Royal Society Fire Investigation

FIRE INVESTIGATION: A PRIMER FOR COURTS 3
Contents
1 Background to fire and combustion 9
What is fire? 9
2 How does a fire develop? 11

Heat transfer and combustion 11
Ignition 12
Development and behaviour of fires in compartments 14
3 Fire investigation – the ‘scientific methodology’ 19

Identifying and defining the question 19
Collecting and analysing data 19
Testing the hypotheses 20
4 Who undertakes fire investigation in the UK? 21

Training and qualification of fire investigators 21
5 With what questions can fire investigators assist the court? 23

Area of origin of the fire 24
Data sources 24
Electrical survey 25
How did the fire start? 26
Suspicious, deliberate/intentional fires 26
Accidental fires 27
6 How do fire investigators determine origin, cause and fire development? 28

What are the stages in the fire investigation process? 28
Gathering background data 29
Scene examinations 30
Fire patterns 32
Developing hypotheses 37
4 FIRE INVESTIGATION: A PRIMER FOR COURTS
7 Methodologies and tools used in fire investigation and their limitations 38

Non-destructive/destructive examination and testing methods 38
Fire scene reconstruction 39
Experimental reconstruction of fires 40
Engineering calculations/computer modelling 42
8 Other potential forensic evidence at fire scenes 44
9 Myths 45
The use of ignitable liquids to accelerate fires 45
Spalling of concrete 46
Crazed glass 47
Low points of deep charring and/or fire patterns in a room
which has reached flashover conditions 47
10Reporting conclusions and limitations 48
11The future of fire investigation? 49

ISO/IEC 17020 accreditation for fire investigation 49
Competency testing 49
Developments in methodology 49
12Appendix 1 – types of fire scenes commonly encountered 50

Building fires 50
Vehicle fires 50
Marine fires 51
Aircraft fires 51
Recycling or waste site fires 51
Outdoor and/or wildland fires 52
Fatal fires 52
Complex multi-agency fire scenes 53
13Appendix 2 – accidental fires 54

Cooking 54
Electrical (wiring, equipment and appliances) 55
Misuse of equipment 57
Self-heating 58
Naked flames (candles/matches, barbeques, etc) 60
Smoking materials 60
Solid fuel (open fireplaces, wood burners, etc) 61
Process failure 62
Chemical reactions 62
Friction 62
Hot works (welding, disk cutters, blowtorches, etc) 62
Natural phenomena 63
1.Background to fire and combustion

What is fire?
A fire can be defined, in its simplest terms, as a chemical reaction involving the rapid oxidation
of a material (fuel) which produces heat (and often light). Most fires involve burning of materials
that are organic, that is, they contain carbon. These materials can be natural, such as wood, or man-
made, such as plastics. Different materials have different physical properties. For example, both
cotton and petrol are organic, but they have different chemical structures and complexities
(petrol is a mixture of many chemical compounds) and, consequently, their chemical and
physical properties are often very different.
For a material to burn (or combust) it must first be heated. Heating causes the material to break
down chemically and generate gases (a process called thermal decomposition, which in organic
solids is known as pyrolysis). When gases* are generated in the right quantity, mixed with
oxygen in the air and then ignited, they will burn (usually) with a visible flame and generate
combustion products, heat and often light. In order to be sustained, this flaming combustion
reaction must release enough heat to continue pyrolysis of the fuel(s) present so that the
production of a sufficient flow of flammable
gases is maintained. This flaming combustion process can occur only if there is sufficient oxygen
present. If sufficient oxygen is not present, then flaming combustion cannot be sustained even
if there is enough fuel and heat. In such cases, the heat generated may thermally decompose
nearby exposed fuel and, in the right conditions, might sustain a smouldering combustion.
Combustion is described in more detail in section 2.1.
The lowest temperature which must be reached for an item to burn, provided that all other
combustion conditions are met, is known as the ignition temperature, where ignition is the
establishment of the self-sustaining combustion reaction for a suitable fuel/oxidiser
combination.
* Gases are sometimes referred to as vapours, although a vapour is not one of the fundamental states of matter.
Vapours are gases produced from materials that are normally solid or liquid at ambient temperature. The ease of
transferring a solid or liquid into a vapour is defined as its volatility.
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
Fire tetrahedron. A lit match igniting paper.
O
X
Y
G
E
N
CHAIN
REACTION
Courtesy M J Svare Courtesy R Mallows
The fire tetrahedron (Figure 1) illustrates the components needed for a material to burn and
without which a fire cannot occur. This diagram is often depicted in a more simplistic form as the
fire triangle (see dashed lines in Figure 1) where the self-sustaining chain reaction is not shown.
As a practical general example to explain the concept, consider lighting paper with a
match (Figure 2). The match is the source of heat and the paper is the fuel, which is
surrounded by air that contains oxygen.
When the match flame is held next to the piece of paper, the paper will start to thermally
decompose (pyrolyse), producing combustible gases which mix with surrounding air. When there
is an appropriate mixture of combustible gases and air, ignition will occur (via the match flame).
Once the paper has ignited, it may continue to burn after the match has been removed or
extinguished. This will occur if the burning paper generates sufficient energy (in the form of heat)
to pyrolyse the unburnt paper and to generate combustible gases in the optimal ratio with air to
sustain the flame. As the paper burns, it thermally decomposes and discolours, chars and
disintegrates to produce a dark flimsy ash. The chemical bonds within the compounds in the paper
have been broken down by the heat energy produced by the combustion reaction generating a
variety of chemical products and releasing energy.
Fire is, by definition, an exothermic reaction (it gives out heat) and once a flame has been
established, it can spread from the initial ignition source assuming that the conditions of
combustion have been satisfied. When different fuels burn, they can produce combustion
products (smoke) including soot and toxic and irritant gases depending on the composition of
the fuel. Gaseous products include, but are not limited to, carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide.
2. How does a fire develop?

Heat transfer and combustion
The state, or phase of a material (solid, liquid or gas) involved in a fire will determine how
that item will behave when exposed to heat. More heat energy is generally required to break
chemical bonds in solids than in liquids or gases. Understanding how heat transfers from a
heat source to an available fuel is critical to understanding the initiation and propagation of a
fire. The mechanisms of heat transfer are:
• Conduction – heat transfer along or through a solid material(s), for example the metal
handle of a saucepan becoming hot as the saucepan is heated on a stove. Conductive heat
transfer generally follows the shape of the solid through which it is occurring and can be
influenced by the material composition.
• Convection – heat transfer from a moving gas or liquid to an adjacent space, an example
being the air around a central heating radiator becoming warm. Convective heat generally
travels upwards.
• Radiation – heat transfer due to emission of electromagnetic waves, an example
being the heat felt from the sun, or from a bonfire.
Conduction and convection are directional, whereas the emission of radiation occurs in all
directions. All three heat transfer mechanisms may be occurring when a flame is brought into
contact with a combustible material. Heat transfer enables solids and liquids to break down,
producing gaseous products, which can ignite and combust in different ways:
• Flaming combustion – sustained combustion producing heat and visible flames.
• Smouldering combustion – sustained combustion process producing heat but not
flame that occurs relatively slowly between (or within) a porous solid fuel and available
oxygen (eg a lit cigarette when not being drawn upon).
• Glowing combustion – smouldering of a solid fuel where the air flow is enhanced,
producing enough heat to generate visible light (eg a lit cigarette being drawn or the
embers of a fire).
Flaming combustion is what is typically considered as ‘fire’ but fire investigators also
encounter incidents where smouldering or glowing combustion has occurred, or where
the fire has transitioned from a smouldering or glowing combustion to a flaming
combustion.
Ignition
Ignition is the process that can lead to a self-sustaining combustion reaction. There are two main
types of ignition mechanism: piloted ignition and spontaneous (auto-) ignition. Most solids will
have an ignition temperature (or range of temperatures) for both piloted and spontaneous
ignition processes which is the minimum temperature required for combustion to begin and
continue in air. For liquids, this temperature is more typically referred to as the flashpoint or
firepoint for piloted ignition. For auto-ignition the liquid will usually have exceeded its boiling
point and will normally be completely vapourised.
Piloted ignition requires the presence of a flame or spark as the heat (energy) source to ignite
the gas/air mixture that has formed at the surface of a fuel because of heating.
Spontaneous ignition can occur because of self-heating of the fuel or by ignition via an
elevated surrounding temperature. For either process to occur, the fuel should either come
into contact with a source of heat in excess of a particular temperature or a particular heat
flux (the heat energy transferred from one source to another per unit area). Examples of the
spontaneous ignition of bulk solids are provided in section
13.4. Ignition temperatures, flashpoints and firepoints are specific to particular materials under
specific conditions and can be measured with accuracy. Minimum auto-ignition temperatures
(MAITs) for gases and fuel vapours are similarly measurable. These data are available in the
scientific literature.
Once ignited, the burning fuel must then provide sufficient heat energy to sustain burning
once the initial ignition source has been consumed or otherwise extinguished. The heat
generated from this original fuel burning may cause other fuels in its vicinity to reach their
ignition temperatures.
FIGURE 3
Ignition of a curtain in contact with a candle (a) followed by ignition of the carpet floor
covering when a burning curtain (on the left) drops to the floor and/or furnishings (b). In this
fire test the fire also spread horizontally to the curtain on the right.
(a) (b)
Courtesy J Novak
For example, a fire which starts when the flame from a candle on a table comes into direct
contact with, or is extremely close to, a curtain, may generate sufficient heat (radiative or
convective) to be transferred so that ignition of the curtain occurs
(Figure 3a). That may lead to the burning curtain material dropping down and creating the
circumstances for heat transfer, production of gaseous materials from other fuels such as the
carpet floor covering and/or furnishings below the curtains, and ignition of these. It also may
lead to the fire spreading horizontally to an adjacent curtain (Figure 3b).
Development and behaviour of fires in compartments

A fire usually develops through relatively well-established stages:
• initiation (ignition) and free burning
• growth period
• flashover
• post-flashover and steady burning
• decay.
All stages of fire development are controlled by air supply (or lack of it), by fuel, and by heat
transfer mechanisms previously described (conduction, convection and radiation). Knowledge of
heat transfer mechanisms is essential to understanding fire development.
By way of an example, consider a fire starting in a wastepaper bin and burning unimpeded within a
room/compartment as shown in Figure 4. Initially a viable source of ignition starts a fire in the
wastepaper bin and the contents begin to burn with open flames.
FIGURE
Ignition 4 unimpeded burning with a fire plume enabling heated air and hot
and
combustion products to rise to the underside of the ceiling.
Courtesy M J Svare
As burning continues, a fire plume (the area of the fire and hot gases and combustion
products that arise from the fire) will develop. These gases (smoke) typically contain soot
(unburnt carbon), water vapour, carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and other toxic or
irritant gases depending upon what is burning and how much oxygen
is present. Buoyancy carries these combustion products to the upper parts of the
room/compartment and drives convective heat transfer. At the same time, cooler air is drawn in
at the bottom of the fire plume (a process known as entrainment), providing a renewed
oxygen source to sustain the combustion process. As the hot gases rise to the ceiling, they
spread laterally in the upper portion of the room/compartment.
Heat transfer in a fire is initially via convection and, as the fire grows, the rising temperature
of the smoke and gas layer that forms beneath the ceiling radiates heat down onto the contents
of the room/compartment. Together these heat transfer mechanisms can create sufficient heat
flux to ignite other fuels nearby and at high level (eg curtains, lampshades, etc) causing the rate of
heat release in the fire to increase with time. This series of events describes the growth stage of
a fire illustrated in Figure 5.
FIGURE
The growth5 of the fire showing a layer of hot gases developing at ceiling level and radiating
heat downwards onto the exposed surfaces/combustible material within the room/compartment.
Note: for clarity, the figure does not indicate the entrainment of air.
Courtesy M J Svare
As materials become involved in the fire, they create fire plumes that can leave residual patterns
from smoke or heat on walls, ceilings, floors and furnishings which are known as fire or burn
patterns. The systematic identification, examination and interpretation of such patterns is
undertaken during a fire investigation (see section 3 for more information).
As more fuel packages become involved, the fire grows and more energy is released, increasing
convective heat transfer to the hot smoke layer and radiative heat transfer from the smoke layer to
combustible materials in the room/compartment. Combustible materials can include furniture and
paint on walls as well as floor level materials such as carpet and skirting boards. If there is
sufficient ventilation and fuel, fire growth becomes exponential, and the fire develops rapidly to
involve all exposed combustible surfaces in the compartment (Figure 6).
FIGURE 6
Flashover conditions, when exposed surfaces of materials within the room/compartment, even at
floor level, are burning.
Courtesy M J Svare
The growth rate of a fire is also dependent upon several factors beyond ventilation and
availability of fuel such as the location, positioning and type of fuel present. The fire has now
reached what is termed the ‘fully developed’ stage. The relatively short transitional period
between the growth and full development stages is termed ‘flashover’* and can be described as
the point when a fire in a room/compartment becomes a compartment completely on fire. A
room/compartment continues to burn unimpeded in flashover conditions while fuel remains
and there is enough air.
When the fuel loading (the amount of fuel) and/or ventilation is insufficient in the room/
compartment to enable flashover conditions to be reached, the fire will continue to progress
slowly and/or it will decay. If the stages of fire are considered to follow a curve (Figure 7),
flashover is considered the peak of a fully developed fire and will be followed by a post-
flashover burning phase. The duration of this post-flashover burning phase will depend upon the
availability of fuel and ventilation. A fire limited by fuel is known as a ‘fuel-controlled’ fire
and its typical course is represented by the dotted line in Figure 7.
This means that a post-flashover fire is ‘ventilation controlled’ even if the doors or
windows are destroyed in the fire.
Post-flashover fully developed fires can result in the destruction of fire patterns, as the
residual patterns that develop during the growth stage of the fire are themselves
consumed by the fire and become transformed into clean areas on surfaces (known as clean
burns). This occurs when soot from the original pattern is burnt away, although similar
patterns may appear because the surface was too hot for soot to deposit.
Flames and hot gases can also extend beyond the room/compartment where the fire started.
This occurs when the fire becomes ventilation controlled (ie there is sufficient fuel present, but
the ventilation is restricted by openings such as door(s) and window(s)).
* The term ‘flashover’ has been the subject of considerable debate in the fire science community and, as a result,
different investigators may attach different definitions to the term depending upon an investigator’s background,
but irrespective of those definitions, it is generally considered to be a rapid change in fire development leading
to full involvement of the room/compartment.
FIGURE 7
Typical fire (heat release) curve adapted from data from a real compartment fire
experiment. The fire is fully developed in the steady state period. The blue dotted line
represents the course of a fuel-controlled fire.
Flashover
Growth period Steady state period Decay period
8000
7000
6000
Heat release rate
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Time from ignition (min)
Courtesy C Holland
Poor ventilation can cause a stage to be reached when there is insufficient oxygen to burn all
of the fuel vapour being generated within the compartment, and unburnt vapour ignites
outside the compartment leading to external flaming. As hot gaseous products escape the
compartment they transfer heat to materials nearby, thus beginning the cycle of pyrolysis,
production of gaseous products and eventually ignition beyond the compartment of origin. In
all fire spread scenarios, firefighting activities will predictably impact fire progression. For
example, the application of water/foam etc will suppress
the fire, whereas the opening of windows and doors, or the Fire Service using positive
pressure ventilation, may increase the fire spread.
3. Fire investigation –
the ‘scientific methodology’
The most commonly used definition of the scientific methodology within the fire investigation
community describes the process of identifying and defining the question to be answered, data
gathering, analysis and hypothesis development and testing
to reach a final conclusion of how and where the fire started and how it progressed. This
involves the fire investigator following a series of steps (Figure 8) to ensure that all available
potential hypotheses are considered and evaluated using the available information while
minimising bias.
Identifying and defining the question

A competent* fire investigator will establish their specific terms of reference when they
are asked to become involved in a fire investigation which may more precisely define the
questions they are being asked to address. The main purpose of any fire
investigation is to define the fire’s area of origin (the general area where the fire started) and, if
possible, the fire’s point of origin** (the first item ignited) to establish the cause (or potential
causes) of the fire. In doing this, the fire investigator should also define and explain the extent
of the fire spread and/or fire damage.
Collecting and analysing data

Fire investigators will make observations and collect data during their investigation. In a house
fire, one of the many observations could be, for example, that ‘the sofa has burnt or sustained
more fire damage at one end than at the other’. This observational data is recorded by the fire
investigator in their notes or digitally. After making observations, fire investigators must
consider the reasons why something has happened and are likely
to identify a number of reasons, or hypotheses, from what they have observed. In the instance
of the sofa, the hypotheses may be (i) that the end which is more burnt was closer to the origin
of the fire, or (ii) closer to a source of ventilation, or (iii) that the other end of the sofa
preferentially benefited from the effects of fire-fighting or (iv) that the end of the sofa that is
more burnt is, itself, a separate area of origin of a fire.
* A fire investigator with the appropriate skills, knowledge, training and experience.
** Where a fire’s point of origin cannot be defined then it may be possible to define a specific area of origin; this
would be a smaller area than the area of origin. For example, area of origin is part of a room, specific area of origin is
the corner of the room and point of origin is an electrical socket in the corner of the room.
FIGURE 8
A representation of the scientific methodology.
Identifying and defining the
Collecting data
Analysing data
Developing different hypotheses

(inductive reasoning)
Testing the different hypotheses
(deductive and abductive reasoning)
Selecting the final hypotheses based

on the available data
Courtesy N NicDaeid
Testing the hypotheses

All reasonable hypotheses for origin, cause and fire spread are considered, and each hypothesis
is tested against the observational data and considering known facts. This may involve actual
performance testing, or scaled tests, to determine an outcome.
Fire investigators should perform hypothesis testing (not necessarily physical tests) at the
fire scene while all of the evidence that can influence supportive reasoning is
available. After an investigator leaves the scene, there is no guarantee that evidence will be
preserved. Returning to the example of the burnt sofa, the fire investigator may have
previously seen a sofa ignited and burning and understands usual fire progression for an item
of furniture of this type under controlled and known conditions. They may then consider
whether the sofa in the scene shows fire damage similar to this, or they may identify that there
is a difference. If there is a difference, they would then consider all the factors which could
have created this difference within the context of the scene.
The fire investigator should test all reasonable hypotheses to determine, first, whether each could
account for the observations at the scene, and to decide which hypothesis is most probable.
Through these processes, fire investigators use deductive, inductive and abductive reasoning
underpinned by a solid foundation of education, knowledge, training, skill and experience to reach
a conclusion while remaining mindful of potential biases.
4. Who undertakes fire

investigation in the UK?
In the UK, the Fire and Rescue Service normally initiates a fire investigation while still
onsite undertaking firefighting activities, to assist in compiling the UK fire statistics.
A Fire and Rescue Service fire investigator is often requested when the origin and cause of the fire
is initially unknown. A fire may also be investigated by the Police (or in Scotland an investigation
initiated by the procurator fiscal) to determine if a criminal offence has been committed, or where
there has been a fatality, and may include involvement of crime scene investigators (CSIs). Police
forces throughout the UK may have dedicated personnel who are trained and competent to
investigate potential criminal fires but may also call on forensic science providers to carry out a
joint fire investigation with the Fire and Rescue Service. The method of instructing forensic science
providers varies across the UK. In Scotland and Northern Ireland, the forensic science providers are
public organisations funded by the devolved governments and tend to get involved in the fire
investigation, whereas in England and Wales the forensic science providers are private companies
and consequently, may not always be requested by the Police to undertake a fire investigation.
An insurance company will often instruct private sector fire investigators to establish causation
(the cause of the loss) and the reason for fire spread. This is to assist insurers in determining
liability, with their consideration of a recovery of their outlay from a third party, with coverage
under the terms of the policy and in reducing future risk, etc. In specific circumstances, other
enforcing authorities may also investigate fires (eg Health and Safety Executive or Air Accident
Investigation Branch, etc). As such, several different practitioners may be present at the fire
scene.
While one group of fire investigators (mainly in the private sector) may be more likely to
undertake civil work rather than criminal investigations, there will always be situations
where they cross over. A joint scene examination is best practice, but this
may not always be possible and fire scene examinations may occur at different times. Experience
has shown that the exclusion of organisations in the initial fire investigation does occur in
practice, and this can have a negative impact on the investigation.
Training and qualification of fire investigators

The required knowledge and skills for fire investigators is provided in the Code of Practice for
investigators for fires and explosions for the justice systems in the UK. 1 Practitioners, whether
based in the private or public sector, must be competent to investigate their remit and able to
report their findings. As the purpose of private sector businesses can differ,
for example one may focus more on civil issues while another may focus more on criminal matters,
their training and experience are likely to differ to reflect this.
Fire investigators come from a range of different backgrounds and with varying levels of
experience and education. In the first instance, they are likely to have a background in one
of the key areas needed for fire investigation, which include fire service experience
attending fires, or a background in engineering, science or a mixture of these. There are also
a range of certifications that fire investigators can gain. However, there is no requirement to
have such certifications to undertake fire investigations.
It is not possible, given the multiple disciplines that a fire investigation encompasses, for a
person to have all the knowledge, skill, training and experience when they begin. Even an
experienced fire investigator must know their limitations, appreciate when they are outside of
their area of expertise and understand where they should seek external
assistance. It is not unusual for a fire investigator to request the attendance of a specialist or a
subject matter expert (for example a forensic anthropologist, an electrical engineer, or a fire
engineer) to assist them with the investigation.
Fire investigators undergo initial training, which is likely to be varied. This could take the
form of courses within their own organisation and/or specific fire-related external courses.
Some fire investigators will hold university degree courses in relevant subject areas. This is
augmented with ‘on-the-job’ training/mentoring with an experienced
fire investigator which is often scenario-based, whether practical or theoretical, with known
outcomes (ground truth). Mentoring will cement this knowledge with the practical challenges
involved in a fire investigation. Courses and training are, in turn, supported with extensive study
of the available literature. Some of the key publications are listed in the references,2, 4–10 but the
list is not exhaustive. Most textbooks or guides are regularly reviewed and revised by the fire
investigation community. For example, NFPA 9219 has a three-year revision cycle.
It is essential that the fire investigator continues, while they are active in the fire investigation
discipline, to constantly improve their knowledge, skill and expertise through ongoing training
and experience. This continuing professional development (CPD) will develop and challenge the
fire investigator and will expose them to the constant changes and updates in the knowledge base
underpinning the discipline. At the current time competency testing of fire investigators in the
UK is undertaken on an ad hoc basis.
5. With what questions can fire

investigators assist the court?
A suitably qualified and experienced fire investigator may be able to provide the court not
only with factual evidence, but with expert opinion evidence on:
• The area(s) of origin of a fire and, in some instances, the point(s) of origin, noting that in cases
where the fire was started deliberately, there may be more than one area/ point of origin.
This should include noting areas which have been discounted and the reasons why.
• The item(s) first ignited.
• The viable ignition source(s) considered and the reasoning behind their inclusion or
elimination. In drawing their conclusions the fire investigator should have considered
findings from other analyses such as chemical analysis of fire debris and the examination
of items removed from the scene such as electrical items.
• How the first item ignited came into contact with the ignition source. This can assist the trier
of fact in establishing whether the fire was started accidentally, deliberately (intentionally) or
whether this remains undetermined.
• The development and spread of the fire including directionality, ventilation conditions, size and
severity as well as a timeline of events.* This can involve:
– Establishing the materials involved in the fire to understand the development and spread
based on how those materials burn;
– Establishing the fuel load available to determine the likely size of the fire based upon
the fuel load and ventilation;
– Assessing the performance of the structure against known or expected parameters.

This can assist in establishing the severity and the speed of fire development.
• The acts or omissions of people associated with the scene that may have a bearing on the
cause and spread of the fire (eg maintaining fire precautions, a failure to properly inspect
an area after hot work has been concluded, etc).
* A timeline may include the sequence of fire spread but also incorporate information from factual evidence.
These latter points may not always be relevant to a typical origin and cause investigation but
can feed into other disciplines as part of a wider investigation. Subject matter experts may not
be required/instructed or able to offer an opinion on all the above matters, but this should not
preclude them from providing opinions within their area of expertise.
Area of origin of the fire

The fire investigator aims to identify the area of origin. Then, by examining and
interpreting burn patterns (see section 6.3.1) and considering ventilation sources and effects
in more detail, it may be possible to establish the point of fire origin. Once the point of
origin is established, hypotheses around the cause of the fire can be investigated.
Data sources
The investigation of a fire requires adherence to a systematic and scientifically reliable process that
is based on the scientific methodology where the area of origin of a fire at the beginning of the
investigation is initially unbounded. However, the boundaries become defined as the fire
investigator collects data throughout the investigation. The collection
of data is an ongoing element of the fire investigation process. By utilising the scientific
methodology and reliable scientific data and observation at the scene, the boundary of the area of
origin of the fire can be defined. The boundaries of fire origin may contract or expand as new
data is identified or discovered. Data sources may include:
• witness information* (occupiers, neighbours, employees, passers-by and the Fire
and Rescue Service);
• Fire and Rescue Service information (call and attendance times and other records)
• the purpose of, and activities associated with, visits from third parties, such
as contractors;
• drawings and documentation relating to the building and services;
• CCTV recordings;
• mobile phone photographs and videos;
• unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV – commonly described as a ‘drone’)
recordings or photographs;
* Witness information also considers the credibility and reliability of such evidence, which may depend upon the distance or
other location of the witness to the fire and their reaction/perception to a potentially traumatic event.
• social media postings;

• fire detection system event log data;
• intruder alarm event log data;
• alarm remote monitoring (ARM) event logs (Redcare etc);
• building management systems (BMS) event log data;
• door entry system event log data and/or video recordings (eg
doorbell video systems);
• event logs from specific items of equipment
(within factories, warehouses, medical establishments etc); and
• if available, the comparison of similar structures (eg
an undamaged flat in the same block).
Electrical survey
The remains of electrical equipment and wiring at the fire scene can provide meaningful data
for the fire investigator to consider when determining the area of origin of the
fire. During the fire, heat and flame impingement will cause damage in the form of melting
and charring of electrical insulating materials. If unimpeded, the heat and flame impingement
will usually result in an electrical short circuit (fault). If the electrical system is energised, the
electrical fault may result in physical evidence in the form of an electric arc melt site.
The formation of an electric arc melt site, which is physically different from mechanical or fire
melting damage, will often cause overcurrent and/or earth fault protective devices such as fuses,
circuit breakers and/or residual current devices (RCDs) to operate
and de-energise the relevant electrical circuit. It is generally accepted within the fire
investigation community, particularly when considered in isolation, that it can be difficult to
distinguish whether an arc melt site was the cause of a fire, or was a consequence of external
fire attack.
Where relevant, an electrical survey of fire-damaged wiring and/or a circuit protection

device(s) should be undertaken by suitably trained, skilled and experienced practitioners. This
may also include a plug fuse survey to identify physical evidence of the location on electrical
circuits where the fire initially damaged the electrical insulation. The resultant electrical short
circuits and the arc melt site evidence remaining post-
fire (known as electrical arcing damage) in the form of localised electrical melting of
conductors can assist in determining the fire’s origin. This approach is known as an arc survey
or arc mapping. Both the electrical survey and arc survey should provide a
spatial relationship of electrical damage to assist the fire investigator in determining the area of
fire origin. Laboratory microscopy of points of melting on electrical conductors may be
necessary to distinguish between arc melt sites and localised melting caused by exposure to
fire conditions. Further information about electrical causes of fire is provided in section 13.2.
How did the fire start?

In the early stages of a fire investigation, the public sector (Fire and Rescue Service, Police, etc)
often attempt to establish whether the fire was started deliberately/ intentionally or
accidentally. The early findings often dramatically affect the level and depth of the subsequent
investigation.
Suspicious, deliberate/intentional fires

If the circumstances surrounding the fire are considered potentially suspicious because, for
example, the Fire and Rescue Service found evidence of a forced entry on their arrival, or because
witnesses saw a person setting a fire, the Police will take the primary role for the investigation. In
the UK, common examples of fires that may be started deliberately include ignitable liquid
introduced through letter boxes of entrance doors, ignitable
liquid poured on floors/furniture/items, multiple seats of fire and time-delayed incendiary devices.
The early stages of the scene examination vary regionally and nationally, but it is common
practice for a joint examination of the fire scene to take place, involving Police crime scene
investigators (CSIs – also known as forensic practitioners or scene of crime officers) and the
Fire and Rescue Service fire investigator. The Police may also involve a forensic scientist who
specialises in fire scene examination to assist their investigation. Police CSIs, crime scene
managers or exhibits officers are responsible for the correct packaging, transportation and
storage of exhibits recovered from the fire scene (eg fire debris potentially contaminated with
ignitable liquid residue, etc). The responsibility for photography (a critical way of recording
evidence in fire investigation) and the sharing of images is often determined on a case-by-case
basis.
Fire scenes must be carefully examined and excavated. If necessary, the relevant
compartment(s) that have been determined as the fire’s area of origin should be reconstructed.
Trace evidence, CCTV recordings and images/videos uploaded to social media need to be
recovered and packaged or collected in accordance with accepted protocols to ensure
continuity of evidence and protection against cross-contamination. In some instances, a fire
investigator appointed by an insurance company may discover evidence of a fire that may have
been started deliberately. In such cases the fire investigator should collect, label and store
evidence to the standards expected in criminal investigations in anticipation of that evidence
being used in court proceedings.
A common issue when collecting fire debris for chemical analysis at a forensic laboratory is
the use of incorrect packaging material. For example, if polyethylene bags are used instead of
nylon bags (or other suitable containers) the ignitable liquid vapours will normally disperse
before a chemical analysis can be undertaken.
Accidental fires
There are too many ways in which fires may be started accidentally to detail but a range of the
most common in the UK is presented in Appendix 2.
6. How do fire investigators determine

origin, cause and fire development?
It is important to understand from the outset that the investigation of a fire is not always linear
or sequential. Investigating a fire is a constantly-evolving, data-driven process where the fire
investigator, using the scientific methodology and differential diagnostics, observes and
interprets the evidence at the fire scene. The different stages of the fire investigation process
rarely occur in sequence.
What are the stages in a fire scene investigation process?

A key document related to fire investigation in the UK is the Code of Practice for Investigators
of Fires and Explosions for the Justice Systems in the UK1 which presents a comprehensive and
systematic scene investigation and reporting methodology, including expectations for acting
as expert (skilled) witnesses, as well as the expectations for training, knowledge, skills and
competency testing. Similar guides have been developed in other jurisdictions, particularly in
Europe10 and the USA.9
The stages of a fire investigation normally involve:

1. Understanding the fire investigator’s roles and responsibilities, including health and safety,
the requirement for accurate and clear contemporaneous notetaking and documentation
and the importance of working within one’s area of expertise.
2. The receipt of instructions, understanding and agreeing the fire investigator’s terms of
reference, taking part in briefing meetings and forensic strategy meetings (if appropriate),
agreeing the fire investigation strategy and outlining any limitations with respect to their
activities given the circumstances of the scene.
3. Examination of the scene including recording of the scene and all other activities
undertaken. The scene investigation usually involves a preliminary examination of the
external and internal environment followed by more detailed examinations.
4. The location, preservation, recovery, packaging, labelling, retrieval and

documentation of items of interest which are carefully removed for further
examination in an appropriate laboratory or similar space.
5. Examination of items retrieved from fire scenes. This is carried out in appropriate
laboratories, or sufficiently illuminated and clean workspaces designated for this purpose.
Such examinations are often undertaken in consultation with other forensic practitioners so
that other evidence such as fingerprints or DNA are also considered. Since these
examinations are often destructive of the evidence they must be fully documented. They
are sometimes undertaken as a joint examination with fire investigators appointed by other
parties.
6. In some cases, chemical analysis of fire debris. This may be required, for example, where
an ignitable liquid is suspected of having been used to accelerate the fire. In these cases,
samples should be packaged in nylon bags at the scene. Chemical analysis following
standard operating procedures are normally undertaken within a forensic science
laboratory with ISO/IEC 17025 accreditation.11
7. Review and reporting of critical findings which involves a consideration of all realistic
competing hypotheses to ensure that appropriate conclusions are reached. The report
should be subjected to peer review prior to the issuing of a formal document to the
instructing authority.
Fire investigators may also become involved in case reviews. In these circumstances their role
may be limited to the examination of photographs or other images of the fire scene rather than an
opportunity to visit the fire scene in person. The limitations associated with such reviews can
vary depending upon the case and should be made clear.
Gathering background data

A fire investigation is a dynamic process, where the information and knowledge of events is
constantly evolving. At the initial stage of the investigation, the main sources of background
information generally come from witness statements, attending fire crew information, CCTV
and mobile phone footage. Information can be relayed later from, for example, alarm or
security company data. The fire investigator will document the information given to them and
will consider its evidential value (individually or with
other practitioners/agencies) to develop an initial investigation strategy agreed by other
personnel present. Background information is often incomplete and even CCTV or mobile
phone evidence can sometimes serve only as a ‘snapshot in time’. One of the most challenging
aspects of fire investigation is to ensure that background information does not bias the
investigation and it must be made clear where background information has been used to assist
in interpreting part(s) of a fire scene.
Scene examinations
The fire investigator assesses and documents the exterior of the scene (where relevant) to decide
where to concentrate their activities.* For a building fire, this usually starts
by examining the exterior of the structure and assessing how/whether an investigation can be
safely undertaken, considering the type of building involved: whether it was occupied, what it
was used for, what condition it was in before the fire, what utilities were available, and
understanding the general layout of the property. This may be augmented with building plans.
Investigators can also consider whether any fire damage has affected windows, doors and the
roof, if they remain.
For example, fire patterns (or other indicators eg softening or melting) above a window and/or
door opening(s) may provide evidence of where the fire was contained within
a compartment before venting out of the opening(s). If the fire then spreads upwards internally
through floors to the roof, the patterns above this window and/or door
may indicate the room/compartment of origin. The fire investigator will now have a foundation
for the next investigative stages.
Before entering a fire scene, the fire investigator should consider the personal protective
equipment (PPE) that they need for themselves and whether any further equipment is
required for other lines of enquiry. The fire investigator will then enter the scene to assess
the internal fire damage. At this stage, it is good discipline to follow a ‘no disturbance’ rule
during the investigation, which will involve gaining a full
understanding of the layout of the building (from witnesses if necessary), and observing and
recording general inter-compartmental fire spread patterns, variations in degrees of damage and
the location of evidence that should be examined in more detail.
* This may be affected by safety issues.

There could be several reasons why fire investigators decide that one room, in a
building where multiple rooms have burnt, is the room on which to focus their
investigation, such as:
• the room may have significantly more fire damage than other rooms;
• there may be background information available to suggest that this room contains the origin
of the fire;
• there may be fire or intruder alarm data; or
• there may be other information such as fire patterns above internal and/or external
openings, some of which suggest that the fire originated in a particular room.
However, it does not always follow that the room that is most burnt will be the room of
origin of the fire. It may just be that this room had a higher fuel load, longer burning
duration, or increased ventilation or delayed firefighting activities. The fire investigator may
decide to concentrate on a specific room with this caveat in mind.
A systematic approach is taken to observe the fire damage and other details. Simultaneously,
the fire investigator considers the materials present and their burn patterns, ventilation effects, fuel
loading, ignition sources, sources of electricity and, human activity. Each one of these factors
could impact on how the fire started or how it progressed.
The fire investigator should ensure that the scene is thoroughly documented and recorded, so
that they are able to clearly show what they did at a scene, and why they chose a certain
approach before the scene is compromised, excavated or otherwise altered. There are many
ways for a fire investigator to record the scene, but irrespective of the manner they must ensure
that they have recorded both their actions and their reasons contemporaneously such that a
third party can at a later stage understand
the rationale underpinning the investigation. All findings, notes and records should be retained
by the fire investigator.
This is particularly important where items are removed for a subsequent detailed examination
(eg in laboratories), so that the scene documentation enables these items to be placed back into
context within the scene as hypotheses are developed and tested.
Once hypotheses have been formed on the basis of the preliminary ‘no disturbance’
examination, a more detailed and potentially destructive examination begins. When possible,
the area around the origin and point of origin should be excavated using equipment
appropriate to the scene. By excavating the debris in a controlled and
systematic manner, critical information can be obtained by the fire investigator enabling hypotheses
to be tested in an iterative fashion as new evidence emerges. Key evidence can include, but is not
limited to, partially unburnt debris, indications of ignitable
liquid, ignition sources, batteries and electrical wiring, and/or equipment. A scene reconstruction of
the furniture and any other important items, or other features, might be undertaken.
If items are removed for further investigation, then traceability for the items to their
original positions at the scene must be ensured. Further examinations which may be
undertaken at a later date can include fire debris analysis and examination of the
internal components of an electrical appliance/equipment. Information about the scene pre-fire
may also be available from other sources (eg photographs, sketches, plans).
Fire patterns
Fire patterns on floors, walls, ceilings, fittings and contents within a compartment are created
following the transfer of heat from a fire plume onto the surfaces. The heat transfer to the
floor, wall, ceiling and other surfaces occurs primarily via convection and radiation. If the fire
is discovered and extinguished, or possibly subsides due to a lack of oxygen, then geometric
patterns such as a ‘V’ or ‘U’ shaped fire pattern on a vertical surface (eg wall) may occur
(Figure 9).
TheFIGURE 9 and initial small flame (arrowed) of a seat cushion on the floor adjacent to a wall
ignition
(a). The burning seat cushion radiates heat onto the adjacent plasterboard wall lining (b). The
decay of the burning seat cushion starts to reveal the ‘U’ shaped fire
pattern on the adjacent wall (c). The type of sketch which may be recorded in the notes taken
by a fire investigator (d).
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Courtesy J Novak
FIGURE 10 FIGURE 11
Protection mark on the carpet indicating the

The ignition of a seat cushion in the centre of
position of the standing lamp at the time of
a room away from a wall where the fire has
the fire.
sufficient oxygen and fuel to maintain burning
without lengthening the flame may not
obviously result in a discernible fire pattern.
Courtesy J Novak
Courtesy N NicDaeid
In general, when considering fire patterns on walls, fuel packages on the floor that are
located close to a wall will produce ‘V’ and ‘U’ shapes (to varying widths). However, fuel
packages some distance from a wall or in the centre of a room can produce wide ‘U’-shaped
patterns close to the wall or may not result in a recognisable fire pattern on a wall (Figure
10).
Ventilation will also considerably affect recognisable fire patterns with more intense burning
occurring close to doors, windows and other openings (known as ventilation effects). For
example, distinct floor, wall and ceiling patterns, including deep charring of timber, may be
observed at or near such openings, which are an effect of the ventilation (which increases the
rate of burning) rather than being associated with the location and fuel type of the initial fuel
package(s). There may also be protection marks (Figure 11) which could indicate locations of
items during the fire and the position of switches and door hinges prior to the fire. These are
sometimes referred to as witness marks.
FIGURE 12
Ignition of a cushion from the same sofa placed in the middle of a room (a), up against a wall (b)
and in a corner (c), demonstrating the effect of geometry and positioning of the fuel on flame
extension.
(a) (b) (c)
Courtesy J Novak
The geometry and positioning of the fuel within the compartment may also influence the
combustion of the fuel and the resultant fire pattern. For example, a similar fuel package (eg a
seat cushion placed on the floor, against a wall or in the corner of a room) will generate
different fire patterns due to different flame and fire plume interactions with the surface. In
general, the more a fire is constrained by surrounding surfaces, such as
a wall or a corner formed by the intersection of two walls, the more the flame length will be
extended and deflected towards the surface to draw (entrain) sufficient air into the fire plume
(Figure 12).
A corner produces a greater flame extension (Figure 13), leading to a different pattern of fire
spread across the underside of the ceiling. Patterns created by the way in which the fire
plume interacts with the walls and ceiling of a compartment are documented
photographically and in sketches.
FIGURE 13
The ignition and initial small flame of a seat cushion in the corner of a room (a). The burning
seat cushion on the floor radiates heat onto the adjacent plasterboard wall linings (b); The
‘corner effect’, where the more enclosed the fuel becomes, the longer the flame extends to
entrain sufficient air into the plume to sustain burning. In addition, the plume transfers
additional heat to the upper layer of the compartment. The fire plume in the corner rapidly
spreads horizontally at ceiling level (c), An example of the type of sketch showing the
resultant fire pattern in the corner
of a room (d).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Courtesy J Novak
FIGURE 14
A fire test of a fully-furnished, well-ventilated compartment, with plasterboard walls and ceiling
and a timber floor, which has transitioned to flashover conditions.
Courtesy N J Carey
Fire patterns on the floor, wall, ceiling linings and other surfaces within a compartment may be
overwritten (or destroyed) to various degrees when the fire becomes fully involved. Figure 14
shows a fire test of a plasterboard-lined furnished compartment which has reached flashover
and has become fully developed. The entire contents of the compartment, including the floor
lining, are burning, and this may overwrite the initial fire patterns on the floor, walls and ceiling
linings that were generated during the growth stages of the fire.
The location of the fuel package(s) burning in a room will affect the fire patterns found on
floors, walls and ceilings in a compartment following a fire which is suppressed or
extinguished before the fire develops to flashover conditions.
Developing hypotheses
All of the information and observational data on fire patterns and the effects of fire upon the
different materials present are brought together by the fire investigator to develop competing
hypotheses regarding where the fire could have started, the possible cause of the fire and to
explain fire development. Rarely does a single piece of evidence point towards an area of
origin, and multiple different sources of information are usually considered together. The fire
investigator uses their knowledge, skill and experience
to interpret their observations and underpin their reasons for either investigating a hypothesis
further or for discounting an area as a potential origin. This reasoning should be recorded.
Once the fire investigator has narrowed down their hypotheses, they should test these by
considering how a fire could have started at the origin. For a fire to have originated in a
particular area, there must have been a fuel in this area, and it must have been heated to produce
gaseous products (if a solid or some liquids) and ignited by a viable source of
ignition. Once the fire investigator has completed their examinations, their final hypothesis should
resolve any contradictions but may also contain caveats and conditions.
The aim of the fire investigation is to identify a final hypothesis, which concludes where the
fire started, what the likely cause of the fire was and, in some instances, the circumstances
which led to the fire.
7. Methodologies and tools used in fire

investigation and their limitations
Fire investigators can make use of certain tools or methodologies that can assist in
narrowing the hypotheses developed during the course of an investigation. These are not
always adopted and will sometimes depend upon the scale of the investigation.
Throughout the progression of the fire investigation, fire investigators attempt to use
methodologies or techniques that will minimise the destruction of potential evidence.
Non-destructive/destructive examination and testing methods

During their investigation, fire investigators may perform, or commission, non-destructive
examination and testing methods. This may include field use of microscopes and portable X-
ray equipment for analysing equipment, materials and debris found at the
fire scene. Portable gas analysers can be used at the fire scene to test for the presence of
ignitable liquids. Additionally, equipment, materials and fire debris may be further analysed
in a laboratory. The reliable application of any method or tool used will be limited primarily
by the degree of fire destruction and by the ability of a fire investigator to locate, identify,
collect and analyse any potential evidence.
Laboratory equipment commonly used in analysis includes:

• optical microscopy;
• X-ray radiographs (images), in 2D film or digital format (Figure 15) which provide a non-
destructive method to show the internal structure of electrical items;
• Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) which is a destructive method used to
potentially confirm the presence of, and identify, an ignitable liquid; and
• Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy which is a destructive method used to
potentially identify some materials such as plastics.
Other equipment which may be used on a case-by-case basis includes;
• Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) used for magnified surface analysis;
• Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), elemental analysis used in conjunction with
SEM;
• X-ray computed tomography (CT) producing 2D or 3D X-ray radiographs (images); and
• Microfocus X-ray radiographs or magnified 2D or 3D X-ray radiographs produced using
CT.
FIGURE 15
A photograph showing Euro, UK and North American (left to right) moulded plugs and
associated flexible cables and an X-ray of the same items revealing the internal conductors
and components.
Courtesy M J Svare
Fire scene reconstruction

While not always undertaken, a useful methodology adopted by fire investigators at a fire
scene is to ‘reconstruct’ or otherwise fairly and accurately represent the physical scene
conditions. This ‘fire scene reconstruction’ forms part of the scene excavation whereby debris
is removed and then the contents (or structural elements) are placed back into their pre-fire
positions. This more commonly involves placement of the contents back in their original or
understood original positions in the room of their origin but can involve a recreation of the
room outside the property. This is more typically undertaken with larger items such as
furniture to enable a better understanding of the fire patterns and to assist testing of
hypotheses around the fire origin or spread.
For example, repositioning the remains of sofas and other items of furniture, which may have
been moved during firefighting or rescue operations, can assist in visualising fire patterns. As
with interpretation of the scene generally, such reconstruction needs to account for ventilation
effects or for other factors which may have caused, or contributed to, the patterns observed
following reconstruction. This is particularly the case if the scene is not reconstructed in the
room of fire origin.
Experimental reconstruction of fires

The concept of fire scene reconstruction described above is distinct from experimental
reconstruction of fires. The former will occur at the scene, utilising the fire-damaged material,
but the latter may involve setting fire to samples of materials found at the scene or to
reconstructed elements of the scene in a laboratory setting.
Such experimental reconstructions can range from small-scale ad hoc experiments through to full
or partial large-scale reconstructions of fires. Generally, large-scale reconstructions are not
common and are usually carried out only for complex scenes or high-profile incidents.
However, they do occur and the findings can constitute evidence to be considered by the
courts.
Ad hoc experiments should follow the scientific method wherein two or more hypotheses are set
prior to undertaking an experiment to test which hypothesis/es can be rejected. The tests should
replicate conditions determined to have been present at the scene as far as is practicable and
repeat experiments should change one variable at a time so that the impact of that variable can be
assessed. Such experiments can range from a simple flame test through to a wider experimental
programme (eg to test hypotheses for various ignition scenarios). These experimental programmes
can be bench-scale qualitative experiments through to more quantitative experiments on larger
items found at the fire scene. Such experiments can be modelled on standard fire tests (such as
those found in British Standards) which are modified to test the hypotheses or can be an entirely
new experimental design. Protocols for testing should be developed and documented and where
more than one party is involved testing protocols should be agreed.
Reconstructions are used to represent an event as accurately as possible based on the data
available. The primary role of a reconstruction is to reconstruct an incident as it unfolded, so
that the sequence of events and the engagement of, and interactions
between, the various elements can be observed and studied. This enables observation of the
phenomena that have given rise to the evidence gathered from an investigation.
This is particularly useful given that evidence gathered at the scene tends to be the end state
damage which seldom gives any indication of the timescales needed to achieve that damage.
While reconstructions can be used to test hypotheses, their nature means that it is more difficult to
control variables as one would for scientific experiments; real incidents are generally imperfect
with respect to pre-fire details. Those carrying out reconstructions or even fire experiments should
set out what assumptions they have made in undertaking the work and any limitations that they
consider could have an impact on the outcome; this can range from differing ambient conditions,
assumptions about the contents that burnt
in the fire, through to risks posed by not fully replicating the boundary conditions of the incident
(eg reconstructing only one storey of a two-storey building).
Reconstructions may provide information as to the performance of a material or product, but

should be carried out with caution as a fire experiment rarely replicates the method of
exposure which occurs within a standard fire test. This is acceptable for
understanding the performance of that material or product in the specific (fire) conditions of the
reconstruction, but it might not be possible to equate it to a performance requirement for that
item set by statutory regulations, for example.
The key point regarding reconstructions is that it is never possible to be certain that the
reconstruction has provided an exact replica of the incident. Those carrying out
reconstructions should endeavour to fairly represent conditions known to exist at the time of
the fire and in these circumstances, the reconstruction provides evidence (but not proof) of
those aspects of the actual incident that are not known.
That is not to say that reconstructions cannot be a valuable tool. They have been proven to be
extremely useful in past incidents for understanding the phenomena involved
in an incident and for conveying and illustrating the complex concepts involved in fire to
non-specialists. Examples of reconstructions of fires in the UK in the public domain include
the Kings Cross Underground fire (1987),24 Rosepark Care Home fire (2004)25 and the
Atherstone on Stour warehouse fire (2007).26
Engineering calculations/computer fire modelling

Engineering calculations based on fundamental scientific and engineering principles or sound
peer-reviewed research may assist in testing hypotheses relating to a specific incident.
However, such calculations, equations and formulae will usually be based upon, or will have
been derived from, controlled experimental data. As such, these calculations are best used for
assessing discrete hypotheses rather than for all aspects of an incident. In addition, equations
and formulae should be relied upon only for testing hypotheses for which they are valid. As
with the use of other tools, and given that
there will be certain unknowns, the investigator using engineering calculations will set out
what assumptions they have made, where data has been taken from and how it is valid for
the aspect being considered. It is possible for data from ad hoc experiments or
reconstructions to be used when supplemented with published reference data from peer-
reviewed texts or journal articles.
In contrast, computer fire modelling uses complex mathematics in an to attempt to directly

estimate how fire will change the conditions within a space. There are a variety of different
computer models available for fire modelling with varying degrees of complexity. These
models have largely been developed for fire engineering purposes to assist in building design
rather than specifically for the purposes of fire investigation.
Computer fire models should be used with caution for fire investigation purposes. Fire
models are not currently mature enough for the user to simply enter details of the building
and contents and expect the computer to predict how a fire will develop. A particular
scenario must be specified (room sizes, ventilation openings, fire location,
fire size, burning rates, etc). The models can then make predictions of the impact of the fire on
that scenario (temperatures, smoke concentrations, etc). The results can then be compared to
evidence from an incident to establish if the proposed scenario
is representative of what is known from the actual event.
Computer fire modelling should be undertaken only by competent practitioners who have
a good understanding of the limitations of the model being used, in the context of fire
investigation, to ensure that the work is undertaken within those limitations
to which the models have been validated. Unlike some applications of computer modelling,
simulating real fires is not very precise; it is common to have error margins around 20% and
it is difficult to achieve errors that are much smaller than this. This is due to the large number
of random factors that may occur, such as the composition and location of fuel items, moisture
content, wind fluctuations, breaking of windows and the area of openings when pieces of glass
fall out of a frame. Computer fire models also rely upon simplification of the chemical
reaction of combustion, and in most practical large-scale modelling applications the rate of
heat release (effectively the rate of growth of fire) must be prescribed by the user, which
means that there may be some deviation from reality regarding the fire itself (which is the
source term for all follow-on aspects of the model). For this part reliance is placed on
experimental measurements
in the literature and allowance is made for inputs within a range of likely values. Where
possible specific measurements relating to the event may be appropriate.
In contrast to engineering calculations, computer fire modelling is rarely used and usually only
for complex fire incidents and for understanding fire development rather than
for origin and cause determination. Computer fire modelling is not suitable for testing hypotheses
on cause and in only very limited circumstances, at a high level, can it be used for hypotheses on
origin of fire. Any report relying upon computer fire modelling should clearly set out what
assumptions have been made in undertaking the work and any limitations thereof. Properly
applied in conjunction with other data sources, computer fire modelling can be a useful tool
within an investigation. However, computer fire modelling that is presented as being directly
representative of reality should be treated with extreme caution.
8. Other potential forensic

evidence at fire scenes
One could expect that forensic evidence such as digital data, tool marks and trace evidence
may have been destroyed at a fire scene, but this is not always the case. While the
temperatures reached during the progression of the fire can damage some types of evidence
there are many opportunities for evidence recovery at or near the point of origin of the fire.
Evidence can be protected from heat by debris (eg building materials, plasterboard, furniture,
clothing, etc) that has fallen or otherwise covered the evidence (eg DNA, fingerprints, ignitable
liquid materials, electrical apparatus, matches, etc). For example, a mobile phone found in a
bed under bedding may have been protected from the heat generated by the fire such that
DNA, fingerprints and digital evidence all remain recoverable.
Other forensic evidence from within the scene, but not necessarily from within the fire
investigation area may also be considered. While some trace evidence is more
prevalent than others, there is no limit to the type of evidence that should be considered and
potentially recovered during the investigation. A person may have gained access
to a building by breaking the lock on a window and cut themselves in the process or they may
have climbed onto a roof to gain access through a skylight. In these instances, there could be
impressions from tools, DNA, blood, fingerprints and/or fibres near the areas of access. Useful
research has been undertaken12 – 16 relating to the analysis of traces of petrol on hands, clothing
and shoes, to the evidential value of singed hairs on hands and to the survivability of
fingerprint evidence in fire scenes.
Potential evidence should be discussed and agreed between partner agencies as part of the
scene processing strategy and methodology, particularly as the type of evidence may impact
the PPE required prior to evidence recovery. Evidence recovery should
be carried out in a manner which enables the investigator to illustrate and document
traceability such that the fire investigator is able to identify where items were recovered at the
scene.
9. Myths
Myths refer to the incorrect interpretation of post-fire damage (ie patterns/effects), which
have been taught in the past on fire investigation courses, or passed down to new
investigators via mentoring, but which do not have a reliable basis in science and
engineering and which have since been disproven. The majority of the effects
described were historically used to justify an opinion that a deliberate fire has been set, often
via the use of fire accelerants including ignitable liquids. Except for pool patterns on floor
coverings (in particular carpets), the use of the other post-fire indicators for ignitable liquids
mentioned below should not be adopted. It is now common practice
in the UK for fire debris samples to be collected by crime scene investigators or fire
investigators and tested for ignitable liquid residue by an accredited forensic laboratory.
The use of ignitable liquids to accelerate fires

Not all rapidly developing fires are the result of the use of ignitable liquids. For example, corner
configuration fires or lithium batteries can all result in rapid fire development.
Care must be taken when interpreting patterns on floors as they can arise because of several
circumstances during the fire progression or suppression which do not involve ignitable
liquids. For example, synthetic carpets such as polypropylene-based products, are known,
through testing, to produce pool style patterns on flooring. During the fire, synthetic carpet
fabric may burn, melt and shrink back outward to the edges of heat and flame impingement.
The carpet burn pattern after the fire may resemble an area where liquid has pooled and burnt.
It is up to the fire investigator to determine whether this burn pattern is from ordinary fire
progression or if an ignitable liquid was used to accelerate, or spread, the fire.
The presence of resolidified metals (copper, aluminium, steel, zinc) as an indicator of high
flame temperatures resulting from combustion of ignitable liquids has been
proven to be incorrect. This is because sufficient temperatures to melt metals may be encountered in
post-flashover fires with no ignitable liquids involved.
FIGURE 16
Patterns on a concrete floor following fire tests. The spalling on the left (outlined in red)
occurred when a timber pallet was burnt and then extinguished with water. The black marks on the
floor to the right followed the burning of petrol on the surface of the concrete.
Courtesy J Novak
Spalling of concrete
Spalling on the surface of concrete floors indicating the deliberate use of an ignitable liquid
to start a fire within a compartment/room is a myth that has been disproved through testing.
For example, fire testing established that the combustion of timber pallets on a concrete
floor reliably produced spalling (Figure 16), whereas burning of poured ignitable liquid on
the same concrete floor did not produce spalling.
Burning flammable liquid pools can produce well-defined patterns of discoloration on the
surface of a screed (concrete) floor (Figure 17). The discoloration in screed floors is permanent
and indelible, and is caused by a chemical change in the material exposed to a high
temperature.17 Such patterns of discoloration should also be interpreted with caution because
other burning materials can cause the same colour change during the progress of a fire,
although possibly with a less well-defined outer edge.
FIGURE 17
A reddish brown, permanent discoloration appearing in the surface of concrete through the
effects of localised heating as the original edge of a burning pool of petrol recedes towards
the centre.
Courtesy Dr C D Foster
Crazed glass
The crazing of glass (fine cracks within the glass structure) was suggested as indicative of the
use of ignitable liquid by increasing the temperature of a fire, leading to the crazing. Repeated
testing has revealed that rapid cooling of glass during firefighting activities often generates a
‘crazed’ effect on glass panes within windows.
Low points of deep charring and/or fire patterns in a room which has reached
flashover conditions
Caution needs to be applied when interpreting low levels of charring to materials such as timber
or other localised low-level fire patterns/damage as the suggestion that low-level damage is
‘always’ indicative of the area of origin of a fire has been disproved. Other fire dynamic factors
(eg the dropdown of burning materials, etc) have been demonstrated
to generate low level charring in a room which has burnt during fully developed fire
conditions. Other variables which can produce low level burn patterns include the nature of fuels
and ventilation, including, in part, the positioning of tables, chairs, sofas, vents and doorways that
may alter heat and flame progression of the fire within a compartment.
10. Reporting conclusions and limitations

The aim of the fire investigation is to determine where the fire started and what caused the
fire. The development of concepts of ‘expert knowledge’ and their use in decision- making in
respect to the generation of competing hypotheses and the evaluation of these within the
context of cases are highly relevant in fire investigation. This requires judgement based on
knowledge from systematic validated and accepted scientific and engineering studies as well
as knowledge derived from personal experience including training and professional experience
while remaining mindful of bias. Fire investigators regularly draw upon peer-reviewed
published material and textbooks to assist their evaluations of fire patterns and electrical
systems. There is a large base of published scientific data which documents the response of a
wide variety of materials to the effects of heat and fire which can be drawn upon when
required. Similarly, there is a large body of evidence from unpublished sources or ad hoc
experiments which can also be used so long as they are fully documented, available and their
limitations known.
Because the interpretation of evidence from fire scenes may be based on different experts’
knowledge and experience, there may be a legitimate and understandable difference in
opinion between experts. The understanding of these differences should be explored and
experts should be able to defend their opinion drawing upon the relevant supporting literature
or upon other sources of expert knowledge. In addition, the expert should disclose the nature,
provenance and extent of the knowledge used to inform their interpretations in a specific case.
Once the fire investigator has interpreted the scene, a report summarising pertinent details
will be composed. The report will normally include details of the remit for the investigation,
background information provided, description of sources of information, a description of the
scene examination, a discussion of the findings of the investigation and a conclusion including
the fire investigator’s opinion regarding the origin of the fire, the cause of the fire and its
subsequent development. The fire investigator must be clear about what information they
have used to come to their conclusions, as well as the limitations of their conclusions. It is
good practice for a report to be peer reviewed before it is signed off and issued, especially
where complex interpretations of physical evidence and fire behaviour are involved. This
peer review process allows for a trained
and competent person within the fire investigation discipline, not involved in the specific
scene investigation, to objectively review the findings and conclusions.
11.The future of fire investigation?

Historically some fire investigators relied upon their experience as firefighters and based opinions
on sometimes unscientific information passed by word of mouth from fire investigator to fire
investigator. Today, fire investigators often have additional scientific qualifications and access to
tools such as hydrocarbon dogs (trained to detect the chemicals present in ignitable liquids),
laboratory and on-scene imaging equipment and precise laser measuring equipment. They are
trained to make use of a rigorous scientific methodology and have access to a research base which
includes data from empirical testing and a significant body of peer-reviewed scientific and
engineering research and reference texts accepted by the professional communities.
ISO/IEC 17020 Accreditation for fire investigation

The UK Forensic Science Regulator has developed a Code of Practice which may require
fire investigation undertaken within the criminal justice system in England and Wales to be
accredited to ISO/IEC 17020 at some point in the future.18
Competency testing
Competency testing of a fire investigator’s knowledge and skill is a requirement of the Code
of Practice for Investigators of Fires and Explosions for the Justice Systems in the UK,1 and for
maintaining accreditation.11, 18 Competency testing and assessments can be undertaken at fire
investigation training provider facilities where fully-furnished compartments have been burnt
to varying degrees of damage, including flashover conditions. However, such tests can be
complex to set up in practice. On-the-job evaluation can also be a key part of a competency
framework.
Virtual reality (VR) systems are beginning to be used to create three-dimensional

representations of fire scenes for training and potentially for competency testing purposes,
where the trainee can move around a photographed scene using VR headsets. The use of VR
systems for competency testing needs to be validated within a quality framework and the use
of VR as a training tool needs to demonstrate that it aligns with the methodology used in actual
fire investigations.
Developments in methodology
The continued scientific and engineering research, testing and validation of the methodologies
(including computer fire modelling) and tools used in the fire investigation process, including
those used for competency testing, will continue to evolve. Critical to their use in fire
investigation will be the need for scientific validation to ensure quality and an understanding of
measurement uncertainty as well as assurances of their fitness for purpose within the field.
12. Appendix 1 – types of fire scene

commonly encountered
Every fire scene needs to be considered against its particular features and the
investigation approached with an open mind. However, the following is provided as a
non-exhaustive summary.
Building fires
The fuel within a building (eg wall, floor and ceiling linings in addition to the contents) and
the size of the compartments impact greatly on the fire scene. A building constructed with
concrete floors and block/brick walls which is divided into lots of small compartments (eg a
block of flats) is more likely to slow down the spread of fire throughout the building,
compared with a large open-plan warehouse or factory where there are minimal
compartment walls and/or floors to impede fire spread.
The types of fuel, storage arrangements and ventilation within a warehouse or factory may
allow significantly higher burning rates and combustion temperatures to be reached. This
can result in the destruction of evidence that may ordinarily survive a residential fire. The
duration of the fire prior to effective suppression by the Fire and Rescue Service may also
impact on the evidence remaining at the fire scene.
Assumptions based on the amount of remaining evidence should not be made during the
early stages of the fire scene examination. Electrical engineers and/or fire
investigators with specialised electrical training may be involved in the fire investigation of
commercial and industrial electrical systems.
Vehicle fires
Vehicle fire scenes vary considerably and encompass both road and rail vehicles. A thorough
knowledge of the propulsion and control systems is acknowledged as being essential. Vehicle
fire scenes present specific hazards and often have very high fuel loads: ignitable liquids,
combustion engine fuel, large volumes of plastic components and thermal insulation (eg
polyurethane foam, which can destroy evidence such as fire patterns).
Many vehicle fires in the UK are recorded as being deliberately started. Accidental ignition is
also possible and there are various ignition sources within vehicles to consider such as
electrical malfunction, mechanical defect and friction. Modern vehicle developments including
electric cars, vans and lorries introduce ignition sources,
such as lithium batteries, which are challenging and hazardous to investigate without additional
training and experience.
Marine fires
Fires involving ships often involve vessels which transport very large volumes of products.
Large storage volumes of certain materials such as coal, grain and other food products within
the holds of ships can lead to self-heating of the stored materials if the storage conditions are
not correctly controlled. The storage of large volumes of certain types of products in shipping
containers, such as oil seeds, carbon powder (ground charcoal) and some chemicals, can also
lead to self-heating and ignition. Multiple types of electrical systems and hazards exist on marine
vessels and fires involving machinery spaces, engine rooms, equipment and refrigerated
containers can all occur.
There has been a large increase in the number of container ship fires since approximately
2010. This appears to be related to the increase in this medium of transporting goods
internationally, to the use of incorrect packaging, or to undeclared dangerous goods etc.
Marine fire scenes generally involve numerous types of hazardous materials and may require
fire investigators who specialise in investigating these types of incidents.
Aircraft fires
The investigation of aircraft fires is complicated and generally requires specialist training and
experience. Fire scene investigators usually work alongside the Air Accidents Investigation
Branch in the UK, and parallel agencies in other jurisdictions depending
on the geographical location of the fire. Like marine fires, aircraft fires will involve a
multitude of combustible and flammable materials, including metals such as magnesium alloys
that continue to burn after a surrounding fire is extinguished and/or lightweight composite
polymers such as glass/carbon fibre resins. The location and complexity of the incident may
also challenge the fire investigation process.
Recycling or waste site fires

Over the last decade, there has been an increasing number of fires within recycling or waste
sites. There are several possible causes of fires that relate to storage and
processing of the waste. Self-heating, damaged lithium batteries and deliberate (wilful, culpable,
reckless) ignition are also common ways in which fires may start on these sites.
Outdoor and/or wildland fires

Historically, the investigation of wildland fires was not undertaken frequently in the UK, but
new techniques are improving the accuracy of such investigations. The increased use of
technology (satellite images, CCTV, smart phones, drones, social media, etc) is increasing the
amount of data available to fire investigators dealing with wildland fires including, for
example, the location of lightning strikes. Eyewitness observations about the early stages of a
wildland fire are often essential. These fires are often caused by the involvement of
barbecues, discarded cigarettes, out of control prescribed burning, vehicles, the focusing of
the sun’s rays through a convex shaped converging lens, ordnance in military training areas,
self-heating and deliberate fire setting. Electrical transmission and distribution systems are
often impacted as wildland fires develop but also need to be considered as a potential cause
of the fire. Identifying a point of origin from fire patterns is not always possible without
comprehensive additional information and specialist knowledge.
Fatal fires
Fatal fires throughout the UK, irrespective of the fire cause, will also be investigated by HM
Coroner or the Procurator Fiscal in Scotland, and the Police. A forensic scientist and a Fire and
Rescue Service fire investigator are also often involved with the scene
examination. Other specialisms may also be required depending upon the nature of the fire and
of the fatality.
The fire scene is additionally complicated by the presence of one or more deceased persons.
There may be specific physical evidence associated with the human body and with any
clothing as a result of the fire. It is essential that the body is thoroughly examined by a
relevant qualified person and documented at the fire scene prior to its removal from the
scene. The examination of the human remains may direct the rest of the investigation, for
example whether the fatality is suspected to be a homicide or the result of an accidental fire.
In general, and wherever possible, the body examination/documentation will occur before the
rest of the scene examination. The on-site examination of the human remains may be undertaken
by a pathologist in addition to a post-mortem once the body has been removed to the
mortuary. On-site examination by a pathologist varies depending upon the early information
received by the Police and upon other regional procedural variations such as the attendance of
a forensic anthropologist with appropriate experience of burnt remains.
All fatal fire scenes are treated as homicide investigations until there is evidence to prove
otherwise. Any trace evidence identified during the scene examination must be preserved as it
may have fundamental importance to an overall investigation.
Complex multi-agency fire scenes

Complex, large financial loss and fatal fire scenes often involve a multi-agency investigation. A
number of public sector organisations and some public and private organisations have established
a memorandum of understanding (MoU) which detail which protocols, areas of responsibility,
resources and levels of involvement are required at specific types of fire scenes. Exclusion of
some organisations in the joint examination of the scene does occur which can have a negative
impact on the overall investigation.
13. Appendix 2 – accidental fires

Cooking
The UK Fire Statistics* have, to date, reported every year that the most common way in which
accidental fires were started involved cooking appliances.3 Most fires occur on electric or
gas-powered hobs/cookers and those involving burning cooking oil often rapidly spread
throughout the compartment of origin and beyond. In particular, if water is used in an attempt
to suppress/extinguish the fire, it often spreads the fire rapidly and often injures (sometimes
with life-changing or fatal consequences) the person attempting to extinguish the fire (Figure
18).
Commercial kitchen fires often spread from the extraction canopy above cooking areas to
involve entire extraction ducting systems via cooking grease residue within the ducting.
Fires involving commercial extraction ducting systems which have been incorrectly installed
or poorly cleaned/maintained can severely damage or destroy a building as the ducting is
often routed through horizontal and vertical voids. In the UK, civil courts and insurers may
refer to the document titled TR19® Grease,19 published by the Building Engineering Services
Association (BESA), and the recently completed National Association of Air Duct Specialists
guide (NAAD2120), for guidance on the installation and routine cleaning of ducting systems.
FIGURE 18
Fire test of burning cooking oil within a frying pan and the effect of putting a small amount of
water onto the burning oil resulting in a very rapid fire spread within a compartment.
Courtesy J Novak
* Fire statistics used to be collected for the UK by UK central government but in recent years the Home Office has
collected data only for England. Each devolved administration publishes their own statistics. The Home Office still
provides the historic data for the UK.
Electrical (wiring, equipment and appliances)

Fires involving electrical wiring often misreport electricity as the cause of fire. There has
generally been a misconception that electricity, and in particular electrical appliances and
equipment, initiate a large number of fires annually. In the past, electricity was recorded
annually in UK fire statistics as the cause of 25% of fires within the UK. Sometimes these
initial reports of fire cause are provided by Fire and Rescue Service personnel with a minimum
of fire investigation knowledge, rather than by trained and experienced fire investigators.
Electricity can occur naturally (lightning) and is also produced electromechanically (electrical
power station or wind turbine), electrochemically (batteries), or via solar power (photovoltaic).
For more than a century, electricity has been generated and distributed safely in both forms of
alternating electrical current (AC) and direct electrical current (DC). Electrical power stations
generate AC, while batteries or photovoltaic panels generate DC electrical current. Regardless,
each electrical source is connected to an electrical circuit so that the generated electricity can
be distributed and can perform work in the form of light, motion and/or heat.
An ‘electrical fire’ is defined as a fire that was initiated or caused by permanently installed
electrical equipment, apparatus or wiring. All other fires related to electricity are generally
caused by electrical equipment, batteries (such as lithium batteries) or appliances. For example,
fires caused by the misuse of portable electrical appliances such as kettles would be reported as
either an ‘electrical appliance fire’ or a fire caused by an electric kettle.
The fire investigator and/or electrical expert should understand how heat can be generated
from the application or misapplication of electricity. Each should be considered by the fire
investigator and/or electrical expert. The combination of sufficient heat generated from an
electrical source, circuit, apparatus or appliance in conjunction with a readily ignitable fuel and
oxygen may lead to ignition and ultimately fire. Plastic components and enclosures forming part
of some types of electric equipment (eg electrical heaters) are often constructed from heat
resilient and/or ignition resistant materials and this should be taken into consideration when
determining a potential electrical source of ignition. However, the ignition resistant properties
within some plastic materials can be overcome during sustained electrical faulting or heating
conditions (eg resistance heating).
Causes of electrical fires include, in part (Figure 19 and Figure 20):

• resistive heating (eg at electrical connections)
• overloading of electrical circuits
• short circuit
• arcing (including in-line arcing)
• over-voltage
• carbon tracking (the flow of electricity across charred insulating material; eg printed circuit
boards, etc)
• medium and high voltage faults within the electrical supply network
• neutral/earth faults within the low voltage electricity supply networks.
FIGURE 19
FIGURE 20
A fire test simulating the effect of an An experiment where a conductive path has
ignition source, similar in output to a been formed on timber between two energised
resistive heating fault, at a connection screws (240V) separated by approximately
within a plastic consumer unit. The tests 100mm. The carbon path between the screws
showed development of a fire in a plastic inserted into the timber has ignited.
consumer unit (fuse box/distribution board)
constructed with a non-fire- retardant
plastic enclosure.
Courtesy N J Carey Courtesy N J Carey

Examples of electrical appliances that are known to have caused fires either though defects or
by misuse include, in part:
• tumble dryers
• washing machines
• fridges, freezers, fridge/freezers
• microwave ovens
• hairdryers
• heaters
• fans
• television sets
• lithium battery powered equipment.
It is the responsibility of the fire investigator and/or appointed electrical expert to locate,
identify and determine what role, if any, an electrical source(s) within the area of origin had in
igniting available fuel with sufficient oxygen present. This will assist in determining the point of
origin and ultimate cause of the fire.
Misuse of equipment
The misuse of equipment can result in a fire or explosion. Examples include, in part, using
conventional (ie non ATEX-rated) power tools in flammable atmospheres, placing
combustible materials onto an electric cooking hob, positioning combustible thermal
insulation or storage within a roof void onto unprotected halogen downlights, or not
following manufacturer’s instructions (eg neglecting to clean lint filters in tumble dryers, etc).
The misuse of heaters is also a common cause of fires. If radiant heaters (eg electric, halogen,
Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG)) are positioned near combustible materials, ignition is possible. The
majority of modern fan and convector heaters have safety devices (thermal cut-out devices
installed to cut the power if overheating occurs) installed to reduce the risk of a fire if the heater
is incorrectly positioned or if, for example, something falls onto the outlet grille. However, tests
have shown that defective or incorrectly positioned thermal cut-out devices can allow a heater
to be an ignition source.
FIGURE 21
A fire test consisting of cotton rags contaminated with linseed oil self-heating in a
cardboard box.
Courtesy J Novak
A careful review of the physical evidence at the fire scene alongside a review of guidance or
instructions from the equipment manufacturers would be part of the fire investigation. Product
standards for equipment often address foreseeable issues (such as circumstances that can lead to
an appliance overheating in use) by incorporating safety devices to reduce the risk of a fire.
Self-heating
Self-heating leading to spontaneous ignition can occur in a variety of ways for different reasons.
Common to all is a process or mechanism that leads to the generation of heat within bulk
material that cannot be readily lost to the surroundings, causing the temperature to rise within
the bulk to the point of spontaneous ignition. Smouldering
combustion is often established first, followed by transition to flame. A period from hours to
even days may elapse before signs of fire appear.
FIGURE 22
A fire test consisting of cotton tea towels which were contaminated with vegetable oil and
dried in a tumble dryer. The tumble dryer was stopped prior to the cooling cycle and the
door left open. Smoke is visible coming from the tea towels, which were self- heating (a).
Development of the fire (b). Spread of the fire to the control panel and to other combustible
components of the tumble dryer (c).
(a) (b) (c)
Courtesy N J Carey
Self-heating can occur because of biological activity (for example in hay bales, compost and
manure heaps), or due to the contamination of cellulosic material (cotton rags, sawdust etc)
with specific oils (such as linseed oil) which, given the correct circumstances, can over time
generate heat and spontaneously ignite (Figure 21).
Unsaturated (semi-drying) oils, including soya bean, maize (corn), grapeseed and sunflower,
can also self-heat and initiate combustion if they are stored at high ambient temperatures.
Oil contamination of textiles within tumble dryers (eg tea towels or chefs’ clothing
contaminated with cooking oil) can also initiate self-heating. The interruption of a drying load
of contaminated textiles or a tumble dryer that does not have a cooling cycle can initiate
spontaneous combustion of the materials (Figure 22). Chemical analysis can assist in
determining whether oil contamination of fire-damaged textiles recovered from a tumble
dryer drum has occurred. Other physical properties can also assist in identifying potential
self-heating and the resultant smouldering combustion prior to a transition to flaming
combustion.
Naked flames (candles/matches, barbeques, etc)

An increased use of candles, tea lights and so on led to a significant rise in the number of
fires in the 1990s listed as being caused either by the misuse of candles and tea lights or by
their poor design/manufacturing. One issue identified by the Fire and Rescue Service in the
late 1990s was the ‘double wick’ effect of leaving matches on top of tealights placed on the
plastic casings of television sets or plastic baths, for
example.21 Positioning candles, tealights or improvised oil lamps adjacent to combustible materials
(for example Christmas decorations or religious shrines) can also cause fires.
The inappropriate use or disposal of lit matches or other ignition sources (eg lighters) can
cause a fire in some circumstances. Dry and hot weather conditions often increase the instance
of such fires outdoors. The inappropriate disposal of ashes from solid fuel equipment such as
open fires, fire pits, chimineas or charcoal barbecues into refuse containers and the
subsequent ignition of refuse or refuse containers is also possible. This is because piles of
ashes which may appear cool on their external surface can maintain high temperature within
their mass because of the insulating effect of the ashes. The re-kindling of bonfires as a result
of either an increase or change in air movement (wind, etc) or the addition of unburnt fuel to
ashes can also lead to outdoor fires many hours later.
Smoking materials
Fires started by the accidental disposal of smoking materials have reduced in numbers in the
UK, primarily because of legislation banning smoking within workplaces and other public
assembly buildings/structures. The number of fires involving upholstered furniture started by
cigarette ends reduced as a result of the introduction in the UK of the Furniture and Furnishings
(Fire) (Safety) Regulations 1988.22 Furniture and furnishings sold in the UK must comply with
these regulations, but the methods of testing compliance with the regulations and the
regulations themselves are currently under review. The use of fire retardants in furniture is
also under review.
The accidental disposal of smoking materials in residential properties, on the other hand, is still a
common way that a fire may start, and in such scenarios the correct circumstances need to be
present. For example, tests have shown that cigarettes (which have a low heat output) disposed of
within refuse bins of wastepaper can, given the right circumstances, initiate smouldering
combustion which can transition into a flaming combustion.
Although compliant furniture is manufactured to be cigarette and match resistant, the

addition of throws, cushions and other materials made of cotton (or of other cellulosic
textiles) can enable a fire to take hold in compliant furniture. Other issues such as wear and/or
damage to upholstered fabric coverings can also enable a cigarette end to be a viable ignition
source on such furniture in specific circumstances.
The inappropriate use or disposal of smoking materials (eg cigarette ends, lit matches) outside
can also initiate fires in specific circumstances. For example, if a cigarette
end is dropped onto dry vegetation/leaf mulch and is insulated by the vegetation, a change in
wind speed/direction can enable a transition from smouldering to flaming combustion. The
Fire and Rescue Service and others have also undertaken tests (often case-related) involving
various types of cigarettes, including reduced ignition propensity (RIP) manufactured cigarettes,
imported and/or counterfeit cigarettes, hand-rolled or cannabis/tobacco cigarettes.
Solid fuel (open fireplaces, wood burners, etc)

Most open fires within buildings in the UK are connected to chimneys and involve solid fuels such
as coal, coke, charcoal, wood, etc. Wood burners and wood burning ovens have become popular
in recent decades, and they allow a more controlled combustion (compared to an open fireplace)
because of ventilation adjustments via controls on the burner appliance. Wood burners and solid
fuel cookers are generally connected to dedicated flues and the correct installation and routine
cleaning of both chimneys and/or flues is essential to reduce the risk of a chimney fire. Chimney
fires can lead to the ignition of structural timbers (floor joists, rafters, etc) in contact with, or in
close proximity to, flues, thatched roof coverings and similar items that are susceptible to ignition
by sparks.
Some causes of fires involving fireplaces and wood burners include falling or ejected
burning fuel leading to the ignition of combustible material, or incorrect installation of
hearths, chimneys or flues, or an increase in temperatures at the location of direction changes
within the flue. Specific guidance is issued by trade associations, flue manufacturers, and
manufacturers of heating and cooking appliances.
Process failure
Fires caused by process/manufacturing failures generally occur within commercial industrial
buildings. There are numerous types of failure, but they often involve the ignition of heated
products. Experience has shown that repairs, maintenance or changes to a process and/or
production lines often precede a fire event. Any such changes shortly before a fire should be
carefully considered. Information from witnesses with respect to changes in processes is often
informative to the investigator.
Chemical reactions
Chemical reactions can lead to either heat and/or flammable gases being produced. For
example, if sea water enters a cargo hold it can react with a limited number of specific cargos
(eg some metals). If any flammable gas produced during the reaction is confined (eg within a
ship’s hold) it can lead to an explosion and fire if the gas is within its flammable range and if
the gas/air mixture encounters a viable ignition source.
Raising the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere can significantly increase the
ignitability and burning rate of combustible materials and a variety of materials can
spontaneously or even explosively react with pure oxygen gas. For example, smouldering
cigarettes have been shown to rapidly transition to flaming combustion when exposed to a
source of pure oxygen (eg medical oxygen or an oxygen concentration machine).
Friction
A build-up of heat because of poorly maintained equipment can cause fires. For
example, numerous types of equipment (electric motors, etc) use various types of
mechanical bearings to enable reliable movement of shafts, and if these are not correctly
maintained and greased/lubricated, a build-up of heat can result. Another example of
frictional heat is that generated by spindles and bows used together to ignite campfires,
etc.
Hot works (welding, disk cutters, blowtorches, etc)

Equipment involved in hot works may include disk cutters/grinders (which often produce large
volumes of sparks and other incandescent material), welding equipment (used to connect
pieces/sections of metal), flame cutting equipment (used to cut pieces of metal), or
gas-powered/liquid fuel blow torches (used for decorating, plumbing or roofing works). The
use of large gas-powered blowtorches to heat the bitumen element of roofing felt or other
components/materials can ignite susceptible material (including the
bitumen itself) such as hidden bird nesting materials, insect nests, decomposed (rotten) timber or
refuse and can initiate further fire development, for example in adjacent and/ or concealed
compartments/voids. The separation distance between the hot works equipment and the
potential fuel which could be ignited is a major factor in evaluating the viability of, for
example, falling molten metal/slag from welding or cutting operations which can ignite
combustible material below (on occasions several floors below).
Guidance when undertaking hot works (such as the replacement of roofing felt) generally
recommends the implementation of ‘hot works permits’, removal of combustible material from
the work area, the use of flame retardant screens/mats, fire watchers, and routine inspections
prior to, during and following such works.
Natural phenomena
There are various causes of fire associated with nature. Lightning causes numerous fires
annually and it often results in specific evidence which can be found during the scene
examination. This may include strike damage and holes; damage to signal/data/
communications cables; damage to Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) cable sheaths where copper
coaxial braids and telephone conductors have punctured them; damage
to the earthing/grounding section of the electrical installation within a building; and
discoloration or melting at connections. In addition, if metallic gas pipes form part of the
return path of a lightning strike, holes or other damage to the pipes may lead to the ignition
of the gas fuel via pin holes formed by the lightning, specifically in areas where the pipes are
in contact with, or close to, other conductors or metallic objects.
Focused sunlight is also a potential source of ignition which can lead to a fire. The conditions
in which it can do so are (i) that the initial fuel package is within the focal length of the
focusing item (such as a make-up or shaving mirror, or some types of glass ornament or bottle),
and (ii) that the initial fuel package is capable of being ignited by focused sunlight (eg
curtains).
As part of a fire investigation the sun’s position in the sky for a given date/time/location can be
determined, which may assist the investigator in assessing whether focused sunlight could have
been a factor associated with the cause of the fire. Experiments can also be undertaken if the
potential focusing item is identified, recovered and reconstructed.
Glossary
ATEX refers to potentially explosive atmospheres which are regulated by the Dangerous
Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002 (SI 2002, No 2776), with equipment
for use in such atmospheres legislated for by the Equipment and Protective Systems Intended for
Use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2016 (SI 2016, No 1107).
Buoyancy: the tendency for lighter materials (eg hot fire gases), to rise. Buoyancy is
influenced by gravity.
Firepoint: not always recorded in reference tables but can be considered as the lowest
temperature at which a gaseous fuel will support a sustained flame (not just a flash) and that is
often about 10 degrees (Celsius or Kelvin) above its flashpoint.
Flashpoint: the lowest temperature at which the flammable gases of a volatile liquid ignite
in the presence of an ignition source.
Multiple seats of fire: areas of burning separated by unburnt areas in the same incident.
Smouldering combustion: a self-sustaining process that occurs relatively slowly between (or
within) a porous solid fuel and available oxygen that generates heat without producing a flame.
Spalling: the breaking into smaller pieces of concrete, brick or stone surfaces as a result of
exposure to high temperatures.
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13. Coulson S, Morgan-Smith R, Mitchell S, McBriar T (2008) An investigation into the
presence of petrol on the clothing and shoes of members of the public. Forensic
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Justice 50(3), 138–140.
15. Gardner S, Cordingley T, Francis S (2016) An Investigation into Effective Methodologies

for Latent Fingerprint Enhancement on Items Recovered from Fire. Science and Justice
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Fingerprints Recovered from Arson Simulation. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences
3(4), 99–103.
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Concrete or Mortar Exposed to High Temperatures. National Building Studies,
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Various Types of Bodies Performing Inspection.
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Acknowledgements
The members of the groups involved in producing this primer are listed below. The
members acted in an individual and not organisational capacity and declared any conflicts
of interest. They contributed on the basis of their own expertise and good judgement. The
Royal Society and the Royal Society of Edinburgh gratefully acknowledge their
contribution.
Primer leads
Primer steering group
Professor Niamh Nic Daéid FRSE
Dame Anne Rafferty DBE Lord
Dr Nick Carey (Chair)
Hughes of Ombersley
Professor Dame Sue Black DBE FRSE Sir
Writing group
Charles Godfray CBE FRS
Dr Mark Svare Ms
Lord Justice Peter Jackson
Ciara Holland
Dame Julie Maxton DBE
Ms Karen Robertson
Dame Angela McLean DBE FRS Professor
Niamh Nic Daéid FRSE Professor Sarah
Editorial group
Mr Justice Peter Fraser (Chair) Skerratt
The Honourable Mr Justice Lord Beckett

David McFarland Mr Justice Wall
Prof Dougal Drysdale FRSE Lord Weir
Mr Martin Shipp Mrs Justice Yip
Dr David Crowder Dr
John DeHaan
The Royal Society is a self-governing Fellowship of
The Royal Society of Edinburgh (RSE), Scotland’s
many of the world’s most distinguished scientists drawn
National Academy, is a leading educational charity which
from all areas of science, engineering and medicine.
operates on an independent and non-party- political
The Society’s fundamental purpose, as it
basis to provide public benefit throughout Scotland.
has been since its foundation in 1660, is to recognise,
Established by Royal Charter in 1783 by key proponents
promote and support excellence in science and to
of the Scottish Enlightenment, the RSE now has around
encourage the development and use of science for the
1600 Fellows from a wide range of disciplines. The
benefit of humanity.
work of the RSE includes awarding research funding,
The Society’s strategic priorities are: leading on major inquiries, informing public policy and
• The Fellowship, Foreign Membership and beyond delivering events across Scotland to inspire knowledge
and learning.
• Influencing
• Research system and culture
• Science and society
• Corporate and governance
For further information
For further information The Royal Society of Edinburgh 22
The Royal Society – 26 George Street Edinburgh
6 – 9 Carlton House Terrace London EH2 2PQ
SW1Y 5AG T +44 131 240 5000
T +44 20 7451 2571 E [email protected]
E [email protected] W rse.org.uk
W royalsociety.org/science-and-law Registered
Scottish Charity No SC000470
Charity No 207043
9 781782526407
ISBN: 978-1-78252-640-7
Issued: March 2023 DES8082

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FIRE INVESTIGATION: A PRIMER FOR COURTS 3

2 How does a fire develop? 11

3 Fire investigation – the ‘scientific methodology’ 19

4 Who undertakes fire investigation in the UK? 21

5 With what questions can fire investigators assist the court? 23

6 How do fire investigators determine origin, cause and fire development? 28

7 Methodologies and tools used in fire investigation and their limitations 38

8 Other potential forensic evidence at fire scenes 44

10Reporting conclusions and limitations 48

11The future of fire investigation? 49

12Appendix 1 – types of fire scenes commonly encountered 50

13Appendix 2 – accidental fires 54

1.Background to fire and combustion

Fire tetrahedron. A lit match igniting paper.

Courtesy M J Svare Courtesy R Mallows

2. How does a fire develop?

Development and behaviour of fires in compartments

Growth period Steady state period Decay period

Identifying and defining the question

Collecting and analysing data

A representation of the scientific methodology.

Identifying and defining the

Developing different hypotheses

Selecting the final hypotheses based

Testing the hypotheses

4. Who undertakes fire

Training and qualification of fire investigators

5. With what questions can fire

– Assessing the performance of the structure against known or expected parameters.

Area of origin of the fire

• social media postings;

Where relevant, an electrical survey of fire-damaged wiring and/or a circuit protection

How did the fire start?

Suspicious, deliberate/intentional fires

6. How do fire investigators determine

What are the stages in a fire scene investigation process?

The stages of a fire investigation normally involve:

4. The location, preservation, recovery, packaging, labelling, retrieval and

Gathering background data

* This may be affected by safety issues.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Protection mark on the carpet indicating the

(a) (b) (c)

7. Methodologies and tools used in fire

Non-destructive/destructive examination and testing methods

Laboratory equipment commonly used in analysis includes:

Fire scene reconstruction

Experimental reconstruction of fires

Reconstructions may provide information as to the performance of a material or product, but

Engineering calculations/computer fire modelling

In contrast, computer fire modelling uses complex mathematics in an to attempt to directly

8. Other potential forensic

The use of ignitable liquids to accelerate fires

10. Reporting conclusions and limitations

11.The future of fire investigation?

ISO/IEC 17020 Accreditation for fire investigation

Virtual reality (VR) systems are beginning to be used to create three-dimensional

12. Appendix 1 – types of fire scene

Recycling or waste site fires