, i.e. a line through N and S pole.
⚫ transverse projections- symmetry axis in the equator
⚫ oblique projections- symmetry axis is somewhere between
the rotation axis and equator of the ellipsoid or sphere
Commonly used Projected coordinate system
1. The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid system.
2. The Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) grid system
3. The State Plane Coordiante System (SPC)

4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlfLW1j05Dg
5. Types of Map projection
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6N1NmIG0HM4
Types of map projection
I. On the basis of preserved property
⚫ Conformal projection- the local angles and shapes are
preserved
⚫ Equal area (Equivalent) – it represents areas in correct
relative size.
⚫ Equidistant projection – maintain relative distances
from one or two points.
⚫ Azimuthal projection - retrain certain accurate
direction.
Coordinate transformations
⚫ It includes the transformation of polar coordinates delivered by
the surveyor into Cartesian map coordinates or the
transformation from one 2D Cartesian (x, y) system of a
specific map projection into another 2D Cartesian (x , y )
system
⚫ Datum transformations are transformations from a 3D
coordinate system (i.e.horizontal datum) into another 3D
coordinate system.
⚫ Ground Control Points (GCPs)
⚫ It relate an unknown coordinate system to a known coordinate
system on the basis of a set of selected points whose
coordinates are known in both systems. These points are
known as ground control points (GCPs).
Changing map projection
⚫ Forward and inverse mapping equations are normally used to
transform data from one map projection to another
⚫ The inverse equation of the source projection is used first to
transform source projection coordinates (x, y) to geographic
coordinates (φ, λ).
⚫ The forward equation of the target projection is used to
transform the geographic coordinates (φ, λ) into target
projection coordinates (x , y ).
⚫ The first equation takes us from a projection A into geographic
coordinates. The second takes us from geographic coordinates
(φ, λ) to another map projection B