Introduction

Research is basic and it is paramount important in any development at all times.

Because of this, public and private organizations are too concerned in assessing how they
perform in research. The desire and concern of these organizations could be viewed in their
organizational structure. Most progressive and leading organizations have distinct, functional
and adequately funded R & D (Research and Development) center or department.
( Bermudo, Pedrito Jose V. Ph.D. et.al.)
Research as a course, is a fundamental requirement for a master’s degree or
doctorate degree. Undergraduate students view research as a difficult undertaking. This
could be seen on their reluctance to proceed to do their research work. They usually seek
assistance from their research advisers and consultants from the conceptualization process
to the actual report writing. What then should be the approach to encourage student’s
capacity to undertake research? ( Bermudo, Pedrito Jose V. Ph.D. et.al.)
Understandably, students will have initial difficulty in research conceptualization and
in every stage of research process due to lack of “stock of Knowledge” on the choice of
research topic, inadequacy of research literature and studies, among others. These,
however, should not be blamed on the educational system and teacher-student learning
process. Students, as researchers, need to search or re-search related information
concerning the topic and comprehend the rigors of research process. ( Bermudo, Pedrito
Jose V. Ph.D. et.al.)
The research process is a step-by-step process of developing a research paper
(http://www.uaf.edu). As you progress from one step to the next, it is always necessary to
back up, revise, add additional material or even change the entire topic. This will depend on
what you have read and discovered during your research. The research process itself
involves identifying, locating, assessing, analyzing, and then developing and expressing your
ideas. (.”(Francisco, Paul Micah S. et.al.2016)
The research process is just like how we do things. We look into all aspects of what
we are doing especially when we are into it. The search for ideas and information may lead
us to several steps like reading articles, listening to radio or watching TV, interview friends or
even explore the Internet. .”(Francisco, Paul Micah S. et.al.2016)
Research can be a way of life; it is the basis for many of the important decisions in
our lives (http://www/umue.edu). Without it, we are deluged with information, subjected to
the claims of advertisers, or influenced by hearsay in making sense of the world around
us. .”(Francisco, Paul Micah S. et.al.2016)
This module is prepared to help undergraduate students organized, follow guides
and procedural approaches to research undertaking. This will provide students with the basic
tools of research, as a scientific undertaking.

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Lesson 1. Meaning and Importance of Research
I. Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. be familiar with the meaning of research;
2. recognize the importance of research; and
3. identify the purposes of research.

II. Overview:

The progress and development of mankind has always been the product of
man’s innumerable researches. Man continuously searches for phenomena that
will help answer the whys and wherefores of things. His curiosity about himself
and his environment enables him to think, invent, search and arrive at adequate
answers satisfactorily; he develops various instruments and techniques. And the
best tool to help him is research. According to Badke (2004), “Everyone does
research. Some just do it better.”

III. Content

Nature of Research
Research is one’s own work in solving a problem or answering a question. For many
of us, research is just the way we do things. We research on the book reviews before
buying, perform some kind of research in buying cars or appliances, search for information,
read articles in magazines and journals, check encyclopedias and even explore the Internet
and go to libraries.
Many things we observe, analyze, ask, give, hypothesis, and then solve and
evaluate. But very seldom we do things systematically or scientifically. Very seldom that we
observe under controlled or uncontrolled conditions. Very seldom we use materials and
instruments that are accurate and reliable as they should be. And very seldom we use
different ways of doing research.
Research can be basic or applied. Basic research seeks to contribute to knowledge
through the development of a theory or concept, while applied research seeks to provide
solutions to problems through the development and evaluation of processes, policies and
other activities that require courses of action.
Research is a key to process. It is believed that there can be no progress without
research. Almost everything including technologies enjoyed today is a product of research.
In government, in education, in trade and commerce, and in all types and kinds of industries,
research is vital and essential to development.
The importance of research, therefore, cannot be taken by granted. Research is
viewed as the power that leads to discover answers to problems. And as one tries to find
solutions to problems, in the process, problems again arise, thus, making research a
continuous process.

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The Meaning of Research
The word research is derived from the prefix re which means repeat or redo, and the
root word search, which means to find or look for. From the etymology of this word, research
literally means to repeatedly look for something which had been in existence before.

The following are some of the definitions of research as presented by various

authors:

 is a systematic quest for undiscovered truth (Leedy, 1974)

 it is a search for an answer to unanswered questions;
 it is a systematic attempt to provide answers to questions (Tuckman, 1972); and
 to search again, to take another more careful look, to find out more (Selltiz) 1976)

In other words, when there are unanswered questions in mind, and one would like to
search for possible solutions, conducting research is a good alternative. However, it is
emphasized that research is systematic, and being systematic, it falls within the purview of
science.

Other Definitions of Research

 It is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical

propositions about the presumed relations among phenomena.
 It is a careful, critical, disciplined inquiry varying in techniques and methods
according to the nature and conditions of the problems identified, directed towards
the clarification or resolution of a problem (Good).
 Research is simply the systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic
or problem (Aquino, 1986).
 Research is the process of gathering data or information to solve a particular or
specific problem in a scientific manner (Manuel and Medel).
 Research is a systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of
answering questions posed by the researcher (Parel).
 Research is an attempt to gain solutions to problems (Treece and Treece).
 Research is a systematic, organized search for knowledge or answers to questions
(Mason and Bramble, 1989).
 It is a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing information or data for
some purpose ( McMillan).
 It is a process of obtaining techniques, where truth, accuracy, validity, reliability and
other criteria can be ascertained (Genato, et.al., 1993).
 Searching for a theory, testing a theory or solving problems.(Sevilla)
 Systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about presumed relations among natural phenomena.
 The manipulation of things, concepts, or symbols for the purpose of generalizing; to
extend, correct, or verify knowledge whether that knowledge aids in the construction
of a theory or in the practice of an art.(Encyclopedia of the S0cial Sciences)

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  Newly discovered facts or the practical application of such new or revised
conclusions, theories, or laws. (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary)
 Contributes to the development of theory. It clarifies concepts; it initiates; it
reformulates; and refocuses theory. ( Merton)
 Is a careful and systematic means of solving problems. (Thomas and Nelson
(1996))
 A systematic, defensible pursuit of results which will solve a problem. Research is
good if it consummated on ordered, reasonable, communicable search. ( Good)
 The systematic search for pertinent information of a specific topic or problem. After a
careful, systematized research for pertinent information or data on a specific topic or
problem and after the research worker has analyzed and interpreted the data, he
eventually faces another essential task –that of preparing the research reports.
(Aquino)
 A process of scientific thinking that leads to the discovery or establishment of new
knowledge or truth. ( Isidro and Malolos)
 A systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of answering
questions posed by the researcher.(Parel)
 A scientific approach in terms of accepted mind process involving all essential steps
in problem solving through critical examination of hypothesis to find tentative
corroboration and succeeding search for certainty as a basis of action. ( Whitney)
 A work of love – love for achievement and discovery, love for creativity, love for
innovation or originality, love for one’s chosen field of specialization, and above all
love for humanity. (J. Soriano)
 A systematic and refined technique of thinking and employing specialized
instruments and procedures to solve a problem. (Claudio and de Leon)
 A methodical, basically a habit of thought that can be developed. (Maranon)
 Way of mankind perfected it very slowly over a period of several centuries and at
present it is considered as the most reliable means of advancing knowledge.
(Hillway)
 The systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that
may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in
the prediction and possibly the ultimate control of events. (Best)
 Is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools,
instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution to a
problem than would be possible. (Zulueta)
 The scientific method of exploring issues from different areas of knowledge and of
findings solutions to those issues by the application of your intelligence, experiences
and observations. (Barredo and Ramirez)

From the foregoing definitions, it is evident that research is a process. As a process,

it is systematic, organized, objective, critical, exhaustive, and comprehensive. It is done for
the purpose of solving a problem or adding to the body of knowledge

Importance of Research

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 Research is a journey towards the search for infinite knowledge both in modern and
social sciences which are always unfinished processes.
 Research allows us to identify problems in treatment and find solutions.
 In the field of business, research has been undertaken to serve as a voice on key
national issues by providing research-based information to the commercial and
industrial sectors as well as services such as product, consumer, advertising and
image studies, public opinion polls, labor and employment data, viewership and
listenership of mass communication, and information for local and foreign investor.
 Improve various processes, whether educational, economical, social, political and
cultural through the refinement and extension of knowledge.

Purposes of Research

Improvement and improvement of the quality of human life.

To serve man. The goal of research is the good life.
Discover new facts of known phenomena.
Find solution to problems that are only partially solved.
Improve or develop new products.
Discover unrecognized substances or elements.
Validate generalizations into systematic order.
Provide basis for decision making in any undertaking.
Satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.
Expand and verify existing knowledge.
Improve educational practices by raising the quality of school
products.
Promote health and prolong life.
Enhance man’s basic life.
To determine as unambiguously as possible either to accept or
reject the null hypothesis.
To determine whether the assumption of such specific problem
is assumed to be true or false.

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Lesson 2. Characteristics of Good Research
I. Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1.) recognize the characteristics of a good research; and
2.) spot researches which possess the characteristics of good
research.
II. Content

Characteristics of a Good Research

1. Research is Empirical.
 All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived
in the same manner by all observers which derived from sense
experience.
 Generalizations are drawn by the researcher upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from the real life experiences
and observations
2. Research is Systematic.
 It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to the
discovery of truth, solutions of a problem, or whatever is aimed to
 It is as there are interrelated steps or procedures
a researcher has to observe in solving a problem. In other words, it
follows an and sequential procedure that leads to the
discovery of truth, solution of a problem or whatever is aimed to be

 Paradigm of a research;
Identify the Review Analyze Draw
Problem Information Data
Data

3. Research is Controlled
 All except those that are tested or being
experimented upon are kept constant so that changes made on
the subject of the study can be attributed only to the
variables. This is true in experimental research.
4. Research is Analytical.
 There is a analysis of all data used so there is no error
in the interpretation.

5. Research is Comprehensive.

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  If a researcher is serious about a phenomenon,
he has to examine and analyse all its aspects or angles before
making a generalization or conclusion.

6. Research is Critical.
 This means that employed by the researcher must
withstand critical scrutiny by other researchers. Data should be
analyzed critically so that there is in the
interpretation.
7. Research is Valid.
 Whenever a researcher conclusions, these are
based on actual findings.
8. Research is Verifiable.
 Other researchers can check on the of its results
by replicating the study based on the methods and procedures
employed by the .
9. Research is objective, unbiased and logical.

 A good research must be based on procedures and

principles. The scientific must be done in an orderly
manner in order to attain commendable, valid, and excellent
results.
 Applying every possible test to validate the procedures employed,
the researcher strives to eliminate and biases.
There is no attempt to persuade or to prove an emotionally-held
conviction. The emphasis is on rather than on proving the
hypothesis.
 It is not based on . This is because empirical data
have to be gathered by the researcher before making any
conclusion or proposing any solution to an identified difficulty or
problem. In other words, all findings and conclusions are logically
based on and no effort is made to alter the result
of the research.

10. Research employs hypothesis.

 This is to guide the investigator process.

 It introduces your thinking at the start of your study.
 Structures the next stages of the investigation.
 Helps provide the format for the presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of the data of the study.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

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 It should be reasonable. This means that it
should have come from some basis for it to be
reasonable.
It should state the relationship between
variables.
It should be testable.
It should be based on previous findings.

Types of Hypothesis
 Null hypothesis – this means that it is
predicted that there will be no difference,
relationship, effect nor interaction. No existence.
 Alternative –This indicates that it is
predicted that there will be difference,
relationship, effect, or interaction between the
variables.

11. Research employs quantitative or statistical method.

 Data are into numerical measures are treated to

determine their significance or usefulness.

12. Research is Original Work.

 Data from research should be from or first-hand

sources and not from secondary sources.

13. Research is done by an expert.

 The researcher uses valid and carefully procedures, valid

gathering instruments and valid data.

14. Research is an accurate investigation, and description.

 The researcher uses qualitative, measuring devices –

the most precise means of description. He selects or devices valid
data gathering instruments, and employs mechanical,
electronic, or psychometric devices to improve on the accuracy of
human observation, recording, computation, and analysis of data.

15. Research is patient and unhurried activity.

 To ensure research should not be hurriedly done.

To avoid shaky conclusions and research should be
conducted carefully.

16. Research requires an effort.

 Making capacity, involves much work and time.

17. Research requires courage.

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  Research requires courage because the researcher often
times undergoes hazards, and the like.
.

Other Characteristics
1. Research employs or statistical methods. Data are transferred
into numerical measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance
and usefulness.
2. Research is an original work. Except for research, data are gathered
from primary sources or first-hand sources and not from secondary sources.
3. Research is an accurate investigation. Every research must be done accurately
so that the findings will lead to the of a scientific generalization.
4. Research is a patient and unhurried activity to ensure accuracy. Research that
is hurriedly done or conducted due to racing against time may lead to
shaky conclusions and generalizations.
5. Research requires an effort-making capacity. No research can be conducted
without the exertion of much effort. It involves much and time.
6. Research requires courage. The researcher oftentimes undergoes
discomforts, and the like. At times, the researcher encounter public and social
disapproval. Also, with colleagues may arise.
 Encounters public and social disapproval

Qualification of a Good Researcher

1. He must know the and methods of research.
2. He must know the parts or of a research paper and be able to apply
them in practice.

He must know the statistical measures that are applicable in the analysis of data.
He must be patient, persistent and in conducting research.
He must have deep in searching for the truth no matter how bitter it is.
He must have a good command of the language.
He must have analytical and critical mind.
He must be alert and can be relied on about past and events.
He must be creative and innovative.
He must be a wide reader of various sources of information.
Has organizational skills.

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Or………………… R - research oriented
E - efficient
S - scientific
E - effective
A - active
R - resourceful
C - critical
H - honest
E - economical
R - religious

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Lesson 3. Types and Classifications of Research and the Research Process
I. Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1.) identify the different types of research; and
2.) distinguish the different phases of the research process.

II. Content
TYPES AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESEARCH
There are different ways of classifying research. On the basis of who undertakes
research, research can either be academic research or a research project. Academic
research is one conducted by an individual in fulfilling the requirements for the conferment of
an academic title or degree. Baby theses, master’s theses, feasibility studies, and doctoral
dissertation fall under this type of research undertaken by an individual or group of
individuals as part of their professional work or assignment.
Based on the final use or application of research results, research can either be
pure/theoretical or applied/practical. Pure or theoretical research is one done for the purpose
of formulating a theory, principle, or law with no intended application of results. Research in
this case is undertaken for the purpose of gaining knowledge for knowledge’s sake.
Conversely, applied or practical research is an inquiry to test or evaluate a theory or
knowledge arrived at, in the solution of a problem for useful ends.

When methodology or research design is used as basis for categorizing

research, research can take any of the following types (Catane, 2000):
1. Descriptive Research. This type of research endeavours to describe
systematically, factually, accurately, and objectively a situation, problem or
phenomenon. It seeks to describe “what is”.
2. Correlational/Associational Research. In this type of research, the
investigator tries to probe the significance of relationship between two or
more factors or characteristics.
3. Explanatory Research. In this type of inquiry, the researcher seek to clarify
how and why a relationship exists between two or more aspects of a situation
or phenomenon. Questions like why job stress contributes to burnout or why
low morale can lead to low productivity among the employees are problems
which can be investigated systematically through the explanatory research
design.

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4. Exploratory Research. Think kind of study is undertaken when the
investigator is after probing or exploring areas where little is known about the
research problem. Feasibility and pilot studies fall under this type of research.
5. Experimental Research. In this type of research, the researcher probes into
the cause of an effect by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or

more treatments or conditions. For example, when a mathematics professor

is after determining the effectiveness of a learning module in raising the
performance of his students, he is actually engaging en experimental
research.
6. Ex-Post Facto/Causal-Comparative Research. In this type of research,
when the investigator delves on analysing the possible effect of a factor which
cannot be manipulated and controlled. Example, a biology student who is
interested in determining the incidence of lung cancer among heavy smoker
is a situation this type of research is appropriate.
7. Historical Research. The researcher attempts to reconstruct the past
objectively and accurately or to explain an incident that happened in the past
with the use of data taken from the past.
8. Ethnographic Research. This type of research is done when the researcher
is concerned with explaining or describing a phenomenon holistically with the
use of multiple data collection techniques.

Kinds of research

a. Pure research. This is also called “basic research” or “fundamental

research”. It aims to discover the basic truths or principles. This is
intended to add to the body of scientific knowledge. It is concerned with
knowledge for the sake of theory. Its designs are not controlled by the
practical usefulness of the findings.

Basic research is designed to advance knowledge with no

application to existing problems in view. The audience for basic
research consists almost exclusively of scholars or researchers
interested in learning about phenomena. There is no basic research
done in library science and only a small amount in information
science.

b. Applied research. This is the application of scientific knowledge to the

solution of a problem. There is a development of a new system or
procedure, new device, or new method in order to solve the problem. In
this type of research, the problem is identified and a new system or
method is applied in order to solve the problem. It is concerned with
showing how the findings can be applied to or summarized in some type
of teaching methodology.
Applied research is designed to help solve a particular,
existing problem so there is much larger audience eager to support

12
 research that is likely to be profitable or solve problems of immediate
concern. Much medical research on diseases with considerable
impact is a good example.
Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of
the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge
sake. It’s goal is to improve the human condition.

Action research. This is a decision-oriented research where it involves

the application of the steps of scientific method in response to an
immediate need for improvement of the existing practices. It is inquiry or
research in the context of focused efforts to improve the quality of an
organization and its importance. It is typically designed and conducted by
practitioners who analyze the data to improve their own practice. Action
research can be done by individuals or by teams of colleagues. The team
approach is called collaborative inquiry.

The purpose of action research is to develop new approaches

to solve questions or problems that are directly related to everyday
life. It is aimed towards applications of the research results through
a constant exchange between the researcher and the people or
events being researched. Action differs from most research
approaches in that changes often occur in the original research
methodology when these changes are documented as a part of
the results.

Classification of Research

a. Library research. Research is conducted in the library is such a way that

answers to the specific questions/ problems of the research study are
available in the library. Historical research is an example of library
research because the study is focused in the past where the primary and
secondary sources are available in the library.
b. Field research. Research is conducted in a natural setting. There are no
changes in the environment. Field research is both applicable to
descriptive and experimental methods.
c. Laboratory research. Research is conducted in artificial or controlled
conditions by isolating the study in a rigorously specified and
operationalized area. The purpose of this research are a) to test the
hypothesis derived from a theory, b) to control variance under research
conditions, and c) to discover the relations between the dependent and
independent variables.

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Types of Research
a. Historical research involves studying, understanding and explaining
past events. It is envisioned to assess the meaning and the message
of past happenings or occurrences that may help to explain present
events and anticipate future ones. In order that historical research will
not degenerate into a “treasure hunt”, data gathering should be guided
by a hypothesis.(Good in Fonollera,1993:8)

It is a process of selecting the area or topic to write the history

about, collecting data about events that occurred in the area or about
the topic, sifting the authentic from non-authentic, and making an
interpretative narrative about or critical inquiry into the whole truth of
the events. (Calderon and Gonzales, 1993:41)

Historical research must be interpretative, that is, it describes

the present situations in terms of past events.
Historical investigations help broaden our experiences and make
us more understanding and appreciative of our human nature and
uniqueness. By knowing our past, we will know the present conditions
better. Although we may not be able to predict accurately using the
facts in history, it can familiarize us with what attempts were done
before.
The purpose of historical research is to construct past events. This
can be accomplished by collecting and interpreting data in an
objective or unbiased way. Data can be from primary sources. If
secondary are used for the purpose of data collection, these sources
must be evaluated for accuracy and bias.
Historical research is a procedure supplementary to observation in
which the researcher seeks to test the authenticity of the reports or
observation made by others. (http://www.okstate.org.)

Purpose of Historical Research

 Place events in logical manner.
 Determine activities surrounding an event.
 Preserve information that would otherwise be
lost.
 Make public information that has not been
shared.
 Have implications for the present and the future.

Calderon and Gonzales (1993:41) cited four major activities in

historical research
 Choosing and defining the problem
 Collecting the data
 Critically analyzing the data
 Writing the research report

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 Historical research may be utilized when it is desired to write a history of any of the
following:
1. Any geographical area or place like a historical site, barangay, town,
province, region, country, or the world for the matter.
2. Any institution, say, a school, a club or association, courtship and
marriage or any other custom, the army, Christmas, government,
communism, Christianity, and others.

3. Any important historical event like the Battle of Bataan, the Leyte
Landing, the Liberation of Manila, all of which occurred during the
occupation of the Philippines by the Japanese during WWII, and the
like.

b. Descriptive research describes what is. It involves the description,

recording analysis, and interpretation of the present nature,
composition or processes of phenomena. The focus is on prevailing
conditions, or how a person, group or thing behaves or functions in the
present. It often involves some type of comparison or contrast.
Descriptive research is fact-finding with adequate
interpretation. The descriptive method is something more and beyond
just data gathering; the latter is not reflective thinking nor research.
The true meaning of the data collected should be reported from the
point of view of the objectives and the basic assumption of the project
under way. (Aquino, 1971:6-8)
Descriptive research describes and interprets what is. It is
concerned with conditions and relationships that exist; practices that
prevail; beliefs, processes that are going on; effects that are being felt,
or trends that are developing.
The process of descriptive research goes beyond mere
gathering and tabulation of data. It involves the elements or
interpretation of the meaning or significance of what is described.
Thus description is often combined with comparison and contrast
involving measurement, classification, interpretation and evaluation.
(Calderon and Gonzales, 1993:61)
In other words, descriptive research is a purposive process of
gathering, analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data about prevailing
conditions, practices, beliefs, processes, trends, and cause-effect
relationships and then making adequate and accurate interpretation
about such data with or without the aid of statistical methods.
This type of research is also a grouping that includes many
particular research methodologies and procedures, such as
observations, surveys, self-reports, and tests. Unlike qualitative
research, descriptive research may be more analytic. It often focuses
on a particular variable or factor. This type of research may also

15
 operate on the basis of hypotheses (often generated through previous,
qualitative research).
Just like qualitative research, descriptive research aims to
gather data without any manipulation of the research context. It is non-
intrusive and deals with naturally occurring phenomena.
Descriptive research provides data about the population of
universe being studied. But it can only describe the “who, what,
when, where and how” of a situation. Not what caused it. Therefore,
descriptive research is used when the objective is to provide a
systematic description that is factual and accurate as possible. It
provides number of times something occurs, or frequency, lends itself
to statistical calculations such as determining the average number of
occurrences or central tendencies. (http://www.ryerson.ca).
The purpose of descriptive research is to describe accurately
situations or events, such as the characteristics of a population, a
social condition, or a particular topic. In the process of descriptive
research, data are collected and summarized, but relationships
between sets of data and predictions are not usually defined.
Descriptive research is one of the more basic types of research,
requiring fewer research skills.
One of its major limitations is that it cannot help determine
what causes a specific behavior, motivation or occurrence. In other
words, it cannot establish a casual research relationship between
variables. The two most common types of descriptive research
designs are observation and surveys.

c. Experimental research is a method or procedure involving the

control or manipulations of conditions for the purpose of studying the
relative effects of various treatments applied to members of a sample,
or of the same treatment applied to members of different samples.
(Good in Calderon and Gonzales, 1993:83)
Experimental research looks at cause-and-effect relationships
by comparing two or more similar groups, usually chosen by random
selection. This is accomplished by including an experimental group
undergoing a new treatment. In this way, the two groups are
compared and the effectiveness of the new approach can be
evaluated.
The basic purpose of experimental research is to discover the
influence of one or more factors upon a condition, group or situation,
purpose of which is to discover “what will be”. It describes and
analyzes variables in carefully controlled conditions as a basis for
inferring or concluding. An experimental research, therefore, consists
of manipulating an experimental variable under highly controlled
conditions to determine how and why a particular event occurs.
Experimental research is highly controlled procedure in which
manipulated treatments or actions from a factor or conditions, called
the experimental or independent variable, are applied upon another

16
factor or condition, called the dependent variable, to determine the
effect of the former upon the latter, all other factors or variables being
kept constant or equal so that any change in the dependent variable is
attributable only to the experimental or independent variable.
( Calderon and Gonzales, 1993:83)
For Fraenkel and Wallen (1993), experimental research is the
most conclusive of scientific method. Because the researcher actually
establishes different treatments and then studies their effects, results
of this type of research lead to the most cler-cut interpretations.

Types of Experimental Research

1. Laboratory experiment is a research study in which the
variance of all or nearly all of the possible influential
independent variables not pertinent to the immediate
problem of the investigation is kept at a minimum. This is
done by isolating the research in a physical condition
apart from the routine of everyday living and by
manipulating one or more independent variables under
rigorously specified, operationalized and controlled
conditions.
The laboratory experiment isolates the
experiment from the lives around the laboratory
by eliminating the many extraneous influences
that may affect the independent and dependent
variables.
2. The field experiment is a research study in a realistic
situation in which one or more independent variables are
manipulated by the experimenter under carefully
controlled conditions as the situation will permit. Field
experiments operate with less control.
Field experiments are recommended to social
psychologists, educators, and sociologists
because they are admirably suited to many
social and educational problems. Because the
independent variables are manipulated and
randomized is used, the criterion of control can
be satisfied – at least, theoretically. The
experimenter is almost always faced with the
problem that his independent variables are
contaminated because of the natural, often
loose situation.
A virtue of the field experiment is its
appropriateness for studying complex, social,
and psychological influences and processes.
3. Business research. It is a systematic process of
answering a question or a problem, including the
methodical formulation of a theoretical framework and
methodology; collection, analysis, and interpretation of

17
 pertinent data; and presentation of recommendation
from which courses of action can be taken. Business
research is seen as applied or action-oriented research.
As a strategic move, it is undertaken by firms either
through in-house units or through private and / or public
research entities (Edralin, 2000).

Common Types of Business Research

Type Purpose Scope Respondent Analysis

Feasibility Determines the Usually covers Selected Percentage
viability of a one either Regression
product/service/pr project/service through total Ratios
oject which is not and looks at enumeration T-test
yet operational. the marketing, or sampling Z-test or
production of firms Chi-square
management, within the
legal and industry.
financial
aspects.
Industry study Analyzes the past Covers one Selected Frequency
and present industry and either Percentage
performance of looks at the through total Time-series
companies and marketing, enumeration Ratios
predicts the future production or sampling Regression
of the firms in the management, of firms
industry. and financial within the
aspects. It also industry.
looks into
legislations
affecting
industry.

Corporate Aims to propose Covers one firm Key Content

Strategy strategies to and looks at a informants analysis
improve company combination or Percentage
performance. all of the Frequency
functional areas.
Case Study Describes/ Covers a Key Content
Explores patterns particular topic informants analysis
or events in an in- of interest of a Frequency
depth manner. person or Percentage
company

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH is most common encountered as

part of formal or conclusive research, but is also sometimes used
when conducting exploratory research. Quantitative research
techniques are part of primary research.

18
 Quantitative research differs from qualitative research in the
following areas:
 The data is usually gathered using more structured
research instruments.
 The results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes
and motivation.
 The results are based on large sample sizes that are
representative of the population.
 The analysis of the results is more objective.

The most common quantitative research techniques include:

 Observation technique
 Experimentation
 Survey technique

Advantages Quantitative Research

 The Quantitative Research approach allows you to reach a higher sample size.
 You can collect information quickly when using Quantitative research.
 Quantitative research uses randomize samples.
 Results duplication is possible when using Quantitative Research.
 Quantitative Research can focus on facts or a series of information.
 The research performed with the Quantitative approach is anonymous.
 Quantitative Research doesn’t require direct observation to be useful.

Disadvantages Quantitative Research

 This method doesn’t consider the meaning behind social phenomena.

 Every answer provided in this research method must stand on its own.
 Quantitative research sometimes creates natural environments.
 Same efforts at randomization will not create usable information.
 There is no access to specific feedback
 Studies can be very expensive.
 Answers validity always creates a cloud of doubt on the final results.
 Individual characteristics don’t alaways apply to the general population.

 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH can be used as part of formal or

conclusive research, it is most commonly encountered when
conducting exploratory research. Qualitative research techniques
are part of primary research.

Qualitative research differs from quantitative research in the

following ways:
 The data is usually gathered using less structured
research instruments.
 The findings are more in-depth since they make greater
use of open-ended questions.

19
  The result provide much more intensive and more
flexible, allowing the researcher to probe since he has
greater latitude to do so.
 The results are based on smaller sample sizes and are
often not representative of the population.
 The research can usually not be replicated or repeated.
Given its low reliability.
The analysis of the results is much more subjective.
The most common qualitative research techniques include:

 In-depth interview
 Focus group
 Projective method
 Case study
 Pilot study

Advantages of Qualitative Research

 Provides a deeper understanding of participant’s experiences, perspectives, and

behaviors.
 Reveals the complexity and nuances of human behaviour.
 Flexible research designed methods can reveal unexpected findings.
 Often used to explore sensitive or complex topics.
 Can be adapted to explore emerging themes and new perpectives.

Disadvantages of Qualitative Research

 Potential time and resource constraints due to the detailed and time-consuming
nature of data collection and analysis.
 Subject to research bias, which can lead to subjective or inaccurate conclusions.
 Small sample sizes can limit the applicability of findings and validation.
 Difficult to summarize or quantify data.
 Lack of precision and accuracy in findings.

With the reference to the field of knowledge where the problem being studied is
associated with, research maybe historical, sociological, educational, psychological or
medical.
It should be noted, however, that the above classification of research is not absolute.
Various authors have different ways of classifying research.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS (See et.al., 2000)

1.) Idea-Generating Phase. Research begins with an idea in which the researcher has
interest. It is in this phase wherein the researcher has to identify topics that interest him
most.

20
It is in this step where he has to justify why a study on a particular topic is needed. Once a
topic of interest is already identified, the researcher has to start reading articles and books,
converse with people who are knowledgeable in the area and begin thinking about it.
2.) Problem-Definition Phase. As the ideas generated in the first phase are very general or
vague, the researcher has to redefine them. This is the problem-definition phase. This
particular step involves the following activities: identification and definition of the variables to
be studied; development of the theoretical and conceptual framework of the study; the
formulation of the hypothesis.
3.) Procedures-Design Phase. After identifying the problems and hypothesis, the
researcher has to decide on the methods and procedures he will use in the collection and
analysis of data. Activities that a researcher has to undertake in this phase include the
following: decision on what research methodology to employ; selection of research
participants; development and validation of data-gathering tools; specification of the
procedures to be observed in the actual collection of data and planning the analysis of data
gathered.
4.) Data-Collection Phase. After preparing the research plan, the researcher has to
proceed gathering the data from the subjects of the study. It is in this phase where the
procedures devised in the previous step are implemented by the researcher rigorously.
5.) Interpretation Phase. Having analyzed the data, the researcher continues to make
sense out of them by interpreting the results in terms of how they aid in responding to the
research problem posed at the beginning of the study, and how the answer contributes to
the knowledge in the field. After generating answers to the problem, the researcher has to
compare the results predicted based on the theoretical framework of the study.
6.) Communication Phase. After completing the data analysis and interpretation phases,
the researcher has to prepare a written or oral report or the study conducted, either for
publication or presentation to colleagues or a panel of experts. This report has to include a
description of all the above steps in the research process.

IDEA- GENERATING PHASE

PROBLEM-DEFINITION PHASE

PROCEDURE-DEFINITION

DATA-COLLECTION PHASE 21
Lesson 4. Introduction to Research Problem
!. Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. define a research problem;
2. provide the terms related to research problem;
3. recognize the tips in sharpening skills for discovering and identifying
problem; and
4. conceptualize a title to be studied.

The Research Problem

A research problem shows that someone would like to research on or perhaps, that
which a person finds unsatisfactory or unsettling; a difficulty of some sort, or a state of affairs
that needs to be changed.
The choice of a problem is often, if not, always difficult. The difficulty of choosing a
problem is sometimes premeditated by lack of understanding of the nature of research and
systematic problem-solving activity.
Sharpening Skills for Discovering and Identifying Problem
1. Reading a lot of literature in your field of concentration and being critical of what you read;
2. Attending professional lectures;
3. Being a keen observer of situations and happenings around you;

22
4. Thinking out the possibility of research for most topics or lessons taken in content
courses;
5. Attending research colloquia/seminars;
6. Conducting mini-researchers and noting on the obtained finding closely;
7. Compiling researchers;
8. Visiting various libraries for possible discovery of researchable topics;
9. Subscribing to journals in your field;
10. Building up a library of materials in your field.

Choosing the Research Problem

Good and Scates classified factors or criteria into external and internal
External Criteria:

 Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplication. Concerned with the element of

newness
 Importance in the field
 Choice of method – institutional or administrative cooperation
 Funding support or sponsorship
 Facilities and equipment
 Ethical Considerations
Internal Criteria:

 Interest/Experience of the researcher

 Training
 Cost
 Time
Sources of Problems:

 Actual problems encountered

 Technological changes and curricular development
 The graduate’s academic experience
 Consultation
 Specialization
 Analysis of an area of knowledge
 Consideration of existing practices and needs

23
  Consideration of existing practices and needs
 Repetition or extension practices and needs
 “Off-shoots’’ of studies under way
Conceptualizing research topic according to Moyer (2011) would include:
1. Finding your focus

 Which aspects of your discipline interest you most?

 What have you observed that you have question about?
 What articles have you read that have raised questions in your mind?
2. What are the gaps in the literature?

 By topic (what is not being looked at?)

 Methods (what is not being done?)
 Population (who is not being studied?)
 Comparisons (who is not being compared?

3. Where to start?

 Read
 Detailed literature searches
 Attend seminars, conferences and presentations
 Discuss subject area with peers
 Listen and ask questions

4. Refining research topics

 Discuss with fellow researchers

 Discuss with stakeholders
 Assess what is most critical to learn
 Assess research sources available
5. Questions to ask yourself

 Is this a good idea?

 Who cares?
 Can it be addressed using appropriate research methods?
 Will it stimulate interest by others and the sponsor?
 Is it feasible/practical/doable?
 Is it fundable?
Writing the Research Title
Basic questions to be asked about the research title

24
  Does the title describe what the study is all about?
 Does the title contain high specificity level?
 Is the title academically phrased and is not verbose?
 Is the title within the twelve (12) substantive word requirement of the
American Psychological Society (APA)?

Evaluation
Name _______________________________ Date _______________ Score ______

Read the Introduction then answer the questions that follow:

Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a chronic, progressive, neurodegenerative pathology
(Zhao, Tan, Lau, Au, Li and Luo, 2008; Damiano. Sunder, Strausser and Williams, 1999;
Kluading and McGinnis, 2006; Michell, Lewis, Foltynie, Narker, 2004; Montel, 2009) which is
characterized by rigidity, tremors and bradykinesia (Damiano et.al, 1999; Michell et.al,
2004). PD is the 3rd most common neurologic disorder among elders (Ignatavicius and
Workman, 2006). Approximately 317,065 of the 86 million population of the Philippines suffer
from Parkinosn’s Disease (U>S Census Bureau International Database , 2004). As the
elderly population grows, PD continues to be a challenge confronting care professionals
(Fisher, 1999).
Due to the rise of the prevalence of PD, there ad been several studies conducted
focusing on the pharmacologic, surgical and genetic interventions. Although pharmacologic
therapy is the mainstay intervention for the condition, the value of non-pharmacological
therapies as adjunct management is accentuated to address the associated disabling
symptoms (Gage and Storey, 2004).
Recreational activities may come in the form of traditional arts. Traditional arts is
defined as “arts that have been practised for at least three generations, including art forms
from precolonial and colonial periods, actively practised by artists and craftsmen in the
country, and passed on to other practitioners” (Respicio 2007 cited by Loza de Guzman and
Jose, 2008). Traditional Filipino Arts (TFA) make use of indigenous art materials, which

25
according to Loaz et. al. (2008), are given little attention for possible rediscovery and
utilization. Little is known about the significance of TFA as a therapeutic recreation for elderly
individuals.
In the effort of understanding the lived experience of an elderly individual with PD,
this study aims to gain insight into her experience in learning TFA. To the best of our
knowledge, this is the first study that specifically explored the therapeutic effect of TFA in
elderly individuals with PD. Furthermore, to improve health care delivery to older adults with
PD, it is important for the nurse to understand the patient’s experience of the said
intervention.

1. What is the problem?

2. Why it is a problem

3. How it should be solved?

26
4. Why it should be solved?

5. What is the purpose of the study?

Lesson 5. Elements and Guidelines in Writing a Research Problem

I. Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. recognize the elements and identify the guidelines of a of research
problem; and
2. formulate a research problem and identify the elements and based on the
guidelines identified
3. write a research title that describes what the study is all about
II. Content:
One of the difficult aspects of research is how to develop the idea for the research
project. The research process has three phases: the , the empirical phase, and
the interpretative phase. Conceptualization involves bringing together several
considerations to identify a good research idea, i.e. an answerable research question that is
worth answering. (Almieda, Adelaiada Ed.D. et. al 2016)
The term research problem implies that an investigation, inquiry or study is to be
conducted, or that a problem is ready for investigation, inquiry or study. There are certain
elements that a problem must possess before it becomes a research problem ready for
investigation (See, et.al.,2000). These are:

27
 1. Aim or of the problem for investigation. This answers the question WHY?
Why is there an investigation, inquiry or study?
2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This answers the question ?
What is to be investigated?
3. The place or locale where the research is to be conducted. This answers the
question WHERE? Where is the study to be conducted?
4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered. This
answers the question WHEN? When is the study to be carried out?
5. Population or universe from whom the data are collected. This answers the questions
WHO? Or from WHOM? Who are the respondents? From whom are the data to be
gathered?
Elements: a) purpose; b) subject matter; c) or locale; d) period or time and e)
population or universe
It answers the questions – why, what, where, when and who or from whom?
In formulating the title, the aim is usually omitted and sometimes the population and
time are omitted.
Ex: Aim/purpose : To determine the status of
Subject Matter : The teaching of Physical Education
Place or locale : National High Schools in Eastern Samar
Period or time : School Year 2017-2018

Population/Universe : The respondents are implied to be teachers or pupils or both

Title: : The Teaching of Physical Education in National High
Schools in Eastern Samar during SY 2017-20108
or
The Teaching of Physical Education in National High Schools in Eastern Samar

Ex: Aim/purpose : To determine the profile of

Subject Matter : Continuing Professional Nursing Education
Place or Locale : Province of Laguna
Period or Time : Calendar Year 2000-2004
Population/Universe : The respondents are nurses in Laguna
Title : The Continuing Professional Nursing Educational in Laguna

GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

The following are some guides in the selection of research problems:

28
1. The or topic must be chosen by the researcher. This is avoid blaming
others or offering excuses for any obstacle encountered.
2. It must be within the of the researcher. This is to make sure that the
researcher will focus attention to the research work.
3. It must be within the specialization of the researcher. This will in make the
work easier for him because he is working on familiar grounds. Besides, this may
improve his specialization skill and competence in his profession.
4. It must be within the of the researcher to tackle. He must have a workable
understanding of the study.
5. It must be within the of the researcher to finance.
6. It is researchable and manageable. That is:
a) Data are available and accessible;
b) The data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability. The
data gathered must be accurate, objective and not biased and can be verified if the
study will not be valid and the generalizations formulated will be faulty;
c) Answers to specific questions can be focused;
d) the hypothesis formulated are testable, that is, they can be accepted or rejected;
and
e) Equipment and instruments for research are available and can give valid and
reliable results. The construction and validation are fully discussed in methodology.
7. It can be within a reasonable period of time.
8. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time and situation, timely and
of current interest. This means that must be able to make substantial impact
upon situations and people.
9. The results are and implementable.

10. It requires original, critical, and to solve it.

11. It can be delimited to suit the resources of the researcher but big enough to be able
give significant, valid, and reliable results and generalizations.
12. It must contribute to the national goals for the improvement of the
quality of human life.
13. It must contribute to fund of human knowledge. All the facts and knowledge that we
have are mostly the products of research. Any study to be conducted must add a
new bit of knowledge to what we already have.
14. It must show or pave the way for the solution of the problem or problems intended to
be solved. Usually, after an has been conducted,
recommendations are made for the solution of problems discovered, which, if
implemented can solve the problems.
15. It must not undermine the moral and of the people. It must not
advocate the promotion of anti-social values such as drug addiction, cruelty, hatred,
divisiveness, multiple sex-mating etc.
16. It must not advocate any change in the present order of things by means of violence
but by peaceful means.
17. There must be a return of some kind to the researcher like (either increase
in salary or publication of results); advancement of position; improved specialization,
competence and skill in professional work; enhanced prestige and reputation; and,
satisfaction of intellectual curiosity.
18. There must be a of the hazards involved, either physically, socially, or
legally.

29
Tips in Developing Research Problems and Research Questions
 Watch for recurring problems and see if you can discern a pattern in situations that
lead to the problem.
 Think about aspects of your work that are irksome, frustrating, or do not result in an
intended outcome – then try to identify factors contributing to the problem that
could be changed.
 Critically examine some of the decisions you make in the performance of your
functions. Are these decisions based on tradition, or are they based on systematic
evidence that supports their efficacy? Many practices, in business, in education
that become custom, might be challenged.
 As an alternative to identifying problematic situations, identify aspects that you
most enjoy or in which you have the greatest interest.
 In a pinch, do not hesitate to replicate a study that is reported in the research
literature. Replication provides a valuable learning experience and has the potential
to make a meaningful contribution because it can corroborate (or challenge) earlier
findings.
 In wording your research questions or statement of purpose, it may be useful to
look at published research reports for models.

Introduction to the Research Problem, Purpose, Questions and Hypothesis

1. A research problem is considered a professional situation in need of
improvement, change or solution. Houser (2012) considered research problem to
be the “why”.
2. The research purpose is the goal or interest of the study. The purpose statement
also investigates how variables (qualities, properties, characteristics) are studied in
a setting and population, (Housers, 2012). Polit and Beck (2012) support that a
problem statement represents and indicates a situation to be studied.
3. Research questions are specific questions that researcher wants to know the
intent of the study. According to Polit and Beck (2012), research questions direct
the data to be collected for the study.
4. A hypothesis is a statement that makes a specific prediction between one or two
variables in a population.

Concept Mapping
A that groups can use to map out organize their ideas
on any topic is called concept mapping. This can be used by research teams to
help them clarify and map out the key research issues in an area, to help them
operationalize the programs on interventions on the outcome measures for their
study. The concept mapping method isn’t the only method around that might be
included in the toolkit for research formulation might be : brainstorming, brain
writing, nominal group techniques, focus groups , etc, (Trochim, 200)

30
 According to Katsumoto, 2005, (cited in de Belen, 2015) concept mapping is
a general method with which you clarify and describe people’s idea about some
topic in a graphic form. By mapping out concepts in pictorial form you can get a
better understanding of the relationships among them.
encourages the participants rather than on the planner and evaluator.

Lesson 6. Guidelines in Writing the Title and formulating the General and Specific
Problem
I. Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to;
1. appreciate/apply the guides in writing the title;
2. apply the guides in writing the sub-problems or specific questions;
3. be acquainted with the steps in writing sub-problems; and
4. create sub-problems using the guide.

II. Content
GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE TITLE
1. Generally, the title is formulated before the start of the research work. It may be
revised or refined later if there is a need.
2. The title must contain the subject matter of the study, the population, and the period
when the data were gathered or will be gathered.
3. It must be broad enough to include all aspects of the subject matter to be studied,
Hence, the title indicates what is expected to be found inside the thesis report.

31
 4. It must be as brief and concise as possible.
5. Avoid using the terms “An Analysis… An Investigation of … A Study of …”
6. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted pyramid, all
words in capital letters.
Statement of the Problem
Guidelines in Formulating General and Sub-Problems:
1. The general statement of the problem and specific sub-problems should be
formulated first before conducting the research.
2. It is customary to state the specific problems in the interrogative form.
3. Each specific question must be clear and unequivocal that, it has only one meaning.
It must not have dual meanings.
4. Each specific question is researchable apart from the other questions that is,
answers to each specific question can be found even without considering the other
questions.
5. Each specific question must be based upon known facts and phenomena. Besides,
data from such known facts and phenomena must be accessible to make specific
questions researchable.
6. Answers to each can be interpreted apart from the answers to other specific
questions.
7. Answers to each specific question must contribute to the development of the whole
research topic.
8. Summing up the answers to all the specific questions will give a complete
development of the entire study.
9. The study of specific questions should be enough to cover the development of the
whole research problem. Before writing down the specific questions, determine first

10. the different aspects of the research problem to be studied and then for each aspect
make one specific question with sub-questions if there is need.
11. Generally, there should be a general statement of the problem and then, this should
be broken down into as many sub-problems or specific questions as necessary.

Steps in Writing the Sub-Problems or Specific Problems

The following are the easy steps in writing specific problems:
Step 1. Write the problem of the study. In writing the general problem, always be
guided by the title of the study and /or the elements of research problems (i.e.,purpose or
aim, subject matter, research locale, period covered and population or universe). Other
elements, however, could be deleted in writing the general problem like population or
universe of the study.

Example 1: The main problem of this study is to determine the status of teaching
Mathematics in national high schools in Metro Manila.

32
 Example 2: The main problem of this study is to determine the Continuing
Professional Nursing Education in the Province of Laguna.
Step 2. Identify the variables of the study. In this step, primary or the key concern as
well as the secondary or auxiliary concerns may be identified. The student could list down as
many variables as he can identify. A variable is a characteristic that has two or more
mutually exclusive values of properties (Sevilla,et. al., 1988). Variables or constructs are
those that the researcher wants to investigate. If you are investigating Grade VI pupils, grade
is NOT a variable since there is only one grade level in this regard. If you are trying to
determine the effectiveness of two or more teaching methodologies, then, teaching methods
become a variable.
At the beginning of your research study, you should firmly set in mind what your
variables are. Which among the characteristics or measures do you intend to be your
outcome or objective? What characteristics of conditions will make the outcome or objectives
vary or differ? (Sevilla, et.al., 1988).
Illustration:
“Status of Teaching Mathematics in National High Schools in Metro Manila”
Key Concern/Variable - Status of teaching Mathematics
Auxiliary Concerns - adoption of curriculum Comparison of teaching performance of
Mathematics teachers
Factors that may influence performance of mathematics
teachers

Step 3. Analyze how the key and auxiliary concerns may be classified. The
classification serves as the specifics.
Illustration:
Status of teaching Mathematics along adoption of curriculum may be classified
according to:
 Science and Math-Oriented
 SEDP
 Other Curricular offerings
Performance of teachers teaching Mathematics may be classified according to nature
of work:
 Knowledge of the subject matter
 Student-teacher relation
 Classroom management
Performance of teachers teaching Mathematics may be classified into:
 Delivery of instruction (i.e., methods and strategies)
 Course Content

33
 Comparison of performance of mathematics teachers may be classified into:
 Academic rank
 Year level assigned
 Types of curriculum
Factors that may influence performance of mathematics teachers may be classified
according to:
 Personal factors
 Institutional factors
With the foregoing outline, the student would have an idea of the option to undertake
in dealing with the main problem.

Step 4. Decide on the option

a. Focus only on the key concerns
b. Include the auxiliary concerns (which one). Or, include all the identified auxiliary
concerns
c. Focus on one classification of key concern and include all the auxiliary concerns
d. Other probable mix

Step 5. Write the specific question based on Step 3 and 4.

Types of Research Problem
A descriptive research question typically asks “what is?”
Examples:
1. What are the leadership values professed by student-leaders of the UPHSL College
of Nursing?
2. What is the level of commitment of the clinical instructors to their job?
3. What is the performance of the nursing seniors in their RLE classes?
A difference research question typically asks “Is there a difference between two groups
or more variables?” In this case, two or more observations are being compared.
Examples:
1. How do male and female nursing students compare in their coping mechanisms?
2. Is there a significant difference in the work values of the nursing seniors when
grouped according to the profile variables?

34
 3. How significant is the difference in the coping mechanisms employed by nursing
faculty when they are categorized according to the profile variables?
A relationship research question asks “What is the relationship/association between two
or more variables?” and implies a correlation/association design.
Examples:
1. Is there a significant association between the work values of nurses and their clinical
performance?
2. How significant is the relationship between job stressors and coping strategies of
UPHSL deans?
3. Does self-concept relate to pupil achievement in English Mathematics and Science?
4. Is organizational commitment related to the staff nurses’ length of service in the
College of Nursing?
Illustration:
Option A
1. What is the status of teaching Mathematics in national high schools in Metro Manila
in terms of adoption of curriculum classified according to:
a. SMO Curriculum,
b. SEDP and
c. other curricular offerings?
2. What is the level of performance of mathematics teachers in national high schools in
Metro Manila along:
a. knowledge of subject matter;
b. student-teacher relation and
c. classroom management?

Note: The further breaking into smaller units of the key concern depends on the
Option B. Include an auxiliary concern (comparison of performance)
perspective chosen by the researcher
1. What is the status of teaching Mathematics in national high schools in Metro Manila
in terms of adoption of curriculum classified according to:
a. SMO Curriculum,
b. SEDP and
c. other curricular offerings?
2. What is the level of performance of mathematics teachers in national high schools in
Metro Manila along:
a. Knowledge of subject matter
b. student-teacher relation and
c. classroom management?
3. What is the level of performance of mathematics teachers according to the following
groupings:
a. academic rank,
b. year level assigned and
c. type of curriculum?
Option C. (One component of the key concern and all auxiliary concerns)

35
 1. What is the status of teaching Mathematics in the SEDP Curriculum in national high
schools in Metro Manila?
2. What is the level of performance of mathematics teachers in the SEDP curriculum in
national high schools in Metro Manila along:
a. knowledge of subject matter,
b. student-teacher relation and
c. classroom management?
3. What is the level of performance of mathematics teachers according to the following
groupings:
a. academic rank
b. year level assigned and
c. type of curriculum?

Note: The researcher may want to probe further the relationship of one variable with the
other. The researcher thus may add another specific problem

4. Is there a significant relationship between institutional factors and the level of

performance of mathematics teachers?

Stating the Problem

The problem statement is the researcher’s guide during the research process.
It is the verbalization and articulation as well as the analysis of the “questions” in
which the researcher wants the research to answer;
The problem statement is divided into the major or main problem and the
minor or sub-problems. The major or main problem is the verbalization of the specific
“question” which the researcher wants to answer. It may be stated declaratively or
interrogatively.

Example:
Main problem (Interrogative)
What are the factors that affect the teaching skills of teachers?
Main problem (Declarative)

36
 This study aims to design and develop an online course in Human
Behavior in the Organization of the Graduate Level.

What is a statement of the problem?

A statement of the problem is a concise description of the issues that need to

be addressed by the researcher.

Group Activity:

Read the sample statement of the problem and answer the questions
that follow. Assigned a reporter to present your output.

Statement of the Problem

The main objective of this research undertaking was to conduct an

assessment on the implementation of the SBM program in Public Secondary Schools
in Eastern Samar

More specifically, the study attempted to answer the following sub-problems:

1. How do the stakeholders assess the six dimensions of the School Based
Management Program by School?

1.1 School leadership

1.2 Internal Stakeholders
1.3 External Stakeholders

37
 1.4 School Management Process
1.5 Resource Management and
1,6 Performance Accountability
2. How do stakeholders assess the implementation of SBM dimension by school?

3. Are there significant relationships between and among the respondent

group’s assessment on the different dimensions?

4. What are the issues and concerns on the SBM implementation?

5. What improvement plan de developed to achieve the SBM standards?

 What is the main problem?

 What are the minor or specific problems?

Assignment:

1. Go to the library to gather background information on the topic you have

identified. Follow the guidelines below.

1. Gather background information on the topic you have identified.

2. Determine the current state of knowledge and become familiar with current
research.

3. Be familiar with what is currently known and what is currently being done in
the research area.

4. Read a refereed journal/article about your topic. Write the title of the study
you have read.

38
 5. Write the main problem and specific questions.

Evaluation
Name _________________________________ Date ____________ Score _______

Direction. Explain how to conceptualize a research topic.

1. Finding your focus

2. What are the gaps in the literature?

39
3. Where to start

4. Refining research topics

Lesson 7. Identifying Variables and Formulation of Hypothesis

I. Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. define a variable;
2. recognize the different types of variables; and
3. identify the variables from the sub-problems identified.
II. Content:
IDENTIFYING VARIABLES
A variable is something whole value or name or property or characteristic, which is
yet to be known is sought for by the researcher. It is called a variable because of the
possibility that the value or name or property or characteristic for it may vary from each data
source (See, et.al., 2000). According to Calderon and Gonzales (1993), a variable is

40
anything that may change or may be changed from one condition to another, either
qualitatively or quantitatively.
See et. al., (2000) identified the following types of variables:
Qualitative/Quantitative Variables:
 Qualitative Variable – when what is looked for in a variable is an attribute such as
type, name, brand, gender, or educational attainment which classifies respondents,
responses or objects, it is termed as qualitative variable.
 Quantitative Variable – when what is to be found out in a variable is a value such as
5%,1/2, or kg. Which indicates how much or how many of a given property, it is
termed as quantitative variable.
Independent/Dependent Variables:
 Independent Variable is one whose value of attribute is to be known so that the
value or attribute of another variable can be determined, and whose change in value
and/or attribute is presume to influence the change in value and/or attribute of
another variable. It should be noted that the independent variable does not require
the existence or presence of a dependent variable. Calderon, et.al. define
independent variables as anything, condition, or process which is controlled and
manipulated by the experimenter and applied on another thing, condition or process
(dependent variable) intended to have or produce a change in or reaction from the
latter.
 Dependent Variable is one whose value of attribute can be determined only after the
value and/or attribute of another variable has been known, and/or whose value of
attributes is presumed to change as another variable changes. Calderon, et.al. define
dependent variables as anything, a condition, or a process exposed to or upon which
treatments or actions from the independent variable are applied. The response of or
change in the dependent variable is measured and some statistical methods are
applied to determine the effects of the independent or experimental variable.

Regular/Intervening Variables:
 Regular variable refers to the customary input variable or output variable in
researches using input-output transformation model.
 Intervening variable means the process or throughout variables that sometimes
come in between the input variable and output variable.

HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a specific question posed at the beginning of
the investigation or as specified in the sub-problem. It is a tentative statement about the
relationship between two or more variables. A hypotheses is a specific, testable prediction
about what you expect to happen in your study, (Black & Champions, 1976, cited in Kumur,
1996).

41
 A hypothesis must be empirically grounded and lead to the main contributor of the
investigation. A research hypothesis is the statement you created when you speculate upon
the outcome of a structure, as the ultimate aim of any experiment. It is a statement that
predicts the relationship between the independent (causal) and dependent (outcome)
variables.
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. Hypothesis consists of
independent and dependent variables. The dependent variables is the outcome you are
interested in studying – the effect. The independent variable is the variable that is
producing a change in the dependent variable – the cause.
In writing the hypothesis, the researcher should be guided by the dependent and
independent variables previously identified.
Although most quantitative researches do test hypothesis, only a minority of research
reports formally states up front what those hypotheses are. In designing a quantitative study
of your own, do not be afraid to make prediction, that is to state a hypothesis. Being wrong
(or having insufficient evidence to demonstrate that you are right) is part of the learning
process.

Example:
Ho : There is no significant difference between performance of pupils and the use
of manipulative.
What is the dependent variable (the effect)?

What is the independent variable (the cause)?

A hypothesis is not a final answer, but rather a proposal to be tested and evaluated.
For example, a researcher might hypothesize that there is a relationship between personality
characteristics and cigarette smoking. Or another researcher might hypothesize that a dark
environment causes depression.
Format of hypothesis predicting difference:

42
 People who are high in (or low in) economic status will have greater (or more, or
higher, or less) attitudinal change in reaction to info-commercials than others who are low (or
high) in economic status.
Format of hypothesis predicting simple relationships:
There will be a direct (or positive, or negative, or inverse, or curvilinear) relationship
between level of knowledge and attitudinal change. Or As level of knowledge increases,
attitudinal change increases.
Non-directional hypotheses simply state that there will be some kind of relationship
between variables. Oftentimes, they are referred to as “two-tailed” hypotheses.
Ex. There is a difference in the amount of television watched by children from
sectarian
and non-sectarian schools.
Ex. Children from sectarian schools watch more television than children from non-
sectarian schools.
Hypothesis may either be in the alternative or in the null form. Alternative or
otherwise called operational hypothesis (Ha), which is usually found in Chapter 1 is in the
affirmative, that is, without using no or not. The null hypothesis (Ho), which is used in
Chapter 4 along data analysis specifically when statistical tests are performed, is stated in
the negative, that is, with the use of no or not.

Hypothesis and Variable Identification

Hypothesis Variable identification
Computer literate people will initiate fewer Level of computer literacy (IV) Amount of
conversations than computer illiterate initiation of conversation (DV)
people.
Stuttering children will report higher level of Stuttering level of children (IV) Anxiety (IV)
anxiety than no stuttering children.
National politicians will use more Type of politician-national or local (IV)
ambiguous examples than local politicians. Amount of ambiguous examples (DV)
Children from sectarian schools watch more Children of sectarian or non-sectarian
television than children from non-sectarian schools (IV) Amount of TV watched (DV)
schools.

Why hypothesize?
A research hypothesis is a specific statement of expected outcomes of an
experiment, It includes who the subjects are, the experimental conditions, and the statistical
test to be applied.
Hypotheses are testable explanations of a problem phenomenon, or observations.
Quantitative research involves formulating a hypothesis to address the research
problem.

43
 Hypotheses that suggest a causal relationship involve at least one independent
variable and at least one dependent variable. in other words, one variable which is
presumed to affect the other.
An independent variable is one whose value is manipulated by the researcher or
experiment. A dependent variable is a variable whose value are presumed to change as a
result of changes in the independent variable.

On established theories or developed

A hypothesis is a statement that researchers can empirically test. It is a statement
about how two variables are related. It is not a question and, to the end, it is different from a
research question that is usually broad and does not specifically link two or more specific
concepts.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

1. Logical
A good hypothesis is usually founded on established theories or developed from the
results of previous research. Specifically, a good hypothesis should have two logical
conclusions of a logical argument.
Example:

Premise 1: Academic success is highly valued and respected in society.

Premise 2: Being valued and respected by others contribute to high self-esteem.
Conclusion or Hypothesis: Higher levels of academic success will be related to higher
levels of self-esteem.

2. Testable
A good hypothesis must be testable. That is, it must be possible to observe and
measure all the variables involved. The hypothesis must involve real situations, real events
and real individuals. You cannot test a hypothesis that refers to imaginary terms or
hypothetical situations.

3. Refutable
A testable hypothesis must be refutable. It must be possible to obtain research
results that are contrary to the prediction. For example, if the research hypothesis predicts
that the treatment will cause all increase in scores, it must be possible for the data to show a
decrease.

Which are not testable or refutable?

44
 Hypothesis: Better knowledge and performance lead to better school leadership.
Hypothesis: Better knowledge lead to better performance.
Hypothesis: If people could fly, there were fewer cases of depression.

The Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is a statement about the population or populations being
examined that always states that there is no effect, no change, or no relationship. In general,
the null hypothesis says that nothing happened.
In a study comparing two treatments, the null hypothesis states that there is no
difference between the treatments.
One characteristics of a good hypothesis is that it must make a positive statement
about the existence of a relationship of the existence of a treatment effect.
The null hypothesis is exactly the opposite of the research hypothesis. The research
hypothesis says that the treatment does not have an effect, and the null hypothesis says that
the treatment has no effect.
The goal of the research study is to gather enough evidence to demonstrate
convincingly that the treatment really does have an effect. The purpose of the hypothesis
test is to evaluate the evidence. The test determines whether the results of the research
study are sufficient to reject the null hypothesis and justify to conclusion that the treatment
has no effect.

Assignment:
Write the hypothesis and background of your study. It must be two pages in a short
bond paper.

Evaluation:
Name _______________________________________ Date ____________ Score ______

45
Direction: Formulate the hypothesis
Problems:
1. What is the personality profile of the respondents in terms of:
1.1 Dominance
1.2 Influence
1.3 Steadiness
1.4 Conscientiousness
Ho :

2. How is the disc personality profile of the respondents related to their performance in
chemistry?
Ho :

Problems:
1. is there a significant difference between the anxiety levels of the respondents living in a
dormitory and those who are not?
Hoi:

2. Is there a significant difference between the quality of life of the respondents living in a
dormitory and those who are not?

46
Hoi:

Lesson 8. Writing the Background of the Study

I. Objective:
1. Write an appropriate background of the study.
II. Content:

47
 Writing the background of the Study
The introduction of the study of any thesis or research work is the part which
introduces the reader to the topic investigated. Therefore, it is in this part that the writer
should try to arouse the interest of the reader and convince them that the research is worth
reading. The introduction of the study should not be too lengthy as to discourage the reader
from reading them nor should it be too short that it will fail to cover salient items of the
introduction. (Bermudo, Pedrito Jose Ph.D. et.al 2014)
A. What is the purpose of a background of the study?
One of the preliminary steps in completing a thesis is the background of the study.
The background of the study includes;
1. a review of the area being researched
2. current information surrounding the issue
3. previous studies on the issue
4. relevant history on the issue
5. effectively set forth the history and background information on the problem
The purpose of a background study is to help you to prove the relevance of your
research question and to further develop your thesis.

B. Why do a background study?

In addition to gaining general knowledge about your topic area, your goals are to
determine the current state of knowledge and to become familiar with current research.
Gravetter and Forzano (2006) pointed out that once you have a general idea for a research
study, the next step is to go to the library to gather background that you have identified.
Once you have done this, your task is simply to extend the current research one more step.
In writing the introduction of the study, the researcher should consider the following;

 Describe the problem situation globally, nationally, and/or locally,

specifically the trends and issues in the field.
 Cite the legal bases of the study (if applicable)
 Link the situation to the existing body of knowledge. Cite statistics and
authorative sources to support the idea.
 State the contributions of the study
 Make a clinching statement that will relate the introduction to the
proposed research problem.

C. How do you write a background study?

1. Conduct a primary research at the beginning stages of formulating a thesis when
many issues are unclear. Visit your library, the internet to find primary sources such as
books and scholarly journals for your background study.

48
 2.Read the information and develop a research question of thesis statement that will
guide your research. You will need to take notes and keep accurate tract of the sources that
you used up to this point. Use a method of recording source of information that you are
comfortable with. Be sure to cite the source of the information or each note so you don’t
forget where the piece of information came from, should you decide to use it in your thesis.
3. Write a thesis statement or research questions. Think about what you’ve read and
look to issues, problems or solutions that others have found and determine your own opinion
or stand on the issue.
4. Complete your research using your statement and research question as your
guide.
5. Create five separate sections that cover the key issues, major findings and
controversies surrounding your thesis as well as sections that provide an evaluation and
conclusion.
6. Conclude by identifying and further study what needs to be done in the area or
provide possible solutions to the issue that haven’t been considered before.
7. Revise and edit your background of the study.

Example of a Background of the Study

Antecedent Topography and Sea-level Controls to Holocene Coral Reefs of
Maydolong, Eastern Samar
Shou-Yeh Gong, Hailong Sun, Cyntjia Albert-Delmoro (+), Luzlyn Azura-Café,
Chuan-Chou Shen
Background of the Study
Holocene reefs have long been a focus of research for decades, because
they serve as an analogue of ancient reefs and they are archives of sea level changes
whether ecstatic or tectonics ( Montaggioni and Macintyre, 1991; Ota and Chapell,
1999). Although exploration started as early as 19 th century and continued to this
century (see reviews by Steer and Stoddart, 1997; Montaggioni, 2005; Hopley, et al.,
p 5-14), tropical Pacific reefs remain far less understood than their Atlantic
Counterpart except for the Great Barrier reef (GBR) (Camoin and Davies, 1998; Kennedy
and Woodroffe, 2002; Montaggioni, 2005).
Global warming and climate change issues have received worldwide in the
last two decades. One of the major concerns is sea-level rise that result from ice
melting with increasing temperature. It is critical to estimate how much the sea level will rise
as a consequence of a certain degree of warming. One approach to answer this question is
to use the geological past as an analogue for the future. Fossil coral reefs may provide a
continuous record of seal level rise because some corals are sensitive to sea level changes.
Coral reefs also record impacts of typhoon in the past. In the Paraoir project, Gong et al.
(2013) has identified evidences of extremely strong waves that were possibly caused by a
typhoon about three hundred years ago.
The Philippine Archipelago consists of a complex of volcanic arcs and
accreted terrains resulting from subduction and strike-slip faulting bounded by the

49
 Manila Trench on the west and the Philippines Trench on the east (Fig. 1). Between
the two trenches, the Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ), which is a complex strike-slip fault
system, traverse through the entire length of the islands. All three tectonic elements
are still active in the Quaternary (Yang et al., 1996; Yumul et al., 2003)
The Samar Island lies in the eastern periphery of the Visayan region, and is
located between the PFZ and the Philippine Trench (Fig. 1). The island compromise
of a Cretaceous-Palaeogene igneous rocks surrounding this nucleus (Garcia and
Mercado, 1981).
The east coast of Samar Island is located right to the Western Pacific Warm
Pool (WPWP) (Fig. 1), and often affected by typhoons in the summer and northeast
monsoons in the winter. This is also the place where Pacific North Equatorial Current
(NEC) bifurcates into the Kuroshio Current and Mindanao Current (Qiu and Chen,
2010). All these factors make Eastern Samar an interesting site for coral reef study.
Holocene coral reefs are exposed at several sites, and perhaps best at Maydolong
along the east coast of Samar. Maydolong is located at 11*30’ N, 125* 30’ E, and has
a tropical rainforest climate with no dry season and a profound rainy season from
November to February. The total annual rain precipitation is 4170mm, and annual
average temperature 27*C. The average tidal range of 2012 is 1.24m as estimated
by WXTide32 for Ando Island of Borongan, which is about 17km north of the study site.
The Holocene coral reefs of Maydolong overlying the Mid-Miocene
Loquilocon Limestone, in which Karst is well developed (Garcia and Mercado, 1981). The
Holocene reef rocks from a shore flat form of a 300-500 meters wide and nearly at
MSL in height (fig, 3), except some dispersed benches occurs at 0.4 m above the platform
surface. Holocene corals in their living position are well preserved on those benches
(Fig. 5), but wave erosion is evident on the surface shore platform, as shown by
many truncated head corals. Depressions, or tidal pools also exist on the shore platform.
The Loquilocon Limestone form on coastal cliffs in places (Fig.2), on which a single notch
with a flat floor occurs at 1.3 m above Mean Sea Level (MSL) (Maeda et al,2004). On
the inner part of the shore platform near the cliff, the Loquilocon Limestone is also
exposed (Fig. 6), and also formed dispersed benches at 0.4 m above MSL, when not
covered by coral debris, tidal pool, and/or living corals/algea Maeda et al, (2004)
reported a 6-m wide Porites microatoll occurred on shore platform near the cliff,
dated to be 7,171 cal BP at its center, 0.4 m above MSL, and 6,617 cal BP at its landward
side, 0.2 m above MSL.
The objective of this project are:
1. Establish the history of coral reef growth during early to middle Holocene in
Maydolong, Eastern Samar.
2. Reconstruct a sea-level curve for the coast of Eastern Samar during Holocene.
3. To document the factors affecting the development of Holocene coral reef in
Maydolong.
Until now, there has not been any study about the Holocene coral reef of the
Eastern coasts of the Philippines. This project represents a pioneering effort in this
regard. The preliminary results have been presented in American Geophysicla Union
2013 Fall Meeting (Gong, et al, 2013b).

50
Group Activity:
Improve the background of the study by applying the following:

 Describe the problem situation globally, nationally, and/or locally,

specifically the trends and issues in the field.
 Cite the legal bases of the study (if applicable)
 Link the situation to the existing body of knowledge. Cite statistics and
authorative sources to support the idea.
 State the contributions of the study
 Make a clinching statement that will relate the introduction to the
proposed research problem.

Qualitative Research
The Wife of a Gambler: Lived Experiences of Wives Whose Husbands are constantly
involved in Cockfighting
Luzlyn Azura Café

Background of the Study

Gambling has a substantial effects on wives and their children and this can
profoundly disrupts family lives. Families can be seriously disrupted, since they experience
emotional distress from arguments, uncertainty and financial problems. Wives are
vulnerable to physical, emotional, social and economic abuse if they marry a wrong a man
who has vices.

Little is known about research on the experiences of wives of a gambler specifically

cockfighting, however, there are essays and stories on a wife of a gambler that deals with
other form of gambling. The study will elicit issues faced by the participants being a wife of
a cocker and how they cope up with their everyday endeavour as the wife being the light
and the manager of the home

The main purpose of this study is to explore and understand the lived experiences
of wives whose husbands are constantly involved in cockfighting. This is a hermeneutic
phenomenological research which will employ observation and in-depth individual
interviews. The researcher is very determined and motivated to pursue this study since
wives and the researcher herself are very vulnerable in the negative effects of gambling –
financially, emotionally, mentally, physically and socially.

Group Output:

Evaluation:
Name _________________________ Date _____________ Score ______

51
Direction: Read the Background of the Study and answer the questions below.
Thesis: Student’s Devised Classroom Games –Simulation as an Innovation Tool in
Learning Mathematics
By: Florence C. Navidad
2013
Students have different ways in processing information; some may prefer
audio-visual presentation; others drama and imitating or reasoning logically and
intuitively, or analysing and envisioning. Teacher style also vary. Some professors
used the traditional way of teaching; others, used the new trend in technology; some
focus on principles and others on presentations.
When the learning style of professors are incompatible, the students may
become inattentive, distracted, uninterested, their achievement level goes down, and
eventually leads to school dropout. For intervention used in this study is the students
devised games-simulation. Games- simulation is introduced as a method in teaching
in medical fields recently through interactive video games (Rosser, Lynch, Caddihy,
Gentle, Klansky & Merill, 2007).

1. What are some of the research report?

2. What is the research title?

3. What is the research statement?

4. How would you complete your research?

Lesson 9. Statement of the Problem and Objectives of the Study

I. Objectives:

52
 At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Write the statement of the problem and objectives of the study of their
topic.
II. Content:
What is a statement of the problem?

A statement of the problem is a concise description of the issues that need to

be addressed by the researcher in which this is written in interrogative form.

Example:

Statement of the Problem

This study will determine the relationship between attitude towards English
and performance of English of the third year BEED students.

Specifically, it seek to answer the following questions:

1. What is the attitude of the respondents towards English?

2. What is the academic performance in English of the respondents?

3. Is there a significant relationship between attitude towards English and

academic performance in English of the respondents?

Objectives of the Study

Based on the stated problems, this study aim to attain the following
objectives:

1. Determine the attitude of the respondents towards English.

2. Elicit the academic performance in English of the respondents.

3. Determine the significant relationship between attitude towards English and

Academic performance in English of the respondents.

Evaluation:

53
 Write the statement of the problem and objectives of the study of your study.
Then go to your group and exchange your papers to check your output. Have a
consolidated output which will be reported by your group representative.

Name ________________________________ Date _______________

Assignment:

Submit the group final statement of the problem and objectives of the study.

54
Lesson 10. Scope and Delimitation, Significance of the Study and Defining Terms and
Concepts
I. Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Differentiate limitation from delimitation of the study; and
2. Recognize the contents of the scope and delimitation/limitation of the study.
3. Identify the need for the inclusion of the “importance of the study” in a research
work;
4. Name the beneficiaries or end-users of the study on specific topics given.
5. Recognize the terms and concepts to be defined; and
6. Distinguish conceptual/theoretical from operational definition.

II. Content:
A. Scope and Delimitation of the Study
The scope and delimitation/limitation of the study is included in any thesis report
in order to know the coverage of the investigation. When titles and sub-problems are
formulated, the researcher/reader is given a general picture of what the study is all about
and what is offers.
Inasmuch as some research topics may be very broad in scope such that the
researcher might find difficulty covering them all, the scope and delimitation of the study
should be identified. Without explicitly stating in the thesis/research the coverage and
delimitation of the study, the reader will have false hopes of finding something not in the
research report. It is therefore important that the reader should be made to know what to
expect and what not to expect in the research report.
The scope and delimitation/limitation of the study set the boundaries of the
investigation. This part specifically discusses the variables included in the investigation and
the justification why they were included. Likewise, it cites the variables which were excluded
from the study and the reason for their exclusion.
By setting the scope and delimitation/limitation, the researcher also guides other
researchers who are interested in conducting the same research about the gaps which they
can fill in. In other words, the scope and delimitation/limitation offers clues on what research
problems other researchers may pursue.
Definition
Scope refers to the area of coverage of the study.
Limitation refers to the furthest extent within the coverage of the study which the
researcher could cover due to inevitable restriction (See, et.al.).
According to Calderon et.al., limitation of the study includes the weaknesses of the
study beyond the control of the researcher.

55
 Delimitation is a specifically fixed limitation. It is the extent to which the researcher
decided to cover in the study.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

The scope and delimitation of the study aligns and focuses the research in the
desired and expected perspective. This consists of the following:
1. Indicate the geographical coverage.
2. Indicate the time frame or time limit.
3. Indicate the variables included? Excluded? And why?
4. Indicate the unit of analysis, what is being studied? Individuals? Groups?

Example 1:

“Defining the Filipino Culture: Filipino Avant Grade in Performing Arts Theatre”

Scope of the study includes historical background of theatre in general and

also the Philippine Performing Arts Theatre in particular. This study also described
the problem of the study which circulates around the idea that the Filipino cultural
identity needs defining as it is accused of being an imitation to the culture of its once
colonizers. Evident to the history of the performing arts theatre in this country, its
structure follows the style/design movement of the period on which the theatre was
built. A proposal of using an avant grade tyle is also included in this paper. A
technical basis in building a theatre is also included in this paper as stated in the
book, “ Time Saver Standards for Building Types “ by Joseph De Chiara and
Michael Crosbie. In this study these areas are researched to provide guidelines to
the researcher on how to make the theatre functional as well.

In this study, the researcher is hindered by the following limitations:

Limited sources of research for Philippine Performing Arts Theater and Philippine
Avant Grade – although there is a vast literature available for researches in
Performing Arts Theater in general, public libraries hold title archive for studies or
the subject in the Philippine context.
The same goes with looking for researches of Avant-grade architecture and interior
design in the Philippines.
Interviewing experts (theatre manager and production design) proved to be
challenging since most does not have the time and interest to participate in the
interview that the researcher conducted.
Budgetary constraint is also a problem since some theatre tours are quite
expensive.

56
Example 2:

“Impact of Extracurricular Activities on Students” Nikki Wilson ,2009

Limitations
This review of literature is limited to the study of extracurricular
activities offered outside the school day. While aware of the many assets of holding
a part-time job, this study will be limited to extracurricular leisure activities and will
not focused on the work schedules and work-related employment of students.
Another limitations to this study would be that although there may be much research
on the topic, due to limited time and funding, the study may miss some of the
important research due to limited access or availability.

Activity: Library work

Make your Scope and Limitation of your Study.

57
B. Significance of the Study
In this section, the merits of the findings of the study are evaluated. Though at
the proposal stage, the significance is mere speculated contributions, in the final
stage, this should give the actual contribution of the study results to specific individuals,
entities, institutions, organizations and other segments of society.
Researches will be of no value if they will not contribute something
specifically to a body of knowledge or to some intended beneficiaries. The significant
contributions of the study or research are discussed in Chapter 1 under “Importance of the
Study” or “Significance of the Study”.
Significance or importance of the study contains explanations or discussions
of any or all the following:
1. The intended or target beneficiaries of the study. Simply, the researcher should be
able to identify WHO will benefit from the results of the investigation. The
beneficiaries of the study vary according to the topic investigated. For researches
which focused on academic performance of students, the beneficiaries or end-users
could be the students, teachers, administrators, the parents and others.
2. The specific benefit each of the intended clients/end-users may get out of the result
of the investigation. The concrete benefit that each client or end-user will get from the
investigation is written after the data have been gathered, analysed and interpreted.
However, for purposes of research proposal preparation, the researcher merely
projects HOW the client or end-user will get benefit from the results of the
investigation. The discussion is usually written in the general perspective. Once the
result of the study is identified, the benefit that each client will get from the research
will change. In other words, a justification why there is a need to conduct the study is
explained and discussed in this portion.
3. The contribution of the study to a body of knowledge.
Calderon, et. al. stresses that any or all of the following may be included under
Importance of the Study, to wit:
1. The rationale, timeliness and/or relevance of the study. The rationale, timelines,
and/or relevance of the study to existing conditions must be explained or discussed.
For instance, a survey test in science reveals that the performance of the students in
the high schools of Province A is poor. It must be pointed out that this is a strong
reason why an investigation of the teaching of science in the said high school is
necessary. Also, the study is very timely and relevant because today, science and
technology make some nations very highly industrialized and progressive.
2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvements to unsatisfactory conditions.
The poor performance of the students in the high schools of Province A in a survey
test in science should be explained as a problem and an unsatisfactory condition. So
if the inquiry is made, the possible causes of the poor performance of the students in
the science survey test may be discovered so that remedial measures may be
instituted to solve the problem or the unsatisfactory situation.
3. Who are to benefit and how they are to be benefited? It must be shown who are the
individuals, groups or communities that may be placed in a more advantageous
position on account of the study.

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 4. Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge. If in the study, it is found out that the
inductive method is very effective in the teaching of science, it should be pointed out
that this can be a contribution of the study to the fund of knowledge.
5. Possible implications. It should be discussed here that the implications include the
possible causes of the problem discovered, the possible effects of the problems and
the remedial measures to solve the problems. Implications also include the good
points of the system which ought to be continued or to be improved if possible.
Example:

“Defining the Filipino Cultural Identity: Filipino Avant Garde in Performing Arts Theater”
Joanna April De Leon Lumbad , 2010

The purpose of this study is to define the voice of the Filipino identity by promoting new
styles of interior design for the performing arts theatre and to show all the people the
importance of bringing up something new and fresh for an entertainment venue. In doing so,
it will help promote a culture that is inherently unique, therefore deflecting the initial notion
that our culture is just a rehash of other influences. In doing so, a prouder Filipino might also
cultivate a popular demand for watching in performing arts theatre.
The interior designs will create a new theatre culture in the country through promoting the
interest of the future to the general public. Another goal of this project is to address the need
for learning different aspects of the performing arts theatre in the form of showing the history
of the theatre designs.
The researcher is conducting this project hoping to:
1. Adhere to proper theatre layout provided by the building codes, comfort guidelines, floor
design, and the overall form of a theatre space that will play a part in seating arrangements
(Time -Saver Standards for Interior Design and Space Planning: De Chiara, et.al 2001, page
1402).
2. Successfully fit the design concept for the theater with the constraint of a small-size floor
plan and a limited budget.
3. Be able to properly use the elements of design and art that would harmoniously fit the
design concept being promoted.
4. Show different approaches that emphasizes modern “Avant-Grade” design in dressing the
theatre.
5. Know more about the history of a performing arts theatre having significant information
about building a theatre. Generally, people see Performing Arts Theatre as the most
appropriate venue in expressing musical and performing arts talents.
6. Educate and remind the Filipino society that we have a culture in performing arts that
needs to sustain up to the future generation.
7. Bring education, literature, history, as well as entertainment to the Filipino community
brought about by an exceptional and first-rate performing arts theatre.
8. Allow future researchers to benefit from this research.

59
Evaluation:
Name ______________________________________ Date ________________
Direction: Make a significance of the Study.

60
C. Definition of Terms
Only the key words in the title and problem are defined. Definition is both conceptual
and operational. Conceptual definition gives the term’s universal meaning; operational
definition specifies how it is manipulated by the researcher or how it is measured.
Enumeration is done as the term appears in the text/title, not alphabetically as a
glossary. Terms are grouped as concepts and constructs.
Defining terms and concept of the investigation is important in any research
endeavour. Defining these terms and concepts enable the readers to better understand and
appreciate the research work.
Defining which terms and concepts to define is one of the problems beginning
researchers usually encounter. It should be understood that not all terms used in the
research be defined. Boundaries should therefore be set.
Terms are defined in two (2) ways – conceptual definition and operational definition.
Conceptual definition or so called the technical definition of the term comes from
authoritative sources like dictionary, books, and other materials. On the other hand,
operational definition is defining the terms/concepts as used in the investigation. Defining the
terms both conceptually and operationally is advisable since the conceptual definition
provides the reader with the basic meaning of the word/words while the operational definition
gives the delimiting distinction of the study’s words from similar words in the ordinary usage.
In some educational institutions, the Definition of Terms is found at the end of
Chapter 2 while others opt to place it in the last part of Chapter 1. Others prefer to have a
separate chapter for Definition of Terms. Whatever and wherever it will be placed, all key
terms and concepts could be found in the title and the statement of the problem. However,
after the research is completed, all important terms in the discussion may also be defined.
The presentation of the terms defined may be in alphabetical order or by logical
order. With the latter, key terms, which are found in the title, statement of the problem as
well as variables that used to be clarified are defined first.

Example:
Here are some terms that are used in this chapter which is defined operationally.
Acoustic
Adopt
Albeit
Art Deco
Avant Garde
Balance

61
Evaluation:
Name: _____________________________ Date: _______________
Direction: Identify terms you used in your study. Define those words according to how it is
used in your research.

Certificate No. AJA19-0226

62
Lesson 11: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
I. Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:
1. delineate literature and studies;
2. make out the purpose of the related literature and studies; and
3. be pleased about the steps in writing the related literature and studies.
II. Content:
The review of the related literature though written as Chapter 2 in most
research/thesis format, should be the first step in any research endeavor. Why is this so? It
is through the review of related literature and studies that the researcher is able to
conceptualize and formalize the research title and problems. The review of related literature
gives the researcher ideas, concepts and principles on the topic he intends to research.
However, if the problem is already defined, the review of related literature and
studies provides the researcher with the following:
1. It provides the needed information on the theories, concepts and principles which are
essential in developing the conceptual and theoretical framework of the planned
topic.
2. It provides the investigator with information about past researches related to the topic
under study. In other words, the review of related literature and studies is a proof that
the current undertaking is not duplicative of any other work.
3. It also helps the researcher identify the variables which were already studied in the
past and thus, serve as basis for identifying new or other variables in his present
study. In short, it is proof that the current research is filling-in a research gap.
4. The sufficiency of related literature and studies also gives the researcher a feeling if
confidence or that there is a sufficient reason to pursue the study.
5. It gives the researcher information about the research design, the method used, the
data-gathering instrument, sampling techniques and others. Therefore, when related
literature and studies are sufficient, the researcher can proceed writing the proposal
without much problem and without much assistance front the research adviser.
6. It also provides the findings, the conclusions and recommendations offered by the
researcher by which the present researcher could related.
In some institutions, the review of related literature and studies is usually placed in a
separate chapter while some others place it in the first chapter where the background of the
study is discussed. Other authors, however, emphasize that when there is a dearth of
related literature and studies, it is quite awkward to provide a separate chapter for the review
of related literature and studies.
Since the review of related literature and studies is the scholarly foundation of the
study, the researcher should discuss extensively the relevant materials. The researcher
however, should be guided by the recency of the research materials. Some topics have
voluminous related literature and studies. In case the topic under investigation has sufficient
or too many related literature and studies, the researcher should be guided by the dates of

63
 publication. As much as possible, related studies that will be included in the research
should bear the latest dates.
How do we differentiate a related literature and related studies? (See, et.al.,2000)
defines related literature as all information which has substantial bearing on the study at
issue whose source/s could be quoted appropriately. This generic expression is divided into
two classes – the related literature and related studies.
Related Literature as a class refers to books, periodicals, magazines, newspaper,
legal reports and other published materials containing facts, laws, theories and other
documented observations.
Related Studies refer to theses, dissertations and research studies substantially
characterized by the presence of the following part: research problem, hypotheses,
objectives, related literature, methodology, findings, conclusions, recommendations and
bibliography.

Easy Steps in Writing Related Literature and Studies

Finding related literature and studies is usually looked at as a difficult step particularly
for beginning researchers. This is so because research in libraries. Most often than not, what
researchers are trying to find in libraries are topics similar as theirs. Students/researchers
should try to remember that no studies similar or the same as theirs could be found,
otherwise, their study duplicates with other studies. The following tips could be helpful to
new researchers in trying to look for related literature studies:
1. The researcher should always be guided by the topic under investigation. It is
suggested that the student should be able to identify the variables of the study, the
problems, the scope and delimitation and methodology.
2. Write down in a separate sheet or in an index card the titles of the theses,
dissertations and other materials researched. Write down the call number, the title,
author, date of publication, the school (for theses/dissertations). These will help you
find the materials with ease.
3. In the actual searching of the materials, it is advisable that for every topic
researched, one index card or paper be used. This is to avoid the possibility of
placing different topics in one card. After the information has been written, always
write in the card the source of the information. Correct bibliographic entries should
be observed. Label the card with “Related Literature” or “Related Studies.”
4. After reasonable search has been made, the index card should be arranged by
topic. Separate the card for related literature and the related studies.
5. Organize the related literature and related studies reviewed. Group together similar
topics or related studies.
6. Write a summative description of the research literature and studies undertaken
noting among others, the problems/objectives of the study, the scope, hypotheses
and methodology.
7. Compare the related studies reviewed with the current study. Always take note of
the similarities and differences between the previous studies reviewed and the
present investigation.

64
General Guidelines in Citing Related Literature and Studies
The following are the characteristics of related literature and studies that the
researcher may cite (Calderon, et.al.):
1. The materials must be as recent as possible.
2. Materials must be objective and unbiased as possible.
3. Materials must be relevant to the study.
4. Materials must not be too few and not too many.
Generally, Chapter 2 contains the following parts:
1. State of the Art
Related Literature
Related Studies
2. Synthesis of the State of the Art
3. Gap/s Bridged by the Present Study
Related Studies
1. It should be written in terms of purposes of the study.
2. The literature reviewed should be evaluated considering the following factors:
a. Formulation of the research hypotheses
b. Existence of biases (deliberate, non-deliberate, sampling observer)
c. Possible presence of effects related to research situation
d. Overlooking for important variables
e. Critical evaluation of measurement techniques
f. Critical evaluation of statistical analysis
3. It should give weight to studies considered more authoritative as evaluated and
should give preference to primary rather than secondary sources.
4. It should be organized thematically to conform to the specific problem.
5. It should synthesize evidence from all studies reviewed to get an overall
understanding of the state of knowledge in the problem area.
6. It may include expressed opinions of leasing figures in the field/subject of the study.
7. It should be exhaustive.
SYNTHESIS OF THE STATE OF THE ART
This part of the chapter includes a brief summary of the literature and studies
reviewed. It specifically stresses on the subject matter reviewed. From the related studies
reviewed, the researcher should be able to identify the similarities and differences of the
reviewed studies with the present investigation. It is in this part of the research where one is
able to identify whether the research being investigated is a novel one, a replication or a
duplication of another research.

65
GAP/S BRIDGED BY THE PRESENT STUDY
This part of the research/thesis identifies the variables which were not explored by
other researchers, thus, became the focus of the investigation. The gaps may either be
along the subject of the study, the methodology, the scope or coverage of the study or the
subjects or respondents of the study.
THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
As soon as the researcher has chosen the research topic, he should look at the
theory or principle that links the topic to available body of knowledge. Some schools usually
require students to have a separate discussion on theoretical and conceptual frameworks.
Other require either a theoretical or conceptual framework or both.
A theory is an organized body of concepts synthesized from studies, related facts or
observations which serve as an accepted explanation for the existence of truth of something.
(See, et.al., 2000). It is also a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and
propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among
variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena (Kerlinger,1986).
A framework is a fundamental structure which supports and gives shape to the
general body.
A theoretical framework is defined by See, et.al. as the logical presentations of the
theory or theories that is or are linked to each of the variables of the study which serves as
the fundamental structure of the thesis. It is also a logical presentation of the broad concepts
from which the specific concepts of the study are shaped. It is also a structure or skeleton
that presents the integration of relevant studies and principles into a new theory.
The theoretical or conceptual framework may either be based on theories or
concepts. If theories are directly referred to then the research study uses a theoretical
framework. On the other hand. If the study is based on concepts, then the research uses a
conceptual framework (Young, 2002).
The schematic diagram of the theoretical framework is usually labelled as “theoretical
model.”
Tips in Identifying Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
 Although undergraduate theses may not be theory driven, virtually all studies have
an unacknowledged conceptual basis. Concepts (which become research variables)
are by definition abstraction of observable phenomena, and our world view and
views and how those concepts are defined and operationalized. What often happens
is that researchers fail to clarify the conceptual underpinnings of their research
variables, thereby making it more difficult to integrate research findings. For
example, a research undertaking a study concerned with caring should make clear
which perspective on caring he or she has adopted.
 If you begin with a research problem and are trying to identify a suitable conceptual
framework, it is probably wise to confer with other – specially with people who may
be familiar with the broad range of theoretical perspective and are thus in a better
position to identify an appropriate framework.

66
 

 It is often suggested that a theory first be evaluated before it is used as a basis for a
research project – an enterprise that may be difficult for beginning researchers.
 In a qualitative study, evaluation criteria for a theory are somewhat different than in
quantitative study. In qualitative research in which a theory has been developed, the
degree of the theory’s fit with the data is considered the critical attribute.
 If you begin with a research question and then subsequently identify an appropriate
framework, be willing to adopt or augment your original research problem as you
gain greater understanding of the framework. The linking of the theory and research
questions often requires an iterative approach.
 If you are basing your study on a specific theory or conceptual framework, be sure to
read about the theory from a primary source. It is important to understand fully the
conceptual perspectives of the theories.
 It may also be useful to read research reports of other studies that were based on a
selected framework-even if the research problem is not similar to your own. By
reading other studies, you will be better able to judge how much empirical support
the theory has received and perhaps how the theory should be adopted.
 Once you have identified the appropriate framework, it is important to strive on
maximal congruity between the theory and its components, the research problem
and hypotheses, the definition and operationalization of the concepts and selection
of research design.
Construction of Theoretical Framework
Here are some methods in developing theoretical framework as identified by See.
et.al.:
Method 1 – Each variable or the concepts of the study is linked to a theory of theories.
Step 1. Identify the variables and concepts of the study.
Step 2. For each of the variables and concepts in the study, search for the
established or scientifically accepted associated theory or theories.
Step 3. Diagram the theories together with the title of the study with an arrow each
from the theory box to the study box.
Step 4. Present the textual explanation of the association of the theories with the
variables and concepts of the study.
Method 2 – Integration of relevant studies and other principles into a new theory.
Step 1. Identify and fix the topic of interest to pursue.
Step 2. Search for all relevant studies and concepts related to the topic of interest.
Step 3. Analyze the related literature.
Step 4. Integrate and synthesize the literature into one concept of theory.
Step 5. Presents in a diagram the related studies and principles and the emerging
new concept.
Examples of Theories:
a) Theories in Communication
 Socialization Theory
 Agenda-Setting Theory

67
  Gatekeeper Theory
 Cultivation Theory
 The Spiral of Silence Theory
 Cultural Imperialism Theory
 Media system Dependency Theory

b) Theories in Psychology
 Classical Conditioning Theory
 Operant Conditioning Theory
 Freud’s Psycho-Analytic Theory
 Perception Theories
 Cognitive-Dissonance Theory
 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
 Reinforcement theory

c) Theories is Political Science

 Rouseau’s Contract Theory of the Statue
 Conflict Theory

d) Theories/Models in Nursing Research

 Human Caring Model (Watson)
 Theory of Care-Seeking Behavior (Triandis)
 Development Health Model (Allen)
 Traits-State Anxiety Theory (Spielberger)
 Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura)
 Attachment Theory (Blowlby)
 King’s Open systems Model
 Levine’s Conservatory Model
 Neuman’s Health Care Systems
 Orem’s Self-Care Model
 Roy’ Adaption Model, etc.
OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK
This is the schematic framework of the research study that shows the
interrelationship among variables of the research. The independent, dependent, and
intervening variables, etc. are discussed and plotted using basic shapes and arrows that
indicate flow of direction, interaction, interdependence and interrelationships.
Below are research problems. Plot the conceptual paradigm showing the relationship
between the dependent and independent variables.
1. What are the characteristics of the third year Chemistry teachers in public secondary
schools in terms of:
a. educational attainment,
b. field of specialization and
c. number of years in teaching Chemistry?
2. What is the frequency of use of teaching techniques of third year Chemistry teachers
in public secondary schools?

68
3. What is the performance in the achievement test in Chemistry of third year secondary
school students?
4. Is there a significant relationship between the characteristics of chemistry teachers
and performance in the achievement test in Chemistry of the third year secondary
school students?
5. Is there a relationship between frequency of use of teaching techniques of third year
chemistry teachers and performance in the achievement test in chemistry of third
year secondary students?

69
 Evaluation:
Name ________________________________ Date _________________
ACTIVITY 1. Answer the following:
1. Give the purposes of review of related literature and studies.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. Give the general guidelines in citing related literature and studies.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

3. Cite the parts of Chapter 2.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

70
ACTIVITY 2. Answer the following

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES DEPENDENT VARIABLES

Figure 1. Conceptual Paradigm

Other info on the Review of Related Literature Certificate No. AJA19-0226

Related literature and studies consist of written documents and works. It

systematically presents facts, theories, constructs, concepts, variables, and measures
related to the study as culled from documents.
Organizing the Review of Related Literature and Studies
Organized related literature and studies inform the reader of what is a known
and conflicting area. The word “review” means that the research goes over the materials,
books, journals, articles, theses, dissertations and internet presentations. The purpose is to
determine what has been written about the problem. The word “related” means “similar”
especially on the problem dimension.
The purpose of this review is to inform the reader about what already is known
, what is not known or research blank spots ( unexplored areas) and blind spots (conflicting
areas) in the literature.

71
 Here are the major steps in a literature review according to Gale, Gale and
Borg.
Step 1: Search preliminary sources such as books, articles, these, etc.
Step 2: Use secondary sources – a document written by someone who do not actually
do the research.
Step 3: Read primary sources –obtain and study the original outputs of at least those
studies that are most central to your proposed investigation.
Step 4: Synthesize the literature – synthesize what you have learned in order to write
a little literature review.
Step 5: Identify recommendations for further research. Researchers often conclude
their reports with a discussion of issues raised by them and the recommendations for other
research that might be done. These issues and recommendations should be considered
carefully because they represent insights gained by the researcher after considerable study
of a given problem.
Step 6: Seek support for grounded theory. Many research studies are designed to test
a new theory that has been developed to explain the learning process or other educational
phenomena. Glaser (1078), however proposed that studies also can be designed such that
data collected first, then a theory is derived from these data. The resulting theory is called
grounded theory because it is “grounded” in a set of used data.

Related Literature
Related literature is also called conceptual literature. The gathering of
literature related to the research clarifies the different variables being studied. The related
literature removes any vagueness in the concepts central to the study. As the related
literature and studies are gathered, the different variables of the study are clarified, and the
limitation of the study is determined. The indicators per variable are clearly based on read
articles from different published reference books, textbooks, manuals, and other materials,
( Cristobal & Cristobal, 2013).
By organizing, integrating and evaluating such materials, the author of a
review article considers the progress of current research towards clarifying problem.
The different variables used in the study are the focus of the literature search.
The title, statement of the problem, scope and limitation, including the paradigm of the
study are the elements that give the research an idea of the relevance of the thesis to
his/her own investigation.
The number of materials to be gathered for the literature review depends upon
the researcher’s believes that important concepts and variables have been adequately
explained and established.

72
Related Studies
Determining whether the research is objective and empirically-based includes
surveying previous studies that involve similar variables (Cristobal & Cristobal, 2013). It is
important to note that even if a previous research used the same variables as his or hers,
the two studies may vary in the limitations in terms of the sub-variables investigated or in
germs of focus and purpose.
An adequate review of related studies is needed. This serves as a basis of the
analysis of results because it allows the researcher to compare and contrast his/her findings
with those of previous studies. The results of a study are verified by similar findings or
negated by different findings of previous researches.
The studies are in the form of theses, dissertations, or journal articles. These
are collectively called research literature.
The collected studies are related to the present study when the author uses
the same variables, sub-variables, concepts, or constructs, and have same subject or topic
of the study.
In the review of a related study; the following are indicated:
1. the name of the author, the date and the setting of the study was
conducted
2. the title
3. the salient findings

73
Name ___________________________________________ Date ___________

Read the samples of the Related Literature and answer the question below.

Leadership Preparation Program

An important aspect of leadership expertise is to propel student learning (Murphy

& Vriesenga, 2006). However, reviews found that the effect of school leaders without
leadership preparation on student achievement is near zero (Morris, 2010). Some authors
like Grogan and Andrews (2002). Hess and Kelly (2005) express that many preparation
programmers have been relatively slow in preparing future school leaders.

What are the blind spots/conflicting areas?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Leadership Preparation Program

The recognition of school principal role to improve students learning remains

inevitable. In this sense, formal and structured initial orientation as well as essential
leadership training is still in need for principals (Khan , Ahmed, Ali Fayyaz-ur Rehman,
2011). However the preparation program of student learning and school improvement
received very little attention from educators, policy makers and government officials due to
the lack of principal leadership preparation (Atlam and Hogue, 2010).

What is the blank /unexplored area?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

74
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

School personnel have long talked about the need for “parent involvement”. In
recent years the language has shifted to “family involvement” in order to honor that many
other family members (Ferguson, n.d.) parents, grandparents, foster parents, siblings,
aunts and uncles, even close friend and neighbors (Ferguson,n.d; Onikama Hammond
and Koki,n.d; Carlisle, Stanley and Kemple, 2006) – support and nurture children and
youth and may play significant roles (Ferguson,n.d.). However, Epstien (2005) cited that
school, family and community partnership is a better term compared to parental
involvement in to recognition of the fact those parents, educators, and others in the
community share responsibilities for students learning and development. With this
approach, there is a wide range of responsibilities for parent involvement in school
activities with the support of the community.

Can you identify the synoptic and argumentative parts?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.

75
Documentation Style
Throughout the research, the published researches of other researchers are
cited to credit those who prepared the foundation for your work. To present someone else’s
ideas or work as your own is to commit plagiarism. Plagiarism is a serious breach of ethics.
Reference citations (giving others credit when credit is due) must be included in your paper
wherever else’s ideas or work has influenced your thinking and writing ( Gravetter &
Forzano, 2006)
The American Psychological Association (APA) is a popular style commonly
used by researchers in documentation or reference citation. The APA format is also called
the author-date method of parenthetical documentations or in-text citation.
Documentation refers to the acknowledgement of sources. These sources are
cited as direct quotations or as indirect quotations (paraphrases).
Colleges, universities, and institutions make their own choice of documentation
style. This may be defined as style of citation or acknowledgement of authorities or sources.

Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is using or putting in one’s own words to restate the author’s
ideas, and acknowledging the source to give credit to the original author (de Belen, 2015).
Paraphrasing

 Is used when we want to express someone else’s idea in our own

words.
 Uses different words to express the same idea.
 Is rewriting the text in order to simplify focusing not only on what is said
but also on how it is said.
 Makes the understanding of the source text less difficult by breaking
down the information into manageable units.

Paraphrasing Techniques

Replace a word with a synonym

 Paraphrasing can be longer or shorter than the original. Concentrate

on the meaning not on the words.
 Verbs and adjectives have counterparts that are interchangeable with
the author’s original words.
 Not all synonyms have exact meanings (look at a thesaurus and
double check with a dictionary).
 Avoid using abstract words –they come as weak words

76
  Use of synonyms is a problem in scientific writing because often there
is only one word to describe a certain action or object. It is better to
keep the important words and change the sentence structure.

Evaluation:
Name _______________________________
A. Read the sample related literature then answer the questions that follow.

Behavioral Problems
The issues children’s challenging behavior in schools is highly relevant in today’s
society and is one of the most common causes of stress for teachers (Johnstone, 1993;
Borg, 1990; Evers, 2004 & Head, 2005). There has been a significant body of work over
the years relating to the subject of disruptive pupil’s behavior in schools (Hunter, 2003;
Bru, 2006). The main focus of such research was the development of a clearer concept of
disruptive behavior in order to devise strategies to which can be employed within the
classroom to assist the teacher in dealing with such behavior (Porfer, 2000).

Questions:
1. What is the theme/topic?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
2. Who are the authors who cited that children’s behaviour in school is highly relevant in
today’s society?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
3. What information did Hunter, (2009) and Bru (2006) cite?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________.

B. Read the literature

School, Factors

Chua (2006), said that “ The school is considered as children’s second home,
meaning it is considered the extension of their own home. In school policies, attitudes and
behaviours of teachers, administrators, the students and also the overall atmosphere or

77
 school ethics, determine the internal life on social, emotional and motivation climate of the
school” (Kasen, 2004).

Cite the argument about school factors.

Chua (2009)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.

Kasen (2004)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

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Lesson 12: Developing a Conceptual Framework/ Theoretical Framework
I. Objectives:
1. Construct a conceptual framework model.
2. Analyse a given theoretical framework.
II. Content:
Conceptual framework
The conceptual framework guides the researcher by making the direction of
the research clearer. The word theory is a conceptual invention that is used to describe,
explain, predict, or understand a certain phenomenon. Theoretical framework is the structure
showing the research design and methodology or the entire process of research using a
theory or theories for developing a hypothesis or testing another one or more theories
intended learning outcomes.
This is the basic structure that serves as a mental window of the researcher because
it depicts the research design and the relationships of the variables involved.
A conceptual framework is a written or visual presentation that explains either
geographically, or in narrative form, the main things to be studied, the key factors, concepts
or variables and the presumed relationship among them.

What specific forms might a conceptual framework take? The possibilities include:
 Flowcharts
 Tree diagram
 Shape-based diagram
 Triangles
 Concentric circles
 For programs, courses
 Mind maps
 Software systems

A “flow chart” of innovation decision making prior conditions:

1 . previous practice
2 Felt needs
3 Innovativeness
4 Norms of the social system communications channel

A conceptual framework provides direction for programs, courses, teaching and

others. Granatin (n.d.) state that “conceptual framework is the researcher’s own position on
the problem and gives direction to the study”. Aside from showing the direction of the study,
through the conceptual framework, the researcher is able to show the relationships of the
different constructs that he wants to investigate.

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 The conceptual framework utilizes the independent-dependent model used in
behavioral sciences. In the context of the study, the identified independent variables-factors
affecting the behavior of pupils within the public school setting are: family, community,
teachers and learning environment. The dependent variables include the behavior problems
within the public school setting-internalizing behavior (inattentive, uncooperative, and
inactive) and externalizing behavior (aggression, disobedience, impulsiveness)

Study the Conceptual Framework

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Theoretical Framework
Theories are statements about the mechanism underlying a particular
behaviour. Theories help organize and verify different observations related to the behaviour
and good theories will generate predictions about the behaviour.
A theory is constructed to explain, predict and master phenomenon ( e.g.
relationship, events, or the behaviour. In many instances, we are constructing models of
reality. A theory makes generalization about observations and consists of an interrelated,
coherent set of ideas and models.
Theoretical framework is similar to the frame of the house just as the
foundation supports a house, a theoretical framework provides a rationale for predictions
about the relationship among variables of a research study, (Mehta, n.d.).
Theoretical framework identifies the variables investigated in the study. It
illustrates how the variables interact with each other as hypothesized in the research by the
aid of diagrams.

80
 Theory provides patterns for the interpretation of data, links one study to
another, supplies framework within which concepts and variables acquire special
significance and allows us to interpret the larger meaning of our findings for ourselves and
others.

The study below is anchored on three theories that help us understand the behaviour of
children
Title: Analysis of Behavioural Problems of Pupils in Public School Setting

Theorist(s) Explanation of the Theory

Theory of The theory of constructing constructivism emphasizes the
Constructivism by Jean learners social interaction with knowledgeable members of the
Piaget (1920) society.

Theory of Behaviorism Behaviorism is concerned with the behaviors that are

by John B. Watson associated with feelings and thinking, imagining or desiring.
(1913)

Psycho-Social Theory The theory states that successful completion of each stage
by Erik Erickson (1994) results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic
virtues. Basic virtues are characteristics strengths which the ego
can use to resolve subsequent crises.

81
Assignment:
Name ________________________________________ Date __________
A. Read the Title. Think of the attributes or variables for the study. You may look for studies
related to the study. Construct the conceptual framework/model.
Title: Women as School Principals: What is the Challenges?

B. Read a journal article and study the theoretical framework.

Analyse the theoretical framework

82
Evaluation:
Name :_______________________________________ Date ___________
A. Read : Indicate the answers to the question below.
A sample theoretical framework
“ A popular and validated method of assessing learning is the Kolb’s Learning
Style Inventory (LSI), which allows comparisons of learning styles. It measures both
individual’s learning potential when placed in different environments and his learning style
when challenged to acquire new material (Dibartola, 2006). This method is based on the
theory of experiential learning, separating learners based on the y-axis of information-
perception (learning by experience on thinking) and the x-axis of information-processing
(learning by doing or reflecting). Learning is thus divided into four stages. Active
experimentation (AE) (doing), abstract conceptualization (AC) (thinking), concrete
experience (CE) (watching), and reflective observation (RO) (feeling) (Jack, Kenkara, Sarilla,
2010). Ideal learning incorporates all four components, but individuals tend to have stronger
prefernces toward specific methods. Kolb established four categories of learning styles;
diverging, assimilating, converging and accommodating (Caulley, Wodey, Freeman, 2012).”

1. What are the variables investigated in the study?

2. What are the patterns for the interpretation of data?

83
3. What are the central concepts integral to the study?

B. Read. Analyze the theoretical framework below.

Title: Collaborative Partnership: A Model for School Teacher Education and
Professional Development
Melita Jones, 2009
Theoretical Framework
This model provides a structure within which partnership will work
collaboratively to plan, implement and reflect on a series of science lessons in cycle of
action-reflection adopted from Korthagen’s (2001) ALACT model. Issues within science
education, teacher professional development and teacher education are considered in the
development of a model which attempts to deepen constructivist approaches of teachers’
professional learning. It attempts to address issues which teacher professional development
in the science area and improve professional experience practice for pre-service teachers.
The nexus between theory and practice is the focus of the model which hopes to inform both
teacher education and professional development for science teacher in the primary section.
1. What are the variables?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain the theory.

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Lesson 13: RESEARCH DESIGN
I. Objectives:
1. know what is a research design
2. categorize the types of researches according to research method.
II. Content
Research Design
What is Research Design?
Research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data. It aids the researcher in the allocation of his limited resources by posing
crucial choices. It is the blueprint that include experiments, interviews, observation, analysis
of records, or combination of theses. (Cooper and Schindler, 1998).
Research design is the plan and structure of the investigation conceived so as to
obtain answers to research questions. The plan is the overall scheme of program of the
research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do until the final analysis of the
data.
According to See, et.al., research design or thesis design refers to the overall plan
for the conduct of a specific research project. Substantially, it is the same as thesis outline.
Research design is synonymous with the term methods of research. This refers to a
categorized procedure for conducting research. It also pertains to the classified or
categorized type of research named after the procedure for conducting research. The most
popular classifications of research method are the following:
1. Historical
2. Descriptive
a. Qualitative (i.e., case study, ethnographic research)
b. Quantitative (i.e., survey, cross-sectional, longitudinal such as trend studies,
cohort studies, panel studies)
3. Correlational
4. Ex-post facto
5. Evaluation
6. Experimental
7. Exploratory
The research design guides the researcher in…..

85
  Identifying the population of the study
 Decision on whether to take the whole population or just select a
sample
 How the sample of the study will be selected
 Ethics in the selection of samples and data gathering
 Choice of method in data collection
 Considerations in the use of questionnaires
 How interviews will be conducted.

Research Design in Quantitative Method

The choice of a study would depend largely on the philosophical perspective,
objective of the study, the inquiry mode, and the applicability of research findings.
In quantitative research, some of the commonly used designs are classified by
examining them from three different perspective; (1) the number of contacts with the
study population; (2) the reference period of the study; and (3) the nature of
investigation, (Kumar , 2011)
1. Research Designs Based on the Number of Contacts
1.1 Cross-sectional studies are commonly used in the social sciences. These
studies aim to find out the prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or issue,
by taking a cross-section of the population.
The cross-sectional study is simple in design. The researcher decides what he wants
to find out, identify the study population, and select a sample if needed, and contact the
respondents to find out the required information.
1.2 The before and after design (also known as the re-test/post-test design).
This design can measure change is a situation, phenomenon, issue, problem or attitude. The
before and after design can be described as two sets of cross-sectional data collection
points on the same population to find out the change in the phenomenon or variable
between two points in time. The change is measured by comparing the difference in the
phenomenon or variable before and after the intervention. Depending upon how it is set-up,
a before and after study may be either an experiment or non-experiment. It is commonly
used design in evaluation studies. The difference between the two sets of data collection
points with respect to the dependent variable is considered to be the impact of the program
or process evaluated.
1.3 The longitudinal study design. This is useful to determine the pattern of extent
of change in a phenomenon, situation, problem or attitude in relation to time. Under this
design, the study population is visited a number of times at regular intervals, usually over a
longer period. Intervals may be as short as a week or longer than a year. Irrespective of the
size of the interval, the type of information gathered each time is identical. The data collected
may come from the same study population but it may or may not be from the same
respondents. A longitudinal study can be characterized as a series of repetitive cross-
sectional studies.

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2. Research Design Based on a Reference Period
The reference period refers to the time frame in which a study is exploring a
phenomenon, situation, event or problem and may be categorized as follows;
2.1 The retrospective study design is used to investigate phenomenon, situation,
event or problem that has happened in the past. The study may be conducted either on the
basis of the data available for that period or on the basis or respondents recall of the
situation.

2.2 The prospective study design attempts to establish the outcome of an event or
what is likely to happen, such as the likely prevalence of phenomenon, situation, event or
problem, or attitude or outcome in the future. Experiments are usually classified as
prospective studies since the researcher must wait for an intervention to register its effect on
the study population.
2.3 The retrospective –perspective study design. This applies to a study wherein
available data are analyzed sand used as a bases of future projections. It does not involve a
control group. Trend studies falls under this category.
3. Research Designs Based on the Nature of the Investigation
3.1 The experimental design has an assumption of a cause-and-effect relationship.
In this design, the researcher introduces the intervention that is assumed to be the cause of
change and waits until it has produced the change.
3.2 In the non-experimental design, the researcher observes a phenomenon and
attempts to establish what caused it, In this instance, the research starts from the effect or
outcome and attempts to determine causation.
3.3. A semi-experimental or quasi-experimental study has the properties of both
experimental studies; part of the study may be experimental and the other part non-
experimental.

Research Design in Qualitative Method

1. Case Study
This is a dominant qualitative study design but also prevalent in quantitative
research. A case could be an individual, a group, a community, an instance, an episode, an
event, a subgroup of a population, a town or a city. To be called a case study, it is important
to treat the total study population as one entity.
It is a very useful design when exploring an area where little is known or where you
want to have a holistic understanding of the situation, phenomenon, episode, site, group, or
community. This design is relevant when the focus of the study is on extensively exploring
and understanding rather than confirming and quantifying (Kumar, 2011).
2. Grounded Theory

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 This is an approach to qualitative research data collection and analysis in the social
sciences. As cited by Hennink, Hutter and Bailey (2011), grounded theory is not a theory
itself; but a process for developing empirical theory from qualitative research that consists of
a set of tasks and underlying principles through which theory can be built up through careful
observation of the social world.
3. Phenomenology
A qualitative research design which studies all possible appearances in human
experience using empirical method (i.e. asking, observing, analysing data, etc.) to make
empirically grounded statements that can be generalized. Various aims can be pursued such

as describing a phenomenon, or to evaluate an intervention or institution in the interest of

knowledge production (Flick, 2011).
4. Ethnography
This is a research process which deals with the scientific description of individual
cultures involving the origins, development and characteristics of human kind, including
social customs, beliefs and cultural development (Wiersma and Jurs, 2009).
5. Mixed Methods
Refers to the research design that uses both quantitative and qualitative data to
answer a particular question or sets of questions. In the mixed methods design “words,
pictures and narratives can be used to add meaning to numbers” ( Biber, 2010).

Research Method
This refers to the philosophical, theoretical, conceptual, and analytic
perspective of research. It can be quantitative, qualitative or mixed method.

Approach
Refers to the first step in creating structure to the design and it details a
conceptual model or framework of how the research will proceed, considering the objectives
of the variables of the study.

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Individual Activity
Name ______________________________________Date _________________
A. Read the sample research titles below and answer the question that follows.
1. “The Attitudes of Parents towards the K-12 Curriculum”.
Question: What research design is appropriate to use in this study? Justify your answer.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
2. “The Farming Practices of Filipinos in the 1980s”
Question: Can this be classified as a retrospective research? If yes, what data can be sought
in the research design?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.
3. “Training on Kumon and its Effect on the Math Performance of Elementary Pupils”
Question: What type of research design is appropriate to use in this research? Explain your
answer.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

89
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.

B. What research design would you create in any of the following research topics?
1. “A study on the Personal and Professional Qualities of Teachers”
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.

2. “The impact of K-12 Curriculum on the Issue of Employability of Graduates”

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.

3. “The LET Passing Percentage of Selected Private Teacher-training Institutions: Towards

Developing a LET Review Program”
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

90
Evaluation:
Name _______________________________________ Date ___________

A. Write in your own words your own understanding of the following concepts.
Research design

Research Approach

Research Method

B. Identify the types of research design described in the items below,

1. It is used to determine the pattern of extent of change in a phenomenon, situation, etc, in
relation to time. ______________________________________
2. It attempts to establish the outcome of an event, or what is likely to happen in the
future.________________________________
3. It has an assumption of a cause and effect relationship when an intervention is introduced
or used. ______________________________________

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Lesson 14. Locale and Respondents of the Study
I. Objectives
1. state the research setting and respondents of the study
2. compute the percentage of the respondents from the study population
II. Contents
A. Locale of the Study

 The research setting can be seen as the physical, social, and cultural site in
which the researcher conducts the study. In qualitative research, the focus is
mainly on meaning-making and the researcher studies the participants in their
natural setting (http://methods .sagepub.com retrieved 07/09/2019)
 The place where researchers chose to conduct their study.
 Locale of the study is the setting of the research study.
 It describes in brief the place where the study is conducted.

Example 1:
This study took place at Ponce Campus of the Inter American University of Puerto
Rico (IAU) during the fall semester of 2000. IAU is the largest private university in Puerto
Rico with nine campuses around the Island. The Ponce Campus is a four-year college
supporting undergraduate careers in education, business, computer, natural and social
sciences. Admission requirements include the College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB),
administered at their schools. These standardized test are equivalent to the SAT or ACT
required at colleges and universities in the continental United States. Its maximum score is
800 points in each of the following areas: mathematics, reasoning, English, and Spanish
languages. Students who score 500 or more points on this test are placed in their first
mathematics course, a mathematics-reasoning course. Students’ with scores below 500, are
placed in a basic skills mathematics course.
Among the college institutions of the area, the Ponce Campus of IAU has become
one of the leaders in the use of the technology. The Internet is widely used in diverse
modalities, supporting distance learning courses and academic programs. The
Technological facilities of the Campus include a large number of computers located
strategically in over five open laboratories, and at a Center of Information Access.
(www.google.com retrieved 07/09/2019)

92
Example 2:
The school we have chosen is the school where the researchers are assigned in their
Field Study (FS) subject. This school is now having the name as Little Baguio Elementary
School situated at Barangay, Iba Zambales. It is headed by their Teacher-In-Charge Mrs.
Mari Flo M. Aysip. The said school is a small school only as, perceived in the school, it has
only small population to accommodate. (https://www.academia.edu retrieved 07/09/2019)

Note: After discussing the research setting, show a map where the study took place.

B. Respondents of the Study

 Are those persons who have been invited to participate in a particular study
and have actually taken part in the study. This applies to both qualitative and
quantitative studies. https://methods.sagepub.com retrieved 07/10/2009.
 Respondents are derived from the sample that is constructed for a qualitative
study. https://methods.sagepub.com retrieved 07/10/2009.
 Participants, respondents and subjects are the people who the researcher
selects for their study https://quizlet.com retrieved 07/10/2019

Example 1:
The chosen population includes those early preschool centers that are members of
the Association of Cristian Early Education through the Association of Christian School
International (ACSI). There are approximately 3,000 member early education programs
affiliated with ACSI. The corporate office will assist in contacting members in the early
childhood centers represented in the 10 regions across United States of America to
encourage their participation in the research study. The 10 regions are Northern California
and Hawaii, Southern California, Mid-America (IL,IN, IA, MI, NE, ND, SD, WI ), Florida,
Southeast (AL, GA, MS, NC. SC. TN, VA ), Mid-Atlantica (PA, NJ, DC, DE, MD), Rocky
Mountain (NV, WY, AZ, NM, CO), Northwest (MT, ID, OR, WA, AK), Ohio River Valley (OH,
KY, WV ), and South Central (TX, LA, AR, OK, MO, KS). The contact announcement will
inform participants of the importance of their survey participation and provide instructions
and the necessary web link to the researcher in order to secure their unique access code.
The survey will ask respondents to select curriculum used in a random sample of private
Christian preschool programs across the 10 regions of the United States. Empirical data
collected will provide measure of research-based teaching, curriculum implementation, and
organizational effectiveness as compared to research-based principles of effective early
childhood programs (Alisa Shook Dyson, 2006)

Example 2
This study was conducted in preschools randomly chosen from a pool of preschools
in a large Midwestern Metropolitan area. In addition to student demographic

93
representativeness, 2criteria were used to establish the pool of schools: a) the schools are
full-day programs for children 3-5 years of age, and b) curriculum should be in line with state
standards providing developmental education for different aged children. . The student body
at the 2 schools was ethnically and socioeconomically diverse with parental backgrounds
ranging from low to upper-middle class. (Bo Shen, Gwen Alexander, Sharon Milberger, Kai-
Lin C. Jan , 2013)

Example 3
The study took as respondents’ ten (10) randomly selected parents in each
community making a total of 200 respondents for all the twenty (20) barangays of the
municipality of Maydolong. (Lalaine Lerma Ladiao, Vickie Myril Yadao, Luzlyn Azura Café,
2018)

Assignment:
1. Search for maps were your study took place and label it as figure 1. Map of your
research setting. If you can’t find in the google draw the map of your research locale.
2. Get the total study population of your research.
3. Write your locale and respondents of the study.

94
Evaluation
Name _____________________________________ Date ___________

1. In a matrix form, get the percentage of the following

Total study population- 1300
BEED - 430
BSED - 320
BSIT - 300
BSCRIM - 250

2. If your locale is ESSU-Maydolong, how will you describe the school as your research
setting?

95
Lesson 15. Sampling Technique
I. Objectives
1. define terms and concepts in sampling technique.
2. distinguish the advantages/purposes of sampling.
3. be familiar with defective sampling; and
4. recognize the different types of sampling
II. Content
Sampling Techniques
Every research activity is a scientific process; hence strict measures have to
be done or carried out in order to avoid bias. The dictionary defines bias as an influence that
can cause a distortion in research findings due to an oversight in the investigation. Since the
total population cannot always be covered in every study, there is a need to conduct the
study using a reliable sample group. The selection of sample is guided by systematic
procedures and strategies. (Almeida, A, Gaerlan, A. , Manly, N. 2016)
In undertaking an investigation, sometimes the target population is so large
that is more practical to use the responses of the sub-groups in estimating the response of
the over-all group. However, there are also survey researches which do not require sampling
since the target population is already small. Or, even if the population is so large but the
researcher opt to take them all, there is no need for sampling. (Bermudo, Araojo, Morales,
Yango , 2014)
The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements of the
population, (Bermudo, Araojo, Morales, Yango , 2014).
A Sample is the small group that the researcher wants to observe. In the book of (Bermudo,
Araojo, Morales, Yango , 2014) Ferguson (1976) defines sample as “any sub-aggregate
drawn from the population or a portion of the population”.
Sampling .The process which involves taking part of the population, making observations on
this representative groups, and then generalizing the findings of the bigger population.
(Almeida, A, Gaerlan, A. , Manly, N. 2016)

96
 This refers to strategy by which the researcher takes a smaller group of the
population or universe and makes generalization for the whole population.
(Bermudo, Araojo, Morales, Yango , 2014).
 This is a strategy adopted by the researcher to save time, money, and effort
in collecting the data.
 This is a process of selecting a few from a bigger group to become the basis
for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of
information, situation or outcome, regarding the bigger group. Kumar (2011).

Purposes/Advantages of Sampling (Calderon et.al)

1. Sampling makes possible in the study of a large, heterogeneous

population. The universe or population to be studied may be too large or
unlimited that it is almost impossible to reach them all.

2. Sampling is for economy. Research without sampling may be too costly.

Sampling reduces the population to a reasonable size that expenses are
greatly reduced.

3. Sampling is for speed. Research without sampling might be too time

consuming. If a research takes a long time to finish, there may be intervening
factors that deter the researcher from finishing his research.

4. Sampling is for accuracy. If it takes too long a time to cover the whole
study population, there may be inaccuracy. By the time the person is
interviewed, the data gathered from the first interviewers may be obsolete
already so that conclusions are no longer accurate. The research must be
finished within a reasonable time so that data are still true, valid and reliable.

5. Sampling saves the sources of data from being all consumed. The act
of gathering the data may consume all the sources of information without
sampling.

Disadvantages

1. If the sampling is biased, or not representative, or too small, the

conclusions may not be valid and reliable.

2. In research, the respondents to a study (the sample) must have a common

characteristic which is the basis of the study. If some of the sample do not
have this common characteristics, the conclusion become faulty.

97
3. If the population is very large and there are many sections and
subsections, the sampling procedure become very complicated. It would be
difficult to assign numbers to the elements (members) of the population or it
would be very difficult to write the names alphabetically on pieces of papers
to be placed in a raffle box.

4. If the researcher does not possess the necessary skills and technical
know-how in sampling procedure, the sampling becomes biased and
unrepresentative.

Sampling Concepts and Terminologies

Element is the unit about which information is collected and which

provides the basis for analysis. They are the members of the population.
These

are certain types of people, families, social clubs and the like. Elements and
units of analysis are often the same but the former refers to the sample
selection while the latter refers to the data analysis. For instance, the families
in the slum area are the subjects of investigation. While selecting the families
to be included in the sample, they are called elements but when the data
have already been gathered and analysed, the families are called units of
data analysis.

1. Population is the theoretically specific aggregation of the elements. This

also called universe. Suppose a study is to be conducted to determine the
profile of the college students of a university. The term population includes all
the college students whether full time, part time, professional, working, male
or female.

2. Study population is that aggregation of the elements from which the

sample is actually selected. In the study of college students, only the full time
male and female students may be included, all other types of students are
excluded.

3, Samples are elements (people) who are actually selected to participate or

to be the subject of the study.

4. Sampling Unit is the element or set of elements considered for selection

in some state of sampling. In a simple, single stage sampling, the sampling
units are the same as the elements. However, in a more complex sampling,
different levels of sampling units may be employed. For examples, the first
sampling unit, the primary sampling units is census blocks, the second
sampling unit, secondary sampling unit, the households: and third units
called the final sampling unit, the adults.

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5. Sampling frame is the actual list of sampling units from which the sample,
or some stage of the sample, is selected. If a sample of students is selected
from a student’s roster, the roster is the sampling frame. Sampling frame is
also the list of elements composing the study population (single-stage
sampling).

6. Variable is a set of exclusive attribute. Examples are sex, age,

employment status etc. the elements of the population may be described in
terms of their individual attributes on a given variable. Thus, the researcher
may describe the age by examining the relative frequency of their ages. A
variable must possess variation. If all the elements in the population possess
the same attribute, the attribute is constant in the population rather than part
of the variable.

7. Parameter is the summary description of a given variable in a population.

The mean income, the mean age of all families are parameters. The age
distribution of all people is a parameter.

8. Sampling error is the degree of error of a sample statistics when

compared with the sample parameter. The maximum sampling error is 5%.

9. Representative sampling. A sample will be representative of the

population from which it is selected if the aggregate characteristics of the
sample closely approximate those same aggregate characteristics in the
population. Put in in another way, a sample will be representative of the
population if all the members in the population have an equal chance of being
selected in the sample.

10. Sampling Stratum is that group, section or category of elements from

which selection is made in some stage of sampling. In a single-stage
sampling, the sampling stratum is the population. However, in a more
complex sampling, different levels of sampling strata may be employed.

TYPES OF SAMPLING

1. Probability Sampling –in a probability sampling, the sample is a

proportion (a certain percent) of the population and such sample is selected
from the population by means of some systematic way in which every
element in the population has a chance of being included in the sample.
(Bermudo, Araojo, Morales, Yango , 2014)

1.1 Pure Random sampling. This type of sampling is one in which

every one in the population has an equal chance of being selected or
included in the sample. This type of sampling is commonly known as lottery
or raffle type of sampling. Pure random sampling can be used if there are no
levels, sections of classes identified.

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 The following are the simple steps in pure random sampling:
a) Determine the population of the study
b) Determine the desired sample size (You can use the Pagoso
formula, Gay’s formula or other formulae in determining the sample size);
c) List down the respondents (population) of the study in a sheet of
paper;
d) Write in small sheets of paper, names of the respondents or codes,
roll these pieces of papers and place them in a box big enough to
accommodate them. Shake thoroughly the box.
e) Draw the sample one at a time after shaking the box until the
desired sample size is drawn. The names drawn are included in the sample.

1.2 Systematic sampling or interval random sampling. In this

technique, every nth name in a list may be selected to be included in the
sample. This is used when the respondents are arranged in some systematic
manner or logical manner such as alphabetical arrangement, residential or
house arrangements, geographical placement etc.

The formula applied is ; K = N

n

Where : K = desired interval

N = population
n = sample size

Steps in doing the systematic sampling:

a) Identify the population of the study
b) Determine the desired sample size, then, apply the formula above.
For example, if you have a population of 800 and your desired sample size is
10%, then, you will have a sample of 80. Applying the formula above (800/80
=10), the sampling interval is 10.
c) Hence, every 10th in the list (or arrangement of households as the
case maybe ) is taken as member of the sample.
d) Close your eyes and run your finger down the list and then stop.
The number, which the finger points to at, is the random start number.
e) from the random start number, pick every 10th in the list (or
arrangement of the households) until the desired sample size of 80 is
obtained.

1.3 Stratified Random Sampling. It is the process of selecting

randomly, samples from the strata of the population used in the study. This
technique is used when the respondents of the study has class stratification
or grouping.

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 The following procedures should be observed:

a) Determine the stratum or class to which all elements in the

population belong.
b) Group elements of the population according to the characteristics
inherent in the whole class or stratum.
c) Apply either the pure random sampling method or systematic
sampling in the actual selection of the sample. Do this for every class or
stratum.

Note: The sample size should be proportional or the same percent is

applied for each class or stratum.

1.4 Purposive Sampling. This is determining the target population,

those to be involved in the study. The respondents are chosen based on their
knowledge of the subject being studied or information desired.

For example, if the topic of investigation is rice production, the

respondents should be rice farmers or agricultural or any other
knowledgeable persons in the field of agriculture.
The researcher should however, take note that the actual selection of
the sample is done through pure random sampling or systematic sampling.

However, if the population is composed of different groups or strata, then,

stratified random sampling may be applied.

1.5 Cluster Sampling. This is a probability sampling wherein

elements of the population are randomly selected in naturally occurring
groupings or clusters. In this kind of sampling, the selection of population
elements is not individually but in aggregates. The clustering of sampling
units may be based on geographical locations (i.e. regional, groupings), type
of organisation or classes (i.e. school districts, grade 10 class, etc.)
This is used when the population is so big or the geographical area of
the research is so large. The procedure usually involves dividing the
population into clusters or blocks and then within the final cluster, apply any
of the methods of selecting sample.

Suppose a study is to be conducted to determine the standards of instruction

in a certain region of the country in the elementary schools. Take for granted
that there are nine provinces in the region and the proportion of the
population to be sampled is 20% . The steps are;

a. Make a listing of the sampling units, the primary sampling units ( the
first clusters to be sampled ) , the secondary sampling unit (the second
clusters to be sampled within the primary sampling unit) etc. Suppose the
provinces are the primary sampling units, the towns are the secondary
sampling units, and the barangays are the final sampling units. These are
called natural clusters.

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 b. Since the sample is 20%, 20% OF 9 provinces equals 1.8 or 2
provinces. Select these two provinces either by pure or systematic random
sampling.

c. Within each of these two (2) provinces, select 20% of the towns
either by pure or systematic random sampling.

d. Within each town selected, choose 20% of the barangays. Since

there is only one elementary school in a barrio or barangay, this is the final
sampling unit or cluster. The respondents in the study are to be selected from
these final clusters. The respondents may be stratified into teachers, parents
or pupils. The respondents have to be taken from these stratified groups by
either pure random or systematic random sampling.

2. Non-probability sampling – in non- probability sampling, the sample is

not a proportion of the population and there is no system in selecting the
sample. The selection depends upon the situation. (Bermudo, Araojo,
Morales, Yango , 2014)

2.1 Availability Sampling

The sample elements are selected from the target population
based on their availability, on the convenience of the researcher, and/ or
voluntary/self-selection. According to Daniel (2012) , availability sampling is
the most frequent used sampling procedure in research. Some reasons for
this are: it is the least complicated sampling procedure. However, availability
sampling has its weaknesses, such as; it cannot target specific elements of
the population. It is least reliable; it does not represent population elements
that are not readily accessible, that are uncooperative and are hidden.
Moreover, it underestimates the variability in the population.

2.2 Quota Sampling

The population is divided into mutually exclusive
subcategories, and the researcher solicits participation in the study from
members of the subcategories until a target number of elements to be
sampled from the subcategories have been met.

2.3 Respondent-Assisted Sampling

In this sampling procedure, the elements are selected from a
target population with the assistance of previously population elements. This
sampling procedure is often used inn studying social networks, rare
populations, and hidden populations such as drug dealers and users and
other criminals or commercial sex workers, etc.

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 3. Mixed -Method Sampling – a sampling method that combines different
types of sampling method into a single design. This is supported by the idea
that the weaknesses of one method may be compensated by the strengths of
other method that is used. The use of mixed methods research designs was
spurred by the application of two key concepts, “multi method, multi-trait
matrix and triangulation” which were introduced by Campbell & Fiskie in 1959
9(multi method-multi-trait) and the four types of triangulation by Denzin
(2009); data triangulation, method logical triangulation, investigator
triangulation, and theory triangulation” (in Daniel, 2012). (Adelaida B.
Almeida, Amelita A. Gaerlan & Norita E. Manly, 2016)

3.1 Telephone-Based Sampling – a sampling procedure that utilizes

numbers as sampling units. According to research, telephone surveys were
the dominant survey methodology since the 1980s. There were two subtypes
of telephone-based sampling, list-based sampling taken from the telephone
directories, list of employees, customers, etc., and random digit sampling
(RDD). The random sampling procedures previously discussed can also be
applied in the telephone-based sampling procedure.

3.2 Web-based sampling – email addresses, website visits, and

recruited users of the internet are utilized as sampling units.
Category
 List-based sampling
 Sampling of website visits

 Sampling from recruited panels

3.3 Address-based Sampling (ABS) – postal addresses are utilized

as sampling units. The ABS sampling is used mostly in national surveys.
3.4 Time-based Sampling – Units of time are used as sampling units
in this type of sampling. This is used in studying repeated outcomes that vary
a great deal over time. The units of time may be time of the day, days of the
week, months of the year, or some other time unit. The time intervals may be
sampling units. The length interval would depend in part on the rate of
occurrence of what is to be observed. Preparation for this type of sampling
typically involves visits to the locations where the data will be collected,
observing the density of the target population over time and gathering
information from informants. Using the information obtained, a sampling
frame of time units is developed. Data might be collected several times per day at
time periods selected using sample random sampling or systematic sampling,
upon the occurrence of a specific event, or at specifically scheduled time
intervals.
Subtypes of time-based sampling according to Daniel (20120 are
*experience sampling method
*events sampling methodology

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 3.5 Space-based Sampling – This refers to a set of sampling
procedures that utilize space as a sampling unit. This type of sampling is also
referred to as area sampling, spatial sampling, location based sampling,
venue- based sampling and facility-based sampling. The space may be geographical
units or various locations or venues. It is the principal mode of sampling
utilized in nationwide personal interview surveys, environmental sampling,
and ecological sampling (Daniel, 2012).

Determination of Sample Size through Slovin’s Formula

n = N
1+Ne2

Where: n = sample size

N = population size
e = desired margin of error

APPLY
Name ______________________________________ Date ____________
A. Direction. Suppose you were asked to decide on what sampling technique to use, what
would it be,,,,,,,,, given the following situations?

1. You need to get the opinions of parents who represent 60% of the school population (with
a total of 5,000 students) on the issue of the K-12 Basic Education Program.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
2. You want to gather the responses of school principals in the whole Division of eastern
Samar regarding the effectiveness of the school-based management program.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.

B. Prepare a sampling design for each of the following situations:

104
1. Needed data: responses of 500 mothers representing three (3) regions, concerning the
child protection law.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
2. Situation: The researcher visit a conference where teachers are the participants/ He/
She distribute questionnaires to gather data about job satisfaction and teaching
performance.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.

Evaluation
Name ______________________________________________ Date _________________
A. After reading the various sampling procedures and strategies, be able to analyse the
following:
1. Why is there a need to use a sample rather than the total population when gathering data
for research?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.
2. If you and your classmates were assigned to gather information about the popularity and
ease in using technology for science concepts, what sampling technique is appropriate?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
3. Under what situation is “space-based” or area sampling appropriate to use? Explain fully.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

105
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________>
4. When a researcher uses a sampling frame of time units, what kind of sampling design is
it? Cite a relevant example of this type of sampling design.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
5. Why should bias be avoided in research?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.

B. Answer the following

1. Explain the meaning of random sampling design.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.

2. State the justification in using purposive sampling.

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.

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Lesson 16. Research Instruments
I. Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. know the sources of data;
2. be acquainted with the advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary
data;
3. identify the different tools or research techniques used in generating data;
4. be aware of the advantages/disadvantages of the different tools in generating data;
5. construct/formulate a questionnaire/observation guide;
6. understand the different kinds of questionnaire and criteria of a good questionnaire;
and
7. comprehend the guidelines in the construction of questionnaire.
II. Contents
Instrumentation and Sources of Data
Data are collection of numbers, quantities, facts, or records used as bases for
drawing conclusions or making inferences (Calderon,et.al.).
Data are what the research is searching for and which are subjected to analysis
using statistical procedures, and interpretation, so that inferences, principles of
generalizations are drawn.
SOURCES OF DATA

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Data are classified according to source as follows:
1. Primary data. Primary data are those gathered from primary sources. The primary
sources are as follows:
a. Individual Person
b. Organized group or organizations such as associations, fraternities, schools,
community, etc.
c. Established practices such as marriage, religious rites, legal system, economic
system

2. Secondary data. Secondary data are those gathered from secondary sources. The
secondary sources are as follows:
a. Books including dictionaries, encyclopaedias, almanacs etc.
b. Articles published in professional journals, magazines, newspaper and other
publications
c. Unpublished theses and dissertations and other studies
d. Monographs, manuscripts
e. All other second-hand sources (Secondary data are verbal or written data)

Advantages of primary over secondary data. There are certain advantages or primary
data over secondary data among which are (Calderon, 1999):
1. The primary data frequently give detailed definitions of terms and statistical units
used in the survey. The secondary data have usually little or no explanatory notes
and may contain clerical and typographical mistakes which often arise from
transcription of the figures from the original or primary source.
2. The primary data usually includes a copy of the schedule and a description of the
procedures used in the selection of the type of sample and in collecting the data. This
gives the user an idea of accuracy, applicability and limitation of survey results.
3. The primary data are usually broken down into finer classifications. The secondary
data often omit part of combining categories such as showing barrios instead of
sitios.

Advantages of Secondary Data

1. Secondary data are more convenient to use because they are already condensed
and organized.
2. Analysis and interpretation are done more easily.
3. Libraries make secondary data more easily accessible.

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 Data can be collected in a variety of ways in different settings and from different
sources. Data collection methods includes face-to-face interview, telephone interview and
computer-assisted interview. Questionnaires that are personally-administered, sent through
mail or electronically administered are observations of individuals and events with or without
videotaping or audio recording.
As for setting, data can be collected in any one of the aforementioned ways in the
natural environment in which the phenomenon occur. It may be collected in the laboratory,
malls, streets, etc.

Different Tools or Research Techniques Used in Generating Data

One of the most important components of a research design is the tool for generating
data. Among these are:
1. questionnaire
2. interviews
3. observation
4. documents/records
Questionnaire – the most commonly used tools to generate data. Sometimes it is
called survey form. It refers to paper and pencil data gathering method by letting the
subject or respondent complete the questionnaire before the researcher or his
representatives or it can be mailed. It is an inventory of pieces of information which the
researcher anticipates to gather from a respondent. It is a list of planned, written questions
related to a particular topic, with space provide for indicating the response to each question,
intended for submission to a

number of persons for reply commonly used in normative survey and in the measurement of
attitudes and opinions.
1. Personally-administered – confined to local area and the organization is willing and able
to assemble groups of employees to respond to the questionnaire at a workplace.
Advantages:
1. it can easily collect completed responses in a short time.
2. any doubts on the questionnaire can easily be clarified.
3. the researcher also has the opportunity to introduce the research topic and motivate
respondents to give honest answers.
Disadvantages:
1. most often, organizations are not willing to allow company time for data collection.

2. Mailed Questionnaires
Advantages:
1. a wide geographical area can be covered in the survey.

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 2. respondents are given their own free time and convenience to complete the
questionnaire
Disadvantages:
1. return rate are not high.
2. any doubt the respondent might have cannot be clarified.
3. With the low return rates, it is difficult to determine the representative-ness of the
sample because those who responded may be totally different from the population
they were intended to represent.
To combat this problem, the researcher must: a) send follow-up letter; b) enclosing some
monetary incentives; and c) providing self-addressed/stamped return envelopes.

Advantages of a Questionnaire. Calderon, et.al., cited the following advantages of a

questionnaire:
1. The questionnaire is easy to construct.
2. Distribution is easy and inexpensive. Many of the respondents can be reached by
copies of the questionnaire either by mail or personal distribution.
3. Responses are easy to tabulate.
4. The respondent’s replies are free. The respondent’s replies are of his own free will
because there is no interviewer to influence him.
5. Confidential information may be given freely. Confidential information may be given
freely. Confidential information which the respondent may not reveal to an interviewer
may be given freely if the respondent can be made anonymous. Much as they like to
reveal confidential information, respondents are hesitant to tell the truth if they are
not made anonymous because they also want to save themselves from

6. embarrassment, indictment, or trouble which may result from the revelation of

confidential data.
7. The respondent can fill out easily the questionnaire.
8. The respondent can give more accurate replies.

Disadvantages of a Questionnaire
1. The questionnaire cannot be used by those who cannot read nor write well,
especially those who are totally illiterate.
2. If many respondents do not return the filled up copies of the questionnaire purposely
or forgetfully, considerable follow-ups are necessary. This is true if the return is not
representative of the whole.
3. If the respondents gives wrong information, it cannot be corrected at once.
4. A respondent may leave some or many questions unanswered because nobody
urges him to do so or he may not understand the significance of the information he
gives.
5. Some questions may be vague and so the respondents may not answer them, or if
he does, he may give wrong replies.

110
 6. The number of choices may be limited that the respondent may be force to select
responses that are not his actual choices. This is especially true with yes or no
questions.
Criteria of a Good Questionnaire
1. The language must be clear – it should be clear and appropriate and should lead the
respondents to give specific response. The language structure/vocabulary should suit
the level of the respondents. The questionnaire must generate the desired
information needed in the study.
2. The content of the question and time period involved must be specific. The item of
the questionnaire should elicit a single piece of information or a single response.
Asking respondents multiple responses discourages him because of complexity and
this needed him to give inaccurate information.

Example:
What has been your most interesting experience in school? - The question is
clearly stated but the respondent will think of his elementary, high school etc.

It should be:
What was you most interesting experience in your fourth year schooling in
high school?

3. The question should show singleness of purpose – The questionnaire as a whole

should bring out pieces of information that are relevant to the purpose of the study.

4. The question must be free from assumption – Sometimes in a question there can
be found an unasked question.

Example:
Do you think that the use of herbs is sufficient for your cough?

It should be:
Do you think herbs when you are sick with colds? Or … What herbs do you
think when you are sick with colds?

5. The question should be free from the suggestions.

Example:
Many countries have been progressive due to industrialization. Do you agree
that Phil. Can be also progressive if it becomes industrialized?

6. The question should be have linguistic completeness and grammatical consistency

– the question should be formed according to the rules of correct grammar to avoid
embarrassment on the part of the researcher.

Kinds of Questionnaire

111
1. Open-ended Questionnaire – one whose options of the items are not given or not
arranged. This leaves the respondents to answer the question in his own way.
Answers are entirely left at the discretion of the respondents.
In general, respondents do not like to answer open-ended questions for aside
from giving multiple responses, they feel they are taking examinations. Multiple
responses make statistical analysis difficult.

2. Close-ended Questionnaire – the option or answers are given or enumerated

and the respondents simply check or encircle his answers. It does not required much
effort on the part of the respondent to answer the questions.

Example:
Encircle the number with the best answer. The option are the following:

5 – Strongly Agree 2 – Disagree

4 – Agree 1 – Strongly Disagree
3 – Not Sure

Construction of a Questionnaire. There are some steps in the preparation of a

questionnaire, some of which are the following (Calderon et.al.):

1. Doing Library Search. Do some library research among studies similar as yours.
There are may be some questionnaires similar to what you want to use. They may be
serve as a guide in constructing your questionnaire.

2. Talking to Knowledge People. Talk to people who have some knowledge about
the construction of the questionnaires. You may be able to get some ideas from
them.

3. Mastering the Guidelines. There are guidelines in the construction of a

questionnaire Master the guidelines.

4. Writing the Questionnaire. Write the questionnaire following the guidelines as

closely as possible.

5. Editing the Questionnaire. After the questionnaire has been finished, show it for
correction and suggestions for improvement to people who are known to possess
adequate knowledge in the construction of questionnaire especially to your adviser if
you have one.

6. Rewriting the Questionnaire. Rewrite the questionnaire according to the

suggestions or correction made.

7. Pre-testing the Questionnaire. This is called a dry run. This is a process of

measuring the effectiveness, validity and reliability of the questionnaire and
determining the clarity of the items and others.

8. Writing the questionnaire in its final form.

112
 Guidelines in the Formulation of Questions for a Questionnaire. Since a
questionnaire is a planned question, the items to be included therein should therefore
be reflective of the problems under study. A questionnaire thoroughly prepared would
supply the needed data for the research problem or topic. In other words, the
questionnaire should jibe with the problems identified in the statement of the problem
(if the answer to the problem is to gathered through a questionnaire).
The following are the useful guidelines in the construction of questions
for a questionnaire:

1. Make all directions clear and unequivocal. This means that you should
make the directions clear, definite or exact. Always see to it that the
respondents will follow what is to done.
Example:

Directions: Below are statements that would determine teacher’s level of

competence. Please encircle the number opposite each statement that best
represent your assessment of the competence of the teachers in your department.
The numbers are coded as follows:

1 – Poor 4 - Very Satisfactory

2 – Fair 5 - Excellent/Outstanding
3 – Satisfactory

2. Use correct grammar. Punctuation marks should be placed properly to avoid

misinterpretation.
3. Make all question unequivocal. As much as possible make all questions
clear, brief and unequivocal. Avoid making double-barrelled questions.

4. Avoid asking biased questions. A biased question is one where there is a

veiled suggestion for an answer.
Example: Do you use Colgate as toothpaste? If not, what brand do you use?
In this question, there is a veiled suggestion to make Colgate as the answer.
Better: Which brand of toothpaste do you use?
5. Objectify the response. Identify choices from which the respondents will
have to choose from or from which the respondents could check.
6. Relate all questions to the topic under study. All questions should gather
data relevant to the study. If the study is about the teaching of science, all
questions should gather data that have something to do with the teaching of
science.
7. Create categories or classes for approximate answers. There are
questions which cannot be given exact answers and so there is a necessity
for creating categories or classes to accommodate the approximate replies.
Example: Directions: Below are problems that might be encountered by nurses in
Continuing Professional Education. Please indicate the degree of seriousness of the
problems identified by encircling the number opposite each item using the following scale:

113
 5 -Very Serious Problem - (76% -100% of the perceived problems
resulted in non-attendance to CPE
programs/activities)
4 -Serious Problem - (51% -75% of the perceived problems
resulted in non-attendance to CPE
programs/activities)
3 -Moderate Serious Problem - (26% -50% of the perceived problems
resulted in non-attendance to CPE
programs/activities)
2 -Less Serious Problem - (1% -25% of the perceived problems
resulted in non-attendance to CPE
programs/activities)
1 -Not a Problem -

8. Group the questions in logical sequence. Prepare questions in chronological

order with the sub-problems.
9. Create sufficient number of response categories. This is to make possible the
inclusion of correct choice of the respondent. If the correct choice of the respondent is not
included among the response categories, and he is required to make a response, his reply
would be wrong.
Example of limited response categories: Do you agree that presidential form of
government is better than parliamentary form?
___________agree _________disagree

10. Word carefully or avoid questions that deal with confidential or

embarrassing information
Example: Why did you become unfaithful to your husband? (this already telling that
she is unfaithful and will surely embarrass her).
11. Explain and illustrate difficult questions. Difficult questions such as those
using technical terms should be explained or illustrated thoroughly.
12. State all questions affirmatively. If negative statements are unavoidable, mark
the negative word to avoid misinterpretations.
13. Make as many questions as would supply adequately information for the
study. The study is only complete as the completeness of the data used. If some important
data are missing, the problem suffers from accuracy to validity.
14. Add a catch-all word or phrase of multiple response questions. In short, for
multiple response, add the phrase “Others, please specify”. This is to allow the respondents
to add items which the researcher perhaps have missed.

114
 15. Place all spaces for replies at the left side. This is made for easy tabulation.
The spaces should be in vertical column.
16. Makes the respondents anonymous. This is to observe confidentiality of the
respondents. When names are not disclosed, the possibility of providing an objective and
accurate and true response is high.

General Appearance or “Get-up” of the Questionnaire

Attention should be paid on how the questionnaire looks. An attractive and near
questionnaire with appropriate introduction, instructions and well-arranged set of questions
and response alternative will make it easier for the respondents to answer the item in the
questionnaire.
The introduction portion should disclose the identity of the researcher and the
purpose of the survey. Assuring confidentiality of the information provided by the
respondents will ensure less biased answers. The introduction portion should end with a
courteous note thanking the respondent for taking the time to respond to the survey.
Guidelines in Constructing a Research Instrument
1. Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives, research questions or
hypothesis, if any, to be tested.
2. List all relevant questions or hypothesis that need to be answered through your
study.
3. For each question identified in Step 2, list the information required to answer it.
4. Construct the questions that you want to ask of your respondents to obtain the
required information.
5. Use simple language to be easily understood.

6. Do not use ambiguous questions, or those that contain more than one meaning
and which can be interpreted differently by different respondents.
Validation of the Research Instrument
In order to establish the content validity and reliability of a non-standardized
questionnaire, certain procedure and techniques need to be carried out.
1. Consultation with experts is one, in order to ensure that theoretical constructs
directly related to the major concepts of the study are fully established. Comments and
suggestions from the experts are closely observed and considered in improving the
questionnaire and making it a valid tool for data collection.
2. Pre-testing of the revised questionnaire to thirty (30) individuals who resemble the
characteristics of the intended respondents of the study but who will not be the actual
respondents. The purposes of this trial run are to determine the language suitability and
comprehensibility of the items, ease the following directions from the point of view of the
respondents, the average length of time required to finish answering the questionnaires, as
well as to determine other problems relevant to the activity. These purposes have to be

115
explained to the “try-out” respondents before they are given the questionnaire. They will also
be instructed to underline words and/or encircle the item numbers which are not clear to
them, and, finally, to write their suggestions, if any.
3. Item-analysis is done after the pre-testing. The accomplished questionnaires are
scored and subjected to a test of reliability. Reliability is one very important criterion against
which the merits of aa research instrument is judge. It refers to the degree of consistency
and precision or accuracy that a measuring instrument demonstrates. According to Coakes
(2013) the test for reliability has several different models, but the one most commonly used
is the Cronbach’s Alpha, a test for internal consistency, which is based on the average
correlation coefficient, it ranges in value from 0 to 1. Alpha values ranging from 0.70 or
higher are considered acceptable; hence those items in the questionnaire with acceptable
alpha values may be retained. Those items that do not meet acceptable standards have to
be revised to fit into the content of the study before the questionnaire is administered in its
final form.

Secondary data
Data from Secondary Sources through Document Analysis

 Demographic information, census, surveys on labor force, health reports, and

economic forecasts are examples of data found in government or semi-
government publications.
 Preview of researches done by others could also provide some required
information.
 Historical and personal records and diaries could also provide some needed
information.
 Published reports inn newspaper, magazines or in the internet could also be
sources of secondary data.

APPLY

Name _______________________________ Date ______________

A. In a given sample researches below, explore the various ways or

techniques that you could use in order to come up with valid and reliable data.

1. “The Quality of Instruction Services Provided by the School to its Clientele”

1.1 Write five appropriate questionnaire items.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

2. “The Story of My Life”

2.1 What types of information will you gather in order to explain the
various aspects of the subject’s life?
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

B. Read the given statements or instructions and do what is asked for.

1. Research problem: “Problems Met and Coping Mechanisms of Students in

ESSU”. What kind of data would be needed to answer the problem? Develop
a questionnaire for this purpose.
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

2. You are assigned to conduct a research about the health status of grade IV
pupils under the government’s “conditional cash transfer program”. How will
you gather the data for this? Construct the appropriate questionnaire based
on the given guidelines.

______________________________________________________________
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Evaluation

Name _______________________________ Date ____________

Read the questions or instructions and do what is asked for.

1. Cite and explain at least two advantages of the questionnaire as a data

gathering tool.
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
.

2. How is the content validity of the questionnaire established?

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______________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________.

3. Discuss the procedures used in establishing the reliability of the

questionnaire.
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______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
.

Assignment:

1. Search in the internet survey questionnaires which is related to your

topic. Select five questionnaires and submit it using 4a bond paper.
2. Schedule a group study and formulate questionnaires based on
your assignment.

Research Instrument

The study used a modified survey questionnaire developed from the

established framework of Austin (2012). Part I looked into the demographic
profile of the respondents in terms of age, sex, civil status and educational
attainment. Part II solicited information about their awareness level and
was evaluated in terms of their understanding about the occurrence of
disasters such as floods, landslides, earthquake, storms, droughts, and

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 extreme rainfall in five levels: (1) Never, (2) Rarely, (3) Sometimes, (4)
Often, and (5) Always and part III asked the level of preparedness for
disasters using the same scale.

Sample Questionnaire

Respondent Code: ______________

Directions: Please supply the needed information needed. Please do not
leave any item unanswered.

1. SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF NURSES IN HOSPITALS IN REGION V

Age : _____________
Civil Status : ( ) Single ( ) Married ( ) Widow/er
Highest Educational Attainment (Please check)
( ) Bachelor’s degree holder
( ) BS with units in MAN
( ) BS with units in Public Health Nursing or other course
( ) MAN/PHN graduate
( ) MAN with doctoral units
( ) Doctorate degree holder

Years in Service:_________________

II. PSYCHOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF NURSES IN HOSPITALS IN

REGION VII

Directions: Below are indicators of psychological dimension of nurses in

hospitals. Please encircle the number opposite each item that best indicates
how well the items/statements describe you, using the scale below:

1 - Describes me well
2 - Describes me somewhat
3 - Does not describe me

A. Attitudes

1. I often “do my own thing” 1 2 3

2. The well-being of my co-workers is important to me . 1 2 3

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3. One should live one’s life independently of others. 1 2 3
4. If a co-worker gets a prize, I would feel proud. 1 2 3
5. I like my privacy. 1 2 3
6. If a relative were in financial difficulty, I would
help within my means. 1 2 3
7. I prefer to be direct and forthright when discussing
issues with people. 1 2 3
8. It is important to maintain harmony with my group. 1 2 3
9. I am a unique individual. 1 2 3
10. I like sharing little things with my neighbours. 1 2 3
11. What happens to me is my own doing. 1 2 3
12. I feel good when I cooperate with others. 1 2 3
13. When I succeed, it is usually because of my abilities. 1 2 3
14. May happiness depends very much on the 1 2 3
happiness of those around me.
15. I enjoy being unique and different from others
in many ways. 1 2 3
16. To me, pleasure is spending time with others. 1 2 3
17. I dislike patients who are stubborn. 1 2 3
18. To me, patients are hard to deal with. 1 2 3
19. Serving sick people is compensating/rewarding. 1 2 3
20. To me, caring for the sick is tiresome. 1 2 3
21. I serve in the hospital with willingness and joy 1 2 3
22. I dislike very strict administrators. 1 2 3
23. I never show to my patients that I am tired. 1 2 3

III. WORK PERFORMANCE OF NURSE IN HOSPITALS IN REGION V.

Directions: Below are indicators on the level of performance of nurses in the

discharge of direct nursing skills. Please encircle the number that
corresponds to your assessment of your performance. Hereunder is the scale
used.

3 - Very Good Carriers out nursing activities in a very

consistent and independent manner without the
guidance and direction of supervisor
2 - Good Carriers out nursing activities in a very
consistent and independent manner without the
guidance and direction of supervisor
1 - Poor Carriers out nursing activities in a very
consistent and independent manner without the
guidance and direction of supervisor

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A. Assessment

1. Orients patients to room, bed, wards and

Hospital rules and regulations 3 2 1
2. Establishes nurse-patient relationship. 3 2 1
3. Obtains nursing history. 3 2 1
4. Contributes to the overall physical assessment
Upon admission of patients. 3 2 1

B. Planning

1. develops nursing care plan. 3 2 1

a. Formulates care plan 3 2 1
b. Establishes nursing diagnosis. 3 2 1

C. Intervention

1. Performs bed making. 3 2 1

2. Takes vital signs. 3 2 1
3. Collects specimen for laboratory. 3 2 1
4. Interprets laboratory results and reports
To appropriate staff. 3 2 1
5. Prepares patient for diagnostic procedures by
explaining the procedure, body hygiene,
pre-medication and emotional support. 3 2 1
6. Assist in diagnostic procedures. 3 2 1
7. Prepares prescribed medications. 3 2 1
8. Ensures provision of therapeutic diets. 3 2 1
9. Provides nutrition via tube feeding. 3 2 1
10. Inserts, maintains and removes urethral catheter. 3 2 1

11. Administers heat and cold pressures. 3 2 1

12. Prevents infection by ascertaining medical
asepsis technique. 3 2 1
13. Provides respiratory care through exercises
and technical assistance. 3 2 1
14. Promotes personal care and hygiene. 3 2 1
15. Maintains/ establishes body mechanics and 3 2 1
proper positioning.
16. Promotes safety from accidents and prevents
complications of illnesses. 3 2 1
17. Performs suctioning techniques. 3 2 1
18. Administers oxygen therapy. 3 2 1

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 Source: Manlagnit, Luz, “ The Socio-Psychological Dimensions of Nurses
in Hospitals in Catanduanes”, Master’s Thesis, Aquinas University of
Legazpi, Legazpi City, March 2010.

Lesson 17. Data Gathering Procedure

I. Objectives
1. Discuss the different tools and techniques used in data gathering.
2. Choose correctly and wisely the types of data gathering tools to use in one’s
research.
3. Write the data gathering procedure as part of his/her research.
II. Contents
Approaches to data gathering
1. Questionnaire (discussed in chapter 16)

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2. INTERVIEW – this is feasible when a personal interaction is available. The data is
collected through direct verbal interaction between the interviewer and the respondent.
(Bermudo, Araojo, Morales, Yango, 2014)

 Any person-to-person interaction, either face-to-face or otherwise between

two or more individuals with a specific purpose in mind (Kumar, 2011). When
interviewing a respondent, the researcher has the freedom to decide the
format and content of questions to be asked from the respondents. (Almieda,
Gaerlan & Manly, 2016)

Categories:

1. Structured Interview –the questions are stated specifically in a fixed list

(called interview guide) and the interviewer asks the questions verbatim in the
order in which they listed. In other words, the questions, their sequence and
their wordings are fixed.

2. Unstructured Interview – although the interviewer has a list of questions,

he does not need to follow the order in which they come. This is more flexible
and open. Although the research questions govern the questions asked, their
content, sequence, and wording are entirely in the hands of the interviewer.
Ordinarily, no schedule is used.

Advantages of Interview
1. It is inexpensive in terms of the number of questions to be prepared
since the interviewer has to meet the respondent himself.
2. The researcher is able to witness for himself the reactions or emotions
portrayed by the respondents.
3. More information is generated since, when in doubt the researcher
can verify for himself right away the issue in question.
4. It is necessary technique for some respondent esp. where information
on a person’s feelings is needed.
5. Interviews are sometimes necessary for some particular sample such
as patients suffering from strokes, etc.

6. Can clarify some points which are not found in the questionnaire.
Disadvantages:
1. It is sometimes uncomfortable for some persons to the point of instilling fear
of what are to be asked to them.
2. It is time-consuming and more expensive when commuting from one place to
another to meet the respondents.
3. Information gathered is difficult to quantify thus making statistical analysis
difficult.
4. It needs training to be able to do the art of questioning. It can be done only by
persons with special skills.

Choosing between an Interview and Questionnaire

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 1. The nature of investigation. Since questionnaire ensures anonymity, it is
preferred for studies that involve issues which respondents may feel reluctant
to discuss with an investigator; such as drug use, sexuality, criminal,
activities, personal finances, etc. However, depending on the type of study
population and the skills of the interviewer, there are situations wherein better
information about sensitive issues can be obtained by interviewing
respondents. Hence, in this situation, both questionnaire and interview may
be utilized.

2. The geographical distribution of the study population. In cases

wherein the potential respondents are scattered over a wide geographical
area, using the questionnaire is a better choice since interviewing would
entail high costs.

3. The type of study population. For study population that are illiterate, very
young, very old, or handicapped, the interview or observation is the best
option.

3. OBSERVATION involves the researcher watching the research situation. It

can be used in descriptive and experimental investigations but it cannot be
used in historical studies.

 Data collection by observation records behaviour or events as they occur. As

a method of collecting data, observation is best suited to studies that best
deal with subjects that do not give a verbal report of either the behaviour
(psychotic patients) or the research problems where the researcher meets
resistance from groups of people being studied (Catane, 2000).

 Observation method is very useful in social science researchers unlike in

engineering and science researches. The following are examples of
researches where observation is applicable: a) researches conducted with
children or with persons with personality disorders; b) area of program
evaluation (i.e. education, heath, transport problems); c) problems concerning
social injustices and others.

Types of Observation ((Almieda, Gaerlan & Manly, 2016)

1. Participant Observation – when the researcher participates in the

activities of the group being observed in the same manner as its members
whether they know that they are being observed or not.

2. Non-participant observation – this is the kind of observation wherein

the researcher does not get involved in the activities of the group but remains
a passive observer, watching and listening to the group’s activities and
drawing conclusions from these.

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Types of Observation (Catane , 2000) in the book of (Bermudo, Araojo, Morales, Yango,
2014)
1. Unstructured observation is often referred to as non-selective method of
observation would be a complete account of an event. In this method, the researcher does
not impose his structure on the situation but instead attempts to provide an analysis of the
true complexities found in the situation. In addition, the researcher is free to alter the
definition of the problem as more knowledge is gained about the situation.
In this method, the researcher is able to gain an in depth knowledge about the
situation. Often, unstructured observation is being criticized of its reliability, lack of statistical
analysis and bias of the researcher.
2. Structured observation the researcher knows what aspects of the group activity
are relevant for his purpose. He is , therefore, in a position to develop a specific plan for
making and recording observations before he begins collecting data.
Structured observation is focused on designated aspects of behaviour and
may take place in field setting or in controlled experiments, within a laboratory setting.

Data Collection by observation is guided by the following questions:

1. What should be observed? The researcher should delineate what variables are to be
studied and to define the specific variables to be studied.
2. How should observations be recorded? This means that the researcher knows what
unit of observation will be used. frequencies, rating, ratio, etc.
3. What procedures should be used to assure the accuracy of observation?
4. What relationship should exist between the observer and the observed and how can
such a relationship be observed? This means that the researcher must have a clear
picture of how he will act in the data collection- a complete participant, participant-
observer, and an observer or as provocateur?

Example of an Interview questions taken from the research proposal “The Wife of a
Gambler: Lived Experiences of Wives whose Husbands are Constantly Involved in
Cockfighting” (Luzlyn Azura Café).

1. Can you describe to me your husband as

 As a partner?
 as a provider?
 As a father?

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  As a worker?
 As a disciplinarian?
2. What are the problems you encountered of having a cocker husband?
 Financially
 Physically
 Emotionally
 Mentally
 socially
3. Describe your feeling if your husband is going to the cockpit arena.

4. Have you experienced a situation that your husband lose and one of your children
is sick and almost everything is the house is empty?
5. Pag pumumunta and asawa mo sa sabungan ano and reaction mo? Are you
happy,
6. Pag umuwi sa palengke ang asawa mo at ung dala ay para sa mga manok, ano ang
nararamdaman mo?

Example discussion of Data Gathering Procedure

Data Gathering Procedure

The researchers prepared the adopted and revised questionnaire
and subject the same for approval of the research professor and thesis
adviser. Upon approval, necessary research instruments and materials
needed in the actual gathering of data were prepared. A permit to conduct
the study was sought from the Program Head, Dean and Campus
Administrator.
Social preparation in the research setting was conducted by the
researchers before the actual gathering of data .A permit was sought from
the Barangay Captain, Barangay Officials and the respondents of the study
through an informed consent before administering the survey
questionnaire. The giving of questionnaire was personally administered by
the researchers assuring the confidentiality of the respondents’ answers
and orienting the significance of their participation in the study.
The respondents were given ample time to answer the questionnaire
and a 100% retrieval rate was obtained.

APPLY:

Name ___________________________________ Date ____________

Direction. Give what is asked.

1. Formulate your data gathering procedure.

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Lesson 18. Data Analysis
I. Objectives
1. discuss the value of knowing how to analyse both quantitative and qualitative data.
2. Show thorough understanding of the process of data analysis by giving correct
computations in quantitative data or illustrations asked for in the problem.
3. Solve given problems as directed.

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II. Contents
Statistical Treatment of Data

 Research data may be either quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (verbal0 or both

numerical and verbal in the case of the mixed method. When the data are already
available, they have to be sorted out and assessed according to the types of questions
asked in the problem statement of the study before they can be analysed and
interpreted. It is about the responses of the research participants, noting what is typical
or extraordinary about the data, observing differences or relationships, and finding
answers to the research questions or hypothesis. (Almieda, gaerlyn & Manly, 2016)

 One of the more efficient and effective methods of analysing your data in connection
with the research objective is the use of statistical techniques. Statistics is efficient
because it provides a systematic structure for the organization of research data.
Moreover, it requires a minimum of resources for the attainment of the research
purpose. (Bermudo, Araojo, Morales & Yango, 2014)

 The use of statistics in the analysis of data, however, does not always assure
objectivity. If statistical test is needed at all in the study, objectivity is minimal. Thus, in
a study where statistical test is needed, the first requirement is that the statistical test
you will use is appropriate. (Bermudo, Araojo, Morales & Yango, 2014)

 The choice of statistical test for the analysis of the data requires careful and deliberate
judgment. The following considerations will prove to be useful.

1. The choice of a statistical test is dictated by the question for which the
research is designed; and
2. The level, distribution, and dispersion of data also suggest the type of
statistical test to be used.

The Research Question as a Consideration. The nature of your research question

or problem overrides almost all other considerations in choosing a statistical test. A
research that inquiries into the relationship between variables will need a test of
relationship. Notwithstanding the fact that almost all statistical tests are generally test
of relationship, a research designed to provide solution to a problem of which two or
more groups are higher or lower on a dependent or criterion variable will call for one
of those statistical tests on group comparisons.

The Nature of Raw data. Traditionally, three items in connection with the nature of
raw data are considered in the choice of statistics. These are: the level of scale
measurement under which the raw data are classified, the distribution or shape of
these data when organized as a group, and the within group scatter of the same
data.

Data on dependent and independent variables may be classified under any

one of he following scales of measurement:
 Nominal

129
 Data that are used to label or categorize observations,
and which do not have any greater than or less than relations
to each other era nominal n nature. A good example of this is
the factor sex, a naturally dichotomous factor. The numeral 1
may be assigned to every male respondent, while the numeral
2 to every female respondent. In as much as there is no
greater nor less than relationships between the numbers 1 & 2,
the coding can be interchanged. What is important is that once
the code 1 is assigned to males, and 2 to females, the
assignment should be consistent throughout the analysis. The
responses yes or no are treated in the same manner. Non-
parametric types of tests are appropriate for nominal data.

 Ordinal
Data are rank-ordered data with respect to a trait or
achievement or performance. As such, greater than, equal to
or less than relations characterizes tests as are data that
belong to the nominal category.

 Interval
 Ratio
Interval and ratio data are data which can be placed
along a continuum or scale wherein distances between points
are equal. Raw data that belong to this category are
characterized by greater than, equal to or less than relations
plus the added feature of equality of distances between
intervals. The main difference between interval data and ratio
data lies in the treatment of the zero point. Data that are of the
interval level can be assigned to flexible zero point which does
not mean absolute zero. However, for data that are of the ratio
scaling, the zero point is absolute, that is, the factor being
measured does not exist. Examples for interval data are
scores obtained in achievement tests wherein items are of the
same level of difficulty. Scores obtained through attitude tests
using Likert scaling (strongly agree, agree, undecided,
disagree, strongly disagree) are usually considered and
treated as interval data although basically they are ordinal.
Examples of ratio data are kilogram for weight, centimeters for
height and others. Parameters test like Z-test, t-test, and F-
tests are most appropriate for interval and ratio data.

Procedures needed in studying statistics

1. designing and carrying out research studies
2. describing collected data
3. making decision, predictions or inferences about the phenomena
represented by the data.

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 Classification of Statistical procedures (Bermudo, Araoja, Morales & Yango,
2014)

1. Descriptive Statistics
The descriptive aspect of statistics allows researchers to summarize
large quantities of data using measures that are easily understood by an observer or
a reader. For example, we wish to present a listing of he ages of all persons marrying
for the first time within a particular year in a particular barangay. This kind of detail
however, is not easy to assess as the reader bogged down in numbers. Instead of
presenting all observations, we could use one of the several measures that would
summarize the typical age at marriage in the collection of data. This would be much
more meaningful to most people than the complete listing.

The most commonly used descriptive measures are:

 Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
 Dispersion/variability (range, average deviation,
variance. Standard deviation)
 Skewness and kurtosis
 The purpose of summarizing or condensing the data is not only
to describe the population as concisely as possible, but also to
enable one to make comparisons between populations. Hence,
in the example cited, comparisons of ages at first marriage in
different barangays could be made.
2. Inferential Statistics.
The other aspect of statistics is making decisions or inferences about
the characteristics by interpreting data-patterns. Inferential statistical methods consist of
procedures for making generalizations about characteristics of the population, based on
information contained in a sample taken from the population. The characteristics of
population about which we make inferences using the sample data are called parameters.
The corresponding characteristics of the sample data upon which we base our inference
about the parameters are called statistics. The parameters of the population are of primary
concern in most studies, not the statistics calculated from just the particular selected sample.
The sample and the statistics describing it are important only in so far as they provide
information about the unknown parameters of interest. One important consideration here is
that the sample should be truly representative of the population from where it was taken so
that inferences made are reliable.
When the entire population is studied, there is no need to use
inferential statistical methods since the parameters of interest in the population can be
exactly computed.

For instance, if the mean salary of one group is P3, 500.00 while that of the second group is
P4, 000.00, there is no need to test whether the difference of P500.00 is significant if both
are the salary parameters of each group. We right away conclude that there is a difference in
the mean salaries than the second group.

131
Hypothesis Testing
The procedure in hypothesis testing include those which are useful in situation where
we are interested in making a decision about a parameter value, rather than in obtaining an
estimate of its value. For example, we may be interested in deciding whether the mean tar-
content of a particular brand of cigarette exceed a certain value, say 4 milligrams; or whether
the proportions of Filipinos who favour the parliamentary form of government exceeds 0.5.

Elements of Statistical Test (Bermudo, Araoja, Morales & Yango, 2014)

A. ASSUMPTIONS. To be valid, all statistical tests are based on certain
assumptions that must be met.
1 The assumed scale of measurement of the variable. As with other
statistical procedures, each test is especially designed for a certain
level of measurement, i.e. ordinal, interval and ratio.

2 The form of the statistical distribution. For many tests, the variable
must be continuous or even normally distributed.

3 The method of sampling. The formulae for most tests require

random sampling.

4 The sampling size. To be valid, many tests rely on results similar to

the Central Limit Theorem and require a minimum sample cases
(n=30 or less) and large sample cases (n> more than 30 cases).

B. HYPOTHESIS. When a researcher sets out to test a phenomenon, he formulates

first an intelligent guess or explanation he believes to be true. This is termed as the
research hypothesis. Together with the hypothesis, the “null” which is the opposite of
the research hypothesis is formulated.

 The whole process of hypothesis testing follows an indirect

approach or what some authors call proof by contradiction. In
other words, the research hypothesis is judge to be
acceptable, if the null hypothesis can be shown to be
inconsistent with the observed data. Because of the approach
employed in the process of testing or proving the hypothesis,
we reason that the alternative hypothesis (which is actually the
research hypothesis) is likely to be true, if the null hypothesis
appears to be not true, In short, the null and the alternative
hypothesis, both stated in terms of the appropriate population
parameters,

describe two possible states of nature that cannot

simultaneously be true.
 Researchers should not be confused by the use of the terms
“alternative”. It appears from the discussion that the alternative

132
hypothesis follows from the null hypothesis. This is not the
case. In research, the alternative hypothesis should be stated
before observing or analysing the data. The null hypothesis
which is usually denoted by Ho, is used only during the
analysis of the data, i.e. during hypothesis testing against the
alternative hypothesis, denoted by Ha (Tuckman, 1986)

Two Types of Error

 The ultimate objective of any hypothesis testing

situation is to make a decision; in particular, to decide
whether to reject the null hypothesis (Ho) in favour of
the alternative hypothesis (Ha). The researcher should
bear in mind that the decision would be based on the
information derived from a sample.

 Although a researcher would always want to make a

correct decision, he is likely to make one of two types
of error. Type 1 error occurs if the researcher rejects
the null hypothesis when it is actually true; Type II error
occurs if he fails to reject the null hypothesis when it is
false. The probabilities of committing Type I and Type II
errors are represented by a (alpha) and B (beta). The
probability of committing type 1 error is also known as
the level of significance of the test. The researcher
usually co trolls this. The most commonly chosen
values of (a) alpha are: 0.05, 0.01, 0.10 and 0.20

 The null hypothesis can be either be true or false.

Since our purpose is to make a decision on whether to
reject or not to reject the null hypothesis, there are four
possible situations, which may arise in testing a
hypothesis. These are summarized below.

Decision True State or Nature of Ho

Ho is true Ho is false
Do not reject Ho Correct decision Type II error, B
Reject Ho Type I error, a Correct
decision

133
 Note that we risk committing the Type I error only if the
null hypothesis is rejected, and we risk committing
Type II error if the null hypothesis is not rejected.
Therefore we may not make an error, or we make
either type II error with the probability a (alpha) or type
II error (with probability B (beta), but not both.

 There is an intuitively appealing relationship between

the probabilities of the two types of error. As a (alpha)
increases, B (beta) decreases. Similarly as B (beta)
increases, a (alpha) decreases. The only way to reduce
a and B, simultaneously, is to increase the amount of
information available in the sample, by increasing the
sample size.

 The logic used in hypothesis testing has been likened

to that used in the courtroom where defendant is on
trial for committing a crime. Under our judicial system, a
defendant is presumed “innocent until proven guilty
beyond reasonable doubt”. This means that the burden
of proof is not on he defendant to prove his innocence.
Rather, the court must gather sufficient evidence to
support the claim of the prosecutor that the defendant
is guilty. In this case, the statements of the null and the
alternative hypothesis (from the view of the court)
would be:
Ho: The defendant is not guilty
Ha: The defendant is guilty

 The four possible outcomes of the court are shown

below.

Decision of True State or Nature of Ho

the court
Defendant is not Defendant is
guilty guilty
Defendant is Correct decision Type II error, B
not guilty
Defendant is Type I error, a Correct decision
guilty

 A convention generally observed when formulating the

null and alternative hypothesis of any statistical test is
to state the null hypothesis, so that the possible error of
incorrectly rejecting Ho (Type I error) is considered
more serious than the possible error of incorrectly
failing to reject Ho, (Type II error). In many cases, the
decision is

134
 to which type of error is more serious is admittedly not
as clear-cut as given in the example.

Directional and Non-Directional Tests

 The manners, in which the researcher states his alternative hypothesis,
determine what type of tests is to be performed. He may hypothesize a
change from Ho in the particular direction, or he may merely hypothesize a
change without specifying direction.
 For instance we may be interested in testing whether the mean monthly
salary of the faulty of the College of Criminology is less than the mean
monthly salary of faculty of the College of Education; or whether the
promotion of Filipino who favour the proposal to hold the Miss International
Pageant in the Philippines illustrates what is termed as one-tailed test. A one-
tailed test of hypothesis is one, which alternative hypothesis is directional and
includes either the symbol “<” of :>”.
 If we are interested however in whether the mean diameter of the machine
bearing produced by Company A differed in direction from 0.7 inch (more
than .7 or less than .7), then the two-tailed tests will be employed. A two-
tailed test of hypothesis is one which the alternative hypothesis does not
specify departure from Ho in a particular direction. Such an alternative will be
written with the symbol “ ______.

1. One-tailed test :
(directional)

2. Two-tailed test:
(non-directional)

D. THE TEST STATISTICS

The test statistics is set that a random sample was obtained from the
population of interest. The information provided by the sample in the form of sample statistic,
will help the researcher decide whether to reject or not to reject his null hypothesis which is
the baseline in formulating the decision.
 An appropriate test statistic is based on the context of the given
hypothesis test. If the researcher is hypothesizing for instance on the
value of the population mean, the most reasonable test statistic to use
is the sample mean.
 The next step is to specify the range of possible computed values of
the test statistic for which the null hypothesis will be rejected. That is,
what specific value of the test statistics will lead the researcher to
reject the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative hypothesis?
Within the specific values termed collectively as the rejection /critical
region for the test, a critical value is also specified. This critical value
refers to the point where the rejection region begins.

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  After specifying the rejection region and the critical value, the value of
the test statistic is computed based on sample information. Finally,
observing whether the computed value falls within the rejection region
males a decision. If the computed value falls the rejection region, the
null hypothesis is rejected; otherwise the null hypothesis is not
rejected.
 Notice that the decision is either to reject or not to reject the null
hypothesis. Some books would still use the decision-statement as,
“The null hypothesis is accepted.” In statistical language “not to reject
Ho” does not imply “to accept Ho” (Deanuna, 1986). Rather, it simply
means that the researcher at the moment does nit have sufficient
evidence/data to reject Ho. This implies that the researcher must
gather more data; he must develop better instruments; use other
methodologies or designs, or analyse his data differently by the use of
test factor or elaboration for the possible operation of intervening
variables.
D. P-VALUE
After computing for the test statistics from the sample data, a measure is
obtained of how unusual from the sample data, a measure is obtained or how unusual this
observed value is, relative to what would be expected for its value is relative to what would
be expected for its value, if Ho were true. To compute such a measure, a collection of
possible values for the test statistics is considered, to give at least as much evidence in
favour of the alternative hypothesis as the observed test statistics.
The p-value is defined as the probability that the test statistic would occur in
this collection of values, if Ho were true. A moderate to large p-values means that the data
are consistent with Ho. In other words, when p is a number such as 0.4 or .8, it would be
unusual to obtain data such as those which have been observed, if Ho were true. On the
other hand, a value of p such as 0.01 means that it would be very unlikely to obtain such
data, if Ho actually is true. The smaller the value of p therefore, the more contradictory the
sample result is from Ho, being true.
E. CONCLUSIONS
In reporting the results of statistical test, many researchers make use of the p-
value instead of selecting a prior a (alpha). They do not report the value of the test statistic
and its corresponding p-value. Meaning, that it is the reader who decides whether to reject
the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative hypothesis, based on the reported p-value.
The p-value is also termed as the attained significance level. Both are
acceptable insofar as testing hypothesis is concerned. In practice, both are used. That is, the
null hypothesis is rejected if the attained significance level, p is less (<) than the fixed
significance level chosen by the researcher at the start of the research.

The Meaning of Significance Results

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 It has been pointed out that the smaller the p-value, the greater is the extent of
disagreement between the observed data and the null hypothesis, and the more significant
is

the finding. For example, if the p-value is 0.03, which is less than 0.05 (if a 0.05 of asserting
that there is a difference between two means, when no such difference exists), then the
difference is said to be significant at 0.05 level. This further means that the chance are 5 or
less out of 100 that the difference could result when there is no difference in the population
values. Another way of stating it is that the result suggests a 95% probability that the
difference is due to the experimental treatment/independent variable rather than to sampling
error. The probability levels such as 0.05 or 0.01 are descriptive of the degree of confidence
that a real difference exists, or that the observed difference is not due to chance or
fluctuations in sampling (sampling error).
Descriptive Statistics ( Almeida, Garelan & Manly, 2016)
Research results may be presented in terms of percentages, proportions, ratios
and rates. The following statement which is a research finding may be considered:
There were 500 students in the school who were surveyed regarding the
admission and retention policy. Of this number, 250 said that admission and retention policy
should be revised; 100 said that no revision should be made; while 150 said that they have
no idea. There seems to be nothing wrong with the statement, but the same finding could be
better conveyed in terms of percentages; i.e. almost 50% of the 500 total respondents said
that admission and retention policy should be revised; 30% said that no revision should be
made; while 20% said they have no idea.
As pointed out by Healey (2010), percentage and proportion provide a frame of
reference for reporting research results by standardizing the raw data, that is, percentage to
the base of 100 and proportion to the base of 1.00. The mathematical definition of
percentage and proportion are:
Proportion : P = f/n
Percentage: %=(f/n) x 100
Where:
f = frequency or the number of cases in any category
n = the number of cases in all categories
Opinions of 500 students on the Admission and Retention Policy

Opinions of Respondents Frequency (f) Proportion (p) Percentage

(%)
1. Admission and retention policy 250 .50 50
should be revised
2. No revision should be made 150 .30 30
3. No idea 100 .20 20
Total 500 1.00 100

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 Research results may be summarized simply and clearly through ratios and rates.
Ratios are useful for comparing the number of cases in the categories of a variable. In this
statistic, the frequency of one category is divided by the frequency in another category.
Instead of standardizing the distribution of the variable to the base of 100 or 1.00 as what is
done in computing percentages and proportions.

Below is the mathematical definition of a ratio;

Ratio = f1/f2
x the researcher wants to know the relative sizes of the various elementary
schools in a district, and he found that there are 130 public elementary schools and 85
private elementary schools. To determine the ration of the public schools (f1) to private
schools (f2), we divide 130 by 85, thus:
Ratio = f1 / f2 = 130/85 = 1.529 or 1.53
The computation shows that the ratio is 1.53 which means that for every private
elementary school, there are 1.53 public schools in the district covered by the study. This
result can be expressed thus: based on a unit or ones, the ratio of public elementary schools
to private elementary schools is 1.53:1.
On the other hand, rates provide yet another way of summarizing the distribution of a
single variable. Rates are defined as “the number of actual occurrence of some
phenomenon divided by the number of possible occurrences per some unit of time” (Healey,
2010). For example, the percentage of passing rate of board passers in a university refers to
the number of passers in that university (actual occurrence) divided by the number of takers
or graduates who took the board exam (possible occurrence). This quantity is then multiplied
by 100.
Percentage of Passing Rate = number of passers (95) x 100
Number of takers (120)
= 95/120
= 0.7916/100
= 79.16%

Thus, based on the results of these computations, it is observed that the subject
university obtained a 79.16% rate of passing in the board examination.
Another technique of presenting large sets of data is through the frequency
distribution. As discussed by Johnson and Kuby (2013), a frequency distribution is a listing,
often expressed in chart form that pairs values of a variable with their frequency, or the
number of times the value (x) occurs in the sample. For instance, a study concerns the
number of females with varying ages in a group of twenty contestants in a song contest. The
data may be presented as follows:
Frequency Distribution of 20 Female Contestants According to Age

Age (x) Frequency (f)

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 10 1
15 2
17 5
20 7
25 2
27 2
30 1
Total 20

At a glance, the data in the table below gives a picture of the number of
female contestants in every age category. However, when dealing with a larger set of data,
the grouped frequency distribution is more practical. For example, the research is about
determining the number of male evacuees in a relocation center, categorize according to
their ages.
Grouped Frequency Distribution of 100 Males in a Relocation Center

Age ( x ) Frequency ( f )
0-5 20
6-11 15
12-17 15
18-23 10
24-29 5
30-35 3
36-41 3
42-47 2
48-53 3
54-59 10
60 and above 14
Total 100
In this grouped frequency distribution, the arrangement of data makes
it easier to detect how many males have been relocated according to their
age groupings.

Measures of Central Tendency

1. The Mean, which is also called arithmetic mean, is represented by X (or “x-bar”).
This is computed by adding all the values of the variables x, (The sum of the x values is
symbolized by Ex or summation of x) and dividing the sum by the total number of samples,
represented by n. The formula for this is expressed as:
X = Ex
n
Example: X = Ex = 10+15+17+20+25+27+30 =144 =20.57
n 7 7

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 The example shows the ages of seven students enrolled in an alternative
class. After computing the mean value, it is determined that the average age of seven
students in that class is 20.57. Another description for the mean value is that it represents
the middle point of a group of values according to weight.
Lesson 19. Results and Discussions
Lesson 20. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Lesson 21. Research paper Preliminaries
Lesson 22. Abstract, Bibliography and Appendices
Lesson 23. Evaluation of Research Outputs

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