Can/Could: NATURAL or LEARNED ability

+ be (in)capable of
Ex: - Can you climb up that coconut tree? (Present
+ be (un)able to Other Structures
+ manage to and Future ability)
+ succeed in - I could ride a bike when I was 4. (Past ability)

Could/Was/Were able to:

acquisition of a skill after
EFFORT
Ex: Eventually, she was able
to get a driver license.
We can use COULD in negative
sentences and questions to simplify the Was/Were able to, Managed
sentence to, Succeeded in: SPECIFIC
Ex: - In the end they couldn't escape the
Special Usages ACHIEVEMENT in the past
room.
Ex: In the end they
- Could they escape the room?
- Yes they succeeded in/No, they couldn'
succeeded in escaping the ABILITY
t room.

Can/Could + verbs of PERCEPTION (don't

use be able to)
Ex: I couldn't believe you did that.

Could/Would be able to: UNREAL PAST (unreal

situations in present and future)
Ex: I could punch him.

Could have/Would have been able to: ability not

used due to PERSONAL FAILURE or LACK OF
OPPORTUNITY (past situations)
Ex: I could have arrived earlier at the conference if it
hadn't been for the traffic jam.

Can I hang out with my

friends?
Yes/No, you can/can't/mustn't.
Could I hang out with my
friends?
Level of formality
May I hang out with my
friends?
Yes/No, you may/mayn't/
mustn't.
Might I hang out with my PERMISSION/PROHIBITION
friends?

Other structures (the longer the sentence = the

more formal)
+ (not) be allowed to
+ (not) be permitted to
+ be forbidden to
+ be prohibited to
+ be not to
+ negative imperatives
Ex: I wondered if I were allowed to enter the hall.

Could/May/Might + bare-inf: PRESENT/FUTURE possibility

Ex: He could stand at the crossroads
= Maybe/Perhaps/It's possible that he stands at the
crossroads.
Could/May/Might + HAVE + P.P: PAST possibility
Ex: He could have cleaned the board. POSSIBILITY
= Maybe/Perhaps/It's possible that he
cleaned the board.
Questions about possibility
Ex: CAN/Could/Might it be correct?
CAN/Could/Might he still be waiting?

Deduction about the

PRESENT
Ex: + He must be her
boyfriend.
= I'm sure/certain that he
is her boyfriend.
1. MUST + inf: I'm sure/certain (present)
+ She can't support them.
2. MUST + have p.p: I'm sure/certain (past)
= I'm sure/certain that
3. CAN'T/COULDN'T + have p.p: I'm sure/
certain (past + not) she doesn't support them.
4. COULD/MAY/MIGHT + inf: It's possible/
Summary
DEDUCTION
Perhaps/Maybe (present) Deduction about the PAST
5. COULD/MAY/MIGHT + have + p.p: It's Ex: + He must have left the
possible/Perhaps/Maybe (past) office.
= I'm sure/certain that he
left the office.
+ She can't have killed
them.
= I'm sure/certain that
she didn't kill them.

- Of course, you CAN/MAY. (not Can I have a cake (please)?

could/might) Could I have a sandwich (
- Certainly. please)? Requests with things/
- No, you CAN'T/MAY NOT. (I'm May I have some tea (please)? substances
afraid) Might I have a cup of latte (
- I'm afraid there isn't any. please)?
REQUESTS Acting as AUXILIARIES (express attitudes)
Will/Would you (kindly) carry
the bags for me (please)? -->
Modals + bare-inf
WILLINGNESS
MODAL BASICS
Can/Could you (possibly) lend NEVER CHANGING FORMS (no -s, -ed, or -ing)
- Yes, of course (I will) me your phone (please)? --> Requests with action Used with PROGRESSIVE (be + V-ing) and PERFECT (have + pp) aspects
- No, I'm afraid I can't ABILITY

Would you mind giving me a

lift to the airport? --> THE
REQUEST MAY ANNOY/
Can/Could --> ABILITY
BOTHER SB

- Will/Won't you come to the OFFERS/ May/Might --> PERMISSION

- (Yes,) I'd love/like to
party? Suggestions/Invitations with REQUESTS/
- (No,) I'd prefer not to, thank Will/Would --> PREDICTION
- Would/Wouldn't you like to actions
you
go to the concert? SUGGESTIONS
SUGGESTIONS MODALITIES MODAL VERBS PRIMARY FUNCTIONS Shall --> PREDICTION
- Shall we go to the
restaurant? Should/Ought --> ESCAPABLE OBLIGATION OR DUTY
- (Yes,) I'd love/like to
- We can/could/might go for a
- (No,) I'd prefer not to, thank Suggestions with action Must --> INESCAPABLE OBLIGATION
walk.
you
- What shall/can/could we do
Needn't --> ABSENCE OF OBLIGATION
this weekend?

- Can/Could/Shall I take of the

coat (for you)?
- Yes, please/Can/Could/ - Would you like me to wash OFFERS WITH ACTIONS SECONDARY FUNCTIONS
Would you? That's very kind. the dishes?
- No, thank you. - What shall/can I do for you?
- May I clean your shoes? (very
might 10%
polite)
may
ADVISABILITY
could
"In my opinion, it's advisable to/it's (my) duty to"
SHOULD can
Ex: You should apply for that company.
should
slightly stronger than SHOULD, regulations Level of certainty
or duties imposed from the outside ought to
OUGHT TO
(We know we should do but we usually don't)
Ex: You ought to go to bed early. would

stronger than SHOULD and OUGHT will

TO (some specific future action) + threat/warning/urgency
HAD BETTER must 90%
(Don't follow the advice --> something bad will happen
Ex: You had better apologize her or she will be mad at us.
No modals 100% (Fact)
"It is necessary to"
NEED TO
Ex: You need to do your homework. ADVISABILITY/
DUTY/OBLIGATION/
NECESSITY
NECESSITY
Inescapable obligation - objective (Situations force people to do)
HAVE TO
Ex: You have to cut down on eating greasy food.

Inescapable obligation - objective (more informal)

HAVE GOT TO
Ex: You've got to be kidding me.

Inescapable obligation - subjective (People think it's necessary to do it)

MUST
Ex: Drivers must fasten their seatbelts before driving.

Should have p.p = Ought to have p.p: You

should have done it but you DIDN'T
Ex: I should have submitted the
assignment on Tuesday.
Advisability/Necessity in the
past

Had to + inf: You should have done it and you DID it

Ex: I had to submit the assignment on Tuesday.

LACK OF NECESSITY

Past Present

You needn't sharpen the pencil.

You needn't have sharpened the pencil.
(You sharpened the pencil unnecessarily)
You don't need to sharpen the pencil.

You didn't need/have to sharpen the pencil. You don't have to sharpen the pencil.
(There was no necessity to sharpen the pencil,
whether you did it or not) You haven't got to sharpen the pencil. INADVISABILITY/
LACK OF
INADVISABILITY
NECESSITY,
Past Present PROHIBITION
You shouldn't have drunk too much coffee.
You shouldn't drink too much coffee.
(but you ignored this advice)

You ought not have drunk too much coffee.

You ought not to drink too much coffee.
(but you ignored this advice)

You had better not to drink too much coffee.

FAILURE TO OBSERVE A PROHIBITION

+ Needn't + have p.p: used as

Past Present
a THANK YOU
+ Should (not)/Ought (not)
You shouldn't have littered here. You can't litter here.
to + have p.p: CRITISM (can
Special usages
also be used as a thank you)
You oughtn't to have littered here. You can't litter here.

+ He always complains (TRUTH, FACT)

+ He is always complaining. (AN ANNOYING
ACTION)
+ He will always complain (FUTURE EVENT that
may be predictable) HABIT
PAST HABIT

+ No time reference necessary

USED TO + Can be used to refer to states
Ex: I used to be an environmentalist.

+ A time reference necessary

+ Never used at the beginning of a story
WOULD
+ Not used to refer to states
Ex: When I was a high school student, I'd walk to school at 6 to be on time.

+ A time reference is necessary

PAST SIMPLE
Ex: We usually visited Hoan Kiem Lake when we went to Hanoi.