EE311

Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

REVIEW – Phasors, Ohms Law, Kirchoff’s Laws

 Review

Phasors

 Phasor of a sinusoidal signal 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃 is defined

as 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔+𝜃𝜃 = 2 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

 In power systems it is convenient to define a phasor

using RMS value and phase:

𝐀𝐀 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃

𝐴𝐴max
where 𝐴𝐴 = is an RMS value of the signal
2

 Phasors can only be used in systems with single

frequency
 Review

Phasors
 Phasors can be represented in three forms
𝐀𝐀 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝜃𝜃 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃
real part imaginary part
exponential polar rectangular

 Therefore, voltages a currents are expressed as

𝐕𝐕 = 𝑉𝑉 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣

𝐈𝐈 = 𝐼𝐼 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖

 Review

Phasors

 Phasors can be drawn as vectors on a complex

plane (vector or phasor diagram)

Im

𝐕𝐕
𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣
𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣
Re

𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣
 Review
Ohm’s Law for phasors
 Using phasors complex impedance is defined
I
V
Z=
I V Z

𝐙𝐙 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑅𝑅 – resistance [Ω]
 Additionally admittance Y is defined 𝑋𝑋 – reactance [Ω]
1 𝐺𝐺 – conductance [S]
𝐘𝐘 = = 𝐺𝐺 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝐵𝐵 – susceptance [S]
𝒁𝒁
 Review
Kirchoff’s Laws

 Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)

At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the directed sum
of currents flowing into that node is equal zero.
n I2 I1
∑I
k =1
k =0 I3
… In
 Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)
The directed sum of voltages (electrical potential differences )
around any closed circuit is zero. V1

∑V
k =1
k =0
Vn V3 V2
EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Real/Active, Reactive and Complex Power

Real and Reactive Power

 Consider the simple circuit I

Z L = R + j ωL
V
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2 𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2 𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ~
 Instantaneous power is…
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖 = 2 𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃 ⋅ 2 𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

ϕ = π/3
 Real and Reactive Power

=p 2 V sin(ωt + θ ) ⋅ 2 I sin(ωt )
2 VI ( sin ωt cos θ + sin θ cos ωt ) sin ωt
sin 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽 = sin 𝛼𝛼 cos 𝛽𝛽 + sin 𝛽𝛽 cos 𝛼𝛼
= 2 VI sin ωt cos θ + VI sin θ ⋅ 2 cos ωt sin ωt
2

= 2 VI ⋅ 12 (1 − cos 2ωt ) ⋅ cos θ + VI sin θ ⋅ sin 2ωt

1 sin 2𝛼𝛼 = 2 sin 𝛼𝛼 cos 𝛼𝛼
sin2 𝛼𝛼 = (1 − cos 2𝛼𝛼)
2
p = VI cos θ (1 − cos 2ωt ) + VI sin θ sin 2ωt
p = [instantaneous real power] + [instantaneous reactive power]
Real and Reactive Power

p = VI cos θ (1 − cos 2ωt ) + VI sin θ sin 2ωt

p = [instantaneous real power] + [instantaneous reactive power]

V I sinθ
V I cosθ
 Real and Reactive Power

 Real power
 unidirectional
 the average/mean value
is VI cosθ

 Reactive power
 represents an interchange of energy
whose average value is 0 and peak
value is VI sinθ
 this interchange of energy results from
energy storage in magnetic (L) and
electric (C) fields
Real, Reactive and Apparent Power

 In power systems it is convenient to define average 𝐕𝐕

real power as P and peak reactive power as Q.
θ
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼 ⋅ cos 𝜃𝜃 𝐈𝐈

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼 ⋅ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃

 cosθ is known as power factor, where 𝜃𝜃 is an angle

between voltage phasor V and current phasor I.

 Additionally, apparent power is defined as 𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼

This power only “appears” to be supplied to the load if
we ignore the phase angle between V and I.
Power Triangle and Units

Q = VI sin θ
𝜃𝜃
P = VI cos θ
P=
2
+ Q 2 V 2 I 2 cos 2 θ + V 2 I 2 sin 2 θ
= ( )
V 2 I 2 cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ =V 2 I 2 =S 2
 Units
 Real power
P [W, kW, MW, GW]
 Reactive Power Q [VAr, kVAr, MVAr]
 Apparent power S [VA, kVA, MVA, GVA]
Complex Power

 Real and reactive power are sometimes represented

together as one complex number S. 𝐕𝐕

θ
S = VI = P + jQ
*
𝜃𝜃𝑉𝑉
𝐈𝐈
𝜃𝜃𝐼𝐼

 V ∠θV
Assuming V = I= I ∠θ I
S = VI* = V ∠θV ⋅ I ∠ − θ I = VI ∠(θV − θ I )
= VI ∠θ = VI ( cos θ + j sin θ )
VI cos θ + jVI sin θ =
= P + jQ
EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

AC power conventions
Load/Generator Convention – real power

Generator Load
I I

V V
E

𝑃𝑃𝐺𝐺 > 0 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 > 0

GENERATOR LOAD
CONVENTION CONVENTION
Load/Generator Convention – real power

Generator Load
I I

V V
E

𝑃𝑃𝐺𝐺 < 0 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 < 0

LOAD GENERATOR
CONVENTION CONVENTION
Load/Generator Convention – reactive power

 IEC convention:
 Reactive power absorbed by an inductive Q>0
load is positive, and

 Reactive power absorbed by a capacitive Q<0

load is negative.
Reactive power in a synchronous generator
XS Generator Convention
I

E V

E E jIX S
V jIX S
θ
I
θ V
I
 Under-excited generator
absorbs reactive power
 Over-excited generator
produces reactive power
Complex Power in Loads and Generators
Adopting the phasor directions used for a generator as a convention
for both generator and load and taking current I as a reference we
can represent real, reactive and complex power on a complex plane.
Capacitive
Over-excited
I load Q
I generator

V V
S
θ V
P
GENERATOR LOAD I

Inductive
load Under-excited
Generator Convention generator
Complex Power in Loads and Generators
Adopting the phasor directions used for a load as a convention
for both generator and load and taking current I as a reference.

Inductive
I Under-excited Q
I generator
load

V V
S
θ V
P
GENERATOR LOAD I

Capacitive
Load Convention Over-excited
load
generator
Sources and sinks of reactive power
 Reactive power is generated by:
 Over-excited synchronous machines

 Capacitors

 Cables

 Lightly loaded overhead lines

 Reactive power is absorbed by:

 Under-excited synchronous machines

 Induction motors

 Inductors

 Transformers

 Heavily loaded overhead lines

EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Real, reactive, apparent and complex power in RLC loads

Complex Power in RLC Loads

Z=R
V
I
I
R V

 Phase angle θ =0
2
V
P = VI = I 2 R =
Resistive
load
 Real power
R
 Reactive power Q=0
 Apparent power S=P
 Complex power S = VI * = P
Complex Power in RLC Loads

Z = jX L = jωL
V
I 𝜃𝜃

L V
I
π
 Phase angle θ=
2
Inductive
load
 Real power P=0 2
V
 Reactive power Q = VI = I 2 X L =
XL
 Apparent power S =Q
 Complex power S = VI * = jQ
Complex Power in RLC Loads
1 I
Z = − jX C = − j
ωC V
𝜃𝜃
I
V
C
π
 Phase angle θ= −
2
Capacitive
load
 Real power P=0
2
V
 Reactive power Q = −VI = − I 2 X C = −
XC
 Apparent power S = Q = VI
 Complex power S = VI * = jQ
Complex Power in RLC Loads
 1 
Z = R + j ( X L − X C ) = R + j  ωL − 
 ωC  I
I V 𝜃𝜃 V
𝜃𝜃
R V
I
π π
L  Phase angle − <θ <
2 2
 Real power P = I 2R
C
 Reactive power Q = I 2 (X L − X C )
Series  Apparent power S = VI = I 2 Z = P 2 + Q 2
connected
RLC load  Complex power S = VI * = P + jQ
Complex Power in RLC Loads
1 1  1 1  1  1 
= + j  −  = + j  ωC − 
Z R  XC X L  R  ωL  V I
𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃 V
I
π π I
V  Phase angle − <θ <
C 2 2
R L V2
 Real power P=
R
V2 V2
 Reactive power Q= −
X L XC
Parallel  Apparent power S = VI = I 2 Z = P 2 + Q 2
connected
RLC load
 Complex power S = VI * = P + jQ
EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Three-phase systems

Generation of 3-phase power

Generation of a single-phase voltage

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜀𝜀 = −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 N
Faraday's law of induction
+ + N  
S B
𝛷𝛷 = � 𝐵𝐵 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑆𝑆
S
If 𝐵𝐵=const.
𝛷𝛷 = 𝐵𝐵 ⋅ 𝑆𝑆⃗ = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 S
𝑑𝑑Φ
𝜀𝜀 = − = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 Generation of a single-phase voltage
  V N  
Φ = B ⋅ S = BS cos α S B

𝛼𝛼 = 0° 60° 120° 180° 240° 300°

N N N N N N

 + + + +

B
S S S S S S

v(t)

𝑑𝑑Φ
𝑣𝑣 = 𝜀𝜀 = − = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 Generation of a single-phase voltage

Shifting the winding to the stator, and field to the rotor…

V + +
N N S

N S S N

S S N

v(t)
Generation of a three-phase system of voltages

a Introducing another two armature turns…

a b c
b' c'
Note that:
 the voltages are displaced by 120o
N S
 the phasors are not attached (magnitude

c b and direction are fixed, but not location)

a' b' c'
a'

On phasor diagram…
Vaa' Vbb' Vcc'
Vcc' Vcc'
Vaa' Vaa'
or…

Vbb' Vbb'
Taking Vaa‘ as a reference
EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Three-phase systems

3-phase power conventions and definitions

Phase sequence

 phase sequence is important because

 it determines the direction of rotation of 3 phase motors
 it determines whether two 3 phase systems can be connected in parallel

 phase sequence can be described as the order in which the

three line voltages become positive
 normally ABC or RYB (red yellow blue) – POSITIVE sequence

 phase sequence can be reversed simply by

interchanging any two conductors
 e.g. ACB or RBY – NEGATIVE sequence
Three-phase connections
 Three-phase windings/loads in most cases are interconnected
 STAR connection is formed by connecting one terminal of each phase to a common
point (neutral)
 DELTA connection is formed by connecting successive windings/loads in sequence

 Both connections form a three-phase system of voltages and currents

 Phase voltage and current relate to the quantities in the actual phase windings
 Line voltage and current relate to the quantities in the ‘external’ conductors
IA

VAB IAPh IBPh ICPh

IB
VAPh VBPh VCPh
VCA
VBC
IC

Line voltages and currents Phase voltages and currents

 Three-phase connections

 A three-phase system is said to be BALANCED if the three phasor

magnitudes are equal, and the phasors are displaced by 120°
 A three-phase load can be produced from three single-phase loads
 Three-phase circuits are often drawn as if superimposed on the
phasor diagram, i.e. with 120° displacement

Balanced three-phase system of voltages Three-phase load

EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Three-phase systems

Advantages of 3-phase systems

Advantages of three-phase power

 Voltage regulation is inherently better in a three-phase network

 Transmission losses are lower compared to single-phase

system

 Three-phase instantaneous power is constant

Losses in 3-phase power transmission
Three single-phase systems One three-phase system

𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙
Load Load
𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙 A A

𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙 𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙
Load Load
𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙 B B

𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙 𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙
Load Load
𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙 C 𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 = 0 𝐙𝐙 C

Δ𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 1𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 6 × 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅 Δ𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 3𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 3 × 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅

= 0.5 Δ𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 1𝑝𝑝𝑝
Voltage drop in 3-phase power transmission
Three single-phase systems One three-phase system

𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙
Load Load
𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙 A A

𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙 𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙
Load Load
𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙 B B

𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙 𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙
Load Load
𝐼𝐼 𝐙𝐙 C 𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 = 0 𝐙𝐙 C

Δ𝑉𝑉1𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 2 × 𝐼𝐼 ⋅ 𝑍𝑍 Δ𝑉𝑉3𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝐼𝐼 ⋅ 𝑍𝑍 = 0.5 Δ𝑉𝑉1𝑝𝑝𝑝

Instantaneous power in 3 phase systems
va (t ) = 2V sin ωt
vb (t ) = 2V sin (ωt − 120°) ptotal (t ) = pa (t ) + pb (t ) + pc (t )
α β
vc (t ) = 2V sin (ωt − 240°)
=
pa (t ) v=
a (t ) ia (t ) 2VI sin (ωt ) sin (ωt − θ )

ia (t ) = 2 I sin (ωt − θ ) p=
b (t ) ib (t ) 2VI sin (ωt − 120° ) sin (ωt − 120° − θ )
vb (t ) =

ib (t ) = 2 I sin (ωt − 120° − θ ) p=

c (t ) vc (t ) i=
c (t ) 2VI sin (ωt − 240° ) sin (ωt − 240° − θ )

ic (t ) = 2 I sin (ωt − 240° − θ )

α β α β
 Instantaneous power in 3 phase systems

α β
cos 𝛼𝛼 ± 𝛽𝛽 = cos 𝛼𝛼 cos(𝛽𝛽) ∓ sin 𝛼𝛼 sin(𝛽𝛽)

1 3
cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃 + 120° = cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃 cos 120° − sin 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃 sin 120° = − cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃 − sin 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃
2 2
1 3
cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃 − 120° = cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃 cos 120° + sin 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃 sin 120° = − cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃 + sin 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃
2 2

ptotal (t ) = 3VI cos θ

In 3-phase balanced systems

instantaneous power is constant
 Instantaneous power in 3 phase systems

1.2
pa
1 pb
pc ptotal (t ) = 3VI cos θ
0.8 p total

0.6 In 3-phase balanced systems

p(t)

instantaneous power is constant

0.4

0.2

-0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ω t [rad]
EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Three-phase systems

3-phase power generation, transmission and utilisation

 Generation of a three-phase system of voltages (star connection)

Connecting a', b' and c' as the common point…  Balanced system exhibits the
a b c VC Vaa'relationships:
following Vbb' Vcc'
120° – phase voltages
• 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀 = 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠0°
VA
• 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁 = 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠ − 120°
n a' b' c' VB
• 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂 = 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠120°
– line voltages
C c VC • 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 = 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 − 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 = 𝟑𝟑𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠30°
a • 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 = 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 − 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 = 𝟑𝟑𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠ − 90°
N 30°
• 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 = 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 − 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 = 𝟑𝟑𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠150°
B
b VA
VB – lines voltages form a balanced
A
VBC system of voltages of magnitude:
• 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝟑𝟑𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝
– line and phase currents are equal
This arrangement is termed a STAR or WYE connection
 Utilising three-phase power (star connected balanced load)
IC
ZC  Balanced system exhibits
C
IN ZA the following relationships:
– balanced load impedances
N A VAN
IB ZB • 𝐙𝐙𝐀𝐀 = 𝐙𝐙𝐁𝐁 = 𝐙𝐙𝐂𝐂 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠𝜃𝜃
B
– with the voltages as before, the currents can be defined:
IA 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝
• 𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀 = = ∠ − 𝜃𝜃
𝐙𝐙𝐀𝐀 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝
 Also note, Kirchhoff’s current law gives 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝
• 𝐈𝐈𝐍𝐍 = 𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀 + 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁 + 𝐈𝐈𝐂𝐂 = 0 • 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁 = = ∠ −120° − 𝜃𝜃
𝐙𝐙𝐁𝐁 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝
– neutral current is zero when 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝
balanced conditions exist • 𝐈𝐈𝐂𝐂 = = ∠ 120° − 𝜃𝜃
𝐙𝐙𝐂𝐂 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝
– star connections can potentially be – therefore line and phase currents form
made through three conductors a balanced system of currents of
(isolated neutral point) magnitude:
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝
• 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝
 Generation of a three-phase systems of voltages (delta connection)
C

B a b c
A VCA
 Balanced system exhibits
120°
the following relationships:
VAB
a' b' c' – phase voltages
VBC
• 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠0°
• 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠ − 120°
VCA
C
b',c VBC • 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠120°
VAB
B c',a – line and phase voltages are equal
a',b
• 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝
VAB
A
• 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 = 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀
• 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁𝐂𝐂 = 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁
This arrangement is termed a DELTA connection • 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 = 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂
Utilising three-phase power (delta connected balanced load)

 Balanced system relationships:

IC
C – balanced load’s impedances
ICA • 𝐙𝐙𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 = 𝐙𝐙𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 = 𝐙𝐙𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠𝜃𝜃
IBC – with the voltages as before, the phase currents can be defined:
𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝
IB B
ZAB A • 𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 = = ∠ − 𝜃𝜃 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠ − 𝜃𝜃
IAB 𝐙𝐙𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝
IA • 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 = = ∠ −120° − 𝜃𝜃 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠(−120° − 𝜃𝜃)
𝐙𝐙𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝
IC • 𝐈𝐈𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 = = ∠ 120° − 𝜃𝜃 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠(120° − 𝜃𝜃)
𝐙𝐙𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝
ICA
VCA – from Kirchhoff’s current law, the line currents can be obtained:
VAB • 𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀 = 𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 − 𝐈𝐈𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 = 𝟑𝟑𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠(−30° − θ)
IB
θ • 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁 = 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 − 𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 = 𝟑𝟑𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠(−150° − θ)
IAB
IBC • 𝐈𝐈𝐂𝐂 = 𝐈𝐈𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 − 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 = 𝟑𝟑𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∠(90° − θ)
VBC – therefore line currents form a balanced
IA
system of currents of magnitude
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝
• 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = 3𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 3
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝
 Power transfer in a three-phase system
Transmission Line
IC ZL  Neutral conductor may or may not exist
C
ZN
 Neutral current is zero when balanced
IN
therefore
A
N  Δ𝑃𝑃3𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 3 × Δ𝑃𝑃1𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 3 × 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
IB ZL
B  Δ𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 1 × 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 ⋅ 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿
IA ZL (2 × in −pN p =
I ph1phase) I ph − s N s

 Three-phase transformation possible with

Transformer – bank of three single-phase transformers
IsC – one 3-phase transformer
IpC
C
C ZC
ZA
N N A
IpB B VAN
B ZB
A
IpA IsB
IsA
Power in a 3-phase system
 consider one phase of a balanced star or delta connected load
 𝑆𝑆1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝
 𝑃𝑃1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑆𝑆 ⋅ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ cos 𝜃𝜃
 𝑄𝑄1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑆𝑆 ⋅ sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ sin 𝜃𝜃
 consider the three phases of a star – identical loads hence identical pf
 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 3 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ; 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝
 𝑆𝑆3 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 3 × 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 3 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿
 𝑃𝑃3 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑆𝑆 ⋅ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 3 × 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ cos 𝜃𝜃 = 3 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 ⋅ cos 𝜃𝜃
 𝑄𝑄3 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑆𝑆 ⋅ sin 𝜃𝜃 = 3 × 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ sin 𝜃𝜃 = 3 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 ⋅ sin 𝜃𝜃
 consider the three phases of a delta – identical loads hence identical pf
 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ; 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = 3 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝
 𝑆𝑆3 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 3 × 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 3 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿
 𝑃𝑃3 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑆𝑆 ⋅ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 3 × 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ cos 𝜃𝜃 = 3 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 ⋅ cos 𝜃𝜃
 𝑄𝑄3 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑆𝑆 ⋅ sin 𝜃𝜃 = 3 × 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ sin 𝜃𝜃 = 3 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 ⋅ sin 𝜃𝜃
EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Three-phase systems

3-phase power measurement

AC real power measurement – Wattmeter

Current coil

W
Voltage coil

P = V ⋅ I ⋅ cos θ
AC real power measurement – Wattmeter

Current coil
I
A W

V V

P = ℜ{V I }
W
*
Voltage coil

P = V ⋅ I ⋅ cos θ
Single-phase power measurement

W A

P = PW S = I ⋅V Q= S −P
2
W
2
Three-phase real power measurement
using 3 wattmeters – 4 wire system

A W1

connected load
3-phase star
B W2

C W3

PT = PW 1 + PW 2 + PW 3
Three-phase 3 wire real power measurement
using 2 wattmeters

A W1

3 phase load
B W2

IA + IB + IC = 0
PT = PW 1 + PW 2
Three-phase 3 wire real power measurement

PT = PW 1 + PW 2

{ } { } { }
PW 1 = ℜ VACI *A = ℜ (VA − VC ) I *A = ℜ VA I *A − VC I *A

P = ℜ{V I } = ℜ{(V − V ) I } = ℜ{V I − V I }

W2
*
BC B B C
*
B
*
B B
*
C B

P + P = ℜ{V I − V I }+ ℜ{V I − V I }
W1 W1
*
A A
*
C A
*
B B
*
C B

= ℜ{V I + V I − V I − V I } = ℜ{V I + V I + V (− I
*
A A
*
B B
*
C A
*
C B
*
A A
*
B B C
*
A − I *B )}
= ℜ{V I + V I + V (− I − I ) }= ℜ{V I + V I + V I }
* * * * * *
A A B B C A B A A B B C C

= ℜ{V I }+ ℜ{V I }+ ℜ{V I } = P + P + P = P

*
A A
*
B B
*
C C A B C T
Three-phase 3 wire reactive power
measurement using 2 wattmeters

A W1

symmetrical load
3 phase symmetrical

3 phase
voltages

B W2

IA + IB + IC = 0
=QT 3 ( PW 1 − PW 2 )
Three-phase 3 wire reactive power
measurement using 2 wattmeters

𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊𝑊 = ℜ 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀∗ 𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊2 = ℜ 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁∗

VC 𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊𝑊 − 𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊𝑊 = ℜ 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀∗ − 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁∗ =

IC ℜ (𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀 −𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂 )𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀∗ − (𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁 − 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂 )𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁∗ = ℜ 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁∗ − 𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀∗ + 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀 𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀∗ −0 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁∗ =
ℜ 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁∗ − 𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀∗ + ℜ 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀 𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀∗ − ℜ 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁∗ = ℜ 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁
∗
+ 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 − 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵 =
θC
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 ∗
∗ 𝑗𝑗 −𝑗𝑗
ℑ 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 𝑒𝑒 2 = ℑ 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 𝑒𝑒 2 =
VA
𝜋𝜋
−𝑗𝑗
θA 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 𝑒𝑒 2 = 𝐈𝐈𝐂𝐂 3
IA
θB -90°
IBA = ℑ 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂 𝐈𝐈𝐂𝐂∗ 𝟑𝟑 = 3𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶

𝑄𝑄𝑇𝑇 = 3𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 = 3(𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊𝑊 − 𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊𝑊 )

Three-phase reactive power
measurement using 1 wattmeter

A W1

symmetrical load
3 phase symmetrical

3 phase
voltages

QT = 3PW 1
Three-phase reactive power
measurement using 1 wattmeter

VC PW=
1 VBC ⋅ I A cos ( −90° + θ=
) θ
3VA ⋅ I A sin= 3QA

PW 1
IC QA =
θ 3

VA
θ
θ − 90° + θ
IA

QT = 3QA = 3PW 1
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 – Electronic & Electrical Principles 3

TUTORIAL: AC power fundamentals and 3-phase systems

Phasors (review)

1. Convert the following time varying values to a phasor form:

a) 𝑣𝑣1 = 3√2 sin(314𝑡𝑡 + 25°) V 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 = ?

b) 𝑖𝑖1 = 0.5√2 sin(314𝑡𝑡 − 30°) A 𝐈𝐈𝟏𝟏 = ?

c) 𝑖𝑖2 = 0.25√2 sin(314𝑡𝑡 − 55°) A 𝐈𝐈𝟐𝟐 = ?

2. Draw the phasors found in question 1 by taking 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 as the reference.

3. Taking 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀 = 1∠0 ° V as the reference, draw and label phasors 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁 and 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂 which have the same
magnitude but lead and lag this phasor by 45° respectively.

4. Calculate and then draw the resultant of the following phasor additions and subtractions:

𝐕𝐕𝛂𝛂 = 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 + 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 + 𝐕𝐕𝟑𝟑

𝐕𝐕𝛃𝛃 = 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 − 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 + 𝐕𝐕𝟑𝟑

Where: 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 = 4∠0° V, 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 = 2∠45° V, 𝐕𝐕𝟑𝟑 = 6∠90° V

5. Is it possible to draw phasors for the following sinusoids on the same diagram?

𝑣𝑣50𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 3√2 sin(314𝑡𝑡 + 25°) V

𝑣𝑣60𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 6√2 sin(377𝑡𝑡 + 50°) V

Explain your reasoning!

6. The voltage 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 = 5√2 sin(314𝑡𝑡 + 45°) V is applied across the following components in turn:

(i) a resistance of 0.5Ω

(ii) a capacitor of reactance 0.25Ω
(iii) an inductor of inductance 1mH

In each case determine the current flowing into the component and express these in time varying
and phasor forms.

Determine the real (P), reactive (Q) and apparent (S) powers in each case and illustrate them with a
power triangle.
Three-phase systems

7. Three impedances of 10/35° Ω are delta connected to a 415V supply. Calculate the total real,
reactive and apparent power supplied. If the three impedances are then connected in star,
calculate the new real, reactive and apparent power supplied.
[42.32kW; 29.64kVAr; 51.67kVA; 14.11kW, 9.88 kVAr; 17.22kVA]

8. A star connected generator supplies a delta connected motor which is delivering 111.9kW. If the
motor has an efficiency of 95% and operates at a power factor of 0.9 lagging, calculate the
current magnitude drawn from the generator with line voltage 600V. Also calculate the
magnitude of the currents in the motor windings.
[125.9A; 72.71A]

9. A three phase delta connected load, each phase of which has an inductive reactance of 40Ω and
a resistance of 25Ω (connected in series), is supplied from the secondary of a three phase star
connected transformer which has a phase voltage of 240V. With the aid of a circuit diagram
calculate
(a) voltage magnitude across each phase of the load
(b) the current magnitude in each phase of the load
(c) the magnitude of the transformer winding currents
(d) the total real power and power factor
[a) 415V; b) 8.8A; c) 15.25A; d) 5820W; 0.53 lag]

10. A 25kVA, 0.8 power factor lagging, three phase balanced star load is supplied from a delta
connected generator through feeders of impedance (0.1+j0.2) Ω per phase. If the line voltage at
the load end of the feeders is 230V calculate:
(a) the magnitude of the phase voltage at the load
(b) the load current magnitude
(c) the line voltage magnitude at the generator
(d) the generator phase current magnitude
(e) the generator power factor
[a) 132.8V; b) 62.7A; c) 251.97V; d) 36.2A; e) 0.77 lag]

11. A commercial property is supplied via a 415V three phase power cable. The load on the site is
star connected, is balanced and has phase sequence ABC and an earthed star point. The property
draws 4.82kW at 0.87 lagging power factor. The phase voltage at the load was measured at
239.5V. Take VAN as reference.
(a) Determine the line voltages for each phase of the load (magnitude and phase).
(b) Determine the reactive power absorbed in each of the three phases of the load.
(c) Determine the three line currents (magnitude and phase) drawn by the load, and sketch
these in a phasor diagram together with the load voltages.
(d) Determine the phase impedance of the load.
(e) Suppose a fault develops on phase C of the load such that its impedance is decreased to
90% of its original magnitude (impedance angle remains unchanged). Determine the new
values of the three phase currents and also the resulting current in the neutral.
[b) 910.5VAr; c) 7.71/-29.54° A; d) 31.06/29.54° Ω;
e) 7.71/-29.54° A, 7.71/-149.54° A, 8.56/90.45° A, 0.8568/90.45° A]
12. Three wattmeters are connected to a three-phase symmetrical load supplied from a balanced
three-phase source as shown in Figure 1. The following two measurements have been noted:
𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊1 = 643 W and 𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊2 = 356 W.
(a) What is the real and reactive power of this load?
(b) Assuming the load contains series connected RL elements configured in delta, calculate the
resistance and reactance of each phase.
(c) What would be the reading shown on wattmeter W3 considering its specific connection
shown in Figure 1?

A W1

symmetrical load
Delta connected
symmetrical voltage
400V 3-phase

3-phase
B W2

C W3

Figure 1. Two-wattmeter measurement setup

[a) 999W; 497.1VAr; b) 385.12 Ω; 191.64 Ω; c) -287W]
EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Real/Active, Reactive and Complex Power

Worked example
 𝑝𝑝(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖 = 2 𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃 ⋅ 2 𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

- 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)
- 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)
- 𝑝𝑝(𝑡𝑡)
v [V], i [A], p [W]

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 1 V
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 1 A

Time [s]
Real and Reactive Power

 Real power
 unidirectional
 the average/mean value
is VI cosθ

 Reactive power
 represents an interchange of energy whose
average value is 0 and peak value is VI sinθ
 this interchange of energy results from energy
storage in magnetic (L) and electric (C) fields
Real and Reactive Power

 Convention: Reactive power absorbed by an

inductive load is positive
 cos θ is known as power factor
 Apparent power is defined as S = V∙I
 Complex power is defined as S=VI*=P+jQ
 Power Flow Example
 Consider a three-phase busbar with local generation and load,
and a connection to the grid. There are 26 wind turbines, each rated
at 600 kW and each drawing 100 kVAr. The local load is an open
cast mine, with 12.4 MVA full load, 0.85 lag.
➔ What complex power is exported to the grid when all but one wind
turbine is operating at 100%, and the open cast mine is operating
on full load?
➔ Establish the conditions which define the rating for the overhead
line connecting this site to the grid?

G 26 wind turbines

~
Open cast mine
Grid
Power Flow Example
➔ What complex power is exported to the grid when all but one
wind turbine is operating at 100%, and the open cast mine is
operating on full load?
SWF
Sgrid G 25 wind turbines
operating
~ SM
Open cast mine
Grid

𝐒𝐒𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 = 𝐒𝐒𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖 − 𝐒𝐒𝐌𝐌

 Wind farm power generation

𝐒𝐒𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖 = 25 ⋅ 𝐒𝐒𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖 = 25 𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊

𝐒𝐒𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖 = 25 × 600 ⋅ 103 − 𝑗𝑗100 ⋅ 103 = 15 − 𝑗𝑗2.5 MVA
Power Flow Example
 Open cast mine power consumption

cos𝜃𝜃 = 0.85 ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = cos −1 0.85 = 31.788o

𝐒𝐒𝐌𝐌 = 𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀 cos𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗sin𝜃𝜃 = 12.4 ⋅ 106 × [0.85 + 𝑗𝑗sin(31.788o )]

= 12.4 ⋅ 106 × 0.85 + 𝑗𝑗0.5268 = 10.54 + 𝑗𝑗6.53 MVA

 Power export to the grid

𝐒𝐒𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 = 𝐒𝐒𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖 − 𝐒𝐒𝐌𝐌 = 15 − 𝑗𝑗2.5 ⋅ 106 − 10.54 + 𝑗𝑗6.53 ⋅ 106

= 4.46 − 𝑗𝑗9.032 MVA

Power Flow Example
➔ Establish the conditions which define the rating for the
overhead line connecting this site to the grid?

SWF
Sgrid G 26 wind turbines

~ SM
Open cast mine
Grid

 Line rating is determined by the maximum current or

maximum apparent power (which is directly proportional to
the current)
Power Flow Example
1) Maximum import
SWF = 0
Sgrid G No wind - 0 wind turbines

~
Open cast mine at maximum load
Grid
𝐒𝐒𝐌𝐌 = 10.54 + 𝑗𝑗6.53 MVA

 Maximum imported apparent power

𝑆𝑆𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 12.4 MVA

Power Flow Example

2) Maximum export SWFmax = 26 SWT

Sgrid G 26 wind turbines

~
Open cast mine temporarily
Grid disconnected
𝐒𝐒𝐌𝐌 = 0
 Maximum exported apparent power
𝑆𝑆𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑆𝑆𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 26 × 600 ⋅ 103 − 𝑗𝑗100 ⋅ 103
= 26 × 600 ⋅ 103 2 + 100 ⋅ 103 2 = 15.81 MVA

Answer: Maximum export determines the required rating for the

overhead line connecting this site to the grid
EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Three-phase systems

Industrial load worked example

Industrial Load Example

A star connected motor is connected to

a 4kV, 3-phase, 50Hz transmission line. A delta connected
capacitor bank rated at 1800kVAr is also connected to the
line. Motor produces an output of 2.681MW at an efficiency
of 93% and a power factor of 0.90 lagging.
4kV
M Pn = 2.681MW
η = 93%
pf = 0.9 lag

Qn = 1800kVAr

 active and reactive power absorbed by the motor

 reactive and apparent power supplied by the transmission line
 current carried by the transmission line (magnitude and phase)
 magnitude and phase of the motor line current
 draw full phasor diagram
Circuit diagrams
c
VA IA trans. line IA motor a
VC

VB
b
Motor

IA cap
Capacitor bank

b a

4kV
M

Pn = 2.681MW Single line diagram

η = 93%
Qn = 1800kVAr pf = 0.9 lag
Industrial load calculation
 active and reactive power absorbed by the motor

Pmotor input = Pmotor output /η = 2.681·106/0.93 = 2.883MW

Smotor input = Pmotor input /pf = 2.883·106/0.90 = 3.203MVA

Qmotor input = √(Smotor input)2 – (Pmotor input)2 = 1.395MVAr

 reactive and apparent power supplied by the transmission line

Qcap = -1.8MVAr (capacitor generates lagging VArs)

Qtrans. line = Qmotor input + Qcap = 1.395x106 - 1.800·106 = - 405kVAr
(unusually, reactive power is being returned to the supply)
Ptrans. line = Pmotor input = 2.883MW
Strans. line = √(Ptrans. line)2 + (Qtrans. line)2 = 2.911MVA
4kV S trans. line S motor
M

S cap Pn = 2.681MW
η = 93%
Qn = 1800kVAr pf = 0.9 lag
Industrial load calculation

S motor
S trans. line
M

Load Pn = 2.681MW
S cap
convention η = 93%
Qcap = -1800kVAr pf = 0.9 lag

𝐒𝐒𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭.𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 = 𝐒𝐒𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 + 𝐒𝐒𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜

= (2.883+j1.395) +( − j1.8)
= (2.883 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗.405) MVA
Industrial load calculation

S motor
S trans. line
M

Generator Pn = 2.681MW
S cap
convention η = 93%
Qcap = 1800kVAr pf = 0.9 lag

𝐒𝐒𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭.𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 = 𝐒𝐒𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 − 𝐒𝐒𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜

= (2.883+j1.395) − (j1.8)
= (2.883 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗.405) MVA
Industrial load calculation
 current carried by transmission line
(magnitude and phase)
4
Consider phase A voltage as reference: 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀 = ∠0° kV
3
The line current is then
𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡. 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 2.911 ⋅ 106
𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡. 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = = = 420.2 A
3 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡. 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 3 × 4 ⋅ 10 3

𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡. 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 2.883⋅106

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = = 0.9904 (leading, since Q is negative)
𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡. 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 2.911⋅106

𝜃𝜃 = −cos −1 (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝) = − cos −1 ( 0.9904) = −7.946°

𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭.𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 = 𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡. 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ∠(0° − 𝜃𝜃) = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗

IA cap
4kV I trans. line I motor
M

I cap Pn = 2.681MW
VA
η = 93% 7.95°
Qn = 1800kVAr pf = 0.9 lag
Industrial load calculation
 magnitude and phase of the motor line current

𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 3 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3.203 ⋅ 106

⇒ 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 462.3 A
3 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 3×4⋅ 103

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.9 (lagging, since Q is positive)

IA cap
𝜃𝜃 = cos −1 (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝) = cos −1 (0.9) = 25.83°
I A trans. line
𝐈𝐈𝐀𝐀 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 = 𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∠(0° − 𝜃𝜃) = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 VA
7.95°
-25.8°
4kV I trans. line I motor
M

I cap Pn = 2.681MW
IA cap
η = 93%
Qn = 1800kVAr pf = 0.9 lag
Full phasor diagram

7.95° VA
-25.8°
IA cap

VA, VB, VC - phase voltages of the source

 Fundamentals of Power Systems

Introduction to Power Systems

EEE Department
 Ron Reiring: flickr.com/photos/84263554@N00/30277833048/: CC BY SA 2.0

Alex Liivet: CC0 1.0

Automobile Italia:
flickr.com/photos/automobileitalia/
28605156294/ : CC BY 2.0

Rob Dammers: flickr.com/photos/robdammers/19740418095: CC BY 2.0

User:Metilsteiner: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OPEL_Eisenach_Gesamtansicht_2009.jpg CC BY 3.0

EEE Department
 shirokazan: flickr.com/photos/shirokazan/5315413879: CC BY 2.0

EEE Department Janusz Jakubowski: flickr.com/photos/129661548@N06/29879234681: CC BY 2.0

 Electricity needs to be converted to and
from other forms of energy

Sparkfun Electronics: CC BY 2.0

Marco Verch: flickr.com/photos/30478819@N08/30985004698: CC BY 2.0

EEE Department
 Electricity needs to be transported

Thomas Kohler: flickr.com/photos/mecklenburg/4915302055/: CC BY 2.0

Mark Harkin: flickr.com/photos/markyharky/8572528028/ CC BY 2.0

Colin Brown Photography: flickr.com/photos/cb-aviation-photography/47720824362/ CC BY 2.0

Main purpose of
power systems

EEE Department
Nayuki: flickr.com/photos/nayukim/4162321518: CC BY 2.0
EEE Department
 Fundamentals of AC circuits

Structure of the Power System

EEE Department
 Purpose of the Power System
• Transport electricity from generators to customers
Dense
Major cities
Large power factories
stations Individual Towns and
Concentrated homes suburbs
production Renewables
Countryside
Remote
areas

• Long-distance, bulk energy transport

Efficiency
• Distribution at different scales
• Fine-grained “last mile” distribution Cost-effectiveness

EEE Department
 Transmission & Distribution
Sub- Customers
Generators Generators
Transmission
Customers

Collection Transmission Distribution

Generators
Long Distance Decreasing Distance
Renewable High Power Decreasing Power
Generators
High Reliability Tapering Reliability

Redundancy Fast fault

response
EEE Department
 Transmission Grid
Power Sub-transmission
Power 200 – 500kV Transmission 50 – 200kV Supply
station station substation Point
substation
10-30kV

Primary
Collector substation Large customers Distribution
Collector 20 – 50kV
Pole- Secondary
network Secondary substations distribution
mounted
10 – 30kV 5 – 20kV
transformer
Low voltage
Schools, offices, 200 – 400V Primary
shops, Substation
LV cable
Farms & rural … links
customers
Street lights Homes

EEE Department
 Structure of the Power System

• Transmission and Distribution

• Requirements and Characteristics
• Typical voltages and connection points

EEE Department
EEE Department
 EE311 Electronic and Electrical Principles 3
Role and structure of electric power systems
Introduction
Modern life is dependent to a very large extent on access to a cheap, reliable supply of
electricity. In our homes, electricity is used for lighting, entertainment, refrigeration,
powering appliances, and often also for space and water heating and cooking. In addition
to these uses, industries use electricity for powering machines and industrial processes.
Electricity is used to power transport, especially in cities in the form of electric trains,
trams and metros, and increasingly electric buses, cars and bicycles. Without electricity,
modern public services, such as healthcare, could not function.

Historically, improving the cost-effectiveness of electricity supply involved exploiting of

economies of scale – in the form of larger power stations using cheap and accessible fuel
or other energy sources. Often these power stations were located close to the source of
fuel or energy, meaning that electricity has to be transported long distances in large
quantities to the cities and towns where it is used. At the same time, once delivered to
centres of population and industry, electricity must be delivered to individual homes,
businesses and public services in comparatively small volumes.

More recently, electricity supply has been the focus of decarbonisation efforts in response
to climate change. This has taken two main forms. First, there has been increasing
substitution of fossil fuel sources of electricity, such as coal, oil and gas, by renewable
sources including wind energy, solar energy and marine energy. These renewable sources
are available in different locations, and at different scales to traditional energy sources
for electricity generation, requiring corresponding changes in the electric power network.

Secondly, electricity is taking the place of fossil fuels in end uses of energy, most notably
in transport through the adoption of electric vehicles, and in domestic and commercial
heating. These changes are likely to change the amount of electricity which is used, and
also pattern of electricity consumption over time.

Transmission and Distribution

As described above, the electric power system must carry out two important functions,
which in turn lead to two broad categories of electricity network:
• Large-scale long-distance transport of electricity from remote generation
locations to centres of population and industry where it is used. Often this is on a
scale of hundreds or thousands of megawatts of power. This role is fulfilled by
transmission networks.
• Distribution of electricity within cities, towns and rural areas, including to
individual homes and businesses at a scale of only a few kilowatts. This role is
fulfilled by distribution networks.
Given the important role of electricity in modern life, and in particular in enabling the
function of major cities and industries, it is important that the long-distance, high-volume
transport role of transmission networks is carried out dependably. For this reason, such

Page 1 of 7
networks are designed and operated with high reliability in mind. This reliability is
delivered in a number of ways:
• Redundancy: there are usually multiple routes by which power can flow through
the transmission network. In addition, most important pieces of equipment will be
duplicated with spare capacity available for use in case of any failure or
breakdown.
• Flexibility: power flow through the network can be rapidly rearranged and
rerouted either under remote control or by automatic action.
• Monitoring: transmission networks are normally closely monitored, and kept
under continuous supervision by teams of experienced engineers and operators
• Rapid response: Automated protection schemes monitor the voltages, currents
and other quantities in the transmission system, so that any fault, failure or other
dangerous or destabilising condition can be rapidly isolated and faulty equipment
removed from service.
By contrast, the reliability of distribution networks is less critical, and the required level
of dependability depends on the consequences of a failure or breakdown. At the level of
individual homes or small businesses, there is normally no redundancy of equipment: a
failure of the cable connecting an individual house to the electricity network will result in
loss of supply until the cable is repaired or replaced. Similarly, there is usually little in the
way of monitoring or automation: the fault will be isolated by a simple fuse, and response
will be initiated by the customer noticing the loss of supply, and notifying the network
company (although the coming of smart meter technology offers opportunities for
improvement here).

At higher levels of the distribution network, the degree of disruption resulting from a
failure increases as more customers and businesses are affected by the breakdown of any
given piece of equipment. Thus, the degree of redundancy, monitoring and automation
tends to increase in proportion to the benefit that it brings. In recent years there has been
increasing focus on distribution monitoring and automation in an effort to improve the
quality of service provided to customers.

Transmission and distribution networks are often treated differently for regulatory
purposes. For example, in Great Britain, transmission networks and distribution
networks are subject to distinct licensing mechanisms. However, in practice, their
characteristics do not change abruptly at the boundary between transmission and
distribution. It is often convenient to consider a third category, the sub-transmission
network which covers this middle-ground, sharing some of the characteristics of each,
less redundant and closely monitored than transmission, but more so than distribution.
Such networks might be older sections of transmission network which have been
superseded and downgraded in role as a result of new transmission developments, or
sections of distribution network which have been upgraded as part of a process of
consolidation and reinforcement.

Structure of the Electric Power System

A typical structure of the overall electric power system is shown in Figure 1. Each major
element of the network is described in more detail below.

Page 2 of 7
Figure 1: Typical structure of an electric power network, including generation, transmission and distribution

Page 3 of 7
Power Stations
Historically, power stations have been the locations where electricity was produced and
injected into the wider power network. For engineering reasons, even the largest
generators must operate at relatively low voltages, up to around 30kV, since higher
voltages would require prohibitively large amounts of insulation inside the machine. At
such voltages, currents are correspondingly high, even for generators of modest size in
modern terms, so the voltage is stepped up to transmission level using transformers
located at the power station, close to the generator terminals in order to minimise energy
losses.

Renewable Generation Developments

Many renewable energy technologies, including wind, wave and tidal developments,
gather energy using devices such as wind turbines spread over a relatively wide area. It
is thus necessary to gather together the power from these individual devices using a
collection network so that it can be injected into the wider power network at a single
convenient connection point. Depending on the scale of the development, that connection
may be to the transmission, sub-transmission or primary or secondary distribution
network.

Since the individual renewable generators are often small in capacity – even the largest
are less than 10MW in rating, they will often operate at relatively low voltages (commonly
less than 1kV, the largest at a few kV) to give small size and economy of construction, with
step-up transformers at the generator for injection into the collector network. The voltage
is then increased again at the connection to the wider power system.

An exception to this pattern is in respect of hydro-electric generation. Here, energy is

concentrated by directing the flow of water through a co-located set of generators with
many of the characteristics of a conventional power station, rather than electrically
connecting dispersed generators. Thus, although the generators commonly have physical
differences to those in thermal power stations (for example, they usually operate at lower
speeds), their relationship with and connection to the transmission or distribution
network is similar.

Transmission Networks
As previously described, transmission networks are generally responsible for
longdistance transport of large amounts of power. A typical transmission circuit might be
rated to carry anywhere between 500MW and 2000MW or more. For this reason, it is
desirable for them to operate at as high a voltage as possible – usually more than 200kV
– so that current, and thus resistive energy loss in the conductors, is minimised. Although
transmission networks make extensive use of overhead lines, in certain situations, such
as sea or river crossings, areas of environmental sensitivity, and in cities, underground
cables will be used.

Transmission networks are often highly interconnected – there are multiple paths for
power to flow between any given locations, through different routes which interconnect
at transmission substations. These substations will often also be locations where energy
is injected to the transmission system by power stations, or where the transmission
network connects to the sub-transmission system, or in some cases directly to the

Page 4 of 7
distribution system, using transformers. A few very large, energy-intensive industries –
such as steelmaking – may be supplied directly from the transmission network.

Sub-Transmission Networks
Sub-transmission networks bridge the boundary between large, very high-voltage
transmission networks, and more localised, lower-voltage distribution networks.
Operating typically at voltages between 50kV and 200kV, they may take different roles
depending on their location:
• In sparsely populated regions, such as northern and southern Scotland, they may
have the character of regional transmission systems, providing long distance
transport of power to larger towns, and connecting remote generation, often from
renewable sources.
• In more densely populated areas, such as much of England, sub-transmission
networks form the top-level of the distribution network, receiving energy from the
transmission system, and conveying it to strategically-located Grid Supply Points
(GSPs) at which it is transformed and injected into the primary distribution
network. In this role, the sub-transmission network will be specifically designed
not to permit longer-distance energy transmission connecting two parts of the
transmission network.
In more remote areas, such as Cornwall, the sub-transmission network may span
many tens of kilometres, with a relatively high degree of flexibility and
interconnection. In densely populated cities such as London, it will transport
power over only a few kilometres, with a relatively simple but robust topology.
A typical sub-transmission circuit might be expected to have a rating of 100MW to
250MW.
The way that the sub-transmission network is treated for regulatory purposes often
depends on the role that it fulfils. In Great Britain, for example, 132kV networks in
Scotland are generally regulated as part of the transmission system, while in England and
Wales, they are considered part of the distribution system, and are owned and operated
by Distribution Network Operators, rather than the Transmission Owner and
Transmission Operator.

Primary Distribution Networks

Primary distribution networks typically operate at voltages between 20kV and 50kV – in
Great Britain, by far the most common primary distribution voltage is 33kV. Their main
role is to distribute power from Grid Supply Points to primary substations, each of which
might serve a small town and its surrounding countryside, or a district of a large town or
city. Primary distribution networks also host connection points of smaller renewable
generation schemes such as small wind farms, waste-to-energy generators and larger
solar generation developments. Some larger industrial customers, such as major factories,
are connected directly to the primary distribution network.

In large towns and cities, primary distribution networks are usually entirely
underground. In more rural areas, they will be mostly overhead, connecting to
underground cables where they must enter towns (for example to reach a centrally
located primary substation), but usually avoiding smaller settlements.

Page 5 of 7
Limited redundancy is usually provided to assure reliability of supply at primary
substations, in the form either of duplicated connections – each rated at the full capacity
of the primary substation – to the Grid Supply Point, or interconnection of primary
substations in a ring topology, each end of which connects to the GSP. In either case,
supply to any primary substation is robust against the failure of a single overhead line,
cable or transformer. In very remote areas, this robustness may be achieved by allowing
a primary substation to automatically switch its supply between two different GSPs which
cannot be interconnected through the primary distribution network.

Secondary Distribution Networks

The secondary distribution network brings electric power from primary substations to
the point at which it is finally transformed to a low voltage, suitable and safe for domestic
use. Many industrial and commercial customers are connected to the secondary
distribution network, including factories, shopping centres and universities. Typical
secondary distribution networks operate at voltages between 5kV and 20kV; the most
common voltage is Great Britain is 11kV.

The character of secondary distribution networks is significantly different in urban and

rural situations. Urban secondary networks typically have a simple ring topology, starting
and ending at a primary substation, and connecting several secondary substations via
underground cables. Each secondary substation has one or two transformers rated at
between about 300kW and 1000kW, connected to the secondary ring circuit by a
ringmain unit, which will allow disconnection of the transformer from the higher-voltage
circuit (normally automatically in case of a fault) and disconnection of the substation from
either cable connecting it to the adjacent substation. Secondary substations might
typically be a few hundred metres or less apart, depending on the density of the local
population or development.

Rural secondary distribution networks are primarily overhead, using underground cables
only where necessary to serve villages, or to connect to a primary substation in a town.
While villages are often served by ground-mounted secondary substations, similar to
those in towns and cities, many customers are served by small transformers directly
mounted onto the wood poles of the overhead lines themselves. These transformers
might serve a group of nearby rural properties or farms, or even a single isolated house,
and may range in capacity from 50kW down to 5kW or less. Rural secondary networks
often have a highly branched topology, with “main” lines interconnecting adjacent
primary substations, and many spurs extending from them towards particular groups of
customers.

Although many rural secondary distribution circuits will interconnect adjacent primary
substations, an open switch at some point along the circuit will ensure that power
cannot flow between them. Additional switches, (historically manually operated, but
increasingly nowadays automated or remotely controlled) are strategically located to
permit supply to be quickly restored to customers following a fault or breakdown.
Low-Voltage Networks
Low voltage networks, typically operating at voltages of 200V to 400V form the last link
in the chain from power station to customer. In rural areas, these are very simple – short,

Page 6 of 7
often overhead cables from the pole-mounted transformer to the home or farm. In towns
and cities, low-voltage networks are formed of underground cables radiating from
secondary substations, to which service cables feeding individual homes and small
businesses are connected. In some cases these cables may be connected together by
manually inserting and removing links in “link boxes” located in small underground
chambers or street-side pillars to allow sections of cable to be taken out of service for
maintenance, repair or connection of new customers, without long interruptions of
supply to others.

Page 7 of 7
Power system concepts and fundamentals -
generation and load

A pause to think about energy

Some key questions

• What kind of electrical system is required

in order to provide the energy supplies that
we need?

• What characterizes the nature of our

energy demand, or indeed the nature of
our sources?

2
What kind of energy supply do we want?
• available on demand to the user
• cost effective
• secure
• lower carbon

3
Changes in energy consumption by sector & fuel, Energy Consumption in the UK (ECUK) 1970-2018, BEIS
Measures of energy
• Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe)
– this is a common unit of measurement
which enables different fuels to be
compared and aggregated. A tonne of oil
equivalent (toe) is a unit of energy.
• Gigawatt hours (GWh)
– the kilowatt hour (equivalent to 0.000001
GWh) is a unit of electrical energy equal to
1,000 watt hours, or 3.6 megajoules.
• According to International Energy Agency,
1 tonne of oil equivalent =
– 107 kilocalories
– 396.83 therms
– 41.868 Gigajoules (GJ)
– 11,630 Kilowatt hours (kWh)
– 0.01163 Gigawatt hours (GWh)
– 0.00001163 Terawatt hours (TWh)
• More significant than you think… Gas and electricity annual demand by sector,
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S4O5voOCqAQ Future Energy Scenarios 2019, National Grid
4
Electricity supply

Electricity Supply 1980-2018, DUKES 2019 (BEIS)

5
 Fuel used in electricity generation

6
Fuel used in generation by all generators 2000-2018, DUKES 2019 (BEIS)
UK renewable electricity by source

7
Carbon Brief from DUKES energy flow charts for 2012-2017

8
Electricity Flowchart 2018 (TWh), DUKES 2019

9
Power system concepts and fundamentals -
generation and load

A pause to think about: how might the loading on a

power system vary?
Some key questions

• How would you describe the variation in

energy demand that power systems see?
• What do you think influences the energy
demand?
• How does this impact the resulting flow of
power in our networks?
• How challenging is it to predict and plan
for future demand?

2
Typical power ratings of domestic and office appliances

• Aquarium = 50–1210 Watts • Personal computer

• Clock radio = 10W CPU - awake / asleep = 120 / 30W or less
Monitor - awake / asleep = 150 / 30W or
• Coffee maker = 900–1200W less
• Clothes washer = 350–500W Laptop = 50W
• Clothes dryer = 1800–5000W • Radio (stereo) = 70–400W
• Dishwasher = 1200–2400W (using the • Refrigerator (frost-free, 16 cubic feet) =
drying feature greatly increases energy 725W
consumption) • Televisions (color)
• Dehumidifier = 785W – 19" = 65–110W
• Electric blanket (Single/Double) = 60 / 100W – 27" = 113W
• Fans – 36" = 133W
Ceiling = 65–175W – 53" - 61" Projection = 170W
Window = 55–250W – Flat screen = 120W
Furnace = 750W • Toaster = 800–1400W
Whole house = 240–750W • Toaster oven = 1225W
• Hair dryer = 1200–1875W • DVD = 17–21 / 20–25W
• Heater (portable) = 750–1500W • Vacuum cleaner = 1000–1440W
• Clothes iron = 1000–1800W • Water heater (40 gallon) = 4500–5500W
• Microwave oven = 750–1100W • Water pump (deep well) = 250–1100W

3
Power consumption when on standby

What do you think has

caused the varying trends
shown in this trace?

4
How does electricity consumption differ
from other forms of energy?
• considered essential to whole energy system decarbonisation
• difficulty of storing in bulk
• diverse sources
• societal value

5
Importance of high quality energy supply?
• socially unacceptable to restrict the use of
electrical energy
• integral to a modern economy
• highly reliable supply fundamental to many
sectors of industry

6
Electrical demand – a changing target
• demand is subject to change, and is influenced by many factors including
– season
– day of week
– time of day
– weather conditions
– economy
– special events e.g TV pick up, lockdown’s clap for heroes

National Grid National Grid – The lockdown effect

7
 10000.00
30000.00
40000.00
50000.00
60000.00

0.00
20000.00
1
146
291
436
581
726
871
1016
1161
1306
1451
1596
1741
1886
2031
2176
2321
2466
2611
2756
2901
3046
3191
3336
3481
3626
IO14_TGSD

3771
3916
4061
4206
4351
4496
4641
4786
4931
5076
5221
5366
8

5511
5656
5801
Example July – Oct: GB Total Gross System Demand (MW)

IO14_TGSD
 5000.00
10000.00
15000.00
20000.00
25000.00
30000.00
35000.00
40000.00
45000.00

0.00
1
38
75
112
149
186
223
260
297
334
371
408
445
482
519
556
593
630
667
704
741
778
815
852
889
IO14_TGSD

926
963
1000
Example July: GB demand (MW)

1037
1074
1111
1148
1185
1222
1259
1296
1333
1370
9

1407
1444
1481
IO14_TGSD
Example July Week: GB demand (MW)

IO14_TGSD
45000.00

40000.00

35000.00

30000.00

25000.00

IO14_TGSD
20000.00

15000.00

10000.00

5000.00

0.00
100

271
109
118
127
136
145
154
163
172
181
190
199
208
217
226
235
244
253
262

280
289
298
307
316
325
334
1

28
10
19

37
46
55
64
73
82
91

10
 10000.00
20000.00
30000.00
40000.00
50000.00
60000.00

0.00
5000.00
10000.00
15000.00
20000.00
25000.00
30000.00
35000.00
40000.00
45000.00

0.00
1 1
10 10
19 19
28 28
37 37
46 46
55 55
64 64
73 73
82 82
91 91
100 100
109 109
118 118
127 127
136 136
145 145
154 154
163 163
172 172
181 181
190 190
199 199
IO14_TGSD

208 208
IO14_TGSD

217 217
226 226
235 235
244 244
253
253
262
262
271
271
280
280
289
289
298
298
307
307
Example July & October weeks (MW)

316
316
325
11

325
334
334
IO14_TGSD

IO14_TGSD
Changing load – a changing target for generation,
imports and system security

Source: Winter Outlook Report 2017/18, National Grid

12
System profiles from different & diverse loads
IO14_TGSD
40000.00
35000.00
30000.00
25000.00
20000.00
IO14_TGSD
15000.00
10000.00
5000.00
0.00
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46

“Further analysis of the Household Electricity Use

Survey”, CARL , 250 homes
13
A changing energy world is changing the power system demand

• Traditionally night time minimum demand

much lower than day time minimum.
• As a result measures such as “off peak
heating” or “storage heating” were
introduced to encourage consumer
demand from day time to overnight.
• On two successive days in the UK in April
2017, we saw for the first time the day
time demand on the transmission system
fall lower than the overnight minimum.
• This was caused by very high distributed
generation offsetting the national demand.
• e.g. PV generation on 8th April 2017
reached 8 GW while wind was approx 900
MW, giving a total of 8.9 GW.
• Demand forecasting must therefore take
account of such new challenging factors.
Source: Summer Outlook Report 2018, National Grid

14
 Power system analysis

Analysis of power system loading

EEE Department
 Power system loads

P (kW) Q (kVAr) S (kVA) pf = cos φ

10 7
12 0.95 lag
9 1.0
13 17
Total
EEE Department
 Patterns of load in time

Higher load factor

Better utilisation of
equipment

Also a useful statistic for renewable energy sources

EEE Department
 Load diversity

After Diversity Maximum Demand

can be defined for different types of customer
EEE Department
 Load-related metrics
∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠
Load factor Diversity factor =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

Power factor =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
ADMD =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠

Loss metrics
Load loss factor

Can sometimes be estimated (in the UK)

Energy loss estimate

EEE Department
EEE Department
Power system concepts and fundamentals -
generation and load

Analysis of power system loading – load related metrics

Worked examples
Example 1
a) Consider an example of four loads (say, BMW i3’s), on the same distribution feeder,
each consuming 3kW for a continuous 2 hours per day. The individual loads all start
at 7pm. Ignoring all other loads, establish the feeder’s maximum demand, load factor
and diversity factor in this case.

b) Consider now a smart grid management scheme is being introduced, such that the
four loads are scheduled to commence at 7pm, 10pm, 1am, and 4am. What are the
feeder’s new maximum demand, load factor and diversity factor in each case?

1 2 3 4

2
Calculation
a) Given all four loads coincide at the same point in time,
MDa = 3k + 3k + 3k + 3k = 12kW
19 21 24
‫׬‬0 0.𝑑𝑡+‫׬‬19 12×103.𝑑𝑡+‫׬‬21 0.𝑑𝑡
LFa = = 0.0833 = 8.33%
12×103 ×24

DFa = (3k + 3k + 3k +3k)/12k = 1 1 2 3 4

The ability to supply 12kW must be available even although it is only

required for a fraction of the total period. This means the capacity of the
network is significantly underutilised (as indicated by the extremely low load
factor). It is possible to briefly overload some electrical plant due to its
thermal inertia. Cables, transformers, etc. have higher short term ratings as
well as a continuous rating, and so short periods of some overload can be
accommodated without damage.

3
Calculation
Continued in the lecture…
Example 2
The load at a substation has been measured
over a twenty four period and has been 80
approximately graphed as shown opposite. 70
60

Demand(kW)
50
40
a) What is the maximum demand? 30
20
10
b) Determine the load factor for the load fed 0
by the substation. 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time(hrs)

c) How do the following affect network

design: (i) diversity factor; (ii) load factor?

5
Calculation
Continued in the lecture…
Power system concepts and fundamentals -
generation and load

A pause for thought on power systems generation

Power generation output variability
• Power generation is similarly subject to variability
• Maintenance and fault outages affect availability
• Output is also influenced by
– wind generator: wind speed, seasonal, uncontrolled fuel supply
– photovoltaics: weather, daily, uncontrolled fuel
– gas turbine: daily, weekly, supply interruptions, fast acting control
– coal fired station: weekly, slow acting control
– nuclear station: seasonal outages, slow acting control to avoid reactor problems
– hydro station: seasonal, rainfall, snow-melt
– pumped storage: limited energy, daily
– many other examples…

• In addition energy market behaviour will influence generator

availability

2
Questions that this raises
• What power flow levels do we need to use in our network design
calculations?
• What level of generation capacity do we need in order to meet
our future energy demands?
• What mix of generation resources are we comfortable with going
into the future?

3
Example generation mix through summer day

4
Source: Summer Outlook Report 2018, National Grid
Generator metrics
• minimum output - minimum non-zero
output of generator 6MW wind generator profile - 1 year

• maximum output - usually generator 1

rating 0.9
0.8

• daily profile describes output over 24

0.7
0.6
0.5
hour period (typically every 1/2 hour in 0.4
UK) 0.3
0.2

• capacity factor - measures fraction of 0.1

0

possible energy generated, although 1 1661 3321 4981 6641 8301 9961 11621 13281 14941 16601

“load factor” is often used

24 hour profile
interchangeably
100.00%

units of energy generated 80.00%

capacity factor = 6MW wind
max generation in period  time period 60.00% nuclear
40.00% 16MW landfill
50MW chp
20.00%

0.00%
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45
5
time (1/2 hr)
Changing generation

Solar + wind
around 85 GW

http://fes.nationalgrid.com/media/1253/final-fes-2017-updated-interactive-pdf-44-amended.pdf
Storage in the UK (2014)

In vehicle
fuel
storage
Petrol Pumped storage
stocks Hydro

Thermal Storage
Diesel
stocks Natural Gas stocks
Non – pumped
storage Hydro

Crude Oil
Source: Simon Gill, University of Strathclyde, 2015

Coal stocks
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 – Electronic & Electrical Principles 3

TUTORIAL: Power generation and load

1. A commercial customer has two major loads on his site. One load draws 20kW at a power factor
of 0.9 lagging, while the second demands 40kVA and 12kVAr. What is the total real power
demanded at the site, and the site’s complex power and power factor? Sketch the power
triangle.
[58.16kW; (58.16+j21.68) kVA; 0.9371 lagging]

2. A certain consumer demands 50kW at an effective voltage of 230V. Assuming the supply system
can be represented by a 0.1 resistance, find the transmission losses in the event of the load
being supplied (a) with power factor of 0.6 lagging, (b) with the addition of power factor
correction resulting in a combined power factor of 0.96 lagging. For case (b), determine the
apparent power and sketch the power triangle.
[13.13kW; 5.126kW; 52.08kVA]

3. There are 3 consumers of electricity with different load requirements at different times:
Consumer 1: max demand of 5kW@6pm, demand of 3kW@7pm, daily load factor of 20%;
Consumer 2: max demand of 5kW@11am, demand of 2kW@7pm, average load of 1.2kW;
Consumer 3: max demand is 3kW at 7pm, and average load of 1kW.
Determine (a) diversity factor, (b) load factor and average load for each consumer, (c) average
load and load factor of the combined load.
[1.625; 20%; 1kW; 24%; 1.2kW; 33.33%; 1kW; 3.2kW; 40%]

4. The power demanded by a small power system over a period of a year has been analysed. A
curve fit is used to approximate this variation as follows: P(kW)=4000+8t-0.00091t2 where t is in
hours. This load is supplied by three 10MW generators and for reasons of cost it is advantageous
to fully load a machine before connecting the others. Sketch the variation in demand against
time and then determine:
(a) the load factor on the system as a whole;
(b) the total magnitude of installed load if the diversity factor is equal to 3;
(c) the minimum number of hours each machine is in operation;
(d) the approximate peak magnitude of installed load capacity to be cut off to enable only
two generators to be used.
[73.2%; 64.7MW; 8760h; 7135h; 2637h; 4.74MW]

5. If the after diversity maximum demand (ADMD) for each property in a 80 house development is
considered to be 1.3kW then explain:
(a) What is the expected maximum demand for this housing development?
(b) If the diversity factor across individual properties can be assumed to be 2.5, what is the
total installed load?
(c) Why might it be appropriate to choose a cable bigger than the maximum demand for
installation?
 Power systems and electrical fundamentals

Characteristics of Transmission Systems

EEE Department
 Transmission Grid
Power Sub-transmission
Power 200 – 500kV Transmission 50 – 200kV Supply
station station substation Point
substation
10-30kV

• Expensive to build
High High voltage
• Complicatedpower
to Minimise
plan and design
I2R losses
Primary
Collector substation
• Environmental impact
Large customers Distribution
20 – 50kV
Collector
network
Pole-
Substations can • Planning
Secondary substations
Secondary
Large authority Safe involvement
Long10distance mounted distribution
– 30kV be close together
transformer • Process may
structures 5 clearances
– take
20kV years
• Complex
Reliable
Low voltagebehavior Alternative power
Redundancy
200 – 400V Primary
Schools, offices,
shops,
Automation • Daily operational
LV cable
paths
planning Substation
Large substations
Farms & rural &…control • Planning
Monitoring & links for maintenance outages
Duplicated
customers equipment
• Very efficient
measurement Street lights Homes

EEE Department
Failure response • Highly reliable
EEE Department
 Transmission Grid
Power Sub-transmission
Power 200 – 500kV Transmission 50 – 200kV Supply
station station substation Point
substation
10-30kV

High High voltage

power Minimise I2R losses
Primary
Collector substation Large customers Distribution
Collector 20 – 50kV
Pole- Large Secondary
Safe
network Substations can Secondary substations distribution
Long10distance
– 30kV
mounted
be close together structures clearances
5 – 20kV
transformer
Low voltage Alternative Primary
power
Schools, offices, Reliable200 – 400VRedundancy
paths Substation
shops,
Automation LV cable Large substations
Farms & rural &…control links Duplicated
Monitoring &
customers measurement equipment
Street lights Homes
Failure response
EEE Department
 Transmission Grid
Power Sub-transmission
Power 200 – 500kV Transmission 50 – 200kV Supply
station station substation Point
substation
10-30kV

• Expensive to build
High High voltage
• Complicatedpower
to Minimise
plan and design
I2R losses
Primary
Collector substation
• Environmental impact
Large customers Distribution
20 – 50kV
Collector
network
Pole-
Substations can • Planning
Secondary substations
Secondary
Large authority Safe involvement
Long10distance mounted distribution
– 30kV be close together
transformer • Process may
structures 5 clearances
– take
20kV years
• Complex
Reliable
Low voltagebehavior Alternative power
Redundancy
200 – 400V Primary
Schools, offices,
shops,
Automation • Daily operational
LV cable
paths
planning Substation
Large substations
Farms & rural &…control • Planning
Monitoring & links for maintenance outages
Duplicated
customers equipment
• Very efficient
measurement Street lights Homes

EEE Department
Failure response • Highly reliable
 Transmission Grid
Power Sub-transmission
Power 200 – 500kV Transmission 50 – 200kV Supply
station station substation Point
substation
10-30kV

• Expensive to build
High High voltage
• Complicatedpower
to Minimise
plan and design
I2R losses
Primary
Collector substation
• Environmental impact
Large customers Distribution
20 – 50kV
Collector
network
Pole-
Substations can • Planning
Secondary substations
Secondary
Large authority Safe involvement
Long10distance mounted distribution
– 30kV be close together
transformer • Process may
structures 5 clearances
– take
20kV years
• Complex
Reliable
Low voltagebehavior Alternative power
Redundancy
200 – 400V Primary
Schools, offices,
shops,
Automation • Daily operational
LV cable
paths
planning Substation
Large substations
Farms & rural &…control • Planning
Monitoring & links for maintenance outages
Duplicated
customers equipment
• Very efficient
measurement Street lights Homes

EEE Department
Failure response • Highly reliable
Power system concepts and fundamentals –
network architectures and design

Architecting transmission systems

 Transmission Grid
Power Sub-transmission
Power 200 – 500kV Transmission 50 – 200kV Supply
station station substation Point
substation
10-30kV

Primary
Collector substation Large customers Distribution
Collector 20 – 50kV
Pole- Secondary
network Secondary substations distribution
mounted
10 – 30kV 5 – 20kV
transformer
Low voltage
Schools, offices, 200 – 400V Primary
shops, Substation
LV cable
Farms & rural … links
customers
Street lights Homes
▪ Three phase systems
represented by single
line diagrams
▪ Architectures for
network nodes
(substations) and
circuits (lines and
cables)
▪ Architectures selected
on basis of capacity,
security, fault level,
cost, complexity, etc
Power system characteristics

▪ Three phase AC
▪ 50 Hz
▪ Standardised nominal voltages
▪ Voltages maintained within limits
▪ Interconnected
▪ Becoming increasingly complex as the energy
sector transforms.

4
 Network voltages & system frequency
▪ Several nominal voltage levels utilised to minimise losses
and costs
– 400, 275 kV for transmission
– 132 kV for sub-transmission system
▪ Higher voltage brings higher insulation needs (and costs) but
lower attendant heat losses (I2R) for same power transfer
▪ Varied use of heavily interconnected layouts
▪ System frequency maintained by system operator within
limits of +/- 0.5Hz
▪ Some loads are sensitive to frequency NGET, "Report of the national grid investigation into the frequency deviation and
automatic demand disconnection that occurred on the 27th May 2008," 2009.

▪ Frequency is an indicator of system stability, and inertial

changes August 2019
event

5
Example architectural choices for HV
transmission and sub-transmission networks
(132kV to 400kV)
Transmission system circuits – eg South of Scotland & London

National Grid 7 year statement

2016 Electricity Ten Year
Statement, National Grid
substation

7
Advantages of an interconnected system

▪ Generators range in size from 1000’s of MW (thermal station) to

100’s of W (photovoltaics) - need not feed particular local loads
▪ More economic to have spare capacity to meet sudden load
increases
▪ National supplies are synchronised and share a common
frequency
▪ Improved continuity of supply (security) through provision of
alternative routes of supply

8
Interconnectors… a super grid?
2016 Electricity Ten Year Statement

▪ Harnessing the power of wind

▪ Offsetting the impact of wind
intermittency
▪ Asynchronous interconnection
through HVDC
Transmission system substation configurations

▪ Mesh corner substation

▪ Double busbar configuration

▪ Selected on basis of flexibility, footprint,

complexity, reliability, cost
▪ BS 7354 – Code of practice for design of high
voltage open terminal substations

10
Mesh corner substation
Advantages:
• Flexible operation
X120
• High reliability
• Two routes to feed each circuit
• Maintenance outages permitted without
circuit loss
X420 X220 • No main buses

Disadvantages:
• Splitting of the ring following first fault may
cause undesirable topology
X320
• Protection more complex
• Normally limited to no more than six circuits

11
Double busbar substation
H1 H2
M1
M2 B1 B2

X905 X705 X505 X305 X105 X205 X405 X605

R1 R3
R2
X166 X266
X130 X330

M1 M3
M2 X220
X120 B1
X510 X610

SGT5 SGT6
X405

Advantages:
• Maintenance outages permitted without circuit loss X404

• Reasonable cost
X406
• Relatively small footprint
• Easily expandable
Disadvantages:
• Protection can be more complicated
• Bus fault may cause complete loss of substation and load
• Additional circuit breaker needed for bus tie 12
 Power systems and electrical fundamentals

Characteristics of Distribution Systems

EEE Department
 • Often
Power
adapted Power and expanded
Transmission
Low-medium
200 – 500kV
• Balance
Lower
Transmission
voltagescost,
Sub-transmission
Grid
efficiency
Smaller
Supply
and
50 – 200kV
• New building developmentssubstation
Reroute power
station station power Balance cost and
reliability losses structures
Point
manually substation
• Changing
10-30kV land useClose to Compact substations
Monitoring at
• Simple behavior
higher voltages customers Pole-mounted equipment

• Design is straightforward
Less
• PlanningFew foralternative
complexity power routes
maintenance outages Primary
Collector substation Large customers Distribution
Increasing
Collector 20 – 50kV
Pole- 11kV
Secondary 33kV
automation
network Secondary substations distribution
mounted
10 – 30kV 5 – 20kV
transformer Transmission
Low voltage
Schools, offices, 200 – 400V Primary
shops, Substation
LV cable
Farms & rural … links
customers
Street lights Homes

EEE Department
EEE Department
 Transmission Grid
Power Power Low-medium
200 – 500kV
Lower voltages
Sub-transmission Smaller
Supply
Transmission 50 – 200kV
Reroute power station Balance cost and
power substation losses structures
station Point
manually substation
10-30kV
Monitoring at Close to Compact substations
higher voltages customers Pole-mounted equipment

Less Few alternative

complexity power routes
Primary
Collector substation Large customers Distribution
Increasing
Collector 20 – 50kV
Pole- Secondary
automation
network Secondary substations distribution
mounted
10 – 30kV 5 – 20kV
transformer Transmission
Low voltage
Schools, offices, 200 – 400V Primary
shops, Substation
LV cable
Farms & rural … links
customers
Street lights Homes

EEE Department
 • Often
Power
adapted Power and expanded
Transmission
Low-medium
200 – 500kV
• Balance
Lower
Transmission
voltagescost,
Sub-transmission
Grid
efficiency
Smaller
Supply
and
50 – 200kV
• New building developmentssubstation
Reroute power
station station power Balance cost and
reliability losses structures
Point
manually substation
• Changing
10-30kV land useClose to Compact substations
Monitoring at
• Simple behavior
higher voltages customers Pole-mounted equipment

• Design is straightforward
Less
• PlanningFew foralternative
complexity power routes
maintenance outages Primary
Collector substation Large customers Distribution
Increasing
Collector 20 – 50kV
Pole- Secondary
automation
network Secondary substations distribution
mounted
10 – 30kV 5 – 20kV
transformer
Low voltage
Schools, offices, 200 – 400V Primary
shops, Substation
LV cable
Farms & rural … links
customers
Street lights Homes

EEE Department
 • Often
Power
adapted Power and expanded
Transmission
Low-medium
200 – 500kV
• Balance
Lower
Transmission
voltagescost,
Sub-transmission
Grid
efficiency
Smaller
Supply
and
50 – 200kV
• New building developmentssubstation
Reroute power
station station power Balance cost and
reliability losses structures
Point
manually substation
• Changing
10-30kV land useClose to Compact substations
Monitoring at
• Simple behavior
higher voltages customers Pole-mounted equipment

• Design is straightforward
Less
• PlanningFew foralternative
complexity power routes
maintenance outages Primary
Collector substation Large customers Distribution
Increasing
Collector 20 – 50kV
Pole- 11kV
Secondary 33kV
automation
network Secondary substations distribution
mounted
10 – 30kV 5 – 20kV
transformer Transmission
Low voltage
Schools, offices, 200 – 400V Primary
shops, Substation
LV cable
Farms & rural … links
customers
Street lights Homes

EEE Department
Power system concepts and fundamentals –
network architectures and design

Architecting distribution systems

 Transmission Grid
Power Sub-transmission
Power 200 – 500kV Transmission 50 – 200kV Supply
station station substation Point
substation
10-30kV

Primary
Collector substation Large customers Distribution
Collector 20 – 50kV
Pole- Secondary
network Secondary substations distribution
mounted
10 – 30kV 5 – 20kV
transformer
Low voltage
Schools, offices, 200 – 400V Primary
shops, Substation
LV cable
Farms & rural … links
customers
Street lights Homes
 ▪ Three phase systems represented by single
line diagrams
▪ Architectures for network nodes
(substations) & circuits (lines and cables)
▪ Architectures selected on basis of capacity,
security, fault level, cost, complexity, etc

Utilities savings & SP Energy Networks

Power system characteristics

▪ Three phase AC, with lower power

levels distributed by single phase
▪ 50 Hz
▪ Standardised nominal voltages
▪ Voltages maintained within limits
▪ Progressively less interconnected at
lower power levels
▪ Becoming increasingly complex as the
energy sector transforms.

4
 Network voltages & system frequency
▪ Several nominal voltage levels utilised to minimise
losses and costs
– 132kV (distribution voltage in England; transmission in
Scotland)
– 33 (& some legacy 66) kV for primary distribution
– 11 (& 6.6) kV for secondary distribution
– 0.415 kV for low voltage distribution to customers
▪ Higher voltage brings higher insulation needs (and costs)
but lower attendant heat losses (I2R) for same power
transfer
▪ Varied use of lightly interconnected and radial layouts
▪ System frequency maintained by system operator, NGET, "Report of the national grid investigation into the frequency deviation and
automatic demand disconnection that occurred on the 27th May 2008," 2009.
however some loads provide emergency control
▪ Some loads are sensitive to frequency August 2019
▪ Frequency more variable as more smaller scale event

distributed generation displaces conventional generation

5
Example architectural choices for LV distribution
networks (0.415kV)
 S/S
RES14
14
RES01
1
Residential LV network
RES15
15 substation
RES16
16 Residential LV networks are:
RES17 ▪ Mainly cable (underground)
17
▪ Single phase supply to customers
RES18
18
(230V)

6 Characterised by:
RES19 5 RES05
19 4 RES04
▪ Limited or no measurements
▪ No automation
RE
3 RES03
lines
S0
2

S06
2
RES20 RE 7 ▪ Limited or no interconnection with
RES13 RES07
20 8 other substations
9 RES08

21 RES21 RES09
22 10
RES22
11
RES23 23 RES10 RES11
RES27 24
12
RES28 RES24
27 13
28 RES12
RES25 25

RES26
26 7
8
07/
Rural LV Network

`
Rural LV networks:
▪ Overhead line
▪ Radial
▪ Single phase supply to customers
(230V)
substation
Characterised by:
▪ Limited or no measurements
▪ No automation
▪ Limited connection with other
substations
9
07/

Urban LV Network

Urban LV networks:
▪ Cable
▪ Radial
▪ Single phase/ 3-phase supply to
substation 15 Feeders s/s
customers

Characterised by:
▪ Limited or no measurements
▪ No automation
▪ Connection with other substations
Example architectural choices for MV
distribution networks (6.6kV to 33kV)
Urban MV Network 1000kVA a
I J
a 1500kVA
a b a b

b c b c
500kVA b 1000kVA 750kVA
E F K
a
b 500kVA
L
a
750kVA b b 750kVA
MV Urban networks: D
315kVA b G P substation
▪ Cable Networks a a a

▪ (Open) Ring main network

1350kVA b b 800kVA
Characterised by: C M
▪ More measurements a
750kVA b b 500kVA a

▪ Some automation H O
▪ Normally open connection with
1350kVA
a a
800kVA

several other feeders /substations

750kVA b 750kVA
b
B N
a a Ring Main
substation Unit

CB1 CB2 CB3 CB4 Circuit Breaker Open Circuit Breaker

CB5 Switch Open Switch
A Transformer (with
Fuse Switch
capacity)
HV/MV Network GRID 275kV

Large Gas Turbine (50MW) T1 T2

substation
~
33kV 33kV

substation

11kV 11kV

11kV 11kV

~ Small Gas Engine (500kW)

Wind Farm (2-20MW)

11kV
o/h line
u/g cable
~ ~ ~ 11kV

In collaboration with
Scottish Power
12
Increasing distribution network automation

▪ Desire to achieve increased security of supply without cost of

highly interconnected power system
▪ Automatic fault detection and clearance provided by protection
system
- Achieved typically in less than 1s
▪ Prolonged customer disconnection incurs financial penalties on
the distribution network operator
- Automatic network reconfiguration can be achieved within 3min
- Automation is facilitated by network monitoring and
communications
Distribution system substation configurations

▪ Ring main unit

▪ Single busbar with bus section

▪ Selected on basis of flexibility, footprint,

complexity, reliability, cost
▪ BS 7354 – Code of practice for design of high
voltage open terminal substations

14
 Ring main unit

Advantages:
• Lowest cost,
• Small footprint,
• Factory assembled, metal enclosed set of
switchgear
switches • Simple operation,
• Simple to protect

circuit breaker Disadvantages:

• Lowest reliability,
• Single failure of a circuit breaker or a bus
fault causes complete loss of substation and
loads,
LV feeders
• Protection arrangements difficult for
maintenance switching

15
Single busbar with bus section

Bus section circuit breaker

Advantages:
• Low cost,
• Small footprint,
• Some flexibility for post-fault restoration
• Easily expandable,
X120 • Simple operation,
• Simple to protect

Disadvantages:
• Limited reliability,
• Single failure of a circuit breaker or a bus
fault causes interruption of load,
LV feeders • Protection arrangements difficult for
maintenance switching

16
Power system concepts and fundamentals –
network architectures and design

Architecting distribution systems – an MV automation

example
Urban MV Network 1000kVA a
I J
a 1500kVA
a b a b

b c b c
500kVA b 1000kVA 750kVA
E F K
a
b 500kVA
L
a
750kVA b b 750kVA
MV Urban networks:
315kVA b G P substation
D
▪ Cable aNetworks a a

▪ (Open) Ring main network

1350kVA b 800kVA
CharacterisedC by: M
b

▪ More ameasurements 750kVA 500kVA a

b b
▪ Some automation H O
▪ 1350kVA
Normally open connection with a a
800kVA
several other feeders /substations
750kVA b 750kVA
b
B N
a a Ring Main
substation Unit

CB1 CB2 CB3 CB4 Circuit Breaker Open Circuit Breaker

CB5 Switch Open Switch
A Transformer (with
Fuse Switch
capacity)
 a
I J
1000kVA a b a b a 1500kVA

b c b c
500kVA b 1000kVA 750kVA
E F K
a
b 500kVA
L
a
750kVA b b 750kVA
315kVA b
D G P
a a
a

1350kVA b b 800kVA
C M
a a
750kVA b b 500kVA
H O
a a
1350kVA 800kVA

750kVA b 750kVA
b
B N
a a Ring Main
Unit

CB1 CB2 CB3 CB4 Circuit Breaker Open Circuit Breaker

CB5 Switch Open Switch
A Transformer (with
Fuse Switch
capacity)
 a
I J
1000kVA a b a b a 1500kVA

b c b c
500kVA b 1000kVA 750kVA
E F K
a
b 500kVA
L
a
750kVA b b 750kVA
315kVA b
D G P
a a
a

1350kVA b b 800kVA
C M
a a
750kVA b b 500kVA
H O
a a
1350kVA 800kVA

750kVA b 750kVA
b
B N
a a Ring Main
Unit

CB1 CB2 CB3 CB4 Circuit Breaker Open Circuit Breaker

CB5 Switch Open Switch
A Transformer (with
Fuse Switch
capacity)
 a
I J
1000kVA a b a b a 1500kVA

b c b c
500kVA b 1000kVA 750kVA
E F K
a
b 500kVA
L
a
750kVA b b 750kVA
315kVA b
D G P
a a
a

1350kVA b b 800kVA
C M
a a
750kVA b b 500kVA
H O
a a
1350kVA 800kVA

750kVA b 750kVA
b
B N
a a Ring Main
Unit

CB1 CB2 CB3 CB4 Circuit Breaker Open Circuit Breaker

CB5 Switch Open Switch
A Transformer (with
Fuse Switch
capacity)
 a
I J
1000kVA a b a b a 1500kVA

b c b c
500kVA b 1000kVA 750kVA
E F K
a
b 500kVA
L
a
750kVA b b 750kVA
315kVA b
D G P
a a
a

How would you reconfigure the network?

1350kVA b b 800kVA
C M
a a
750kVA b b 500kVA
H O
a a
1350kVA 800kVA

750kVA b 750kVA
b
B N
a a Ring Main
Unit

CB1 CB2 CB3 CB4 Circuit Breaker Open Circuit Breaker

CB5 Switch Open Switch
A Transformer (with
Fuse Switch
capacity)
 Power system analysis

Design requirements for radial distribution networks

EEE Department
 Problem statement (x2, y2)
P2, pf2

Design a distribution network

(xT, yT) L23 (x3, y3) so that statutory voltage limits
11kV/415V P3, pf3 are maintained and no circuit is
LT3
overloaded
Voltage limits:
(x1, y1) (x4, y4) • –6% to +10% of nominal

Cost ∝ Length
LT1 L34
P1, Q1 S4, pf4
Cable catalogue:
Size R' X' Rating
(mm2) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (A)
Complicated optimisation problem! 2.5 8.71 0.11 25

• Layout , Capital costs, Losses 4 5.45 0.107 34

EEE Department … … … …
 Problem statement
P2, pf2

For each cable, choose the

L23 smallest size so that statutory
11kV/415V P3, pf3 voltage limits are maintained
LT3
and no circuit is overloaded
Voltage limits:
• –6% to +10% of nominal
LT1 L34
P1, Q1 S4, pf4
Cable catalogue:
Size R' X' Rating
(mm2) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (A)
2.5 8.71 0.11 25
4 5.45 0.107 34
EEE Department … … … …
EEE Department
 Power system analysis

Distribution network design method

EEE Department
 Problem statement
P2, pf2

For each cable, choose the

L23 smallest size so that statutory
11kV/415V P3, pf3 voltage limits are maintained
LT3
and no circuit is overloaded
Voltage limits:
• –6% to +10% of nominal
LT1 L34
P1, Q1 S4, pf4
Cable catalogue:
Size R X Rating
(mm2) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (A)
2.5 8.71 0.11 25
4 5.45 0.107 34
EEE Department … … … …
 Typical cable ratings
Three-phase, in free air
Size R X Rating
(mm2) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (A)
2.5 8.71 0.11 25
4 5.45 0.107 34
10 2.16 0.094 60
25 0.863 0.086 106
35 0.627 0.083 131
50 0.375 0.082 159

Cables laid in other materials will have different ratings.

• Manufacturer’s catalogue may also give ratings in other conditions

EEE Department
 Important equations

• Current in a load
𝑆
𝐼 =
𝑉
2 conductors
• Voltage drop in a cable
– Single phase
Δ𝑉 = 2 𝐼 𝑍 = 2𝐿 𝐼 𝑅′2 + 𝑋′2 As an approximation,
we’ll treat voltage and
– Three phase current as scalars, not
Δ𝑉 = 3 𝐼 𝑍 = 3𝐿 𝐼 𝑅′2 + 𝑋′2 phasors: DC
approximation
• Resistance per unit length of a cable
𝜌
R′ = For copper, ρ = 0.017mm2Ω/m
𝐴
EEE Department
 Estimating needed conductor size

Δ𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
Δ𝑉 = 3𝐿 𝐼 𝑅′2 + 𝑋′2

2
Δ𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝑅′ = − 𝑋′
3𝐼 2 𝐿2

𝜌
R′ =
𝐴
𝜌
A=
2
Δ𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 2 − 𝑋′2
3𝐼 𝐿

EEE Department
 0.94Vnom 1. Calculate S for all loads
Design Method S2 2. Choose a top-level cable
P2, pf2
Voltage limits: 3. Begin at the furthest-away
• –6% to +10% of nominal point from the source
ΔV 4. Set voltage to Vmin = 0.94Vnom
L23 S3
11kV/Vnom V
P3, pf3
5. Calculate load current
LT3 6. Pick smallest cable which will
carry current
7. Calculate voltage drop and
upstream busbar voltage
S1 LT1 L34
S4, pf4 – Use DC approximation: magnitudes
P1, Q1 only; don’t worry about phase
8. Is the upstream voltage
estimate > Vnom?
Size R X Rating
(mm2) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (A) – Undervoltage at downstream end!
2.5 8.71 0.11 25 – Increase cable size until OK!
4 5.45 0.107 34 9. Use the final upstream
EEE Department
10 2.16 0.094 60 voltage for next step
 0.94Vnom 9. Use the final upstream
Design Method S2 voltage for next step
P2, pf2
Voltage limits: 10. If there’s a branch, then:
• –6% to +10% of nominal – Same bottom up process until main
ΔV path is reached at the junction
L23 S3
Vsource V – Choose highest voltage at junction
11kV/Vnom P3, pf3 busbar
LT3
– Not necessary at source busbar
ΔV 11. Calculate local load current
V3
S1
12. Use KCL to calculate upstream
LT1 L34
P1, Q1 ΔV S4, pf4 current
13. Choose smallest possible cable
14. Calculate voltage drop and
Size R X Rating
(mm2) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (A)
upstream busbar voltage
0.94Vnom
2.5 8.71 0.11 25 15. Repeat until source is reached
4 5.45 0.107 34
EEE Department
10 2.16 0.094 60
16. Final voltage at source
 0.94Vnom 16. Final voltage at source
Design Method S2 17. Is source voltage < Vnom?
P2, pf2
Voltage limits: – Yes: This part of the network is
• –6% to +10% of nominal correctly designed
ΔV – No: Undervoltage at end of path of
L23 S3 selected voltages
11kV/Vnom Vsource V3
P3, pf3 • Must reduce path impedance
LT3
from source: make one or more
cables bigger
V ΔV
V3 ≈ Vnom • But which cable(s)?
ΔV 1. Try nearest to the source
S1 LT1 L34
P1, Q1 ΔV S4, pf4 2. Look for largest voltage drop
3. Increase size 𝜌 of that cable
0.94Vnom Aand
= recalculate
2
Size R X Rating – CheckΔ𝑉 other
𝑚𝑎𝑥 branch voltages
2 at
junctions 2 2 − 𝑋′
(mm2) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (A) 3𝐼 𝐿
2.5 8.71 0.11 25 – Treat loads as constant current:
4 5.45 0.107 34
other voltage drops stay the same
EEE Department
10 2.16 0.094 60 After finding a viable design, move to next top-level cable
EEE Department
 Power system analysis

Distribution network design method

EEE Department
 Problem statement
P2, pf2

For each cable, choose the

L23 smallest size so that statutory
11kV/415V P3, pf3 voltage limits are maintained
LT3
and no circuit is overloaded
Voltage limits:
• –6% to +10% of nominal
LT1 L34
P1, Q1 S4, pf4
Cable catalogue:
Size R X Rating
(mm2) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (A)
2.5 8.71 0.11 25
4 5.45 0.107 34
EEE Department … … … …
 Typical cable ratings
Three-phase, in free air
Size R X Rating
(mm2) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (A)
2.5 8.71 0.11 25
4 5.45 0.107 34
10 2.16 0.094 60
25 0.863 0.086 106
35 0.627 0.083 131
50 0.375 0.082 159

Cables laid in other materials will have different ratings.

• Manufacturer’s catalogue may also give ratings in other conditions

EEE Department
 Important equations
[Extra note: This is the relationship for single
phase or per unit (a single phase equivalent
• Current in a load we will see later in the course) quantities.
𝑆 Three phase line quantities are related by the
𝐼 = following: |I| = |S| / 3|V| ]
𝑉
2 conductors
• Voltage drop in a cable
– Single phase
Δ𝑉 = 2 𝐼 𝑍 = 2𝐿 𝐼 𝑅′2 + 𝑋′2 As an approximation,
we’ll treat voltage and
– Three phase current as scalars, not
Δ𝑉 = 3 𝐼 𝑍 = 3𝐿 𝐼 𝑅′2 + 𝑋′2 phasors: DC
approximation
• Resistance per unit length of a cable
𝜌
R′ = For copper, ρ = 0.017mm2Ω/m
𝐴
EEE Department
 Estimating needed conductor size

Δ𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
Δ𝑉 = 3𝐿 𝐼 𝑅′2 + 𝑋′2

2
Δ𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝑅′ = − 𝑋′
3𝐼 2 𝐿2

𝜌
R′ =
𝐴
𝜌
A=
2
Δ𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 2 − 𝑋′2
3𝐼 𝐿

EEE Department
 0.94Vnom 1. Calculate S for all loads
Design Method S2 2. Choose a top-level cable
P2, pf2
Voltage limits: 3. Begin at the furthest-away
• –6% to +10% of nominal point from the source
ΔV 4. Set voltage to Vmin = 0.94Vnom
L23 S3
11kV/Vnom V
P3, pf3
5. Calculate load current
LT3 6. Pick smallest cable which will
carry current
7. Calculate voltage drop and
upstream busbar voltage
S1 LT1 L34
S4, pf4 – Use DC approximation: magnitudes
P1, Q1 only; don’t worry about phase
8. Is the upstream voltage
estimate > Vnom?
Size R X Rating
(mm2) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (A) – Undervoltage at downstream end!
2.5 8.71 0.11 25 – Increase cable size until OK!
4 5.45 0.107 34 9. Use the final upstream
EEE Department
10 2.16 0.094 60 voltage for next step
 0.94Vnom 9. Use the final upstream
Design Method S2 voltage for next step
P2, pf2
Voltage limits: 10. If there’s a branch, then:
• –6% to +10% of nominal – Same bottom up process until main
ΔV path is reached at the junction
L23 S3
Vsource V – Choose highest voltage at junction
11kV/Vnom P3, pf3 busbar
LT3
– Not necessary at source busbar
ΔV 11. Calculate local load current
V3
S1
12. Use KCL to calculate upstream
LT1 L34
P1, Q1 ΔV S4, pf4 current
13. Choose smallest possible cable
14. Calculate voltage drop and
Size R X Rating
(mm2) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (A)
upstream busbar voltage
0.94Vnom
2.5 8.71 0.11 25 15. Repeat until source is reached
4 5.45 0.107 34
EEE Department
10 2.16 0.094 60
16. Final voltage at source
 0.94Vnom 16. Final voltage at source
Design Method S2 17. Is source voltage < Vnom?
P2, pf2
Voltage limits: – Yes: This part of the network is
• –6% to +10% of nominal correctly designed
ΔV – No: Undervoltage at end of path of
L23 S3 selected voltages
11kV/Vnom Vsource V3
P3, pf3 • Must reduce path impedance
LT3
from source: make one or more
cables bigger
V ΔV
V3 ≈ Vnom • But which cable(s)?
ΔV 1. Try nearest to the source
S1 LT1 L34
P1, Q1 ΔV S4, pf4 2. Look for largest voltage drop
3. Increase size 𝜌 of that cable
0.94Vnom Aand
= recalculate
2
Size R X Rating – CheckΔ𝑉 other
𝑚𝑎𝑥 branch voltages
2 at
junctions 2 2 − 𝑋′
(mm2) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (A) 3𝐼 𝐿
2.5 8.71 0.11 25 – Treat loads as constant current:
4 5.45 0.107 34
other voltage drops stay the same
EEE Department
10 2.16 0.094 60 After finding a viable design, move to next top-level cable
EEE Department
Power system concepts and fundamentals –
network architectures and design

Worked example on network design

 Example 1: Industrial Installation
For the following arrangement and radial architecture, determine the correct cables to be used for
cable 1, cable 2 & cable 3?

N.B. Assume worst case voltage drop at loads (cu=0.017 mm2/m)

150m
50kW, 0.9pf, lag
M
Cable 2
415V, 3 ph
75m Cable 3
100m
Cable 1
Lights
Heating
22.5kW, unity pf 5kW, 0.7 pf, lag

2
Reminder of limits
• Statutory Limits are, for mains voltage: 230V +10%, -6%.
• These limits are reflected up through the distribution and Low V -> High I for same P.
transmission system. General rule of thumb, for
example, for motors:
• Limits are required to allow common power supplies for “for every 10 degrees C a motor
mains connected equipment is operated above its rated
temperature, motor life will be
• What other parameter has limits applied? decreased by 50%"

This photo shows typical damage from a

cable that has been overheated. The
damaged insulation can lead to much
more dramatic failures, creating greater
risk of arcing faults or shock hazards. (All
graphics courtesy of Square D/Schneider
Electric.) [EC&M web pages]

https://www.tlc-direct.co.uk/Technical/DataSheets/Cable/CableColoursLeaflet.pdf

3
Reminder of key 3 phase relationships
• Resistance, R, of the cable is given by:
𝑅= ; Resistance per unit length, R’ = A

•  is expressed in mm2/m L

• The voltage drop along the cable is given by:


V  3IZ  3IL ( RL' ) 2  ( X L' ) 2 
• Percentage Voltage Drop:
V
v   100%
V
• Power Loss:
LP 2
P  3 I R L 
2 ' 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = 3𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙
AV cos 
L 2 2

• Estimated conductor cross section

𝜌
𝐴=
Δ𝑉
− (𝑋 )
3𝐼 𝐿
4
Calculation
Start at the remote end, with cable 3.
Load 3
Find V3: For worst case let V3=390.1V
V3  415  (415  0.06)  390.1V
P 5000
P  3VI cos   I 3    10.57 A
3V cos  3  390.1 0.7
From Table use 2.5mm2 cable. Therefore determine voltage drop:

 
V3  3IL ( RL' ) 2  ( X L' ) 2  3  10.57  0.1 8.712  0.112  15.9V

Allowed ∆V is (415x0.06)=24.9V so the above is acceptable.

Move upstream now to load 2, and subsequently to load 1.
Calculation
Continued in the lecture…
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 – Electronic & Electrical Principles 3

TUTORIAL: Network design

1. For the three phase system and loads shown in the figure, determine suitable cable sizes such
that the voltage at each load remains within statutory limits. Use the cables sizes and parameters
given in the table.
150m 20kW, 0.95 lag
1 10kVA, 0.8 lag
2
415V, 50Hz 50m

100m

25kW, unity pf
3
Conductor Cross- Resistance (/km) Reactance (/km) Maximum Current
section (mm2) Rating (A)
2.5 8.71 0.11 25
10 2.16 0.094 60
25 0.863 0.086 106
35 0.627 0.083 131
50 0.375 0.082 159

2. Two new loads (4 and 5) have been added to the network. Load 5 consists of six 3kW heating
loads with diversity factor 1.5 and power factor 0.95lag, and these are connected to the network
via a 40m cable. Based on the cable sizes derived in Q1,
a. Determine the maximum demand drawn by load 5;
b. Calculate an appropriate size for the cable connecting load 5;
c. Analyse the effect of load 4 on the network voltages and the current carried by the cables;
d. Determine if cables need to be replaced and, if so, the appropriate size of the cables.

20kW, 0.95 lag

1 10kVA, 0.8 lag

5
2
415V, 50Hz

25kW, unity pf
5kVA, 0.85 lag 4 3
 Transmission lines

Transmission lines in the power network

EEE Department
 Transmission Grid
Power Sub-transmission
Power 200 – 500kV Transmission Supply
50 – 200kV
station station substation Point
substation
10-30kV
22600km
overhead

987,000km
1700km
underground
Primary
Collector substation Large customers Distribution
Collector 20 – 50kV
Pole- Secondary Secondary
network Secondary substations distribution distribution
mounted
10 – 30kV 5 – 20kV 5 – 20kV
transformer
Low voltage
Schools, offices, 200 – 400V Primary
LV cable
Substation
shops, LV cable links
Farms & rural … links
Street lights
customers Street lights
Homes

EEE Department
 Transmission line models
• Assumed transmission lines are ideal
• But…

Magnetic
Electric
field

Magnetic field  Inductance

Electric field  Capacitance
EEE Department
 Transmission line models
AC electromagnetic effects

skin effect proximity effect

AC and DC behaviour is different

AC energy losses are larger
eg
Aluminium
Stranded conductor: Conductor
Steel
Reinforced
EEE Department
 Transmission Line Circuit Models
• Include all important effects
– Resistive
– Capacitive
– Inductive
– Depends on length and type
• Single-phase models
– Straightforward for balanced 3-phase
– Can combine for unbalanced models

EEE Department
EEE Department
 Transmission lines

Transmission line modelling

EEE Department
 Transmission Line Circuit Models
• Include all important effects
– Resistance
– Capacitance
– Inductance
– Depends on length and type
• Single-phase equivalent models
– Straightforward application to balanced 3-phase
– Can combine for unbalanced models

EEE Department
 Transmission line parameters: resistance
AC
electromagnetic effects

𝑙
skin effect
𝑙 = length = 1km
𝐴 = cross-section area
𝜌 = resistivity – property of the material

𝜌𝑙
𝑅′
𝑅 𝐷𝐶 = Ω /km proximity effect
𝐴
𝑅𝐴𝐶 > 𝑅𝐷𝐶

EEE Department
 Transmission line parameters: inductance
𝑟

1-phase, 2-wire line

𝑟
𝐷 𝐷
N

𝐷
1 𝐷
𝐿= 10−4>14 +
4 × Use ln H/km
conductor
𝑟 per phase 𝑟 𝑟
• Bundled conductors
1 𝐷
• Reduces inductance 𝐿′ = 2 × 10 −4 + ln 𝑟 H/km
4

𝐷 = distance between conductors

𝑟 = conductor radius
EEE Department
𝐿′ = per-phase line inductance per km
 Transmission line parameters: capacitance
𝑟

1-phase, 2-wire line

𝐷 𝐷

Earth 𝐷
𝑟 𝑟

1.77𝜋×10−8
𝐶′ = 𝐷 F/km
ln 𝑟
𝐷 = distance between conductors
𝑟 = conductor radius
EEE Department
𝐶′ = per-phase line capacitance per km
 Transmission line parameters
3
𝐷𝐶𝐴 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶𝐴
𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐵𝐶
𝐷𝐴𝐵 −4 1 𝐷𝑒𝑞
𝐷𝐶𝐴 𝐿′ = 2 × 10 4
+ ln 𝑟 H/km
𝐷𝐵𝐶
1.77𝜋×10 −8
𝐶′ = 𝐷 F/km
ln
𝑟

Substation Substation
11kV Underground 132kV Overhead 400kV Overhead
Cable Line Line
R (Ω/km) 0.247 0.155 0.034
L (mH/km) 0.3 1.31 1.03
C (μF/km) 0.27 0.024 0.030

EEE Department Phase transposition

 Transmission line model
Sending P P Receiving
end Transmission Line end

• Sending end voltage Vsend = 𝑓𝑉 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐 , 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑐 = 𝐴𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐 + 𝐵𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑐

• Sending end current Isend = 𝑓𝐼 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐 , 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑐 = 𝐶𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐 + 𝐷𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑐
• Receiving end voltage Vrec
• Receiving end current Irec 𝑉 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝐴 𝐵 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐
=
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝐷 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑐
ABCD two-port model

EEE Department
 Transmission
Long transmission
line model
line model
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝛾𝑙
𝑍𝐿
Isend 𝛾𝑙 Irec

𝒁 𝛾= 𝑗𝜔𝐶′ 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝜸𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝜸𝒍
𝑨 𝑌𝑩
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝛾𝑙 2 𝒀 𝛾𝑙 2
𝑌 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ
Vsend = Vrec 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝑙
𝑪 2𝑫 𝛾𝑙 2 2 𝛾𝑙 2
𝒀
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝜸𝒍 𝐜𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝜸𝒍 𝑌 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶′ 𝑙
𝒁

𝑅′ = Total resistance per km

𝐿′ = Total inductance per km Only necessary for
𝐶′ = Capacitance per km lines > 240km long
𝑙 = line length
EEE Department
 Medium transmission line model – Pi model
Isend 𝑹 𝒋𝑿𝑳 Iph Irec Charging

π
current
𝒁𝒀 Valid for overhead
Ics 𝟏+ 𝒁 Icr
𝑨 𝒀𝑩 𝟐
Vsend
𝑪 𝟐𝑫
= 𝒁𝒀
𝒀
𝟐
𝒁𝒀 Vrec lines 40 – 240km long
𝟏+ 𝒀 𝟏+
𝟒 𝟐 and all underground
cables < 240km long
• Every
Icr transmission
Iph line represented by a π-model has, at any load power factor, a
VVsend
natural load atVwhich
rec 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑 =′ 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐 send
𝑅 = Total
• From sending
resistance = 𝑅Iph𝑙 𝑍 = Total jIphXL impedance = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿
series jIphXL
𝜃 to receiving
Iph end:
′ Rare in overhead 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑
lines<
> 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐
•𝑋𝐿Below
= Totaltheinductive
Irec natural load reactance = 𝜔𝐿 𝑙rise
there is a voltage
𝑗 Common at low load in cables
• Above the natural load there is a voltage Vdrop Iph′R
𝑌 = Total capacitive susceptance Iph = 𝑋 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶 IphR 𝑙
rec
• Natural load mayI be less than zero depending 𝐶 on power factor and line parameters
𝑙 = line length rec
• Natural load is higher for cables than overhead lines
EEE Department
 Short transmission line model
Isend R jXL Irec

Valid for overhead

𝑨 𝑩 𝟏 𝒁
=
Vsend 𝑪 𝑫 𝟎 𝟏 Vrec lines only < 40km
long. Do not use for
underground cables!
𝑅 = Total resistance = 𝑅 ′ 𝑙
𝑋𝐿 = Total inductive reactance = 𝜔𝐿′ 𝑙
𝑙 = line length

EEE Department
 Transmission line models
• Transmission line parameters
– Resistance, inductance, capacitance
• Transmission line model forms
– Electrical models
– The ABCD model
• Transmission line models
– Short, medium, long
– When to use which

EEE Department
EEE Department
 Transmission lines

Transmission line behaviour

EEE Department
 Transmission Line Behaviour
• Voltage regulation
• Limits on overhead line and cable capacity
– Thermal
– Voltage
– Stability: absolute limit of capacity
– Network limits: spare capacity for failures and disturbances

EEE Department
 Voltage regulation

Nominal Typical
Vsend Voltage Regulation
jIphXL 400kV ± 5%
275kV ± 10%
Vrec ≤ 132kV ± 6%
Iph IphR

𝑉𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑉𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100%
𝑉𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

EEE Department
 Voltage regulation: short line model
Isend R jXL Irec

Vsend Vrec

Vsend = VNL
IFLXL
Lagging Leading
power Vsend = VNL power IFL
factor factor 𝜃
IFLXL IFLR
𝜃 Vrec = VFL Vrec = VFL
IFLR
IFL

𝑉𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑉𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100%
𝑉𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑐 𝑅 cos 𝜃 + 𝑋𝐿 sin 𝜃 Approximate &
𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100% practical formula
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐

EEE Department
 Thermal capacity
Isend 𝑹 𝒋𝑿𝑳 Iph Irec
• Stated for each line or cable
Ics Icr • Current limit, but often quoted in MVA
𝒀 𝒀 • Depends on materials and
Vsend Vrec environment
𝟐 𝟐
• Including weather and pattern of
load

EEE Department
 Voltage limit
Isend 𝑹 𝒋𝑿𝑳 Iph Irec

Ics Icr
𝒀 𝒀
Vsend Vrec
𝟐 𝟐

• Voltage drop across series elements increases

• Receiving end voltage reduces
• Receiving end charging current reduces
• Operational and statutory limits on voltage range
• In GB, lower limit typically –6% of nominal voltage
• Upper limit mostly +6% but varies at highest and lowest voltages
• Calculate the limit using the model
EEE Department
 AC power transmission limit
Absolute limit of capacity
I R jXL
Vsend
𝑰 × 𝑗𝑋𝐿
𝜃 𝐼𝑋𝐿 cos 𝜃
𝛿
Vsend Vrec
𝜃 Vrec
I

• Take Vrec as reference phasor

𝐼𝑋𝐿 cos 𝜃 = 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑 sin 𝛿
𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒄 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐 ∠0° 𝑽𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒅 = 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑 ∠𝛿 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑 sin
𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑 sin 𝛿 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐 =
𝐼 cos 𝜃 = 𝑋𝐿
𝑰 = 𝐼∠𝜃 𝑋𝐿
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑 sin 𝛿
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐 𝐼 cos 𝜃 =
𝑋𝐿
EEE Department
 AC power transmission limit
Absolute limit of capacity
3-phase line:

3𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑝ℎ 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑,𝑝ℎ sin 𝛿 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑙 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑,𝑙 sin 𝛿

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐 =
𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿

Maximum power transfer:

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑙 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑,𝑙 max sin 𝛿

𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 =
𝑋𝐿 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑 sin 𝛿
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐 =
Maximum power transfer when sin 𝛿 = 1 𝑋𝐿

In practice it would be very unwise to operate here!

EEE Department
 Transmission line operating point

400kV:
Vsend
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 30°
jIXL
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 420𝑘𝑉
30°
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 360𝑘𝑉
I Vrec
𝑋𝐿 = 25Ω

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐,𝑙 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑,𝑙 sin 𝛿 420𝑘𝑉×360𝑘𝑉×0.5

𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = = = 3024MW
𝑋𝐿 25Ω

EEE Department
 Transmission line behaviour and limits
• Thermal limit
– Materials and environment
• Voltage limit
– Operational and statutory rules
– Calculated using transmission line model
• Stability limit
– Maximum possible power transmission
– Line parameters and operational state
• Operating point of the transmission line

EEE Department
EEE Department
 EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles 3
EE702 Key Power Systems Concepts and Foundations
EO305 Key Power Systems Concepts and Foundations

Transmission lines

You can check your answers to the questions below using the
myplace quiz for this topic

Q1: A 220kV, 50Hz, three-phase overhead transmission line is 90km long and rated at
150MVA. Its parameters are: r=0.09Ω/km, x=0.88Ω/km, y=4.1×10-6S/km. The
voltage at the receiving end of the transmission line is 210kV.
a) What is the per-phase series impedance and shunt admittance of this
transmission line?
b) What is the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated apparent power at
a power factor of 0.85 lagging?
c) What is the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated apparent power at
a power factor of 1.0?
d) What is the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated apparent power at
a power factor of 0.85 leading?
e) What is the voltage regulation and efficiency of the transmission line when it is
supplying rated apparent power at a power factor of 0.85 lagging?

Q2: A 132kV, 50Hz, three-phase underground cable is 18km long and rated at 130MVA.
Its parameters are: r=0.018Ω/km, x=0.038Ω/km, y=3.1×10-6S/km. The voltage at
the receiving end of the transmission line is 129kV.
a) What is the per-phase series impedance and shunt admittance of this
transmission line?
b) What is the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated apparent power at
a power factor of 0.9 lagging?
c) What is the voltage regulation and efficiency of the transmission line when it is
supplying rated apparent power at a power factor of 0.9 lagging?

Q3: A 400kV, 50Hz, three-phase overhead transmission line is 320km long Its
parameters are: r=2.65×10-3Ω/km, x=2.55×10-2Ω/km, y=3.79×10-6S/km, and it is
rated at 2000MVA. The voltage at the receiving end of the transmission line is
395kV.
a) What is the per-phase series impedance and shunt admittance of this
transmission line?
b) What is the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated apparent power at
a power factor of 0.95 lagging?

1 IE/AD/GMB/DT 03/10/2019
 c) What is the voltage regulation and efficiency of the transmission line when it is
supplying rated apparent power at a power factor of 0.95 lagging?
Q4: Calculate the ABCD parameters of:
a) The overhead line in Q1.
b) The underground cable in Q2.
c) The overhead line in Q3

Q5: A 50Hz three phase transmission line is 300km long. It has a total series impedance
of 23+j75 Ω and a shunt admittance of j500µS. It delivers 50MW at 220kV, with a
power factor of 0.88 lagging. Find the voltage at the sending end using:
a) The short transmission line model.
b) The medium transmission line model
c) The long transmission line model
Assuming that the long transmission line model gives the true voltage, calculate the
percentage error in the voltages given by the short and medium models.

Q6: A 275kV, 50 Hz overhead line is rated at 750MVA and is 25km long. It has the
following parameters: r=0.034Ω/km, x=0.323Ω/km, y=3.6×10-6S/km. As part of an
urban renewal project, it is intended to replace this overhead line with an
underground cable with the following parameters: r=0.025Ω/km, x=0.22Ω/km,
y=2.5×10-4S/km. Assuming that power factor and voltage at the receiving end are
0.92 lagging and 270kV respectively and that the cable follows the same route as
the overhead line, calculate:
a) The sending end voltage of the overhead line at rated load and at minimum load
of 10% rated load.
b) The expected sending end voltage of the cable under the same loading
conditions.
c) The expected sending end voltage of the cable at minimum load when a
200MVAr reactor is added at the receiving end.

Q7: A 275kV transmission line has a reactance of 65Ω. If the sending end voltage and
receiving end voltage are both measured at 275kV when the line transmits 300MW
towards the receiving end:
a) Calculate the angle between the sending and receiving end voltages
b) Calculate the maximum power which can be carried by the transmission line
with these voltages

2 IE/AD/GMB/DT 03/10/2019
Q8: A 132kV transmission line connecting substations A and B has a reactance of 40Ω.
The voltage at substation A is measured as 133 ∠ 15° kV and the voltage at
substation B is measured as 129 ∠ –5° kV
a) Calculate the amount of power transmitted and its direction of flow.
b) Calculate the maximum power which can be carried by the transmission line

3 IE/AD/GMB/DT 03/10/2019
 Transformers

Introduction to transformers

EEE Department
 100 transformers
Transmission Grid
Power Sub-transmission
Power 200 – 500kV Transmission Supply
50 – 200kV
station station substation Point
substation 200
10-30kV

Primary
Collector substation Large customers Distribution
20 – 50kV
Pole- Secondary
Secondary substations distribution
mounted
5 – 20kV
transformer
15-20,000 750
Low voltage
Schools, offices, 200 – 400V Primary
shops, Substation
LV cable
… links
Street lights Homes

EEE Department
 Basic principles: single phase
𝑀𝑀𝐹 = 𝑁1 𝐼 Current lags voltage by 90°
𝑀𝑀𝐹 𝑁1𝐼 𝑑𝐼
Φ= = This is an inductor! 𝑉=𝐿
ℜ ℜ 𝑑𝑡
𝑁1𝐼 𝑁12
𝑑Φ 𝑑 𝑁12 𝑑𝐼
ℜ Self inductance 𝐿=
𝑉 = 𝑁1 = 𝑁1 = ℜ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ℜ 𝑑𝑡

V • Current in the winding creates an MMF, which

Φ causes a flux Φ
• If the current is changing, the flux is also
I
changing
• By Faraday’s and Lenz’s law, a changing flux
induces a voltage

Φ
Cross-section area = 𝐴 m2 ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝐴
T
EEE Department
 Basic principles: single phase
𝑑Φ A transformer will not
𝑒1 = 𝑁1 𝑃1 = 𝑃2
𝑑𝑡 work in a DC circuit!
𝑑Φ 𝑒1 𝐼1 = 𝑒2𝐼2
𝑒2 = 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡 𝐼1 𝑁2 • The second winding experiences the same
𝑒1 𝑁1 =
= 𝐼2 𝑁1 flux as the first
𝑒2 𝑁2
– Assuming no flux leakage
Primary
P1 Secondary
P2 • A voltage is induced in it
• The voltages are related by the number of
e1 turns
Φ
e2 • Assuming no losses, so are the currents
I1

I2

EEE Department
 Transformers
• Role in the power system
• Basic construction
• Principle of operation
• Fundamental voltage and current relationships

EEE Department
EEE Department
 Transformers

Introduction to transformers

EEE Department
 Basic principles: single phase transformer
𝑒1 𝑁1
=
𝑒2 𝑁2
• The relative phases of input and output
voltages depend on how the terminals
𝐼1 𝑁2 are connected to the windings
=
𝐼2 𝑁1

• Dots are used to show the

terminals where the
e1
Φ
voltages are in phase
I1
e2
e2 • Currents are out of phase
at the dot terminals
I2
I2 – Energy flows into one winding
but out of the other

EEE Department
 Referring impedances to the primary
I1 N1:N2 I2

V1 Z1 e1 e2 V2 Z2

𝑉1 𝑒1 𝑁1 𝐼1 𝑁2 𝑉2
= = = 𝑍2 =
𝑉2 𝑒2 𝑁2 𝐼2 𝑁1 𝐼2

𝑁1 2
𝑁2 𝑉2
2 2 𝑁1
𝑉1 𝑁1 𝑉2 𝑁1
= = = 𝑍2 𝑍1 = 𝑍2
𝐼1 𝑁2 𝑁2 𝐼2 𝑁2 𝑁2
𝑁1 𝐼2
EEE Department
 The ideal transformer
2
𝑒1 𝑁1 𝐼1 𝑁2 𝑁1
= = 𝑍1 = 𝑍2
𝑒2 𝑁2 𝐼2 𝑁1 𝑁2

• No resistance
• No losses
• Infinitely many turns
• Flux in the core is zero
• No flux leakage
• We need a better transformer model!
EEE Department
EEE Department
 Transformers

Losses in transformers

EEE Department
 Energy losses in transformers
• 2 sources of energy loss
“copper loss”
– Windings: resistive losses in the copper
– Core “core loss” or “iron loss”

Eddy current Hysteresis

EEE Department
 Modelling transformer losses
RP RS
I1 N1:N2 I2

V1 RC e1 e2 V2

• Secondary winding loss only if there’s current in the secondary

• Core loss is a function of flux density – therefore primary voltage
– Doesn’t depend on load – present whenever energized
– Does depend on frequency
• Some primary winding current flows when energised to magnetise the core
– Winding loss depends strongly on load, but some winding loss even at open circuit
EEE Department
 Practical transformer efficiency
RP RS
I1 N1:N2 I2

V1 RC e1 e2 V2

Example:
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 Sout = 10kVA, pf = 0.8, Ploss = 0.4kW
𝜂=
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛
10 × 0.8
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜂= = 95.2%
= 10 × 0.8 + 0.4
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑐𝑢 + 𝑃𝑓𝑒

Efficiency is zero when operating at no load

EEE Department
EEE Department
 Transformers

Magnetic behaviour of transformers

EEE Department
 Magnetic circuit in practical transformers

• 2 major differences from ideal transformer

– Primary and secondary turns are not infinite
• Flux in the core is not zero
• Magnetising current must flow – at 90° to voltage
• Acts like an inductance across the primary winding

– Flux leakage

EEE Department
 Modelling magnetising current
RP RS
I1 N1:N2 I2

I0

V1 RC jXM e1 e2 V2

Ih+e IM

At no load:
11kV/240V, 80kVA transformer 𝑅𝐶 × 𝑗𝑋𝑀
𝑍𝑀 =
𝑅𝐶 + 𝑗𝑋𝑀
RP = 5.6Ω RS = 2.1mΩ 11000
𝐼1 = = 0.656𝐴 𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 2.41𝑊
𝑅𝑃 + 𝑍𝑀
RC = 80.67kΩ XM = 17.15kΩ
𝐼ℎ+𝑒 = 0.136𝐴 𝑃𝑓𝑒 = 1.5𝑘𝑊
EEE Department
 Magnetic circuit in practical transformers
• 2 major differences from ideal transformer
– Primary and secondary turns are not infinite
– Flux leakage
• Not all the flux in each winding links the other
𝑑Φ
𝑒1 = 𝑁1
ΦLS 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 Φ + Φ𝐿𝑃
Φ 𝑉1 = 𝑁1
𝑑𝑡

I1 𝑑Φ𝐿𝑃 𝑑Φ
𝑉1 = 𝑁1 +𝑁1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
I2 𝑑𝐼1
ΦLP 𝑉1 = 𝐿𝑃 +𝑒1
𝑑𝑡

EEE Department
 Modelling flux leakage
RP jXP RS jXS
I1 N1:N2 I2

I0

V1 RC jXM e1 e2 V2

Ih+e IM

𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2
Practical transformer model
𝑉1 = 𝑒1 + 𝐿𝑃 +𝐼 𝑅
𝑑𝑡 1 𝑃
𝑉2 = 𝑒2 − 𝐿𝑆 −𝐼 𝑅
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑆

EEE Department
EEE Department
 Transformers

A practical transformer model

EEE Department
 Practical transformer model
Low impedance
Leakage reactance

Winding (copper) loss

RP jXP RS jXS
I1 N1:N2 I2

I0

V1 High RC jXM e1 e2 V2
impedance
IM
Ih+e

Core (iron) loss

Magnetising reactance Ideal transformer
EEE Department
 Practical transformer model: simplification
RRP S j(XjX
P+R' P+X'
P s) RS jXS
I1 N1:N2 I2

I0

V1 RC jXM e1 e2 V2

IM
Ih+e

• Refer secondary side components to primary side

2
′
𝑁1
𝑍2 = 𝑍2
• Not valid if operating above rated voltage
𝑁2
• Core saturation leads to significant reduction
• Sometimes move shunt in Xcomponents
M to the primary terminals
– Assumes RC and XM• >>
Large currents
series in the shunt branch, which
impedances
must also flow in the primary winding
• Large losses  Heat  Winding damage
EEE Department
 Practical transformer model:
parameter identification
RP+R'S j(XP+X's)
I1 N1:N2 I2

I0

V1 RC jXM e1 e2 V2

IM
Ih+e

• We can determine the value of these parameters by

measuring the transformer’s behaviour under 2 conditions
– Open circuit test  shunt components
– Short-circuit test  series components

EEE Department
 Parameter identification: open
circuit test
Ioc Poc
RP+R'S j(XP+X's)
N1:N2
A W
I0
No current

RC jXM Voc V
IM
Ih+e

• Energise low voltage winding at rated voltage

– HV winding is open circuit
– Measure LV current, voltage, power
2
• As seen from LV side: 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑁12
𝑅𝐶 =
• Refer to HV side 𝑆𝑂𝐶 = 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝐼𝑂𝐶 𝑃𝑂𝐶 𝑁22
2
𝑄𝑂𝐶 = 2 − 𝑃2
𝑆𝑂𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑁12
𝑂𝐶 𝑋𝑀 =
Can also calculate power triangle 𝑄𝑂𝐶 𝑁22
angle and impedance magnitude
EEE Department
 Parameter identification: short
circuit test
Irated Isc RP+R'S j(XP+X's)
Psc N1:N2
W A
I0 = 0

V Vsc RC jXM e1=0 e2=0=V2

• Energise high voltage winding so rated current flows

– LV winding is short-circuited
– Only a small voltage will be needed!
– Measure HV current, voltage, power 𝑃𝑆𝐶
𝑅𝑃 + 𝑅𝑆′ = 2
• As seen from HV side: 𝐼𝑆𝐶

𝑄𝑆𝐶
𝑋𝑃 + 𝑋𝑆′ = 2
𝑆𝑆𝐶 = 𝑉𝑆𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑄𝑆𝐶 = 2
𝑆𝑂𝐶 − 2
𝑃𝑂𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶
EEE Department
EEE Department
 Transformers

Voltage regulation

EEE Department
 Voltage regulation
I1 RP+R'S j(XP+X's) I2
N1:N2

I0

V1 jXM V2 ZL
RC

IM
Ih+e

• Secondary voltage reduces as load increases

– Highest at no load
– Lowest at full load (or overload!)
• Define voltage regulation at a particular load and power
factor: 𝑽𝟐,𝒏𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 − 𝑽𝟐,𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100%
𝑽𝟐,𝒏𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅

• Assume constant V1 (at rated value unless told otherwise)

EEE Department
 Voltage regulation method
I1 RP+R'S j(XP+X's) I2
N1:N2
I0

V1 RC jXM e1 e2 V2 ZL

IM
Ih+e

𝑽𝟐,𝒏𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 − 𝑽𝟐,𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100% Remember that
𝑽𝟐,𝒏𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
all voltages and
currents are
1. Assume constant V1 as reference phasor
phasors!
2. Calculate V2 at no load
Load given as a
3. Calculate V2 at stated load
power?
• Refer ZL to HV, or calculate I2 and refer to HV Assume nominal
• Calculate voltage drop across series elements V2 to calculate I2
•
EEE Department Calculate e1 and refer back to LV side for V2
EEE Department
 Transformers

Autotransformers

EEE Department
 Double-wound transformers

Series winding
67%
400
kV
400kV
3

132
kV
132kV 33% Common winding
3

• Lower voltage shares part of higher voltage winding

Autotransformer • All wound on the same core
EEE Department
 Autotransformer voltages and currents
IH
ISE 𝑉𝐶 𝑁𝐶 𝐼𝐶 𝑁𝑆𝐸
= =
𝑉𝑆𝐸 𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝐼𝑆𝐸 𝑁𝐶

NSE VSE
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶
VH 𝑽𝑳 𝑁𝐶
IL
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝑆𝐸 =
𝑽𝑯 𝑁𝑆𝐸 + 𝑁𝐶

𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑆𝐸 𝑰𝑳 𝑁𝑆𝐸 + 𝑁𝐶
VL NC VC =
𝑰𝑯 𝑁𝐶
IC 𝐼𝐻 = 𝐼𝑆𝐸

EEE Department
 Autotransformer winding capacity
IH Series winding capacity:
ISE
400𝑘𝑉
𝑆𝑆𝐸 = 0.67 × 𝐼𝐻 MVA
3

Common winding capacity:

67% 400𝑘𝑉
VSE 𝑆𝐶 = 0.33 × 3
𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝐻 MVA
400
3
kV 400𝑘𝑉
IL = 0.33 × 3 − 1 𝐼𝐻 MVA
3

400𝑘𝑉
= 0.67 × 3
𝐼𝐻 MVA
132 33% VC
3
kV
IC
The winding capacity is only two-thirds of
a normal double-wound transformer
Less leakage reactance than • Less copper, less cost, less weight
double-wound transformer Gets better when VL and VH are closer

EEE Department
EEE Department
 Three-phase Transformers

Construction and connection

EEE Department
 • We’ve been talking about single-phase
transformers
• Most power transformers are three phase
• But as a first approximation we can think of
them as three single-phase transformers
connected together
• Some are built that way
– Flexibility (e.g. in the lab)
– Convenience (e.g. ease of transport)

Core-type construction Shell-type construction

EEE Department
 Three-phase transformers: connections
A B C a b c VAB = 0°
30°

Vab = 30°
Vab = 30°

Yy0
Dyn11
Dy11
X Y Z x y z
n
• Take primary
VAX = 0° voltage as reference
Vax = 0°
• Draw phasor
V = 30°
0°
diagram with primary line voltage at top
V = 30°
AB ab
– Read like a clock
– Letters for winding arrangement
EEE Department
EEE Department
 Three-phase Transformers

3-phase transformers in the power system

EEE Department
 Transmission Grid
Power Sub-transmission
Power 200 – 500kV Transmission Supply
50 – 200kV
station station substation Point
substation
10-30kV

Yy0 Yd11
Primary
Collector substation Large customers Distribution
Collector 20 – 50kV
Pole- Secondary
network Secondary substations distribution
mounted
10 – 30kV
transformer
Dyn1 Low voltage
200 – 400V
5 – 20kV

Primary
Schools, offices,
shops, Substation
LV cable
Farms & rural … links
customers
Street lights Homes
EEE Department
 Can these transformers be connected in parallel?
A a

B b Yyn0
C c

A a

n
Yyn6
B b
C c

NO!
EEE Department
 Three-phase transformers: interconnection

30
Dy11 Yyn0
Yd1
132 kV

Yd1
33kV
30
Yy0
Dy11 Yd1

Dy11

EEE Department
 Three-phase transformers: the delta winding

• If Vp and Φ are sinusoidal, the magnetising current Im

will be non-sinusoidal
• This means there will be harmonic components
• The nearer we are to saturation, the more harmonics
we get.
• 3rd harmonic is a potential problem

EEE Department
 Three-phase transformers: the delta winding

• Add or
No path for 3rdconnection
a neutral
switch toharmonic to the
a delta winding
current
• 3rd harmonic
star pointvoltages
Winding mustacross
voltages sum to
V3h • May
zero ground the neutral
windings
• 3rd harmonic current flows
mayin in
voltagescirculates
neutral
delta
exceed 50Hz voltage!
• V3h = I3h × Z
EEE Department
EEE Department
 EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles 3
EE702 Key Power Systems Concepts and Foundations
EO305 Key Power Systems Concepts and Foundations

Transformers

You can check your answers to the questions below using the
myplace quiz for this topic

Q1: A transformer having a 2:1 turns ratio has a primary winding resistance and
reactance of 1Ω and 2Ω respectively, and a secondary resistance and inductance of
1Ω and 6.37mH respectively. Magnetising current for this transformer is negligible.
A 50Hz power supply is connected to the primary side with a primary current of
10A measured when a resistive load of 60Ω is connected to the secondary. Calculate:
a) The primary referred total winding resistance
b) The primary referred total winding reactance
c) The load voltage
d) The supply voltage

Q2: The following results were obtained on a 3300/400V, 50 kVA single-phase

transformer:

Test Winding Voltage Current Power

Open circuit 400V 400V 2.16A 430W (core losses)

Short circuit 3300V 124V 15.3A 525W (full load copper losses)

a) For a load power factor of 0.7 lagging, calculate the efficiency at full load.
b) For a load power factor of 0.7 lagging, calculate the efficiency at half load.
c) Calculate the parameters of the equivalent circuit model when referred to the
3300V side.
d) Assuming nominal voltage at the 400V terminals, calculate the voltage
regulation at full load for a load power factor of 0.7 lagging.

Q3: Each of two transformers, A and B, has an output of 40kVA. The core losses in A and
B are 500W and 250W respectively, and the full load copper losses are 500W and
750W respectively. For a load power factor of 0.8 lagging, calculate the efficiency of
each transformer at:
a) 25% of rated load.
b) 50% of rated load.
c) 100% of rated load.

1 IE/AD/GMB/DT 19/10/2019
Q4: In the following diagram, fill in the boxes to show the missing voltages, angles and
transformer winding arrangements.

Q5: A three phase transformer has a Dy11 winding arrangement. The number of turns
per phase on the primary is 4 times that on the secondary, and the secondary line
voltage is 440V. A balanced load of 20kW, at lagging power factor 0.8 is connected
to the secondary side. Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate:
a) The line voltage magnitude on the primary side
b) The phase and line current magnitudes on the secondary and primary side.
Sketch a circuit diagram and phasor diagram for the primary and secondary sides,
showing the values of voltages and currents; upload your diagram to the forum.

Q6: A 60MVA 132/33kV three-phase transformer has a Yd1 winding arrangement. Its
characteristic parameters are as shown in the table below:

RP = 20.9Ω RS = 0.36Ω RC = 40kΩ

XP = 48.5Ω XS = 2.6Ω XM = 30kΩ

The transformer is supplying rated secondary current at to a balanced load with a

power factor of 0.9 lagging, and the secondary line voltage is measured to be 33kV.
Taking the secondary phase voltage VAB as the reference phasor, calculate:
a) The secondary line current IA of the transformer
b) The primary line current IA and voltage VAB
c) The power factor at the primary terminals
d) The efficiency of the transformer

2 IE/AD/GMB/DT 19/10/2019
Q7: The following test measurements were taken on a 500kVA 11kV/400V Yy0
connected three-phase transformer. Find the parameters of the per-phase
transformer equivalent circuit model and calculate the voltage regulation when
supplying a balanced load of 75% rated current at a power factor of 0.87 lagging
and rated primary voltage.

Test Winding Line Line 3-phase power

Voltage Current

Open circuit 400V 400V 105A 45kW

Short circuit 11kV 3520V 26.2A 45kW

Q8: A three phase 35MVA star-connected autotransformer is required to connect a

three phase 400kV line to a 275kV substation. The total number of turns in each
winding is 2000. Calculate:
a) The tapping position for the 275kV winding (the star point is at turn 0).
b) The current magnitude in each part of the winding at full load.

3 IE/AD/GMB/DT 19/10/2019
 Induction Machines

Applications of induction machines

EEE Department
 Janusz Jakubowski: flickr.com/photos/129661548@N06/29879234681: CC BY 2.0
Mark Harkin: flickr.com/photos/markyharky/8572528028/ CC BY 2.0

EEE Department
EEE Department
 Induction Machines

Magnetic field in an induction machine

EEE Department
 3 windings – 3-phase machine
Can be wired in star or delta
EEE Department
 Magnetic field in the machine
S

EEE Department
 Magnetic field in the machine

EEE Department
 Rotating magnetic field

N • This is like a pair of

magnetic poles being
rotated around the machine,
once per cycle of the
electrical supply
• This is a one pole-pair
machine
• Or more usually 2-pole
• The field rotates at 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
rad/s
• For a 50Hz supply, that’s
3000rpm
S
EEE Department
 Adding more windings

N
• This is a 4-pole machine
• The magnetic field is more
complex
• It rotates once every two
S

S
cycles of the supply
• In general
2𝜋𝑓
𝜔=
𝑝
p = number of pole pairs

N
EEE Department
EEE Department
 Induction Machines

Forces in an induction machine

EEE Department
 N

S
S N S N S N S N S 𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1

EEE Department
 Effect of a moving field

𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1
S N S N S N S N S

• Each “rung” has a voltage induced in it: 𝑉 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣

• The direction of the voltage opposes the change in field.
Use the Right-Hand Rule
• Remember that the rungs are moving left relative to the field
• Alternating current will flow in the ladder!

EEE Department
 Forces on the conductors

S N S N S N S N S 𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1

• Currents are flowing in the ladder, in a magnetic field

• There must be a force on the ladder. But in which direction?
• Assume the ladder is purely resistive – no inductance
• The currents in the rungs are in phase with the voltages
• Use the Left-Hand Rule to find the force
• 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙
EEE Department
 Side-on view: resistive ladder
Left-hand
Right-hand
rule gives
rule gives
force
currents
𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1 Force on ladder

N S N S

Ladder motion
relative to field

• Rung current peaks are in phase with voltage

• Occur when field is at right angles to the ladder

EEE Department
 What if the ladder is inductive?

• Rung current lags induced voltage by 90°

• Current peaks are delayed by a quarter cycle
• Occur when field is parallel to ladder
• We get a levitation force

Force on ladder
𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1

N S N S

EEE Department
 Net forces on the ladder

• When the ladder is close to a set of moving poles

– It will be dragged along if resistance dominates
– It will be repelled if inductance dominates
• We must have some resistance to get lateral force
• But not too much! Want to minimise I2R losses

Edwin Steele: flickr.com/photos/edwin_steele/16274535609/: CC BY 2.0

𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1

EEE Department
N S N S
 Relative motion

Force on ladder Force on ladder

N S N S

• 𝐼 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 - v is relative speed

• Rung currents are reduced
• 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 - Force on ladder is reduced
• Force reduces as ladder speed approaches field speed
• Maximum force when ladder is stationary
• No force at all when ladder matches field speed!
• Force reverses if ladder is faster than field speed
EEE Department
 Linear induction motor

• Moving field is created by the stator

• Field induces currents in the “ladder”
• Currents create a force on the ladder
• Force depends on relative speed of field and ladder
– With no external force, ladder will travel at the speed of the field

EEE Department
EEE Department
 Induction Machines

The rotary induction machine

EEE Department
 Linear induction motor

Force

𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1
S N S N S N S N S

EEE Department
 A rotary motor Force
Φ

Air gap • Roll the ladder up into a “Squirrel cage” – the rotor
• Increased reluctance • Fill up all the gaps with steel laminations
• Leakage flux
• Put it into the fixed part of the motor – the stator
• There will be a rotary force on the rotor – a torque
EEE Department
EEE Department
 Induction Machines

Mechanical behaviour

EEE Department
 Magnetic field and rotation

𝑓𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐
𝑛𝑠 = revolutions/second
𝑝
𝑓𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐
𝝎𝒓
𝑛𝑠 = 𝑝
× 60 rpm
2𝜋𝑓𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐
𝜔𝑠 = 𝑝
radians/second

To produce motor torque:

𝜔𝑟 < 𝜔𝑠

𝜔𝑠 −𝜔𝑟 𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑟
slip = 𝑠 = =
𝜔𝑠 𝑛𝑠

EEE Department
 Magnetic field and rotation
𝜔𝑠 −𝜔𝑟
slip = 𝑠 = 𝜔𝑠

ωr
–ωs 0 ωs 2ωs
Slip Rotor speed Condition
s=0 𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑠 No load
s=1 𝜔𝑟 = 0 Standstill

Generating s = 0.05 𝜔𝑟 = 0.95𝜔𝑠 Motoring

Motoring s = - 0.05 𝜔𝑟 = 1.05𝜔𝑠 Generating
Plugging s=2 𝜔𝑟 = −1𝜔𝑠 “Plugging”

Torque-speed curve
EEE Department
 Mechanical power output

𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝜏𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐
× 𝜔×𝑟 𝜔𝑟

𝝉𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄
Mechanical Losses
• Friction
𝝎𝒓
• Windage

𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝜏𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 =
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𝜔𝑟
EEE Department
 Induction Machines

Electrical model of the induction machine

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 At standstill – rotor locked

• Stator windings – many turns

• Rotor cage – sequence of 1-turn windings
• Rotating field induces current in rotor
• A transformer
• but not as good as a normal transformer
– Airgap!
– High reluctance and lower self-inductance
– Bigger magnetising current
– Bigger flux leakage (and leakage reactance)

EEE Department
 Locked rotor motor as transformer
Leakage reactance
• Split between rotor and stator
• Quite large because of
leakage at airgap
R1 jX1 jX2
I1 N1:N2 I2

V1 = Vwinding RC jXM e1 e2 R2

Stator winding Ideal Rotor winding

resistance transformer resistance
Core
Magnetising reactance
losses
• Relatively low because of airgap reluctance
EEE Department • Large reactive power
 Release the rotor!
Depends on rotor speed (slip)

R1 jX1 jX2
I1 N1:N2 I2

R2

V1 = Vwinding RC jXM e1 e2

𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑟

Mechanical Load
Mechanical Losses

EEE Department
 IEEE-recommended model
per-phase Refer to stator side

𝑹𝟏 𝒋𝑿𝟏 𝒋𝑿′𝟐 𝑃2
I1 I 2’
3
Rotor loss
𝑹′𝟐
V1 = Vwinding 𝒋𝑿𝑴 𝑹′𝟐
𝒔
𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑹′𝟐
𝟏−𝒔
3 𝒔
Mechanical power
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ
airgap
3
(including
• One model like this per phase mechanical loss)
• Assuming balance, all are identical: × 3
EEE•Department
Adjust Vwinding according to star or delta connection
 IEEE-recommended model
locked rotor
𝜔𝑟 = 0 ⇒ 𝑠 = 1
𝑹𝟏 𝒋𝑿𝟏 𝒋𝑿′𝟐 𝑃2 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝
I1 I 2’ =
3 3
Rotor loss
𝑹′𝟐
V1 = Vwinding 𝒋𝑿𝑴 𝑹′𝟐′
𝑅𝒔2
𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑹′𝟐
3 𝒔
0Ω
𝟏−𝒔
Mechanical power
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ
airgap
3
= 0𝑊
(including
mechanical loss)

EEE Department
 IEEE-recommended model
full speed
𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑠 ⇒ 𝑠 = 0
𝑹𝟏 𝒋𝑿𝟏 𝒋𝑿′𝟐 𝑃2
I1 I 2’
3
Rotor loss
𝑹′𝟐
𝒋𝑿𝑴 𝑹′𝟐
∞Ω
V1 = Vwinding
𝒔
𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑹′𝟐
3
= 0𝑊 𝒔
𝟏−𝒔
Mechanical power
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ
airgap
3
= 0𝑊
(including
mechanical loss)

EEE Department
 IEEE-recommended model
generating
𝜔𝑟 = 1.05𝜔𝑠 ⇒ 𝑠 = −0.05
𝑹𝟏 𝒋𝑿𝟏 𝒋𝑿′𝟐 𝑃2
I1 I 2’
3
Rotor loss
𝑹′𝟐
𝒋𝑿𝑴 𝑹′𝟐
–20R
V1 = Vwinding
𝒔 S
𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑹′𝟐
3
–21R
𝒔
𝟏 − 𝒔S
Mechanical power
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ
airgap
3
𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
(including
mechanical loss)

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EEE Department
 Induction Machines

Parameter identification

EEE Department
 Parameter identification
𝑹𝟏 𝒋𝑿𝟏 𝒋𝑿′𝟐
I1 I 2’

𝑹′𝟐
V1 = Vwinding 𝒋𝑿𝑴 𝑹′𝟐
𝒔
𝑹′𝟐
𝟏−𝒔
𝒔

𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 airgap

• Similar to transformer parameter identification

• Three tests • DC resistance measurement
• No load test
EEE Department
• Locked rotor test
 1. DC resistance measurement

𝑹𝟏 𝒋𝑿𝟏 𝒋𝑿′𝟐
Ω
Ω

𝑹′𝟐

Ω 𝒋𝑿𝑴
Ω
Ω 𝑹′𝟐
𝟏−𝒔
𝒔

• Machine stopped
• Measure stator R1 – DC measurement
• Be careful about winding configuration!
– Assume windings are identical
EEE Department
 2. No load test
𝑹𝟏 𝒋𝑿𝟏 𝒋𝑿′𝟐
I1
W A

𝑹′𝟐
V V1 = Vwinding 𝒋𝑿𝑴

𝑹′𝟐
𝟏−𝒔
𝒔

• 𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑠 ⇒ 𝑠 = 0 ⇒ No current in rotor
• Measure power input Stator loss = I12R1
Mechanical loss = Pin − I12R1
• Calculate S, Q
Calculate (X1 + XM)
𝑉
Or calculate (X1 + XM) from 𝑍 = 𝐼
and R1
EEE Department
 3. Locked rotor test
𝑹𝟏 𝒋𝑿𝟏 𝒋𝑿′𝟐
I1 I 2’
W A

𝑹′𝟐
V V1 = Vwinding 𝒋𝑿𝑴

𝑹′𝟐
𝟏−𝒔
𝒔

• 𝜔𝑟 = 0 ⇒ 𝑠 = 1 ⇒ No mechanical output
• Ignore XM: large compared to rotor impedance
– Measure power input Stator loss = I12R1
– Calculate S, Q Rotor loss = I2’2R2’

Calculate (X1 + X2’); Assume X1 = X2’

EEE Department Use X1 to calculate XM from (X1 + XM)

 Parameter identification
DC resistance Locked rotor

𝑹𝟏 𝒋𝑿𝟏 𝒋𝑿′𝟐
I1 I 2’

𝑹′𝟐
V1 = Vwinding 𝒋𝑿𝑴 𝑹′𝟐
𝒔
𝑹′𝟐
𝟏−𝒔
𝒔

+ mechanical loss
airgap

No load
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EEE Department
 Induction Machines

Induction machine performance

EEE Department
 IEEE-recommended model
per-phase
𝑹𝟏 𝒋𝑿𝟏 𝒋𝑿′𝟐 𝑃2
I1 I2 ’
3
Rotor loss
𝑹′𝟐

V1 = Vwinding 𝒋𝑿𝑴 𝑹′𝟐

𝒔
𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑹′𝟐
𝟏−𝒔
3 𝒔
Mechanical power
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ (including
airgap mechanical
3 loss)
• Most problems can be solved by analysing this circuit
• Be careful with calculations(complex impedances, need to use phasors)
• Sometimes move XM to terminals to simplify
• Remember to adjust V1, I1 for winding arrangement
• And that this is one of three windings!
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 Torque-speed curves

Maximum
(or pullout)
torque

Normal
operation

EEE Department
 Torque-speed test results
Torque-speed curves: laboratory induction motor
0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
Torque (Nm)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
Speed (rpm)

EEE Department
 Torque-speed curves

Maximum
(or pullout)
torque

Normal
operation

EEE Department
 Maximum torque

• Happens at maximum airgap power

• Can also find directly by differentiating torque formula
to find slip
– Neglecting mechanical losses, and moving XM to motor
terminals, can show that:
𝑅2 ′
𝑠𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅1 2 + 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 ′ 2

3 𝑉1 2
𝜏𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ_𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝜔𝑠 𝑅1 + 𝑅1 2 + 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 ′ 2

• Max torque doesn’t depend on R2’

EEE Department
 Active and reactive power
frictionless machine

EEE Department
 Motor efficiency

𝑹𝟏 𝒋𝑿𝟏 𝒋𝑿′𝟐 𝑃2
I1θ I2 ’
3
Rotor loss
𝑹′𝟐

V1 = Vwinding0° 𝒋𝑿𝑴 𝑹′𝟐

𝒔
𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑹′𝟐
𝟏−𝒔
3 𝒔
Mechanical power
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 Put phase 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ (including
airgap mechanical
reference 3 loss)
elsewhere if
convenient

𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝜏𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝜔𝑟 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ − 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ_𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝜂= = = =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 3𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜃 3𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜃 3𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜃
EEE Department
 Power factor
frictionless machine

Normal
operation

EEE Department
EEE Department
 Induction Machines

Wound rotor machines

EEE Department
 Wound rotor induction machines

• Rotor connections brought out through slip rings

– Complexity, maintenance, cost…
– Why bother?
• Lets us alter R2’ by switching in extra resistance
– Modifies torque-speed characteristic
– Improves starting performance
EEE Department
 Torque-speed test results
Torque-speed curves: laboratory induction motor
0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
Torque (Nm)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
Speed (rpm)

Rotor short-circuited 6Ω extra rotor resistance

EEE Department
 Wound rotor machines
τ – ω characteristic

EEE Department
 Wound rotor machines
efficiency

Normal operation
• Efficiency reduced here
• Switch out extra
resistance!

EEE Department
EEE Department
 Induction Machines

Single-phase machines

EEE Department
 Single phase motor

𝝎𝒓

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 Capacitor-start motor

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 Shaded pole motor

Shading coil

EEE Department
 𝑿′𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝒋𝑿𝟏 𝒋
I1 𝟐 I2f’

𝑹′𝟐
Forward 𝟐
𝑿𝑴 𝑹′𝟐
𝒋 circuit
𝟐 𝟐𝒔𝒇
𝑹′𝟐
𝟏 − 𝒔𝒇
𝟐𝒔𝒇
𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓
V1 = Vwinding 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝 Forward 𝒔𝒇 =
𝒏𝒔
𝑿′𝟐 mechanical power
𝒋 I2b’
𝟐 𝑹′𝟐 𝒔𝒃 = 𝟐 − 𝒔𝒇
Backward 𝟐
𝑿𝑴 𝑹′𝟐
𝒋 circuit
𝟐 𝟐𝒔𝒃
𝑹′𝟐
𝟏 − 𝒔𝒃
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 airgap 𝟐𝒔𝒃

Backward
EEE Department mechanical power
EEE Department
Power systems and electrical fundamentals

Synchronous generator construction

Introduction
Learning objectives:
To identify and to be able to explain the basic function of the main components
of a synchronous generator.

Topics:
➢ Construction
▪ Rotor (field winding)
▪ Stator (armature winding)
➢ Rotor types
➢ Control systems
Electric power generation

▪ Synchronous machines convert mechanical energy to AC (Alternating

Current) electrical energy (generator) or AC electrical energy to mechanical
energy (motor).

▪ Synchronous generators (also know as alternators) are the primary source of

electrical energy in power systems.

▪ They convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and generate powers
in excess of 1500 MW.
Main components of a turbine-synchronous
generator set
Speed Reference Voltage Reference
Speed

Position Feedback Governor

Voltage
Regulator
▪ Electric generator
o Rotor (field winding)
Steam
Pci
Exciter
Vi o Stator (armature winding)
Voltage
Control Valve Sensor ▪ Prime mover (turbine)
Valves Servomotor Efd
Field
Winding
▪ Governor control
Turbine
Generator ▪ Excitation system

PGi+jQGi ▪ Automatic Voltage Regulator

To generator bus
Synchronous generator construction
▪ A three-phase synchronous generator consists of two elements: the
field winding (rotor), and the armature winding (stator).
Axis of phase b

Stator 𝑎

𝑏′
𝑆
𝑐′ Rotor
Axis of phase a
𝜔𝑟
Field
Armature 𝑐 Winding
𝑁
Winding 𝑏
Air
𝑎′
Gap

(Adapted from: Kundur, 1994)

Axis of phase c
Field winding (in the rotor)

▪ The field winding carries direct current and produces a magnetic field
which rotates with the rotor.
Armature windings (in the stator)

▪ The armature windings are evenly spaced and produce three separate
voltage and current waveforms, separated by 120o(electrical degrees).
Synchronous generator – rotor types
Stator
Stator Containing
Containing 𝑆𝑠
Armature 𝜃𝑚
Armature 𝑁𝑠
Winding
Winding 𝑆𝑟
𝑁𝑟
Torque 𝜔𝑟
𝑆𝑟
Field 𝑁𝑟
𝑁𝑠 Winding 𝑆𝑠 Field
Winding

Round-rotor generator Salient-pole generator

Round (or cylindrical) rotor

Stator
Containing 𝑆𝑠
Armature
Winding
𝜃𝑚
▪ It has a uniform air-gap with a distributed field
𝑁𝑟
winding.
Torque
𝑆𝑟 ▪ It is used in high-speed generators with steam
𝑁𝑠
Field and gas turbines.
Winding
Salient-pole rotor
Stator
Containing
Armature 𝑁𝑠
Winding
𝑆𝑟 ▪ It has a non-uniform air-gap with a
𝜔𝑟
concentrated field winding.

𝑁𝑟 ▪ It is used in low-speed generators, such as

𝑆𝑠 Field
Winding
those used with a hydro-turbine (or diesel).
Rotor damper windings

▪ Damper windings are connected to end rings to form short-circuited windings

▪ They are intended to damp out power oscillations
Synchronous generator – controllers
Main steam
valve
From steam
generator Generator
Governor 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑖𝑓
Steam 𝜔𝑚 +
Turbine Exciter 𝐸𝑓𝑑 𝑃𝑒
𝑃𝑚 _

+ _
𝑉𝑟
To Condenser
Voltage + Rectifier/ Voltage
(Redrawn from: Glover, Sarma and Overbye, 2012) 𝑉 Transformer
Regulator _ 𝑡 Filter
_
+
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

▪ The active power output is controlled by the turbine-governor control.

▪ Terminal voltage is controlled through the excitation system.
What you have learnt in this lecture

✓ How a synchronous generator is constructed.

✓ The location and purpose of the field and armature windings.
✓ The locals controls for active and reactive power.
Power systems and electrical fundamentals

Synchronous generator operation

Introduction
Learning objectives:
To understand how the synchronous generator works and to be able to explain
how it produces electricity.

Topics:
➢ Principle of operation
➢ Relationship between electrical frequency and
rotational speed
Principle of operation
𝑃𝑒
One phase
Stator
Rotor
𝐈𝐴 𝑃𝑒
𝑃𝑚 𝑗𝑋 𝐈𝐴
𝑗𝑋
𝐕𝜙 +
𝜔𝑚
𝐕𝜙
Turbine +
𝐄𝐴
_
𝑖𝑓
+ _
𝐸𝑓𝑑 Field Armature Winding
_ Winding (in the stator)
(in the rotor) (Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005)
Rotating magnetic field in the rotor, BR

▪ The field winding carries direct current and, as

𝐄𝐴,max
it is rotated by the prime mover, it produces a
magnetic field, BR, which rotates with the a’
rotor.
𝐁𝑅 b
▪ This rotating magnetic field, BR, then induces c
a voltage, EA, in the three-phase armature
windings of the stator. 𝜔𝑚

c’
b’

(Adapted from: Chapman, 2005)

Induced voltage in the armature windings
▪ The voltages induced in each armature winding
have the same magnitude and are apart 120o. 𝐄𝐴,max

𝑒𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝐶 𝜙𝜔𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 a’

𝐁𝑅 b
𝑒𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝐶 𝜙𝜔𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠ሺ𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − 120∘ ൯ c

𝑒𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝐶 𝜙𝜔𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠ሺ𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − 240∘ ൯ 𝜔𝑚

c’
b’
▪ Maximum (or peak) voltage:
a

𝐸𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑁𝐶 𝜙𝜔𝑚
(Adapted from: Chapman, 2005)
𝐸𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑁𝐶 𝜙𝑓
Armature reaction – due to stator current

▪ If the generator is connected to a lagging load,

𝐄𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥
a lagging current, IA, will flow in the armature 𝐈𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥
windings of the stator.
▪ This stator current, IA, produces its own 𝐁𝑅
magnetic field, BS, which produces its own
votage, Estat, in the stator windings.
𝜔𝑚
𝐁𝑆

𝐄𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡

(Adapted from: Chapman, 2005)

Armature reaction

▪ The field BS adds to BR producing Bnet.

𝐄𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐕𝜙
▪ The voltage Es adds to Ea producing Vϕ at 𝐈𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥
the output of the phase.
𝐵𝑅 𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝛿

𝐕𝜙 = 𝐄𝐴 + 𝐄𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝑚
𝐁𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐁𝑅 + 𝐁𝑆 𝐁𝑆

𝐄𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡

(Adapted from: Chapman, 2005)

Electrical power output Pe
▪ Assuming the resistance of the armature windings, RA, is negligible, then:

3𝑉𝜙 𝐸𝐴 3𝑉∅ 𝐸𝐴
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑃𝑒,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑠 𝐄𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐕𝜙
𝐈𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑃𝑒 𝐵𝑅 𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝐈𝐴
𝑗𝑋 𝛿
+
𝐕𝜙 𝜔𝑚
+ 𝐁𝑆
𝐄𝐴
_
𝑬𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
_

(Adapted from: Chapman, 2005)

Power system frequency and rotor speed

▪ For production of a steady torque the fields of stator and rotor must rotate at the same
speed, that is, at the synchronous speed, given by:

120 f
n=
pf

n is the speed in rev/min, f is the frequency in Hz and pf is the number of field poles.
What you have learnt in this lecture

✓ How rotating magnetic fields are created.

✓ The armature reaction voltage and current.
✓ Representation of a synchronous generator by a simplified
voltage behind a reactance.
✓ How the frequency of the electricity generated is synchronized
with the rotor speed.
Power systems and electrical fundamentals

Synchronous generator equivalent circuit

Introduction
Learning objective:
To understand the equivalent circuit of the synchronous generator and to be
able to sketch phasor diagrams.

Topics:
➢ Model of the generator as a voltage behind a
reactance.
➢ Phasor diagrams.
Simplified equivalent circuit
▪ Considering the armature reaction voltage Estat and assuming the
resistance of the armature windings, RA, is negligible.

𝐕𝜙 = 𝐄𝐴 + 𝐄𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 𝐄𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = −𝑗𝑋𝐈𝐴

𝐄𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐕𝜙
𝐕𝜙 = 𝐄𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋𝐈𝐴 𝐈𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑃𝑒
𝐈𝐴 𝐵𝑅 𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑗𝑋
𝛿
+
𝐕𝜙 𝜔𝑚
+
𝐄𝐴 𝐁𝑆
_
𝑬𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
_

(Adapted from: Chapman, 2005)

Three-phase equivalent circuit
𝐈𝐴1
▪ Considering the synchronous 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴
+
reactance Xs and stator
𝐄𝐴1 +
resistance RA. _ 𝐕𝜙1

_
𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑗

+ 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴 𝐈𝐴2
+
𝑉𝐹 𝑅𝐹 𝐄𝐴2 + 𝐕𝜙2
_
(dc)
𝐿𝐹 _
_ 𝐈𝐴3
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴
+
𝐄𝐴3 +
(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005) _ 𝐕𝜙3

_
Star and Delta connections
▪ Considering the synchronous reactance XS and stator resistance RA.

𝐈𝐴 𝐈𝐿
+ 𝐈𝐿
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐴 + +
+
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴 _
+ 𝐄𝐴1
𝐕𝜙
𝐕𝜙 𝐈𝐀
𝐄𝐴3 𝐄𝐴1 𝑗𝑋𝑆
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝐕𝑇 = 𝐕𝐿

+_ 𝐕𝑇 = 𝐕𝐿 +
𝐄𝐴2 _ 𝐄𝐴3 𝐄𝐴2 𝑅𝐴

_ _ _
𝑗𝑋𝑆
𝑅𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑆

𝑅𝐴

(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005)

Phasor diagram at unity power factor
▪ Considering the synchronous reactance Xs and stator resistance RA.

𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑗
𝐄𝐴
+ 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴 𝐈𝐴
+
𝑉𝐹 𝑅𝐹 + 𝐕𝜙 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝐈𝐴
𝐄𝐴2 _
(dc)
𝐿𝐹 _ 𝛿
_ 𝐈𝐀 𝐕𝜙 𝐈𝐴 𝑅𝐴

(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005)

Phasor diagram at leading and lagging
power factor

𝐄𝐴 𝐄𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑠 𝐈𝐴
𝐈𝐴
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝐈𝐴

𝐕𝜙 𝐈𝐴 𝑅𝐴
𝛿 𝛿
𝐕𝜑
𝐈𝐴 𝐈𝐴 𝑅𝐴

(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005)

Lagging power factor Leading power factor
What you have learnt in this lecture

✓ Representation of the synchronous generators as a voltage behind

a reactance.
✓ Star and Delta connections of the armature windings.
✓ Construction of the phasor diagrams of the generator for different
power factors (i.e., unity, lagging and leading).
Power systems and electrical fundamentals

Synchronous generator equivalent circuit

Introduction
Learning objective:
To understand the equivalent circuit of the synchronous generator and to be
able to sketch phasor diagrams.

Topics:
➢ Model of the generator as a voltage behind a
reactance.
➢ Phasor diagrams.
Simplified equivalent circuit
▪ Considering the armature reaction voltage Estat and assuming the
resistance of the armature windings, RA, is negligible.

𝐕𝜙 = 𝐄𝐴 + 𝐄𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 𝐄𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = −𝑗𝑋𝐈𝐴

𝐄𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐕𝜙
𝐕𝜙 = 𝐄𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋𝐈𝐴 𝐈𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑃𝑒
𝐈𝐴 𝐵𝑅 𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑗𝑋
𝛿
+
𝐕𝜙 𝜔𝑚
+
𝐄𝐴 𝐁𝑆
_
𝑬𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
_

(Adapted from: Chapman, 2005)

Three-phase equivalent circuit
𝐈𝐴1
▪ Considering the synchronous 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴
+
reactance Xs and stator
𝐄𝐴1 +
resistance RA. _ 𝐕𝜙1

_
𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑗

+ 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴 𝐈𝐴2
+
𝑉𝐹 𝑅𝐹 𝐄𝐴2 + 𝐕𝜙2
_
(dc)
𝐿𝐹 _
_ 𝐈𝐴3
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴
+
𝐄𝐴3 +
(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005) _ 𝐕𝜙3

_
Star and Delta connections
▪ Considering the synchronous reactance XS and stator resistance RA.

𝐈𝐴 𝐈𝐿
+ 𝐈𝐿
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐴 + +
+
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴 _
+ 𝐄𝐴1
𝐕𝜙
𝐕𝜙 𝐈𝐀
𝐄𝐴3 𝐄𝐴1 𝑗𝑋𝑆
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝐕𝑇 = 𝐕𝐿

+_ 𝐕𝑇 = 𝐕𝐿 +
𝐄𝐴2 _ 𝐄𝐴3 𝐄𝐴2 𝑅𝐴

_ _ _
𝑗𝑋𝑆
𝑅𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑆

𝑅𝐴

(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005)

Phasor diagram at unity power factor
▪ Considering the synchronous reactance Xs and stator resistance RA.

𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑗
𝐄𝐴
+ 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴 𝐈𝐴
+
𝑉𝐹 𝑅𝐹 + 𝐕𝜙 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝐈𝐴
𝐄𝐴2 _
(dc)
𝐿𝐹 _ 𝛿
_ 𝐈𝐀 𝐕𝜙 𝐈𝐴 𝑅𝐴

(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005)

Phasor diagram at leading and lagging
power factor

𝐄𝐴 𝐄𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑠 𝐈𝐴
𝐈𝐴
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝐈𝐴

𝐕𝜙 𝐈𝐴 𝑅𝐴
𝛿 𝛿
𝐕𝜑
𝐈𝐴 𝐈𝐴 𝑅𝐴

(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005)

Lagging power factor Leading power factor
What you have learnt in this lecture

✓ Representation of the synchronous generators as a voltage behind

a reactance.
✓ Star and Delta connections of the armature windings.
✓ Construction of the phasor diagrams of the generator for different
power factors (i.e., unity, lagging and leading).
Power systems and electrical fundamentals

Synchronous generator power-angle characteristic

Introduction
Learning objective:
To know the equations of power and torque in synchronous generators and to
be able to study the power-angle characteristic.

Topics:
➢ Power-flow diagram and losses.
➢ Power and torque equations.
➢ Power-angle characteristic.
Power flow diagram
▪ Power losses in the energy conversion process.
Pconv is power
converted internally
from mechanical to
𝑃conv = 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑚
electrical form = 3𝐸𝐴 𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾
(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005)

𝑃out = 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑄out = 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑃in = 𝜏app 𝜔𝑚
𝑃in is the mechanical input power Pout is the real
electrical active
power output
𝐼2𝑅
Core (Copper Qout is the reactive
Friction losses losses) power output
and
Stray windage
losses Both expressed in
losses
line quantities
Power and torque equations
𝑃out 𝐄𝐴
𝐈𝐴 Simplified phasor diagram with
𝑗𝑋𝑆 armature resistance ignored
+ 𝜃
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝐈𝐴
𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 𝑋𝑆 𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐕𝜙
+ 𝛿 𝐕𝜙
𝐄𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
_ 𝜃 𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝛾 𝑋𝑆

_ 𝐈𝐴

P and Q expressed in
phase quantities 3𝑉𝜙 𝐸𝐴
3𝑉𝜙 𝐸𝐴 𝜏ind = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑃conv = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝜔𝑚 𝑋𝑆
𝑃out = 3𝑉𝜙 𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑋𝑆
3𝑉𝜙 𝐸𝐴 3𝑉𝜙 𝐸𝐴
𝑄out = 3𝑉𝜙 𝐼𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑃max = 𝜏max =
𝑋𝑆 𝜔𝑚 𝑋𝑆

𝑃conv = 𝑃out
(as RA is neglected)
Power-angle characteristic
3𝑉𝜙 𝐸𝐴
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑋𝑆
P

3𝑉𝜙 𝐸𝐴
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑋𝑆

𝜋 𝜋 𝛿
2
What you have learnt in this lecture

✓ The power-flow diagram and the various power losses present in

the energy conversion process.
✓ The power and torque equations.
✓ Power angle (also known as rotor angle) 𝛿.
✓ Overview of the power-angle characteristic.
✓ The static stability limit of the generator (when 𝛿=90o).
Power systems and electrical fundamentals

Synchronous machine worked examples

Example 1
A 3 phase, 5kVA, 208V, four pole, 60Hz, star connected synchronous
machine has negligible stator winding resistance and a synchronous
reactance of 8/phase at rated terminal voltage. The machine is first
operated as a generator in parallel with a 3 phase, 208V, 60Hz power
supply.

Determine the excitation voltage and rotor power angle when the
machine is delivering rated kVA at 0.8pf lagging. Draw the associated
phasor diagram.
 jXs
Ia
Ef
+
Ef = |Ef|
Vt = |Vt|00 25.50
-
-36.90 Vt

Ia

208
• The terminal voltage for each phase is: Vt = = 120.1V
3

5000
• The stator current at rated kVA is therefore: Ia =
3.120
= 13.89 A

• As the power factor is quoted therefore: = cos−1 0.8 = −36.870 for a

lagging power factor.
• From a KVL circuit analysis the excitation voltage can be calculated as:
E f = Vt 0 + jI a . X s = 1200 + (13.89 − 36.87  890)
= 206.825.460V
• Therefore the excitation voltage is 206.8V for each phase and the
rotor power angle,  = +25.460
Example 2
Consider again the same example machine: A 3 phase, 5kVA, 208V,
four pole, 60Hz, star connected synchronous machine has negligible
stator winding resistance and a synchronous reactance of 8/phase at
rated terminal voltage. The machine is first operated as a generator in
parallel with a 3 phase, 208V, 60Hz power supply.

(a) If the field excitation is now increased by 20% (without changing

the prime mover power), find the stator current, power factor and
reactive kVA supplied by this machine.
(b) With the field current as with Example L17-1 above, the prime
mover power is slowly increased. What is the steady state (or
static) stability limit? What are the corresponding values of stator
current, power factor and reactive power at this maximum power
transfer condition?
(a)

• The new excitation is Ef’ = 1.2 x 206.8 = 248.2V. As the power

transfer remains the same then:
Vt .E f Vt .E 'f Ef sin 25.46
. sin  = . sin  ' or E f . sin  = E 'f . sin  '  sin  ' = '
. sin  =   ' = 21.000
Xs Xs E f 1.2

• The stator current is therefore: E f − Vt 248.221 − 1200

Ia = = = 17.85 − 51.470 A
jX s 890

• The accompanying power factor is: pf = cos51.470 = 0.6229 lagging.

• The reactive kVA from this situation is:

Q = 3.|Vt|.|Ia|.sin51.50
= 3 x 120 x 17.85 x sin51.47
= 5027VA
= 5.027 kVA
(b)

• Maximum power occurs when  = 900. Therefore:

3.E f Vt 3.206.8 120
Pmax = = = 9.306kW
Xs 8
E f − Vt 206.890 − 1200
Ia = = = 29.8930.130 A
jX s 890

• The corresponding power factor is: pf = cos30.130 = 0.8649 leading

The reactive kVA from this situation is:

Q = 3.|Vt|.|Ia|.sin30.130
= 3 x 120 x 29.89 x sin30.13
= 5401VA
= 5.401 kVA
Example 3

A synchronous motor has a maximum power/phase of 250kW when

the magnitude of the back emf equals the magnitude of the supply
voltage, i.e. 5kV (phase voltage). This machine is supplied at 50Hz,
and is a four pole machine.

(a) Calculate the supply current and power factor if the motor is driving
a total load of 600kW.
(b) Calculate the value of the new excitation needed to correct the
power factor to unity.
(a)
• The value of synchronous reactance is
| V || E| 5,000  5,000
Pmax =  XS = =100
XS 250,000

• Power/phase = Total load / 3 = 200kW

P  XS 200,000  100
sin  = = = 0.8   = 531
. 0

| V || E| 5,000 2

• From the equivalent circuit V = jXS I + E

𝑉 − 𝐸 5,000∠00 − 5,000∠ − 53. 10 5,000 − (3002 − 𝑗3998)
𝐼= = =
𝑗𝑋𝑆 100∠900 100∠900
4469.5∠63. 40
= 0
= 44.7∠ − 26. 60 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
100∠90

• The power factor is cos(26.6o) = 0.89 lagging

(b)
• At unity pf, |E|2 = |V|2 + |XS I|2 and Pphase = |V||I|
Therefore I=200,000/5,000 = 40A
| E|2 = |5,000|2 +|100  40|2  | E| = 41,000,000 = 6403 Volts

P  XS 200,000  100
sin  = = = 0.625   = 38.70
| V || E| 5,000  6403
Synchronous machines (Topic 7)

(all slides copied from topic material)

Introduction
➢ Synchronous generator design and operating principles
▪ Construction
▪ Demonstrations
▪ Operation
▪ Choices
➢ Synchronous machines analysis and performance
➢ Generator equivalent circuit
➢ Control systems
➢ Power-angle characteristics
➢ Motors and compensators
Main components of a turbine-synchronous
generator set
Speed Reference Voltage Reference
Speed

Position Feedback Governor

Voltage
Regulator
▪ Electric generator
o Rotor (field winding)
Steam
Pci
Exciter
Vi o Stator (armature winding)
Voltage
Control Valve Sensor ▪ Prime mover (turbine)
Valves Servomotor Efd
Field
Winding
▪ Governor control
Turbine
Generator ▪ Excitation system

PGi+jQGi ▪ Automatic Voltage Regulator

To generator bus
Synchronous generator construction
▪ A three-phase synchronous generator consists of two elements: the
field winding (rotor), and the armature winding (stator).
Axis of phase b

Stator 𝑎

𝑏′
𝑆
𝑐′ Rotor
Axis of phase a
𝜔𝑟
Field
Armature 𝑐 Winding
𝑁
Winding 𝑏
Air
𝑎′
Gap

(Adapted from: Kundur, 1994)

Axis of phase c
Electrical power output Pe
▪ Assuming the resistance of the armature windings, RA, is negligible, then:

3𝑉𝜙 𝐸𝐴 3𝑉∅ 𝐸𝐴
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑃𝑒,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑠 𝐄𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐕𝜙
𝐈𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑃𝑒 𝐵𝑅 𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝐈𝐴
𝑗𝑋 𝛿
+
𝐕𝜙 𝜔𝑚
+ 𝐁𝑆
𝐄𝐴
_
𝑬𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
_

(Adapted from: Chapman, 2005)

Power system frequency and rotor speed

▪ For production of a steady torque the fields of stator and rotor must rotate at the same
speed, that is, at the synchronous speed, given by:

120 f
n=
pf

n is the speed in rev/min, f is the frequency in Hz and pf is the number of field poles.
Powering a power grid
• A range of electric machine
architectures exist.
• What are some of the key differences
between these, considering aspects
of their design and operation?
• What types of machine do you think
are most suited to power grid,
industrial and power train
applications?
Simplified equivalent circuit
▪ Considering the armature reaction voltage Estat and assuming the
resistance of the armature windings, RA, is negligible.

𝐕𝜙 = 𝐄𝐴 + 𝐄𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 𝐄𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = −𝑗𝑋𝐈𝐴

𝐄𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐕𝜙
𝐕𝜙 = 𝐄𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋𝐈𝐴 𝐈𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑃𝑒
𝐈𝐴 𝐵𝑅 𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑗𝑋
𝛿
+
𝐕𝜙 𝜔𝑚
+
𝐄𝐴 𝐁𝑆
_
𝑬𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
_

(Adapted from: Chapman, 2005)

Three-phase equivalent circuit
𝐈𝐴1
▪ Considering the synchronous 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴
+
reactance Xs and stator
𝐄𝐴1 +
resistance RA. _ 𝐕𝜙1

_
𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑗

+ 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴 𝐈𝐴2
+
𝑉𝐹 𝑅𝐹 𝐄𝐴2 + 𝐕𝜙2
_
(dc)
𝐿𝐹 _
_ 𝐈𝐴3
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴
+
𝐄𝐴3 +
(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005) _ 𝐕𝜙3

_
Star and Delta connections
▪ Considering the synchronous reactance XS and stator resistance RA.

𝐈𝐴 𝐈𝐿
+ 𝐈𝐿
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐴 + +
+
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴 _
+ 𝐄𝐴1
𝐕𝜙
𝐕𝜙 𝐈𝐀
𝐄𝐴3 𝐄𝐴1 𝑗𝑋𝑆
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝐕𝑇 = 𝐕𝐿

+_ 𝐕𝑇 = 𝐕𝐿 +
𝐄𝐴2 _ 𝐄𝐴3 𝐄𝐴2 𝑅𝐴

_ _ _
𝑗𝑋𝑆
𝑅𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑆

𝑅𝐴

(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005)

Example 1
A 3 phase, 5kVA, 208V, four pole, 60Hz, star connected synchronous
machine has negligible stator winding resistance and a synchronous
reactance of 8/phase at rated terminal voltage. The machine is first
operated as a generator in parallel with a 3 phase, 208V, 60Hz power
supply.

Determine the excitation voltage and rotor power angle when the
machine is delivering rated kVA at 0.8pf lagging. Draw the associated
phasor diagram.
 jXs
Ia
Ef
+
Ef = |Ef|
Vt = |Vt|00 25.50
-
-36.90 Vt

Ia

208
• The terminal voltage for each phase is: Vt = = 120.1V
3

5000
• The stator current at rated kVA is therefore: Ia =
3.120
= 13.89 A

• As the power factor is quoted therefore: = cos−1 0.8 = −36.870 for a

lagging power factor.
• From a KVL circuit analysis the excitation voltage can be calculated as:
E f = Vt 0 + jI a . X s = 1200 + (13.89 − 36.87  890)
= 206.825.460V
• Therefore the excitation voltage is 206.8V for each phase and the
rotor power angle,  = +25.460
Phasor diagram at unity power factor
▪ Considering the synchronous reactance Xs and stator resistance RA.

𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑗
𝐄𝐴
+ 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝑅𝐴 𝐈𝐴
+
𝑉𝐹 𝑅𝐹 + 𝐕𝜙 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝐈𝐴
𝐄𝐴2 _
(dc)
𝐿𝐹 _ 𝛿
_ 𝐈𝐀 𝐕𝜙 𝐈𝐴 𝑅𝐴

(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005)

Phasor diagram at leading and lagging
power factor

𝐄𝐴 𝐄𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑠 𝐈𝐴
𝐈𝐴
𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝐈𝐴

𝐕𝜙 𝐈𝐴 𝑅𝐴
𝛿 𝛿
𝐕𝜑
𝐈𝐴 𝐈𝐴 𝑅𝐴

(Redrawn from: Chapman, 2005)

Lagging power factor Leading power factor
Power-angle characteristic
3𝑉𝜙 𝐸𝐴
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑋𝑆
P

3𝑉𝜙 𝐸𝐴
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑋𝑆

𝜋 𝜋 𝛿
2
Example 2
Consider again the same example machine: A 3 phase, 5kVA, 208V,
four pole, 60Hz, star connected synchronous machine has negligible
stator winding resistance and a synchronous reactance of 8/phase at
rated terminal voltage. The machine is first operated as a generator in
parallel with a 3 phase, 208V, 60Hz power supply.

(a) If the field excitation is now increased by 20% (without changing

the prime mover power), find the stator current, power factor and
reactive kVA supplied by this machine.
(b) With the field current as with Example L17-1 above, the prime
mover power is slowly increased. What is the steady state (or
static) stability limit? What are the corresponding values of stator
current, power factor and reactive power at this maximum power
transfer condition?
(a)

• The new excitation is Ef’ = 1.2 x 206.8 = 248.2V. As the power

transfer remains the same then:
Vt .E f Vt .E 'f Ef sin 25.46
. sin  = . sin  ' or E f . sin  = E 'f . sin  '  sin  ' = '
. sin  =   ' = 21.000
Xs Xs E f 1.2

• The stator current is therefore: E f − Vt 248.221 − 1200

Ia = = = 17.85 − 51.470 A
jX s 890

• The accompanying power factor is: pf = cos51.470 = 0.6229 lagging.

• The reactive kVA from this situation is:

Q = 3.|Vt|.|Ia|.sin51.50
= 3 x 120 x 17.85 x sin51.47
= 5027VA
= 5.027 kVA
(b)

• Maximum power occurs when  = 900. Therefore:

3.E f Vt 3.206.8 120
Pmax = = = 9.306kW
Xs 8
E f − Vt 206.890 − 1200
Ia = = = 29.8930.130 A
jX s 890

• The corresponding power factor is: pf = cos30.130 = 0.8649 leading

The reactive kVA from this situation is:

Q = 3.|Vt|.|Ia|.sin30.130
= 3 x 120 x 29.89 x sin30.13
= 5401VA
= 5.401 kVA
Equivalent Circuit - control
• The value of induced ‘back emf’ Ef is controlled by the DC
excitation current to the rotor
• This current determines the strength of the rotor’s magnetic
field and hence the emf it will induce when passing stator coils
• From the P/ relationship the maximum power from the motor
will occur when  = .
• The motor is shown as consuming reactive power, since the
current is lagging the voltage.
Vt
• Such a motor is under-excited. 
  X S Ia
Ef
Ia

• The excitation can be increased to increasingly correct the

power factor…
 Compensation of Power Factor
• Increasing the excitation current further will lead to unity power factor operation
• At this point the current and voltage phasors are in phase and
|Ef|2 = |Vt|2 + |XS Ia|2
• Still further increasing the excitation will over-excite the rotor, causing Ia to lead Vt
• At this point the motor produces reactive power (“generates VArs")
• In the extreme case,  = +900 and  = 00, at which point the motor acts like a
capacitor and cannot drive a mechanical load (P = 0).
• Such a device is useful in power systems for flexible power factor control, and is
termed a synchronous condenser (or synchronous compensator)

Ia

Ia Vt XsIa
Vt Vt 
  Ef
  X S Ia X S Ia
Ef
Ia Ef
Previous condition θ = 0 i.e. unity power factor, Motor behaving like
with Ef2 = Vt2 + (XsIa)2 a capacitor
Example 3

A synchronous motor has a maximum power/phase of 250kW when

the magnitude of the back emf equals the magnitude of the supply
voltage, i.e. 5kV (phase voltage). This machine is supplied at 50Hz,
and is a four pole machine.

(a) Calculate the supply current and power factor if the motor is driving
a total load of 600kW.
(b) Calculate the value of the new excitation needed to correct the
power factor to unity.
(a)
• The value of synchronous reactance is
| V || E| 5,000  5,000
Pmax =  XS = =100
XS 250,000

• Power/phase = Total load / 3 = 200kW

P  XS 200,000  100
sin  = = = 0.8   = 531
. 0

| V || E| 5,000 2

• From the equivalent circuit V = jXS I + E

𝑉 − 𝐸 5,000∠00 − 5,000∠ − 53. 10 5,000 − (3002 − 𝑗3998)
𝐼= = =
𝑗𝑋𝑆 100∠900 100∠900
4469.5∠63. 40
= 0
= 44.7∠ − 26. 60 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
100∠90

• The power factor is cos(26.6o) = 0.89 lagging

(b)
• At unity pf, |E|2 = |V|2 + |XS I|2 and Pphase = |V||I|
Therefore I=200,000/5,000 = 40A
| E|2 = |5,000|2 +|100  40|2  | E| = 41,000,000 = 6403 Volts

P  XS 200,000  100
sin  = = = 0.625   = 38.70
| V || E| 5,000  6403
 Power system analysis

The per-unit system - Fundamentals

EEE Department
 Power system analysis
2.5MW ZP = 15 + j40 Ω
0.5MVAr ZS = 0.7 + j2.5 Ω

ZP = 0.0003 + j0.028 Ω 7.5MVA

ZS = 0.354 + j27 Ω 11kV
33kV
300MVA 4.6 + j12 Ω R = 1.2Ω, XL = j2.5 Ω
400kV
X = 80Ω 110MVA Y = 2.2 × 10-3 S
240MVA 60MVA 35MVA
400kV 132kV
ZP = 5 + j15 Ω
ZS = 0.5 + j1 Ω
• Overloaded lines and transformers 0.0022 + j0.002 Ω
• Overvoltages 0.8MVA 4.2MVA
• Undervoltages 0.75MW 21MVA
11kV

EEE Department
 The per unit system

• Replace SI units with “normalised” parameters and quantities

𝑉𝑉
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ==
𝑝𝑝𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
• Simplifies parameters
• Electrical properties of plant tend to be similar, regardless of
size
• Easier to spot suspect parameters 0.94 ≤ Vpu ≤ 1.06
• Normal voltages are close to 1
• Angles are still measured in radians (or degrees)
EEE Department
 Base values
• There are 4 base values:
𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼 𝑆𝑆 𝑍𝑍
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 Single-
• These are related: 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 =
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
phase
systems
• We can choose any two
– Normally Vbase and Sbase
• Ppu and Qpu calculated from Sbase Choose a convenient value
e.g.:
Depends on • 100MVA for transmission
𝑃𝑃network location 𝑄𝑄
𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = • 10MVA or 1MVA for distribution
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
EEE Department
 Electrical equations in pu

• All of the normal equations relating voltage, current, impedance

and power apply to per unit and base values
𝑽𝑽𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝑰𝑰𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝒁𝒁𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
∗
𝑺𝑺𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝑽𝑽𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝑰𝑰𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
2
𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜑𝜑

• All equations take single-phase form – even in 3 phase systems

– No need for 3

EEE Department
 Electrical equations in pu

• Base unit calculations depend on number of phases

Single phase
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = =
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
Three phase
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = =
3𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 3𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

EEE Department
EEE Department
 Power system analysis

The per-unit system - Component modelling

EEE Department
 Transformers in pu: S and V
2
𝑉𝑉2𝑛𝑛
𝑍𝑍2 = 2 𝑍𝑍1
𝑉𝑉1𝑛𝑛
𝑆𝑆1𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑆𝑆2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

V1n:V2n
Z1 Z2
𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2 N1:N2
𝑉𝑉1𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉2𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑉𝑉1𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉2𝑛𝑛

𝑁𝑁1 𝑉𝑉1𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉1

= ≈ V1 V2
𝑁𝑁2 𝑉𝑉2𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉2

𝑉𝑉1𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2𝑛𝑛 𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁2

= × ≈ × =1
𝑉𝑉2𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉1𝑛𝑛 𝑁𝑁2 𝑁𝑁1
𝑉𝑉1𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉1𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉2𝑛𝑛
𝑉𝑉1𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ≈ 𝑉𝑉2𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
EEE Department
 Transformers in pu: impedance
2
𝑉𝑉2𝑛𝑛
𝑍𝑍2 = 2 𝑍𝑍1
𝑍𝑍1 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑉𝑉1𝑛𝑛
𝑍𝑍1𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = 2 𝑍𝑍1
𝑍𝑍1𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑉𝑉1𝑛𝑛
V1n:V2n
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 Z1 Z2
𝑍𝑍2𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 2 𝑍𝑍2 N1:N2
𝑉𝑉2𝑛𝑛
2
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑉𝑉2𝑛𝑛
𝑍𝑍2𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 2 × 2 𝑍𝑍1
𝑉𝑉2𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉1𝑛𝑛 V1 V2

𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
= 2 𝑍𝑍1
𝑉𝑉1𝑛𝑛

𝑉𝑉1𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉1𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉2𝑛𝑛

𝑍𝑍1𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑍𝑍2𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
EEE Department
 Per-unit transformer model

V1n:V2n
Z1 Z1pu = Z2pu = Zpu
N1:N2

V1pu
1
V2pu

𝑉𝑉1𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉1𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉2𝑛𝑛

EEE Department
 Per-unit short transmission line model
Zpu

Vsend,pu Vrec,pu

𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛

Per-unit generator model

Zpu

𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 Vpu

EEE Department 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛

EEE Department
 Power system analysis

The per-unit system - Application

EEE Department
 Using the per-unit system
• Convert V, I, Z, P, Q to per-unit values
• Sometimes, component values quoted in pu
– or in %
𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 100 × 𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
• Manufacturers often quote pu or % impedance values
using rated voltage and power as base values
– Must convert to our chosen base
• Solve the problem
• Convert to SI values if needed

EEE Department
 Converting between bases
2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
2 2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
2
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 × 2
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 × 2
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
EEE Department
 Power system analysis

EEE Department
 The per-unit system
• Simplifies modelling and analysis of power systems
• Normalises quantities against base values
– Voltage, current, impedance, power
– Normally choose Vbase as nominal voltage at each point
– Normally choose convenient Sbase
• Simple models of power system components
• Problems reduce to simple circuit analysis

EEE Department
EEE Department
EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Per unit system

Using per unit system - Worked Examples

Calculation of PU quantities
 This is applied to voltage, current, power (real/reactive/apparent)
and impedance:
𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵,𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵,𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑍𝑍𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
 𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵,𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵,𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

 Note that the per unit values of real and reactive powers are
calculated from an apparent power base:
𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵,𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑄𝑄𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵,𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
Electrical equations in PU
 The relationships between voltage, current, power and impedance
that we are familiar with in SI still apply to the pu and base quantities.

 Note that in pu system all equations are single phase, regardless whether single-
phase or three-phase network is being solved.

 𝐕𝐕𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 = 𝐙𝐙𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 ⋅ 𝐈𝐈𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩

 𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
2
 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ cos(𝜃𝜃)
 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ sin(𝜃𝜃)
∗
 𝐒𝐒𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 = 𝐕𝐕𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 ⋅ 𝐈𝐈𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
Electrical equations in PU

 However, relationships between base quantities depend on the type of system.

 In a single phase system the base quantities are all related as:
 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = =
𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

 In a three phase system, the base line quantities are all related as:
 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 3 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = =
3×𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
Using PU system

 In a 3-phase system, given the relationships between the electrical

parameters
 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 3 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 =
𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
only two base quantities can be arbitrarily set
 The other parameters are derived from the known electrical relationships
 Typically we define 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 and 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 , 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 being selected as the nominal
voltage and we derive 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 and 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
 Plant parameters are normally quoted by manufacturers with
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑉𝑉𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 and 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑆𝑆𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Changing PU base
 That is,
2
𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 × 2 ×
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
 or
2
𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 × × 2
𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

 It is more common to change the SBASE (usually from a plant’s rating to a

common base) and to keep the VBASE unchanged.
 In such a caseld x (SBASE-NEW / SBASE-OLD)
𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵−𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵−𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
Using PU system
Quoted for 60MVA,
 For example … base of 60MVA 132/11 kV/kV,
X=0.1pu,
earthed
X=80 star/delta 15MVA,
M1 11kV,
Ω/phase
XS=0.2pu,
20MVA, 30MVA, Quoted for 15MVA,
11kV, 11/132 kV/kV, base of 30MVA M2 11kV,
XS=0.15pu X=0.1pu,
XS=0.2pu,
delta/earthed
star
Quoted for
base of 20MVA
Quoted for
base of 15MVA
Example 1: Converting system parameters to PU using common SBASE

SBASE = 60 MVA 15 MVA,

M1 11 kV,
X=80 Ω/phase XS=0.2 pu,

20 MVA, 30MVA, 60 MVA, 15 MVA,

11/132 kV/kV, 132/11 kV/kV, M2 11 kV,
11 kV,
XS=0.15 pu X=0.1 pu, X=0.1 pu, XS=0.2 pu,
delta/earthed star earthed star/delta

j 0.8
V=0.909 pu j 0.1
j 0.45 j 0.2 ?
j 0.8
j 0.275

2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 1322 80
𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = = = 290.4 Ω 𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = 0.27548 pu
𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 60 290.4
Solving circuits in pu
 Select a suitable common base power 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
 Assume base voltage equal to the nominal voltage in relevant sections of the
system.
 Represent the impedances of all system components (generators,
transformers and lines) and any given voltages or powers in pu using
2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 , 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 and 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = .
𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

(for impedances this usually involves converting existing pu impedances to common 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 )

 Draw single line circuit diagram in pu. The circuit is solved as

SINGLE PHASE (no 𝟑𝟑).
2
e.g. 𝐈𝐈𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 = 𝐕𝐕𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 /𝐙𝐙𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 , 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

 Convert the relevant pu results back to SI units.

Example 2: Calculation using per unit

 A part of a three phase network is shown. If the load busbar C is to

be maintained at 31.5kV, what voltage would be required at the
primary terminals of the 275/132kV transformers (i.e. at the grid
connection A)
50MVA,
A 275/132 kV/kV, B
X=10% C
Z=(8+j70)Ω/ph
Grid
infeed
34MVA, 50MW,
132/33 kV/kV, 0.8 lag
X=8%
50MVA,
275/132 kV/kV,
X=10%
Example calculation using per unit (contd)

 Assume SBASE = 50MVA and VBASE to be nominal

voltage (275kV, 132kV or 33kV)
 For 275/132 kV/kV transformers SBASE remains
unchanged, therefore, impedances will also remain
unchanged.
 For 132/33 kV/kV transformer SBASE changes from
34MVA to 50MVA, therefore:
S BASE − new 50
=Z pu ,50 Z pu ,34 = 0.08 = 0.1176 pu
S BASE −old 34
VBASE 275kV 132kV 33kV
A j0.1 B
j0.1176 C

j0.1
Example calculation using per unit (contd)

 For 132kV power line base impedance is:

2
VBASE 1322
Z BASE ,L = = = 348.08 Ω
S BASE 50

 Impedance of the line in pu.

Z L,SI 8 + j 70
Z L,pu = = = (0.023 + j 0.201)pu
Z L , BASE 348.08
VBASE 275kV 132kV 33kV
A j0.1 B
0.023+j0.201 j0.1176 C

j0.1
Example calculation using per unit (contd)

 Simplifying the circuit:

A j0.1 B
0.023+j0.201 j0.1176 C

j0.1

A B
j0.05 0.023+j0.201 j0.1176 C

0.023+j0.3686 C
A
Example calculation using per unit (contd)

 Voltage at node C in pu:

VC , SI 31.5
VC , pu = = = 0.9545 pu
VBASE 33.0
 Current drawn by the load C:
PC , pu 1
I C , pu = = = 1.31pu
VC , pu ⋅ pf C 0.9545 × 0.8
I C,pu = I C , pu ∠ − arccos( pf C ) = 1.31∠ − 36.87°

 Voltage at node A:
VA,pu = VC,pu + I C,pu Z pu = 0.9545 + 1.31∠ − 36.86° × (0.023 + j 0.3686 ) = 1.32∠16.2°

0.023+j0.3686 C VA = VA, pu ⋅ VA, BASE = 1.32 × 275 ⋅103

A VC,pu=0.9545
1pu,
= 363kV
VA,pu=1.32/16.2°
IC,pu=1.31/-36.87° 0.8 lag
Reactive power injection

 The above example can be repeated with power factor correction installed at
busbar C such that the load power factor is increased to 0.9 lag or even 1.

 Reactive power compensation is required because non-unity power factors

are undesirable
 voltage drop is largely dependent on Q transmitted and power factor correction reduces
transmitted Q and consequently reduces voltage drop
 losses are defined by I2R and power factor correction reduces transmitted current
magnitude, and consequently reduces the losses
Reactive power compensation (pf = 0.9 lag)
 The above example can be repeated with power
factor correction installed at busbar C such that the load
power factor is increased to 0.9 lag (3 star connected
capacitors of 42.6µF are required).
 Current drawn by the load at C:
PC , pu 1
I C , pu = = = 1.16pu
VC , pu ⋅ pf C 0.9545 × 0.9
I C,pu = I C , pu ∠ − arccos( pf C ) = 1.16∠ − 25.84°

 Voltage at node A:
VA,pu = VC,pu + I C,pu ⋅ Z pu = 0.9545 + 1.16∠ − 25.84° × (0.023 + j 0.3686 ) = 1.22∠17.8°

0.023+j0.3686 C
A V=0.9545 VA = VA, pu ⋅ VA, BASE = 1.22 × 275 ⋅103
1pu, = 336.7kV
VA,pu=1.22/17.8° IC,pu=1.16/-25.84° 0.9 lag
Reactive power compensation (pf = 1)

 What would be the impact of increasing power

factor to 1 at busbar C (3 star connected
capacitors of 120.3µF are required).
 Current drawn by the load at C:
PC , pu 1
I C , pu = = = 1.048pu
VC , pu ⋅ pf C 0.9545 ×1.0
I C,pu = I C , pu ∠ − arccos( pf C ) = 1.048∠0°

 Voltage at node A:
VA,pu = VC,pu + I C,pu ⋅ Z pu = 0.9545 + 1.048 × (0.023 + j 0.3686 ) = 1.052∠21.53°

0.023+j0.3686 C
A V=0.9545 VA = VA, pu ⋅ VA, BASE = 1.052 × 275 ⋅103
1pu, = 289.32kV
VA,pu=1.052/21.53° IC,pu=1.048/0° pf=1
Comparison of Voltage Regulation
 Voltage regulation at pfc=0.8
Vno load − V full load VA, pu − VC , pu 1.32 − 0.9545
VR0.8 = 100% = 100% = 100% = 38.3%
V full load VC , pu 0.9545

 Voltage regulation at pfc=0.9

Vno load − V full load VA, pu − VC , pu 1.22 − 0.9545
VR0.9 = 100% = 100% = 100% = 28.3%
V full load VC , pu 0.9545

 Voltage regulation at pfc=1.0

Vno load − V full load VA, pu − VC , pu 1.052 − 0.9545
VR1.0 = 100% = 100% = 100% = 10.22%
V full load VC , pu 0.9545

θC VC
Comparison of Losses

 Losses at pfc=0.8
∆P0.8, pu = I C2 , pu ⋅ R pu = 1.312 × 0.023 = 0.039pu
∆P0.8 = ∆P0.8, pu ⋅ S BASE = 0.039 × 50 ⋅106 = 1.97MW

 Losses at pfc=0.9
∆P0.9, pu = I C2 , pu ⋅ R pu = 1.16 2 × 0.023 = 0.031pu
∆P0.9 = ∆P0.9, pu ⋅ S BASE = 0.031× 50 ⋅106 = 1.56MW

 Losses at pfc=1.0
∆P1.0, pu = I C2 , pu ⋅ R pu = 1.0482 × 0.023 = 0.025pu
∆P0.9 = ∆P0.9, pu ⋅ S BASE = 0.025 × 50 ⋅106 = 1.26MW

θC VC
Reactive power injection – phasor diagram

θR VR
Reactive power injection – phasor diagram

θR θ’R VR

Icap
Reactive power injection – phasor diagram

θR VR

Icap
Example 3: Compensating capacitor calculation
Calculate the capacitance required to improve the power factor of
the load in previous example from 0.8lag to 0.9 lag.
Compensating reactive power
Compensating reactive power
Compensating reactive power
Compensating reactive power
 Power system analysis

Power system fault analysis fundamentals

EEE Department
 Power system faults

• Any failure which interferes with the normal flow of current

• Sometimes spectacular
• Can have serious consequences
– Danger to life
– Damage to property
– Pollution
– Damage to equipment
– Interruption to supply
– Loss of revenue
EEE Department
 Main causes of faults

Overhead lines Underground cables

• Weather • Insulation failure

Christian: flickr.com/photos/crispin85/7653104072/: CC BY ND 2.0

– Lightning: 90% of faults – Overheating
– High winds – Natural aging
– Heavy rain and pollution – Manufacturing defects
– Ice • Installation problems
• Trees and foreign objects • Excavation and mechanical
• Birds and animals
Arvell Dorsey Jr.: https://www.flickr.com/photos/chicagofd1996/24256842315/: CC BY 2.0 damage

EEE Department Transformers

 Types of fault

• Open circuit: current not usually

much bigger than normal
• Short circuit: current usually much
bigger than normal
• Line – earth
• Line – line Unbalanced
• Line – line – earth
• 3-phase
Balanced
• 3-phase – earth

EEE Department
 Types of fault

Lifetime Resistance
• Transient • Bolted
– Removed by de-energisation – Zero or near zero impedance
– No repair needed, just wait a – Conductors held together
few seconds • Resistive
– Lightning, trees, birds, … – Conductors connected via an
• Permanent object with resistance
– Not removed by de-energising – Arcs also have resistance
– Must be repaired
– Insulation damage, excavation
EEE Department
 Types of fault

• Open circuit: current not usually

much bigger than normal
• Short circuit: current usually much
bigger than normal
• Line – earth
• Line – line Unbalanced
• Line – line – earth
• 3-phase
Balanced
• 3-phase – earth

EEE Department
 Fault analysis
• Need to understand the effects of faults in various
locations in the network
– How much current will flow?
– Can existing switchgear safely interrupt it?
– Can we distinguish it from load current? How?
– How quickly can we detect and interrupt it?
• Basic metric is fault current (A or kA)
• Convenient alternative is fault level (MVA)
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 3𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 VA 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 pu
EEE Department
EEE Department
 Power system analysis

Three phase fault analysis

EEE Department
 Fault analysis
• Objective is understand the effects of faults at a
location in the network
• Basic metric is fault current (A or kA)
• Convenient alternative is fault level (MVA)

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 3𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 VA 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 pu

EEE Department
 3-phase fault analysis
• Simplest fault condition to analyse
– Balanced, so per-unit analysis works
– Unbalanced faults need other techniques
• Usually most severe
• Consider only steady-state fault
current
– There are transient effects which die
away quickly, usually before switchgear
responds

EEE Department
 Analysis assumptions
• Network impedance is purely reactive
– Especially in transmission systems
• No load on the network
– Load current and impedance is ignored
• Pre-fault voltage is 1.0pu
• All fault currents are balanced
• No transient effects

EEE Department
 Analysis procedure
P3, Q3
RL1 + jXL1
RT2 + jXT2 EG2
P4, Q4 P1, Q1
jXG2
EG1
jXG1 RTL + jXTL
RT3 + jXT3 P2, Q2
jXT1
RL2 + jXL2

1. Convert to per-unit, including generator & motor reactances and sketch single-line diagram
2. Remove resistances, capacitances and passive loads (but leave large motors)
3. Mark fault location
4. Remove components where no fault current can flow 𝐸𝐸 1.0
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = =
5. Set generator EMFs to 1.0pu 𝑋𝑋𝑓𝑓,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑋𝑋𝑓𝑓,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
6. Replace all generators with connections to a single source
7. Simplify the network to a single reactance Xf 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 1.0 × 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
8. Calculate the pu fault current or fault level
EEE Department
9. Convert to A or VA
 Fault analysis
• Power system faults are hazardous
– To life
– To property
– To the secure operation of the network
• Fault analysis quantifies the expected current in a
fault at a network location
– Usually calculate at many or all substations
– Analysis software normally used in large networks

EEE Department
EEE Department
EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Fault analysis and fault level reduction

Example calculations
Process for three phase fault analysis
2
V BASE
 Select base quantities S BASE , V BASE , Z BASE =
S BASE
 Convert to per unit (or adjust existing per unit values)
 Sketch single line diagram
 Redraw equivalent circuit

Ignore system resistances, capacitances and passive loads

Fault in place

Synchronous generators and motors as equivalent emf of 1pu
 Simplify equivalent to single E & Xf,pu
 Determine pu fault level: If,pu = E/Xf,pu ; FLpu= E·If,pu
 Convert to VA or A
Example fault level calculation
 Consider an existing 11kV network.

 The grid infeed at substation A has fault level of 250MVA. An overhead line
connects substations A and B, which has impedance 0.15+j1.5Ω/ph. An overhead
line connects substations B and C, which has impedance 0.3+j4Ω/ph. The loads at
substations B and C are 1.5MW, 0.9 lag and 1.2MW, 0.95 lag respectively.

 An application from an embedded generator developer has been received who

wishes to install two gas turbine generators, both 50MVA, X’=0.08pu, at a new
substation, say D.

 Determine the new fault level at substation A if substation D is connected by a line

of 0.15+j2Ω/ph to C, and by a line of 0.19+j2.5Ω/ph to A.
Example fault level calculation (contd)
A B
C
(0.15+j1.5)/ph (0.3+j4)/ph

FL=250MVA
1.5MW,
0.9 lag 1.2MW,
0.95 lag

11kV network
Example fault level calculation (contd)
A B
C
(0.15+j1.5)/ph (0.3+j4)/ph

FL=250MVA
1.5MW,
0.9 lag 1.2MW,
0.95 lag

D (0.15+j2)/ph
(0.19+j2.5)/ph

50MVA,
X'=0.08pu

50MVA,
11kV network X'=0.08pu
Example fault level calculation (contd)

A B
C
1pu

1pu

1pu
Process for three phase fault analysis

Select base quantities: SBASE=100MVA; VBASE=11kV

2
VBASE 112 S BASE 100 106
Z BASE    1.21 I BASE    5.25kA
S BASE 100 3VBASE 3 11 10 3

n Converting system parameters into pu

• Grid infeed
2
VBASE 112
X grid    0.484 
FL 250
X grid 0.484
X grid , pu    0.4
Z BASE 1.21
Process for three phase fault analysis
• Line AB
X AB 1. 5
X AB , pu    1.24
Z BASE 1.21

• Line BC
X BC 4
X BC , pu    3.31
Z BASE 1.21

• Line DA
X DA 2. 5
X DA, pu    2.07
Z BASE 1.21
Process for three phase fault analysis
• Line DC
X DC 2
X DC , pu    1.65
Z BASE 1.21

• Distributed generator
S BASE 100
 100, pu  X DG
X DG   0.08  0.16
Sn 50
Process for three phase fault analysis

n Circuit simplification
A B
j1.24 j3.31
C

j0.4

j1.65

j2.07
D

j0.16

j0.16
Example fault level calculation (contd)

X ABCDeq, pu  1.24  3.31  1.65  6.20

A
j6.20

j0.4

j2.07
D

j0.16

j0.16
Example fault level calculation (contd)
6.20  2.07
X ADeq , pu   1.55 A
6.20  2.07 j1.55

j0.4

j0.08
Example fault level calculation (contd)

X ADGeq, pu  1.55  0.08  1.63

A
j1.63
j0.4

Series or parallel connection?

Example fault level calculation (contd)

X ADGeq , pu  1.55  0.08  1.63

A
j1.63
j0.4
A
j1.63

j0.4

Parallel connection!
Example fault level calculation (contd)
0.4  1.63
X f , pu   0.32
0.4  1.63

A
j0.32
Example fault level calculation (contd)

n New fault level

A
Ef 1 1 pu j0.32
I f , pu    3.12
X f , pu 0.32

FL pu  E  I f , pu  3.12

FL  FL pu  S BASE  3.12  100 106  312 MVA

n Previously fault level was 250MVA

 Power system analysis

Fault level reduction

EEE Department
Fault level issue
A B
C
(0.15+j1.5)Ω/ph (0.3+j4)Ω/ph

FL=250MVA
1.5MW,
0.9 lag 1.2MW,
0.95 lag

D (0.15+j2)Ω/ph
(0.19+j2.5)Ω/ph
FLA=311MVA

50MVA,
X'=0.08pu

50MVA,
X'=0.08pu
Fault Level Reduction
• In some cases there is a requirement to reduce
fault level at a specific point in the network.

E jXf
If 𝐸𝐸
~ 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 =
𝑋𝑋𝑓𝑓

• Fault current can only be reduced by increasing

fault impedance Xf
Fault Level Reduction

• This can be achieved through:

– splitting a suitable busbar, with the effect of separating parallel impedances
– introducing a series current limiting reactor (CLR), with the effect of
increasing the impedance to fault
– Is-limiter
– Superconducting fault current limiter (SFCL)
– Solid-state fault current limiter (SSFCL)
– Active fault level management (Smart Grid)
Fault Level Reduction
• Splitting a suitable busbar, with the effect of
separating parallel impedances

Z𝟏𝟏 Z𝟏𝟏

~ Z𝟐𝟐 ~ Z𝟐𝟐

Z𝟐𝟐 > Z𝟏𝟏 ∥ Z𝟐𝟐 ⇒ 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹2 < 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹1

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹1 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹2
Fault Level Reduction
• Introducing a series current limiting reactor (CLR),
with the effect of increasing the impedance to fault
Z𝟏𝟏
Z𝟏𝟏

Z𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂
~ Z𝟐𝟐 ~ Z𝟐𝟐

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹2
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹1 Z𝟐𝟐 ∥ Z𝟏𝟏 + Z𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 > Z𝟏𝟏 ∥ Z𝟐𝟐 ⇒ 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹2 < 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹1
I-s limiter
• During a fault, a tripping device rapidly disconnects
the main conductor, transferring the fault current to the parallel fuse
with a high breaking capacity, which disconnects the fault current
during the first rise (typically in less than 1 ms).
Superconducting fault current limiter (SFCL)
• Superconductors change their resistance automatically
from zero to a high value when a certain ‘critical current’
is surpassed.
Primary winding
Supply jXf If
~ CB

Superconducting Cryostat
Secondary circuit
Solid state fault current limiter (SSFCL)
• Normally, the capacitor C1 and the reactor L1 give a zero impedance.
When a fault occurs, SW1 bypasses the capacitor C1 at a high speed
(3ms), and the reactor L1 is immediately inserted into the network.
Z1 SW1 1
𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿1 ≈
GTO based switch 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶1
L1
C1

𝐼𝐼
ZnO

Z2

bypass switch
 Current limiters – performance

Report of CIGRE WG A3.10

Available at: https://www.ewh.ieee.org/soc/pes/switchgear/presentations/tp_files/2003-2_Lunch_2_A3-10.pdf
Active fault level management
• A dedicated control scheme regulates the power system’s
fault levels by monitoring the network topography and
connected generation in real-time.
• Switching actions are implemented to increase the source
impedance when the fault levels approach maximum limits.
• Most projects are in research stage.
• This type of fault level management may not be fail safe.
EEE Department
 EE311 - Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Star-delta transformations

Sometimes, while simplifying a DC, single-phase AC, or per-unit circuit by combining

series and parallel impedances, one of the two configurations of impedances below will
appear:
A A

ZAO ZAB ZAC

ZBO O ZCO
B C
ZBC
B C

Notice that, despite their appearances and names, these are not three-phase systems.
Under some circumstances, this will mean that no further series or parallel combinations
can be made. For example:

V
Zp

Zp Zq
Z1
Z2 Z3 ZA ZB
Y Zq ZC
W
Zr
Zr

ZVW = ? ZXY = ?

1 IME/AD/GMB 09/11/2020
However, the analysis can be “unblocked” by replacing the three impedances in the star
configuration with three impedances with different values in the delta configuration or
vice versa:
X

Zp

ZD

Zp Zq
ZE ZF
Z4
Z6 Z5 Zq
Zr
W
Y
Zr

ZVW = ? ZXY = ?

The values of the new impedances are calculated using the equations below:
𝑍𝐴𝑂 𝑍𝐵𝑂 + 𝑍𝐵𝑂 𝑍𝐶𝑂 + 𝑍𝐴𝑂 𝑍𝐶𝑂
𝑍𝐴𝐵 =
𝑍𝐶𝑂

𝑍𝐴𝑂 𝑍𝐵𝑂 + 𝑍𝐵𝑂 𝑍𝐶𝑂 + 𝑍𝐴𝑂 𝑍𝐶𝑂

𝑍𝐴𝐶 =
𝑍𝐵𝑂

A 𝑍𝐴𝑂 𝑍𝐵𝑂 + 𝑍𝐵𝑂 𝑍𝐶𝑂 + 𝑍𝐴𝑂 𝑍𝐶𝑂 A

𝑍𝐵𝐶 =
𝑍𝐴𝑂
ZAO ZAB ZAC

ZBO O ZCO
B C
𝑍𝐴𝐵 𝑍𝐴𝐶 ZBC
𝑍𝐴𝑂 =
B C 𝑍𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝐴𝐶 + 𝑍𝐵𝐶

𝑍𝐴𝐵 𝑍𝐵𝐶
𝑍𝐵𝑂 =
𝑍𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝐴𝐶 + 𝑍𝐵𝐶

𝑍𝐴𝐶 𝑍𝐵𝐶
𝑍𝐶𝑂 =
𝑍𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝐴𝐶 + 𝑍𝐵𝐶

Rule of thumb
For star-to-delta, multiply all pairs, and divide by the old impedance that touches the
terminal that the impedance you are calculating does not touch
For delta-to-star, multiply the two that touch the same terminal as the impedance you
are calculating and divide by the total of all old impedances

2 IME/AD/GMB 09/11/2020
EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3
Fault analysis

Fault analysis - Star-delta conversion example

 Z 1 Z 2 +Z 2 Z 3 +Z 3 Z 1
Z A=
Z2
Z 1 Z 2 +Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z 1
Z B=
Z3
Z 1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 +Z 3 Z 1 𝑍𝑍3
Z C= 𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶
Z1

Z AZB 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2

Z 1=
Z A+ Z B+ Z C 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵
ZB ZC
Z 2=
Z A +Z B +Z C
ZC Z A
Z 3=
Z A +Z B + Z C
Star-delta conversion example

25 MVA, 33 kV 25 MVA, 33 kV
G1 X’=0.125 pu X’=0.125 pu G2

X=10.89 Ω/phase

X=10.89 Ω/phase X=10.89 Ω/phase

X=10.89 Ω/phase

M1 20 MVA, 33 kV 20 MVA, 33 kV M2
X’=10% X’=10%
S BASE = 100MVA
Star-delta conversion example
S BASE = 100MVA
~ ~
j0.5 j0.5
j1

j1 j1

j1
j0.5 j0.5

M1 M2
 Star-delta conversion example

A
~ ~
j0.5 j0.5
B j1
C
1pu
j1 j1

~
A j1
j0.5 j0.5 D

M1 M2 FAULT
Circuit simplification
A
j0.5

j1
j0.5

1pu
B
j1
~ j0.5

C
j1
j0.5
j1

FAULT
Circuit simplification
A
j0.5

0.5 ⋅ 2
𝑋𝑋 = = 0.4 pu
j2 0.5 + 2

1pu j2
j4

~ j0.5

C
j1
j0.5
j1

FAULT
Circuit simplification
A
j0.4

1pu j0.4
j4

~
C
j1
j0.5
j1

FAULT
Circuit simplification
A
j0.4

𝑋𝑋1 = 0.4 + 0.667 = 1.067

1pu j0.4
j0.667

~ j0.667
C
j0.1667
j0.5

D
𝑋𝑋2 = 0.5 + 0.1667 = 0.667
FAULT
Circuit simplification
A
j0.4

1.0667 ⋅ 0.667
𝑋𝑋 = + 0.667 = 1.077 pu
1.0667 + 0.667
1pu
j1.0667

~ j0.667

j0.667

FAULT
Circuit simplification
A
j0.4

0.4 ⋅ 1077
𝑋𝑋 = = 0.217 pu
1pu 0.4 + 1.077

~ j1.077

FAULT
 A
Fault level

Ef 1 1pu j0.2917
=
I f , pu = = 3.428 pu
X f , pu 0.2917 ~

FLpu =⋅
E I f , pu =
3.428 pu

FL = FLpu ⋅ S BASE = 3.428 ×100 ⋅106 = 342.8 MVA FAULT

EE311
Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Fault level reduction

Worked example
Example FL reduction calculation

 In the previous case of 11kV network consider that

the grid infeed includes two parallel connected
33kV/11kV transformers (Sn=40 MVA, X=0.1pu)
supplied from a busbar with fault level of
FL33 = 364 MVA.

 Suggest possible ways of reducing fault level in

substation A to avoid switchgear upgrade. Assume
the current breaking capacity of the existing CBs is
280 MVA.
Example FL reduction calculation (contd)
n Existing system
A B
C
(0.15+j1.5)/ph (0.3+j4)/ph

FL=250MVA
1.5MW,
0.9 lag 1.2MW,
0.95 lag

D (0.15+j2)/ph
(0.19+j2.5)/ph
FLA=311MVA

50MVA,
X'=0.08pu

50MVA,
X'=0.08pu
Example FL reduction calculation (contd)
n Existing system
11kV
33kV
A B
S 40MVA, C
X=0.1pu (0.15+j1.5)/ph (0.3+j4)/ph

FL33=364MVA
1.5MW,
0.9 lag

40MVA, 1.2MW,
X=0.1pu 0.95 lag
D
(0.19+j2.5)/ph
FLA=311MVA (0.15+j2)/ph
50MVA,
X'=0.08pu ~
50MVA,
X'=0.08pu ~
Example FL reduction calculation (contd)
n Existing system – single phase per unit circuit for symmetrical
FL calculation
S A B
j1.24 j3.31
C

~
j1.65

D
j2.07

j0.16
~
j0.16
~
Example FL reduction calculation (contd)
n Base quantities at 33kV: SBASE = 100 MVA; VBASE = 33 kV
2
VBASE 332
Z BASE ,33    10.9 
S BASE 100

n 33kV grid infeed

2
VBASE 332 X grid 2.99
X grid    2.99  X grid , pu    0.275
FL33 364 Z BASE ,33 10.9
n 33/11 kV/kV transformers

S BASE 100
X 100, pu X  0.1  0.25
STRAFO 40
Example FL reduction calculation (contd)
n Existing system – single phase per unit circuit for symmetrical
FL calculation
S A B
j1.24 j3.31
C
j0.25
j0.275

~
j1.65
j0.25
D
j2.07
How can be reduce
the fault level at j0.16
busbar A? ~
j0.16
~
Lumped and Distributed Model

Lumped Model
𝑙
< 0.01

• No significant delay between signals at
sending and receiving end
• Changes appear to be instantaneous
• For air spaced transmission line
𝑢𝑝 = 𝑐 = 3 × 108 [𝑚][𝑠 −1 ]
• At 50 Hz 𝑙 = 0.01 = 6 × 104 𝑚
• Propagation delay
𝑙 6 × 104
Τ= = = 0.2[𝑚𝑠]
𝑢𝑝 3 × 108
Lumped and Distributed Model

Distributed Model
𝑙
> 0.01

• Significant phase delay between signals at sending and receiving end
• Changes do not appear to be instantaneous
• Need to use a distributed model
Lumped and Distributed Model

• In a distributed model
• The transmission line is divided into a series of sections.
• Each of length Δ𝑙
• Each of the sections contains series resistive and inductive elements, shunt capacitive
and conductive elements
Lumped and Distributed Model

• In the distributed model these sections form an extended network.

• The voltages across the shunt elements change as we move along the network
• The currents in the shunt elements change as we move along the network
Two port model of a transmission line

• Frequently a Two Port Model is used for a

transmission line
• In Electrical Power Engineering the ABCD
two port is frequently used
• It relates the Voltage and current at the
sending end of the line (source) 𝑉𝑆 , 𝐼𝑆 .
• To the voltage and current at the receiving 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑨𝑉𝑅 + 𝑩𝐼𝑅
end of the line (load) 𝑉𝑅 , 𝐼𝑅 . 𝐼𝑆 = 𝑪𝑉𝑅 + 𝑫𝐼𝑅
• So if we know the voltage needed at the
load and the nature of the load
𝑉𝑆 𝑨 𝑩 𝑉𝑅
• We can calculate the voltage and current =
𝐼𝑆 𝑪 𝑫 𝐼𝑅
that need to be fed into the line
Two Port Model of a Short Power Line

• For short power transmission lines <40 km

a simple “Lumped” model is used
• The shunt capacitances and conductances
are ignored
• The total resistance and inductance
associated with the line is calculated
• The circuit is then used to calculate the 𝑉𝑆 𝟏 𝒁 𝑉𝑅
=
ABCD parameters 𝐼𝑆 𝟎 𝟏 𝐼𝑅
• From the Circuit we can see Where:
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐼𝑅 𝐙 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝑙
Two Port Model of a Medium Power Line

• For a medium length line <240 km

• Again a lumped model but the shunt
capacitances are taken into account
• Can be a Pi or T Model
– Pi Illustrated
• Total susceptance associated with
𝒁𝒀
capacitance is calculated and added to 𝟏+ 𝒁
circuit in two equal sections. 𝑉𝑆 2 𝑉𝑅
= 𝐙𝐘 𝒁𝒀 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑆
• Behaviour of voltages and currents is more 1+ 𝒀 𝟏+
4 2
complicated to take into account the
currents flowing in capacitances • 𝐙 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝑙, 𝐘 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶 =
𝑗𝜔𝐶′ 𝑙
Two Port Model of a Long Power Line

• For a power line more than 240 km long,

things look very different.
• We can still use a PI model but the values
of the elements are complex 𝐙′
• The ABCD equations also become much cosh 𝐙′𝐘′ 𝑙 sinh 𝐙′𝐘′ 𝑙
𝑉𝑆 𝐘′ 𝑉𝑅
more complex =
𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑅
𝐘′
sinh 𝐙′𝐘′ 𝑙 cosh 𝐙′𝐘′ 𝑙
𝐙′
𝐙 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝑙,
𝐘 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 = 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶′ 𝑙
Criterion for Change in Behaviour

• When we look at transmission lines we • Looking at an air-spaced transmission line,

need to consider the wavelength of the Speed of propagation
signal and the length of the line. 𝑢𝑝 = 𝑐 = 3 × 108 [𝑚][𝑠 −1 ]
• As a rule of thumb • Wavelength of 50 Hz signal
– If the length of the line is greater than 𝑢𝑝 3 × 108
= = = 6 × 106 𝑚 = 6000 [𝑘𝑚]
1% of the wavelength 𝑓 50
– We may need to consider the line as a
transmission line • How many wavelengths long is a 240 km
𝑙 transmission line?
≳ 0.01
 𝑙 240[𝑘𝑚]
= = 0.04 []
• We can no longer use a lumped circuit  6000[𝑘𝑚]
model
Conceptual Model for Propagation
• To get some understanding of how
a transmission line behaves lets
look at a simple conceptual model
• We have a transmission line with
only inductances and capacitances
(Lossless Line)
• We can connect this to a voltage
source 𝑉𝑆 through switch 𝑆
• All the capacitors in the line are
initially uncharged
Conceptual Model for Propagation
• When the switch is closed
• As the voltage across inductor 𝐿1 =
0 the rate of change of current in
the inductor must also be zero
• No current can flow through the
inductor, looks like a high
impedance
• All current flows into the capacitor,
looks like a low impedance
Conceptual Model for Propagation
• As the first capacitor charges
current starts to flow through the
first inductor as there is a potential
difference across it
• As a simplification we can assume
that once the first capacitor reaches
a voltage 𝑉𝐴
• All of the current provided through
the source is now flowing through
the first inductor.
• The first section of the line is now
charged to voltage 𝑉𝐴
Conceptual Model for Propagation
• Once the second capacitor reaches
a voltage 𝑉𝐴
• All of the current provided through
the source is now flowing through
the first inductor and then through
the second inductor.
• The first two sections of the line are
now charged to voltage 𝑉𝐴
• The third capacitor now starts to
charge
Wire or Transmission Line?

• What is the difference between:

a pair of wires connecting a source to a
load;
and a transmission line? • When we connect some source of
electrical power to a load
• It depends on the length
• Generally We need to use two conductors:
• It depends of the frequency we are working one transmitting current to the load the
at (Wavelength) second returning current to the source
• For current to flow in the load we need to
have a potential difference between the
conductors
Connecting a source to a load

• The conductors are not perfect so they will

have resistance.
• Current flowing in the line will lead to
changes in potential along the line.
• We need to model the resistance of the
line
Connecting a source to a load

• The currents flowing in the line generate

magnetic fields .
Connecting a source to a load

• The currents flowing in the line generate

magnetic fields .
• The line has inductance
• Changes in the current flowing in the line
will lead to changes in potential along the
line.
Connecting a source to a load

• For a electric field and therefore a voltage

to exist between the lines
• There must be a charge distribution on the
lines
• The presence of charge and its
relationship with voltage implies a
capacitance between the conductors
Connecting a source to a load

• For a electric field and therefore a voltage

to exist between the lines
• There must be a charge distribution on the
lines
• The presence of charge and its
relationship with voltage implies a
capacitance between the conductors
Connecting a source to a load

• The medium between the conductors will

not be a perfect insulator
Connecting a source to a load

• The medium between the conductors will

not be a perfect insulator
• Therefore currents will flow between the
conductors
• This process can be modelled through
parallel conductance elements.
Per Unit Length values
• Obviously the length of the conductors will
influence the values of the series
resistance and inductance and the parallel Typical Values of Unit Length Parameters
capacitances and conductances
• Generally will specify Unit Length values
Signal Cable 11kV XLPE Cable 400 kV overhead
Resistance per Unit Length  𝑚−1 or (RG50) line
𝑅′
 𝑘𝑚−1 𝑅′ 50 𝑚 𝑚−1 0.247  𝑘𝑚−1 0.034  𝑘𝑚−1
𝐿′ Inductance per Unit Length 𝐻 𝑚−1 or 𝐿′ 250 𝑛𝐻 𝑚−1 0.3 𝑚𝐻 𝑘𝑚−1 1 𝑚𝐻 𝑘𝑚−1
𝐻 𝑘𝑚−1 𝐶′ 100 𝑝𝐹 𝑚−1 0.27 𝜇𝐹 𝑘𝑚−1 30 𝑛𝐹 𝑘𝑚−1
𝐶′ Capacitance per Unit Length 𝐹 𝑚−1 or 𝐺′ Negligible 0.85 𝑢𝑆 𝑘𝑚−1 Not specified
𝐹 𝑘𝑚−1
𝐺′ Conductance per Unit Length 𝑆 𝑚−1 or
𝑆 𝑘𝑚−1
Inductance Per Unit Length
• To find the Inductance per unit length we
need to calculate the flux linkage per unit
length
𝐿′𝐼 = Λ′ = NΦ′
• In this case the number of turns 𝑁 = 1, so
Φ′
L′ = • We can use Amperes Circuital Law
𝐼
• To calculate the magnetic flux Φ We need ර ഥ = 𝜇𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
ത 𝑑𝑙
𝐵.
to find the behaviour of the 𝐵 field 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
produced by the conductors • to determine the behaviour of 𝐵ത along any
circular coaxial path radius r
ത 𝑑𝐴
Φ = ර 𝐵. ഥ = 𝐵(𝑟) 𝑑𝑙
ത 𝑑𝑙
𝐵.
𝐴
ර ഥ = 𝐵(𝑟) 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝐵ത . 𝑑𝑙
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑟
B field Outside the Outer Conductor
• Consider the coaxial path A which lies
outside the outer conductor
• The enclosed current
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 + 𝐼𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0
• 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 and 𝐼𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 are equal in magnitude but
are travelling in opposite directions

∴ර 𝐵. ഥ =0
ത 𝑑𝑙
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝐴
• Which implies that the magnetic field is 𝐵ത 𝑟 = 0; 𝑟 ≥ 𝑏
zero for all positions outside the outer
conductor
B Field Between Conductors
• Consider the coaxial path B which lies
Inside the outer conductor
Outside the inner conductor
• The enclosed current
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟
• Therefore

ර 𝐵. ഥ = 𝜇𝐺 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟
ത 𝑑𝑙
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝐵
• Which implies
2𝜋𝑟 𝐵(𝑟) = 𝜇𝐺 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟
So 0; 𝑟≥𝑏
𝜇𝐺 1 𝐵ത 𝑟 = ቮ 𝜇𝐺 1
𝐵(𝑟) = 𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 ; 𝑎 < 𝑟 < 𝑏
2𝜋 𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 2𝜋 𝑟
B Field Inside Inner Conductor
• Generally this is ignored
• Assumed that the skin depth is small and
all currents are confined to the surface of
0; 𝑟≥𝑏
𝜇 1
the inner conductor • 𝐵ത (𝑟) = ተ2𝜋𝐺 𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 ; 𝑎 < 𝑟 < 𝑏
• At low frequencies (Power applications) it 0; 𝑟≤𝑎
may be necessary to consider currents
inside the conductor
𝑟
ර 𝐵. ഥ = 𝜇𝐶 2𝜋 න 𝐽 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
ത 𝑑𝑙
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝐵 0
• In our analysis we will ignore this
component of 𝐵ത
Calculating the Flux and Inductance
• We need to calculate the total flux passing
through the surface S lying on a radial
direction
• As 𝐵(𝑟) is always tangential to the coaxial
path
• For length of cable 𝑙

𝑏 𝑏
𝜇𝐺 1 𝜇𝐺 𝑏
Φ = 𝑙 න 𝐵 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑙 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 න 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑙 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 ln
𝑎 2𝜋 𝑎 𝑟 2𝜋 𝑎
Φ 𝜇𝐺 𝑏
∴L= =𝑙 ln
𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 2𝜋 𝑎
Calculating the Flux and Inductance
• For unit length of cable 𝑙 = 1

𝜇𝐺 𝑏
Φ′ = 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 ln
2𝜋 𝑎
′
Φ′ 𝜇𝐺 𝑏
∴L = = ln
𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 2𝜋 𝑎
Unit Length Parameters (Coaxial)

• In the last section we introduced the unit • Coaxial cables are used for both signal
length properties of conductors transmission and power transmission
𝑅′, L′, 𝐶′ and 𝐺′ • Structure:
– an inner cylindrical conductor
• In this section we will look at how we can
– surrounded by a layer of insulation
calculate the values of these properties for – Surrounded by a second cylindrical conductor.
a simple line geometry.
• We will look at the derived values for more
complicated geometries.
Data Required

• For the coaxial geometry we need information

on:
– The radius of the inner conductor 𝑎
– The inner radius of the outer conductor 𝑏

• For the materials we will need:

– 𝜎𝐶 conductivity of conductors
– 𝜇𝐶 magnetic permeability of conductors
– 𝜇𝐺 magnetic permeability of the insulator
– 𝜎𝐺 conductivity of insulator
– 𝜀 the permittivity of the insulator
Parameters for Coaxial Geometry
• Defined by: the outer radius of the inner
conductor 𝑎 and the inner radius of the
outer conductor 𝑏
′
𝜂𝑆 1 1
𝑅 = +
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑏
𝜇𝐺 𝑏
L′ = ln
2𝜋 𝑎
2𝜋𝜎𝐺
𝐺’ =
𝑏
ln
𝑎
2𝜋𝜀
𝐶′ =
𝑏
ln
𝑎
Parameters for Two Wire Geometry
• Defined by: The diameters of the conductors 𝑑
and The separation of the conductors 𝐷
2𝜂𝑆
𝑅′ =
𝜋𝑑
2
𝜇𝐺 𝑑 𝑑
L′ = ln + −1
𝜋 𝐷 𝐷
𝜋𝜎𝐺
𝐺’ =
2
𝑑 𝑑
ln 𝐷 + −1
𝐷
𝜋𝜀
𝐶′ =
2
𝑑 𝑑
ln 𝐷 + −1
𝐷
Parameters for Parralel Plate Geometry

• Defined by: The separation of the

conductors ℎ and The width of the
conductors 𝑤
2𝜂𝑆
𝑅′ =
𝑤
𝜇𝐺 ℎ
L′ =
𝑤
𝜎𝐺 𝑤
𝐺’ =
ℎ
𝜀𝑤
𝐶′ =
ℎ
Summary of Parameters
Parameter Co axial Two Wire Parallel Plate
𝜂𝑆 1 1 2𝜂𝑆 2𝜂𝑆
𝑅 ′ [Ω] 𝑚−1 +
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑏 𝜋𝑑 𝑤
2
′ −1 𝜇 𝑏 𝜇 𝑑 𝑑 𝜇ℎ Note there are other
𝐿 [H] 𝑚 ln ln + −1
2𝜋 𝑎 𝜋 𝐷 𝐷 𝑤 transmission line geometries
𝜋𝜎𝐺 and their parameters are
2𝜋𝜎𝐺 𝜎𝐺 𝑤 available in the literature
′ −1 2
𝐺 [S] 𝑚 𝑑 𝑑
ln 𝑏ൗ𝑎 ln + −1 ℎ
𝐷 𝐷

𝜋𝜀
2𝜋𝜀 𝜀𝑤
𝐶 ′ [F] 𝑚−1 𝑑 𝑑 2
ln 𝑏ൗ𝑎 ln + −1 ℎ
𝐷 𝐷
Resistance and Skin Depth

• Normally we would calculate the resistance 1 𝑙

of a conductor with area 𝐴 and length 𝑙 and 𝑅=
𝜎𝐶 𝐴
conductivity 𝜎𝐶
• So if we assume that we have a cylindrical For cylinder 𝑙 = 1 and radius 𝑎
conductor made of copper 1 1
𝑅=
𝜎𝐶 = 57 × 10 6 𝑆 𝑚−1 𝜎𝐶 𝜋𝑎2
• And a diameter of 1[𝑚𝑚] Typical for a
signal cable 1 1
𝑅′ =
• This is the resistance under d.c. conditions 57 × 10 6 𝜋 0.5 × 10−3 2
under a.c conditions the resistance will be = 22.2 × 10−3 Ω [𝑚−1 ]
higher
A.C. Resistance Higher Why?

• The a.c. resistance is higher due the skin

effect.
• Under a.c. conditions the current density in
the conductor is not uniform.
• It falls off exponentially with depth below
the surface of the conductor • 𝛿𝑠 (Skin Depth)
• You will understand why when we look at 1
𝛿𝑠 =
EM propagation in Lossy Media. 𝛼
• We model this change in current density by And for a metal 𝛼 ≅ 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝐶 𝜎𝐶
assuming that all current flows in a thin So
region on the surface of thickness 𝛿𝑠 1
𝛿𝑠 =
𝜋𝑓𝜇𝐶 𝜎𝐶
Skin Depth and a Cylindrical Conductor

• So what is the skin depth for a copper

conductor at 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝜎𝐶 = 57 × 10 6 𝑆 𝑚−1
𝜇𝐶 = 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10 −7 𝐻 𝑚−1

• Thererfore
1
𝛿𝑠 = = 21.1 × 10−6 [𝑚]
𝜋 × 10 × 106 × 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 57 × 106
Using Skin Depth to Our Advantage

• Aluminium would be a good material for

overhead line conductors
• High conductivity 𝜎 = 35 × 106 S 𝑚−1
• Low density ρ𝑟 = 2.7
• However has a low mechanical strength
• Steel has a suitable mechanical strength
but poor conductivity and high density • Skin depth Aluminium at 50 Hz
• A steel conductor equivalent to an 𝛼 ≅ 𝜋 × 50 × 4𝜋 × 35 × 10−1
1
aluminium conductor is 15 times heavier ∴ 𝛿𝑠 =
• Solution Aluminium Conductor Steel 6.91 × 103
= 12[𝑚𝑚]
Reinforced (ACSR) Conductors
Shunt Conductance 𝐺′
• In the steady state current continuity
implies that:
current flowing out from the inner
conductor must be equal to the current
flowing into the outer conductor
𝐼𝐺 𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼𝐺 𝑂𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝐺
• The current flowing through any concentric
area of unit length and radius 𝑟 is also: • We can calculate the current density 𝐽(𝑟)
𝐼𝐺 ′(𝑟) = 𝐼𝐺 ′ in terms of 𝐼′𝐺
𝐼′𝐺
𝐽 𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑟
Shunt Conductance 𝐺′
• If we consider two concentric shells,
Separated by a small distance 𝑑𝑟 at radius
𝑟
• We can calculate the voltage drop 𝑑𝑉
occurring across the shells in terms of 𝐽(𝑟)
and the conductivity of the material
between the shells 𝜎𝐺
1 1 𝐼′𝐺 1 • Performing the integration
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐽 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑟 1 𝑏
𝜎𝐺 𝜎𝐺 2𝜋 𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝐼′𝐺 ln
• Therefore the total voltage between the 2𝜋𝜎𝐺 𝑎
conductors is: • So
𝑏 𝐼 ′ 2𝜋𝜎𝐺 𝑎
1 1 ′ 𝐺
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝐼′𝐺 න 𝑑𝑟 𝐺 = = = 2𝜋𝜎𝐺 ln
2𝜋𝜎𝐺 𝑎 𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑏 ln 𝑏 𝑏
𝑎
Shunt Capacitance 𝐶′

• The derivation of the shunt capacitance is

similar to that used for the shunt
conductance
• Using the Electrostatic Flux per unit length
Φ′𝐸 rather than currents.
Φ𝐸′ = 𝑄′
• 𝑄′ is the charge per unit length on the inner
conductor 1 Φ′𝐸 𝑄′ 1 1 1
• The electric field as a function of radius 𝐸ത 𝑟 = 𝑟Ƹ = 𝑟Ƹ = 𝑄′ 𝑟Ƹ
𝜀 𝐴𝑆 𝜀 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟
can be calculated in terms of Φ′𝐸 and the
area it is flowing through.
Shunt Capacitance 𝐶
• Again we consider two concentric
shells, Separated by a small distance
𝑑𝑟 at radius 𝑟
• We can calculate the voltage drop 𝑑𝑉
occurring across the shells in terms of E(𝑟)
1 1
ത
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐸 𝑟 . 𝑑 𝑟ҧ = 𝑄′ 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝜀 𝑟
• Performing the integration
• Therefore the total voltage between the
1 𝑏
conductors is: 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑄′ ln
1 𝑏
1 2𝜋𝜀 𝑎
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑄′ න 𝑑𝑟 • So
2𝜋𝜀 𝑎 𝑟 ′
′
𝑄 2𝜋𝜀 𝑎
𝐶 = = = 2𝜋𝜀 ln
𝑉𝑎𝑏 ln 𝑏 𝑏
𝑎
Surface Resistivity

• Because the conducting layer can be thin it • Bulk Resistivity 𝜂𝑉

is useful to define a surface resistivity for 𝑙 𝑙 1 𝑙
the system 𝑅 = 𝜂𝑉 = 𝜂𝑉 =
𝐴 𝑤ℎ 𝜎𝐶 𝑤ℎ
• Resistance depends on the length and
area of conductor
• Surface Resistivity 𝜂𝑆
𝑙
𝑅𝑆 = 𝜂𝑆
𝑤
• Resistance depends on the length and
width of conducing layer on surface.
• Need a relationship between 𝜎𝐶 and 𝜂𝑆
Surface Resistivity

• We can use the bulk resistivity approach to

define the resistance of our surface layer
1 𝑙 1 𝑙 1 𝑙
𝑅𝑆 = = =
𝜎𝐶 𝐴𝑠 𝜎𝐶 𝛿𝑠 𝑤 𝜎𝐶 𝛿𝑠 𝑤
Comparing with
𝑙
𝑅𝑆 = 𝜂𝑆
𝑤
It can be seen that the surface resistivity must Therefore
be:
1 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎𝐶 𝜋𝑓𝜇
𝜂𝑆 = 𝜂𝑆 = =
𝜎𝐶 𝛿𝑠 𝜎𝐶 𝜎𝐶
Resistance per Unit Length
• The currents flowing in the inner and outer conductors
are equal in magnitude
• Therefore the total resistance per unit length.
𝑅′ = 𝑅′ 𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 + 𝑅′ 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟
• We can calculate 𝑅′ 𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 in terms of the width of the
surface layer on the inner conductor (Conductors
circumference) and the surface resistivity
1
𝑅′ 𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 𝜂𝑆
2𝜋𝑎
• The approach for the layer on the inside of the outer
conductor is the same
′
1
𝑅 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜂𝑆
2𝜋𝑏
Resistance per Unit Length
• Given
1
𝑅′ 𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 𝜂𝑆
2𝜋𝑎
1
𝑅′ 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜂𝑆
2𝜋𝑏

• The total resistance per unit length.

𝑅′ = 𝑅′ 𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 + 𝑅′ 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟
• is
𝜂𝑆 1 1 1 𝜋𝑓𝜇 1 1
∴ 𝑅′ = + = +
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑏 2𝜋 𝜎𝐶 𝑎 𝑏
Telegrapher’s Equations

• The Telegraphers equations link the

behaviour of the Voltages and Currents in
the transmission line
– With respect to position on the line
– With respect to time

• The starting point of the analysis is to look

at a short section of the line of length ∆𝑧
– We are now assuming that our line
extends in the direction of the 𝑧 axis
Telegrapher’s Equations

• At position 𝑧 on the line

• We have
– Voltage 𝑣 𝑧
– Current 𝑖(𝑧)

• At position 𝑧 + ∆𝑧 on the line

• We have
– Voltage 𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧
– Current 𝑖(𝑧 + ∆𝑧)
Telegrapher’s Equations

• Applying KVL to this circuit:

′ ′
𝜕𝑖
𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝑅 𝑖 𝑡 + 𝐿 ∆𝑧 − 𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 = 0
𝜕𝑡
• Therefore the change in voltage moving
from 𝑧 to 𝑧 + ∆𝑧
′ ′
𝜕𝑖
𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 = − 𝑅 𝑖 𝑡 + 𝐿 ∆𝑧
𝜕𝑡
• Rearrange
𝜕𝑖 • In limit ∆𝑧 → 0
𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅′ 𝑖 𝑡 + 𝐿′ ∆𝑧 𝜕 ′ ′
𝜕
𝜕𝑡 − 𝑣(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅 𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑖(𝑧, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Telegrapher’s Equations

• Current flowing into admittance is

𝜕
𝑖𝑦 = (𝐺′∆𝑧)𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐶 ′ ∆𝑧 𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡
𝜕𝑡
• Applying KCL to element
𝜕𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡
𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐺′∆𝑧𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐶 ′ ∆𝑧 + 𝑖 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡
𝜕𝑡
• Rearrange to give the rate at which current changes as
you move along the line

𝑖 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 ′
𝜕𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 • In limit ∆𝑧 → 0
′
− = 𝐺 𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐶
∆𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕 ′ ′
𝜕
− 𝑖(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐺 𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐶 𝑣(𝑧, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Telegrapher’s Equations

• So the change in voltage as we move along

the line is dependent on the current and the
rate of change of current
• So the change in current as we move along the
line is dependent on the voltage and the rate of
change of voltage
• We have partial differential equation’s
describing a variable say 𝑣 in terms of another
variable 𝑖 • Compact Form
• To solve behaviour of system we need 𝜕𝑣 ′ ′
𝜕𝑖
equations only in 𝑣 and 𝑖 − =𝑅 𝑖+𝐿
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑖 ′ ′
𝜕𝑣
− =𝐺 𝑣+𝐶
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Equation for a Travelling Wave

• General form of a wave equation

describing a sinusoidal voltage
propagating in the direction of 𝑧 is
𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑉0 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜑
Travelling Wave: Frequency

• 𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 has a property of frequency

𝜔
𝑓=
2𝜋
• for 𝑧 = 1 for example the equation
becomes:
𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑉0 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 − 𝛽

• Therefore the voltage measured at this

particular point in space will vary
sinusoidaly
Travelling Wave: Wavelength

• 𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 has a property of wavelength 

• At a fixed moment in time 𝑡 = 0 as we
move in the direction of 𝑧 the voltage
varies sinusoidaly in space.
• The cosine function takes the value of 1
(peak value) for
cos 𝜃 = 1, 𝜃 = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋 … . . 2𝑛𝜋

• If we set 𝑡 = 0, 𝜑 = 0 then our wave

equation becomes
𝑣 𝑧, 0 = 𝑉0 cos −𝛽𝑧
Travelling Wave: Wavelength

• For
𝑣 𝑧, 0 = 𝑉0 cos −𝛽𝑧

• The peak values will occur when

−𝛽𝑧 = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋 … … .

• The spatial separation of two adjacent

peaks (wavelength ) is therefore given by
2𝜋
𝛽 = 2𝜋 ↔ 𝜆 =
𝛽
Travelling Wave: Propagation Velocity

• Consider now what happens if we change

the time 𝑡 from 0 to 𝑡 = ∆𝑡 keeping 𝜑 = 0
• the wave equation becomes
𝑣 𝑧, ∆𝑡 = 𝑉0 cos 𝜔∆𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧
• The peaks will now occur when
𝜔∆𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 = 𝑛2𝜋
• The peak originally at 𝑧 = 0, 𝑛 = 0 , will
have shifted to a position ∆𝑧 given by
𝜔∆𝑡 − 𝛽∆𝑧 = 0
Travelling Wave: Propagation Velocity

• Starting with
𝜔∆𝑡 − 𝛽∆𝑧 = 0

• And rearranging gives:

𝜔 ∆𝑧 𝜔
∆𝑧 = ∆𝑡 ↔ =
𝛽 ∆𝑡 𝛽

• In the limit ∆𝑧 → 0 we can define the rate of

change of the peak position in space
𝑑 𝜔
𝑧𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = = 𝑢𝑝
𝑑𝑡 𝛽
Travelling Wave: Summary

• So the expression
𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑉0 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜑
• Defines a travelling wave with:
– a frequency
𝜔
𝑓=
2𝜋 • Note
– a wavelength 𝜔ൗ
2𝜋 𝑢𝑝 𝛽 2𝜋
= =𝜔 = =𝜆
𝛽 𝑓 ൗ2𝜋 𝛽
– travelling in the direction of 𝑧 at a
velocity
𝜔
𝑢𝑝 =
𝛽
Travelling Wave in Phasor Form
• Time domain
• For any single frequency we can use a 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 ,
phasor representation of 𝑣(𝑧, 𝑡) • Phasor domain
• So 𝑉෨ = 𝑉0 ∠𝜑 = 𝑉0 cos 𝜑 + 𝑗 sin 𝜑

𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑉0 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜑 • Euler’s Theorem

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃
• Can be represented by
• ∴ 𝑉෨ = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑗𝜑
𝑉෨ = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑗(−𝛽𝑧+𝜑)

• Using the exponential form as

mathematical operations will be easier
Telegrapher’s Equations with Phasors

• We can write the telegraphers equations in

the frequency domain using a phasor
notation
• Phasor Form
𝜕𝑉෨
− = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐼ሚ
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐼ሚ
− = 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ 𝑉෨
𝜕𝑧 • Note here both 𝑉෨ and 𝐼ሚ are functions of
position.
Solving Telegrapher’s Equations
𝜕𝑉෨
− = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐼ሚ (1)
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐼ሚ
− = 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ 𝑉෨ (2)
𝜕𝑧
• differentiate (1) with respect to 𝑧
𝜕 2 𝑉෨ ′ ′
𝜕𝐼ሚ
− 2 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐼ሚ
• substitute from (2)
𝜕𝑧
• Giving
𝜕 2 𝑉෨
2
= 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ 𝑉෨
𝜕𝑧
Solving Telegrapher’s Equations
𝜕𝑉෨
− = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐼ሚ (1)
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐼ሚ
− = 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ 𝑉෨ (2)
𝜕𝑧
• differentiate (2) with respect to 𝑧
𝜕 2 𝐼ሚ ′ ′
𝜕𝑉෨
− 2 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
෩
𝜕𝑉
• substitute from (1)
𝜕𝑧
• Giving
𝜕 2 𝐼ሚ
2
= 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ 𝐼ሚ
𝜕𝑧
Solving Telegrapher’s Equations

• For simplicity we express

𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ = 𝛾 2
• Giving
𝜕 2 𝑉෨ 2෨
= 𝛾 𝑉
𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 2 𝐼ሚ 2 𝐼ሚ
= 𝛾
𝜕𝑧 2
Homogeneous partial differential equations
Solving Telegrapher’s Equations

• For our Equations • Checking solution

𝜕 2 𝑉෨ • Differentiating 𝑉෨ 𝑧 with respect to 𝑧 gives:
2
= 𝛾 2 𝑉෨
𝜕𝑧 𝜕
𝑉෨ 𝑧 = −𝛾𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝛾𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧
𝜕 2 𝐼ሚ 𝜕𝑧
2
= 𝛾 2 𝐼ሚ
𝜕𝑧 • Differentiating again gives:
• The solutions take the form: 𝜕2
෨ 𝑧 = 𝛾 2 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝛾 2 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧
𝑉
𝑉෨ 𝑧 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2
• Rearranging:
𝐼ሚ 𝑧 = 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧
𝜕2
෨ 𝑧 = 𝛾 2 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 = 𝛾 2 𝑉෨ 𝑧
𝑉
𝜕𝑧 2
 +
𝑉0 What does this represent

• The term 𝑉0 + is a phasor Leads to expression taking the form:

+ +
𝑉0 + = 𝑉0 + ∠𝜑𝑉+ = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜑𝑉 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜑𝑉 𝑒 − 𝛼+𝑗𝛽 𝑧

– So we could express Moving to the time domain using

+
𝑉0 + −𝛾𝑧
𝑒 = 𝑉0 +
𝑒 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧
𝑗𝜑 𝑉 𝑣 𝑡 = ℜ 𝑉𝑒 ෨ 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉෨ cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑𝑉෩

– The term 𝛾 is complex 𝑣+ 𝑧, 𝑡 = ℜ 𝑉0 + +

𝑒 𝑒 − 𝛼+𝑗𝛽 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
𝑗𝜑 𝑉

𝛾= 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ Which can be expressed as

+
– Representing 𝛾 as: 𝑣 + 𝑧, 𝑡 = ℜ 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧+𝜑𝑉

𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 𝑣 + 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜑𝑉+

 + −𝛾𝑧
𝑉0 𝑒 in the Time Domain

𝑣 + 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜑𝑉+

• is a travelling wave moving in the direction
of 𝑧 with an angular frequency of 𝜔 and
𝜔
𝑢𝑝 =
𝛽
• As do
𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 wave moving in direction – 𝑧
𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 wave moving in direction 𝑧 • Plotting 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 in the time domain
enables us to understand the 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧
𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 wave moving in direction – 𝑧
• It is modelling attenuation of the waveform
as it travels down the line
𝛾 The complex propagation constant
𝛾= 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽

• Real Part ℜ 𝛾 = 𝛼 • Imaginary Part ℑ 𝛾 = 𝛽

• 𝛼 defines the attenuation per unit length of • 𝛽 is known as the phase constant and tells
a voltage wave moving along the line. us the relationships between the
wavelength and the propagation velocity of
• It has units of Nepers per unit length.
the wave on the line
𝑁𝑝 𝑚−1
2𝜋
• Attenuation is occurring due to energy =
𝛽
losses due to the Resistance and 𝜔
Conductance of the line 𝑢𝑝 =
𝛽
 − 𝛾𝑧
𝑉0 𝑒 in the Time Domain

• Our solution contains a term𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧

• Transforming from the phasor domain to the
time domain
𝑣 − 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜑 −

Note signs on the 𝛼 and 𝛽 terms:

• The sign of the 𝛽 term in the wave • The positive sign on 𝛼 indicates that the
equation is +ve amplitude of travelling wave increases as
Therefore the wave is propagating in the we move in the +𝑧 direction
– 𝑣𝑒 𝑧 direction
• Shows the attenuation of the wave as it
• The sign on the 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 is positive
travels from the receiving end to the
sending end
෨ + −𝛾𝑧 − 𝛾𝑧
𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉0 𝑒 + 𝑉0 𝑒

• Our solution to the PDE for voltage

contains two travelling waves
𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧

• travelling in the +𝑣𝑒 𝑧 direction

𝑉0 − 𝑒 +𝛾𝑧

• travelling in the −𝑣𝑒 𝑧 direction

• Why are there two travelling waves in our

solution?
Why Two Travelling Waves?

First Mathematically
𝛾 2 = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′
• Therefore:
𝛾=± 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′

Secondly Physically
• The transmission line does not known
anything about which end is the receiving
end
Why Two Travelling Waves?

Thirdly works for a single travelling wave

• solutions are valid when:
𝑉0 − = 0 or 𝑉0 + = 0
• Only one wave on the line
Finally reflection can occur
𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧
• is a reflected wave resulting from
𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧
• arriving at the receiving end of the line
Previously

• In the previous talks, we derived the • The solutions are in the form of two
Telegraphers equations in the time domain travelling waves propagating in opposite
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑖 directions on the line
− = 𝑅′ 𝑖 + 𝐿′
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑖 ′ ′
𝜕𝑣 𝑉෨ 𝑧 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧
− =𝐺 𝑣+𝐶 𝐼ሚ 𝑧 = 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
• We then found solutions for these
equations in the phasor domain.
𝜕 2 𝑉෨ • We can relate the properties of these
2
= 𝛾 2 𝑉෨ waves to the per unit parameters of the
𝜕𝑧
line
𝜕 2 𝐼ሚ
2
= 𝛾 2 𝐼ሚ 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′
𝜕𝑧
Relationships Between Currents and
Voltages
• Our Travelling Wave solutions for the • Are there any relationships between
transmission Lines have: these pairs of waves?
• A voltage and a current travelling wave • Well the complex propagation constant
propagation in the +𝑣𝑒 𝑧 direction 𝛾 is common to both 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 and
𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧
𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 , 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧
• So
• A voltage and a current travelling wave 𝑣 + 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜑𝑉+
propagation in the −𝑣𝑒 𝑧 direction
𝑖 + 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜑𝐼+
𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 , 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧
• We can see that the behaviour of the
attenuation and the propagation is the
same for the waves.
Characteristic Impedance

• As there is a common behaviour for • The relationship between 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 and

𝑣 + 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜑𝑉+ 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 can be expressed as an
impedance
𝑖 + 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜑𝐼+
𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 𝑉0 +
• Therefore we would expect a constant = + = 𝑍0
𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 𝐼0
relationship in time and space between
𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 and 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 • Characteristic impedance of the line
• Can we relate 𝑍0 to the properties of the
𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 = Υ𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧
line?
𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′
𝑍0 =
𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′
Deriving Characteristic Impedance

• We start with the voltage phasor equation • Integrating with respect to 𝑧:

from the Telegraphers equation 𝜕𝑉෨
𝜕𝑉෨ −න 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ න 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 𝑑𝑧
− = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐼ሚ 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑧
• We then use the solution that we derived • Gives
for the current phasor 1 + −𝛾𝑧 1 − 𝛾𝑧
෨
−𝑉(𝑧) = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ − 𝐼0 𝑒 + 𝐼0 𝑒
𝐼ሚ 𝑧 = 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 𝛾 𝛾
• Substituting gives: • Dividing 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ by 𝛾 gives:
𝜕𝑉෨
− = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′
𝜕𝑧 ෨
𝑉(𝑧) = 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 − 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧
𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′
Deriving Characteristic Impedance

• Substituting • We have now linked the values of 𝑉0 + , 𝐼0 +

𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ and the values of 𝑉0 − , 𝐼0 −
𝑍0 = • For 𝑉0 + , 𝐼0 +
𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′
𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 = 𝑍0 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧
• Gives • For 𝑉0 − , 𝐼0 −
෨
𝑉(𝑧) = 𝑍0 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 − 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 = −𝑍0 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧
• Substituting • Note sign in expression for the relationship
𝑉෨ 𝑧 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 of 𝑉0 − and 𝐼0 −
• Gives
𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 = 𝑍0 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 − 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧
Why the Difference in Sign?

• We have to consider the differences • 𝐼0 + describes a current that is flowing from

between our the sending end of the line to the receiving
– Voltage phasors 𝑉0 + and 𝑉0 − end of the line
– And our current phasors 𝐼0 + and 𝐼0 − Direction of 𝒛
• As Voltages 𝑉0 + and 𝑉0 − have scalar • 𝐼0 + describes a current that is flowing from
values the receiving end of the line to the sending
– only a value no information about end of the line
direction Direction of −𝒛
• As currents 𝐼0 + and 𝐼0 − have a scalar
value but they also have directions.
Direction of Current Flow

• 𝑉0 + , 𝐼0 + • 𝑉0 − , 𝐼0 −
• 𝑉0 + independent of the direction of • 𝑉0 − independent of the direction of
propagation (positive) propagation (positive)
• 𝐼0 + regarded as positive propagating in the • 𝐼0 − regarded as negative propagating in
+ 𝑧 direction the −𝑧 direction
1 − 1 −
𝐼0 + = 𝑉0 + 𝐼0 = − 𝑉0
𝑍0 𝑍0
Distortionless and Lossless Lines

• For a general transmission line • Distortionless Line

𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ 𝑅′ 𝐶 ′ = 𝐿′ 𝐺 ′
• Direct analytic solution for the values of 𝛼 𝐶′ 𝐿′
and 𝛽 is complex. 𝛼 = 𝑅′ =𝐺 ′
𝐿′ 𝐶′
• Can consider two special cases
• The distortionless line and the lossless line 𝐿′
𝑍0 =
• For these lines 𝐶′
𝛽 = 𝜔 𝐿′𝐶′ • Lossless line 𝑅′ = 𝐺 ′ = 0 therefore 𝛼 = 0
𝜔 𝜔 1
𝑢𝑝 = = =
𝛽 𝜔 𝐿′𝐶′ 𝐿′𝐶′
𝛼 and 𝛽 when 𝑅′ 𝐶′ = 𝐿′ 𝐺 ′

• Starting with Substituting 𝑅′ Τ𝐿′ for 𝐺 ′ Τ𝐶 ′ gives

𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = 𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′
𝑅′ 𝑅′
• We can write 𝛾= 𝐿′ ′ + 𝑗𝜔 𝐶′ ′ + 𝑗𝜔
𝐿 𝐿
𝑅′ 𝐺′
𝛾= 𝐿′ ′ + 𝑗𝜔 𝐶′ + 𝑗𝜔 𝑅′
𝐿 𝐶′ 𝛾= 𝐿′𝐶′ ′ + 𝑗𝜔
𝐿
Therefore
𝑅′ ′
𝐶′
𝛼= 𝐿′𝐶′ ′ = 𝑅 , 𝛽 = 𝜔 𝐿′𝐶′
𝐿 𝐿′
𝛼 and 𝛽 when 𝑅′ 𝐶′ = 𝐿′ 𝐺 ′
• Alternatively we can substitute 𝐺 ′ Τ𝐶 ′ for
𝑅′ Τ𝐿′ in
• Comparing the two values derived for
𝑅′ 𝐺′ alpha
𝛾= 𝐿′ + 𝑗𝜔 𝐶′ + 𝑗𝜔
𝐿′ 𝐶′
𝐶′ 𝐿′
• This Gives 𝛼 = 𝑅′ =𝐺 ′
𝐿′ 𝐶′
𝐺′ 𝐺′ • Note as
𝛾= 𝐿′ ′ + 𝑗𝜔 𝐶′ ′ + 𝑗𝜔
𝐶 𝐶 𝐿′ 𝐺 ′
𝑅′ =
𝐺′ 𝐶′
𝛾= 𝐿′𝐶′ ′ + 𝑗𝜔
𝐶 𝐶′
• Substituting into 𝛼 = 𝑅′ gives
𝐿′
• Therefore
𝐺′ 𝐿′ 𝐿′ 𝐺 ′ 𝐶 ′ ′
𝐿′
𝛼= 𝐿′𝐶′ ′ = 𝐺 ′
, 𝛽 = 𝜔 𝐿′𝐶′ 𝛼= ′ ′
=𝐺
𝐶 𝐶 ′ 𝐶 𝐿 𝐶′
𝑍0 When 𝑅′ 𝐶′ = 𝐿′ 𝐺 ′

• Starting with • Again using

𝑅′ 𝐺′
𝑅′ +𝑗𝜔𝐿′ =
𝑍0 = 𝐿′ 𝐶′
𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′
𝑅′
• Rearrange 𝐿′ + 𝑗𝜔 𝐿′
𝐿′
𝑍0 = =
𝑅′ 𝐶′
𝑅′ 𝐶′ + 𝑗𝜔
𝐿′ + 𝑗𝜔 𝐿′
𝐿′
𝑍0 =
𝐺′
𝐶′ + 𝑗𝜔
𝐶′
Why Distortionless?

• Remember the Concept of Fourier • If the harmonics propagate along the line
analysis. at different velocities to the fundamental
phase shifts will occur and:
• We can represent complex signals as
a combination of sinusoids. For any 𝑓 0, 𝑡 ≠ 𝑓 𝑙, 𝑡
periodic signal,
∞ • Signal is distorted
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐴0 + ෍ 𝐴𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑𝑛 • If the harmonics propagate along the line
𝑛=1 at a common velocity with the fundamental
phase shifts will not occur and.
• This is a combination of a fundamental
frequency cos 𝜔𝑡 plus higher 𝑓 0, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑙, 𝑡
harmonic frequencies cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 that are • Signal is not distorted but may be
integer multiples of the fundamental. attenuated
Distortionless and Lossless Lines

• Although the Distortionless line transmits a

signal without changing its phase
information
• The magnitude of the signal will change as
it propagates along the line
• Due to attenuation resulting from energy
losses in the 𝑅′ and 𝐺 ′ elements in the line
Lossless Line
• Note as frequency increases
• In a well designed line 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 𝐿2𝜋𝑓
• We can assume:
𝜋𝑓𝜇 𝜋𝜇
– 𝑅′ ≪ 𝜔𝐿′ we use conductors with a 𝜂𝑆 = = 𝑓
low resistivity 𝜎𝐶 𝜎𝐶
• and • Therefore as frequency increases 𝑋𝐿 will
always increase more rapidly than 𝑅′
– 𝐺 ′ ≪ 𝜔𝐶′ the dielectric between the
conductors has a low conductivity.
• This leads to the Lossless approximation • Assumptions for a lossless line:
of a transmission line 𝑅′ = 0, 𝐺 ′ = 0
• Permits easier analysis of behaviour • This leads to:
𝛾 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿′𝑗𝜔𝐶′
𝛾= 𝑗 2 𝜔 2 𝐶 ′ 𝐿′ = 𝑗𝜔 𝐿′𝐶′
Lossless Line
• As • As 𝛼 = 0 there is no attenuation: no
𝛾 = 𝑗𝜔 𝐿′𝐶′ resistances or conductances to dissipate
energy in the transmission line.
• Therefore
𝛼 = 0, 𝛽 = 𝜔 𝐿′𝐶′ • Note that 𝛽 has the same value as for the
distortionless line.

• Looking at the value of 𝑍0

𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ 𝐿′
𝑍0 = = =
𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ 𝐶′

• Again the same as observed for the

distortionless line.
Behaviour at a Load
• At the load, its impedance defines the
relationship between the voltage across
the load and the current flowing through
the load
𝑉෨𝐿 = 𝑍𝐿 𝐼ሚ𝐿

• In the line at the receiving end 𝑧 = 0

𝑉෨𝑧=0 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −0 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 0
∴ 𝑉෨𝑧=0 = 𝑉0 + + 𝑉0 − = 𝑉෨𝐿
𝐼ሚ𝑧=0 = 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −0 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 0
∴ 𝐼ሚ𝑧=0 = 𝐼0 + + 𝐼0 − = 𝐼ሚ𝐿
Behaviour at a Load
• Looking at
𝐼ሚ𝐿 = 𝐼0 + + 𝐼0 −
• We can express our current equation in
terms of 𝑉0 + and 𝑉0 −
• Remember taking into account the
direction of current flow we have
𝑉0 + − 𝑉0 −
𝐼0 + = , 𝐼0 = −
𝑍0 𝑍0
• So
𝑉0 + 𝑉0 −
𝐼ሚ𝐿 = −
𝑍0 𝑍0
Behaviour at a Load
• We now have a pair of equations defining
𝑉෨𝐿 and 𝐼ሚ𝐿 in terms of 𝑉0 + and 𝑉0 −
𝑉෨𝐿 = 𝑉0 + + 𝑉0 −
𝑉0 + 𝑉0 −
𝐼ሚ𝐿 = −
𝑍0 𝑍0
• So we can write an equation in terms of 𝑍𝐿
𝑉෨𝐿
𝑍𝐿 =
𝐼ሚ𝐿
𝑉0 + + 𝑉0 −
𝑍𝐿 =
1
𝑉0 + − 𝑉0 −
𝑍0
 + −
𝑉0 and 𝑉0 at the Load

𝑉0 + + 𝑉0 − 𝑉0 + + 𝑉0 − • This Leads to the definition of the

𝑍𝐿 = = 𝑍0 + Reflection Coefficient Γ𝑉
1
𝑉0 + − 𝑉0 − 𝑉0 − 𝑉0 −
𝑍0 𝑉0 − = Γ𝑉 𝑉0 +
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
Rearranging Γ𝑉 =
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
𝑍𝐿 𝑉0 + − 𝑉0 − = 𝑍0 𝑉0 + + 𝑉0 −
𝑍𝐿 𝑉0 + − 𝑍0 𝑉0 + = 𝑍𝐿 𝑉0 − + 𝑍0 𝑉0 − • Note Γ𝑉 is complex information about both
𝑉0 + 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 = 𝑉0 − 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 the ratio of the magnitudes of 𝑉0 + and
𝑉0 − and the phase angle between them
Expressing 𝑉0 − in terms of 𝑉0 + gives 𝑉0+ 𝑒 𝑗𝜑𝑉+ 𝑉0+ 𝑗 𝜑 −𝜑
Γ𝑉 = − 𝑗𝜑 = − 𝑒 𝑉+ 𝑉− = Γ𝑉 𝑒 𝑗 𝜑Γ𝑉
− + 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑉− 𝑉0
𝑉0 = 𝑉0
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
Transmission Coefficient Λ 𝑉

• We can also derive relationship between • We can express Λ𝑉 in terms of 𝑍𝐿 and 𝑍0

𝑉෨𝐿 and 𝑉0 + 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
𝑉෨𝐿 = 𝑉0 + + 𝑉0 − Λ𝑉 = 1 +
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
• Substituting 𝑉0 − = Γ𝑉 𝑉0 + gives 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
Λ𝑉 = +
𝑉෨𝐿 = 𝑉0 + + Γ𝑉 𝑉0 + 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
𝑉෨𝐿 = 1 + Γ𝑉 𝑉0 + 2𝑍𝐿
Λ𝑉 =
• Expressing this in the form 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0

𝑉෨𝐿 = Λ𝑉 𝑉0 + • Again Λ𝑉 is complex

• Where Λ𝑉 is the transmission coefficient Λ𝑉 = Λ𝑉 𝑒 𝑗𝜑Λ𝑉
implies
Λ 𝑉 = 1 + Γ𝑉
Summarising at the Load

• Reflection
𝑉0 − = Γ𝑉 𝑉0 +
• Where
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
Γ𝑉 =
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0

• Transmission
𝑉0 − = Λ𝑉 𝑉0 +
• Where
2𝑍𝐿
Γ𝑉 =
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
The Start and End of a Line
• So far we have assumed that the for a
transmission line length 𝑙 extending in the
z direction
• that the sending end is where 𝑧 = 0
• the receiving end is at 𝑧 = 𝑙

• Our analysis becomes much simpler if we

define that
– the sending end is at 𝑧 = −𝑙
– and the receiving end is at 𝑧 = 0
• The value of 𝑧 still increases as we move
from sending end to receiving end
Effects On Wave Equations
• The wave equations will now take the form
• At the receiving end
𝑉෨ 0 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾.0 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾.0
∴ 𝑉෨ 0 = 𝑉0 + + 𝑉0 −
• At the sending end
𝑉෨ −𝑙 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾.−𝑙 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾.−𝑙
∴ 𝑉෨ −𝑙 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 𝛾𝑙 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙
• For a lossy line this means that we are
defining the values for 𝑉0 + and 𝑉0 − At the
receiving end of the line
Effects On Wave Equations
• Using a lossless line to simplify our
behaviour
𝛾 = 𝑗𝛽, α = 0
• The wave equations will now take the form
• At the receiving end
𝑉෨ 0 = 𝑉0 + + 𝑉0 −
• At the sending end
∴ 𝑉෨ −𝑙 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
• The magnitudes of 𝑉0 + and 𝑉0 − are
constant over the length of the line
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONIC & ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 EE Principles 3 Derivation of Characteristic Impedance Dr M.J. Given

Characteristic impedance.

Starting with the phasor version of the Telegrapher’s voltage equation

𝜕𝑉̃
− = (𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ )𝐼̃
𝜕𝑧

We have an expression for our current phasor 𝐼̃ in terms of the two current waves travelling on our
transmission line.

𝐼̃(𝑧) = 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧

Substituting for 𝐼̃ in the voltage equation gives:

𝜕𝑉̃
− = (𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ )(𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 )
𝜕𝑧
Integrating this with respect to 𝑧

−𝑉̃ = (𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ ) ∫(𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 )𝜕𝑧

Gives
1 1
−𝑉̃ = (𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ ) (− 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 )
𝛾 𝛾
Rearranging

(𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ ) + −𝛾𝑧

𝑉̃ = (𝐼0 𝑒 − 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 )
𝛾
Substituting for 𝛾
(𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ )
𝑉̃ = (𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 − 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 )
√(𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ )(𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ )

Dividing top and bottom by√(𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ )

(𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ ) + −𝛾𝑧

𝑉̃ = √ (𝐼 𝑒 − 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 )
(𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ ) 0
Substituting
(𝑅′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′ )
𝑍0 = √
(𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ′ )
And
𝑉̃ (𝑧) = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧

Gives
𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 = 𝑍0 (𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 − 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 )

If we look at the voltage and current waves travelling in the +𝑣𝑒 𝑧 direction:
𝑉0 +
𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 = 𝑍0 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 ∴ 𝑍0 = +
𝐼0

So the relationship between the magnitudes and the phase angles associated with the phasors
𝑉0 + and 𝐼0 + is given by 𝑍0 which depends only on the properties of the line.
We can see a similar relationship between the phasors 𝑉0 − and 𝐼0 − except for the presence of a minus
sign:
𝑉0 −
𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 = −𝑍0 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 ↔ 𝑍0 = − −
𝐼0

Why do we have a minus sign for 𝑉0 − and 𝐼0 − ?

The key thing to remember is that effectively the voltage or potential is a scalar while current is
effectively a vector. We need to take into account the direction in which the current is flowing. The
current associated with 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 is flowing in the −𝑧 direction while 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 is flowing in the +𝑧 direction.
Reflection and Transmission at the Load
• Reflection
𝑉0 − = Γ𝑉 𝑉0 +
• Where
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
Γ𝑉 =
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0

• Transmission
𝑉෨𝐿 = Λ𝑉 𝑉0 +
• Where
Λ𝑉 = 1 + Γ𝑉
Or
2𝑍𝐿
Λ𝑉 =
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
Reflection and Transmission at the Load

• 𝑍𝐿 → ∞ (open circuit)
∞ − 𝑍0 ∞
Γ𝑉 = = =1
∞ + 𝑍0 ∞
• Reflected wave is equal in magnitude to
incident wave
Λ𝑉 = 1 + 1 = 2
• Voltage across load is twice incident
voltage
Reflection and Transmission at the Load

• 𝑍𝐿 → 0 (short circuit)
0 − 𝑍0 −𝑍0
Γ𝑉 = = = −1
0 + 𝑍0 𝑍0
• Reflected wave is equal in magnitude but
is opposite in sign
Λ𝑉 = 1 − 1 = 0
• Voltage across the load is zero
Reflection and Transmission at the Load

• 𝑍𝐿 → 𝑍0 (Matched line)
𝑍0 − 𝑍0 0
Γ𝑉 = = =0
𝑍0 + 𝑍0 2𝑍0
• No reflection occurs
Λ𝑉 = 1 − 0 = 1
• Voltage across the load is equal to that of
the incident wave
• Matched line is an important case in signal
transmission
• No reflections occur
• And the input impedance of the line
𝑍𝐼𝑛 = 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0
Reflection and Transmission at the Load
• 𝑍𝐿 = 2𝑍0
2𝑍0 − 𝑍0 𝑍0 1
Γ𝑉 = = =
2𝑍0 + 𝑍0 3𝑍0 3
• The magnitude of the reflected wave is one third of the
incident wave but both waves are positive
1 4
Λ𝑉 = 1 + =
3 3
• 𝑍𝐿 = 0.5𝑍0
0.5𝑍0 − 𝑍0 −0.5𝑍0 1
Γ𝑉 = = =−
0.5𝑍0 + 𝑍0 1.5𝑍0 3
• The magnitude of the reflected wave is one third of
the incident wave and the reflected wave is negative
1 2
Λ𝑉 = 1 − =
3 3
Range of Γ𝑉

• Figure shows plot of Γ𝑉 for a 50Ω line as 𝑍𝐿

is changed
– 𝑍𝐿 is purely resistive.
• We can see
– The value of Γ𝑉 lies in the range of
− 1 to +1
• More generally Γ𝑉 is a phasor
Γ𝑉 = Γ𝑉 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟
– The magnitude of Γ𝑉 will be in the
range of 0 to 1
– 𝜃𝑟 lies in the range of −180° to +180°
 DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONIC & ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 EE Principles 3 Standing Wave Equation Derivation Dr M.J. Given

The phasor voltages and currents at any point z on a lossless line is given by:

𝑉̃ (𝑧) = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 (1)

𝐼̃(𝑧) = 𝐼0 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 (2)

We are going to show how these equations predict the appearance of standing waves on the
line following the behaviours:

|𝑉̃ (𝑧)| = |𝑉0 + | √[1 + ||2 + 2|| cos(2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 )]

𝑉0 +
|𝐼̃(𝑧)| = | | √[1 + ||2 − 2|| cos(2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 )]
𝑍0

Using the relationship between 𝑉0 − and 𝑉0 + in terms of the reflection coefficient 

𝑉0 − = 𝑉0 +

allows equations (1) and (2) to be rewritten as:

+
𝑉̃ (𝑧) = 𝑉0 + (𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝑉 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 )𝑉0 (3)

𝑉0 + −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐼̃(𝑧) = (𝑒 − 𝑉 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 ) (4)
𝑍0

If we now express  in its phasor form  = ||𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 this allows equations (3) and (4) to be
written as:

𝑉̃ (𝑧) = 𝑉0 + (𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 ) (5)

𝑉0 + −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐼̃(𝑧) = (𝑒 − ||𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 ) (6)
𝑍0

At this point we will look at equation (5) and derive the behaviour of the magnitude of the
voltage standing wave only. The analysis based on equation 5 follows an identical pattern.
We can calculate the magnitude of 𝑉̃ (𝑧) by using its complex conjugate:

|𝑉̃ (𝑧)| = √𝑉̃ (𝑧)𝑉̃ ∗ (𝑧)

PTO
 Aside Relationship between magnitudes and complex conjugates
Remember the standard definition of the magnitude of a complex number.

If 𝐴 = 𝑏 + 𝑗𝑐 then |𝐴| = √𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2

The complex conjugate of 𝐴, 𝐴∗ is defined as 𝐴∗ = 𝑏 − 𝑗𝑐

Therefore 𝐴𝐴∗ = (𝑏 + 𝑗𝑐)(𝑏 − 𝑗𝑐) = 𝑏 2 + 𝑗𝑏𝑐 − 𝑗𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐 2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 = |𝐴|2

So we can write

√𝐴𝐴∗ = |𝐴|
Polar Form of a complex conjugate

If 𝐴 = |𝐴|𝑒 𝑗𝜃 then 𝐴∗ = |𝐴|𝑒 −𝑗𝜃

Forming the complex conjugate of equation (5) remember that 𝑉0 + is a complex entity
∗
𝑉̃ ∗ (𝑧) = (𝑉0 + ) (𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 ) (7)

Multiplying 𝑉̃ ∗ (𝑧) (7) and 𝑉̃ (𝑧) (5) gives:

2 ∗
|𝑉̃ (𝑧)| = 𝑉0 + (𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 ) × (𝑉0 + ) (𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 )

Rearranging:
2 ∗
|𝑉̃ (𝑧)| = 𝑉0 + (𝑉0 + ) (𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 )(𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 )

∗ 2
𝑉0 + (𝑉0 + ) = |𝑉0 + | so:
2 2
|𝑉̃ (𝑧)| = |𝑉0 + | (𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 )(𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 )

Multiplying out:
2 2
|𝑉̃ (𝑧)| = |𝑉0 + | (𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
(8)
+ ||𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 ||𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 )

In this expression 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 = 𝑒 0 = 1 and ||𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 ||𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 = ||2 𝑒 0 = ||2
substituting these in equation (8) gives:
2 2
|𝑉̃ (𝑧)| = |𝑉0 + | (1 + ||𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||2 ) (9)

Looking at the terms ||𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 we can simplify the expression to
give:

||𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 + ||𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 = ||(𝑒 𝑗(2𝛽𝑧+𝜃𝑟 ) + 𝑒 −𝑗(2𝛽𝑧+𝜃𝑟 ) )
So equation (9) becomes:
2 2
|𝑉̃ (𝑧)| = |𝑉0 + | (1 + ||(𝑒 𝑗(2𝛽𝑧+𝜃𝑟 ) + 𝑒 −𝑗(2𝛽𝑧+𝜃𝑟 ) ) + ||2 ) (10)

Aside Trigonometric Relationship 𝑒 𝑗𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝑥 = 2 cos(𝑥)

Using Euler’s Theorem

𝑒 𝑗𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝑥 = cos(𝑥) + 𝑗 sin(𝑥) + cos(−𝑥) + 𝑗 sin(−𝑥)

By definition as cos(𝑥) is even: cos(−𝑥) = cos(𝑥)
And as sin(𝑥) is odd: sin(−𝑥) = − sin(𝑥)
Therefore:

𝑒 𝑗𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝑥 = cos(𝑥) + 𝑗 sin(𝑥) + cos(𝑥) − 𝑗 sin(𝑥)

So:

𝑒 𝑗𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝑥 = 2 cos(𝑥)

Using this relationship:

||(𝑒 𝑗(2𝛽𝑧+𝜃𝑟 ) + 𝑒 −𝑗(2𝛽𝑧+𝜃𝑟 ) ) = 2|| cos(2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 )

Substituting this into equation 9 gives:

2 2
|𝑉̃ (𝑧)| = |𝑉0 + | (1 + 2|| cos(2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 ) + ||2 ) (11)

Leading to a final form:

|𝑉̃ (𝑧)| = |𝑉0 + |√1 + +||2 + 2|| cos(2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 ) (12)

Following the same set of steps starting with equation (6) the expression for the current
standing wave:

𝑉0 +
|𝐼̃(𝑧)| = | | √1 + +||2 − 2|| cos(2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 ) (13)
𝑍0

Can be derived.
Standing Waves on Line

• We have two sinusoidal waves travelling

on the line
• In opposite directions
• The voltage phasor on the line is the sum
of these two waves
𝑉෨ 𝑑 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑 + 𝑉0 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑑
– Where 𝑑 = −𝑧
• The two waves lead to the creation of a
standing wave
• Two figures show this behaviour upper is
at 𝑡 = 0 lower is at 𝑡1 < 0
Standing Waves on Line

• As the waves move in opposite directions

on the line
• The positions of the peaks shift relative to
each other
• We move from a state where 𝑉0 + and 𝑉0 −
are in phase with each other
– Constructive interference
• To a state where the peak positions are
different
– Partial destructive
• The position of a peak value in 𝑉෨ 𝑑 does
not change but the value of 𝑉෨ 𝑑 does
change
Standing wave behaviour with time
Equations for standing waves

• A mathematical analysis allows the • For voltage as we move along the line
0.5
behaviour of the standing waves to 𝑉෨ 𝑧 = 𝑉0 + 1 +  2 + 2  cos 2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟
be calculated
• For the voltages and currents on a
lossless transmission line
• For current as we move along the line
• Based on the behaviour of the 0.5
𝐼ሚ 𝑧 = 𝐼0 + 1 +  2 − 2  cos 2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟
reflection coefficient Γ𝑉 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑟 and 𝛽

•
Maxima on the Line

• Looking at
0.5
𝑉෨ 𝑧 = 𝑉0 + 1 +  2 + 2  cos 2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟
• It has a maximum value when
• cos 2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 = 1
– This value is
2 0.5
𝑉෨ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
= 𝑉0 + 1 + 2  + 
𝑉෨ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
= 𝑉0 + 1 + 
Minima on the Line

• Looking at
0.5
𝑉෨ 𝑧 = 𝑉0 + 1 +  2 + 2  cos 2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟
• It has a minimum value when
• cos 2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 = −1
– This value is
2 0.5
𝑉෨ 𝑀𝑖𝑛
= 𝑉0 + 1 − 2  + 
𝑉෨ 𝑀𝑖𝑛
= 𝑉0 + 1 − 
Positions of Maxima

• For the maxima

cos 2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 = 1
• Implies the positions where the maxima
occur 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 are given by:
2𝛽𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 + 𝜃𝑟 = −𝑛2𝜋
– n is an integer
• So • Using
𝑛2𝜋 + 𝜃𝑟 2𝜋
−𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝜆=
2𝛽 𝛽
• Gives
𝜆 𝜃𝑟 𝜆
− 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 =𝑛 +
2 𝜋4
Positions of Maxima

𝜆 𝜃𝑟 𝜆
− 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛 +
2 𝜋4
• is valid under these conditions
𝑛 = 0,1,2 … 𝑖𝑓𝜃𝑟 ≥ 0
• ቊ
𝑛 = 1,2,3 … 𝑖𝑓𝜃𝑟 < 0
• 𝑛 = 0 is not valid as a solution when 𝜃𝑟 < 0
𝜃 𝜆
as the result would be 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑟 which • The reason that 𝑛 = 1 is valid as a solution
𝜋 4
describes a maxima occurring beyond the when 𝜃𝑟 < 0 is because the maximum
𝜃 𝜆 𝜆
receiving end of the line which is physically negative value of 𝑟 is
𝜋 4 4
meaningless
Positions of Minima
• Voltage Minima
• The condition for a voltage minima is
cos 2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 = −1
• Implies the positions where the minima occur
𝑧𝑀𝑖𝑛 are given by:
2𝛽𝑧𝑀𝑖𝑛 + 𝜃𝑟 = − 2𝑛 + 1 𝜋
n is an integer
– So • Therefore voltage minima and maxima are
2𝑛 + 1 𝜋+𝜃𝑟 separated by a distance
𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −
2𝛽 𝜆
• Using 2
2𝜋 𝜆 𝜆 𝜃𝑟 𝜆
𝜆= , −𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛 + + • Minima are offset from the maxima by a distance
𝛽 2 4 𝜋4 𝜆
4
Standing waves for various conditions
• Note assuming 𝑉0+ = 1𝑒 𝑗0 in these examples
• For an open circuit
Γ = 1𝑒 𝑗0
• Maxima
𝜆 0𝜆
− 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛 +
2 𝜋4
• Minima
𝜆 𝜆 0𝜆
−𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛 + + • First maxima 𝑛 = 0
2 4 𝜋4
𝑧=0
• First minima 𝑛 = 0
𝜆
𝑧=−
4
Standing waves for various conditions
• Note assuming 𝑉0+ = 1𝑒 𝑗0 in these examples
• For a short circuit
Γ = 1𝑒 𝑗180° = 1𝑒 𝑗𝜋
• Maxima
𝜆 𝜋𝜆
− 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛 + ,
2 𝜋4
• Minima
𝜆 𝜆 𝜋𝜆
−𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛 + + • First maxima
2 4 𝜋4
𝜆
𝑧=−
4
• First minima
𝑧=0
Standing waves for various conditions
• Note assuming 𝑉0+ = 1𝑒 𝑗0 in these examples
• When 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0
• Matching Load
Γ=0
• No Maxima or Minima
Standing waves for various conditions
• Note assuming 𝑉0+ = 1𝑒 𝑗0 in these examples
• Assume 𝑍𝐿 = −𝑗50Ω 𝑍0 = 50Ω
−50 − 𝑗50 118𝑒 −𝑗135
Γ= =
50 − 𝑗50 118𝑒 −𝑗45
𝜋
−𝑗
Γ = 1𝑒 −𝑗90 = 1𝑒 2

• Maxima
𝜋
𝜆 − 𝜆
− 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 =𝑛 + 2 • First maxima 𝑛 = 1
2 𝜋 4
3
• Minima 𝑧=− 𝜆
𝜋 8
𝜆 𝜆 −2𝜆 • First minima
−𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛 + +
2 4 𝜋 4 1
𝑧=𝑧=− 𝜆
8
Current standing Wave

• The behaviour of the current Phasor as we • So

move along the line is: 2𝑛 + 1 𝜋+𝜃𝑟
0.5 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 =−
𝐼ሚ 𝑧 = 𝐼0 + 1 +  2 − 2  cos 2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 2𝛽
• Maximum Value • Using
𝐼ሚ 𝑧 = 𝐼0 + 1 +  2𝜋
𝜆= ,
• When 𝛽
𝜆 𝜆 𝜃𝑟 𝜆
cos 2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 = −1 −𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛 + +
2 4 𝜋4
Therefore
• Note current maxima occurs at voltage
2𝛽𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 + 𝜃𝑟 = − 2𝑛 + 1 𝜋
minima for standing waves
n is an integer
Current standing Wave

• The behaviour of the current Phasor as we • So

move along the line is: 𝑛2𝜋 + 𝜃𝑟
−𝑧𝑀𝑖𝑛 =
𝐼ሚ 𝑧 = 𝐼0 + 1 +  2 − 2  cos 2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟
0.5 2𝛽
• Using
• Minimum Value 2𝜋
𝐼ሚ 𝑧 = 𝐼0 + 1 −  𝜆=
𝛽
• When
• Gives
cos 2𝛽𝑧 + 𝜃𝑟 = 1 𝜆 𝜃𝑟 𝜆
Therefore − 𝑧𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛 +
2 𝜋4
2𝛽𝑧𝑀𝑖𝑛 + 𝜃𝑟 = −𝑛2𝜋 𝑛 = 0,1,2 … 𝑖𝑓𝜃𝑟 ≥ 0
ቊ
– n is an integer 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … 𝑖𝑓𝜃𝑟 < 0
Note current minima occurs at voltage
maxima for standing waves
Comparing The Standing Waves

• Voltage
𝑉෨ 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉0 + 1 + 
𝜆 𝜃𝑟 𝜆
− 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛 +
2 𝜋4
𝑉෨ 𝑧𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉0 + 1 − 
𝜆 𝜆 𝜃𝑟 𝜆
−𝑧𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛 + +
2 4 𝜋4
• Current
𝐼ሚ 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼0 + 1 + 
𝜆 𝜆 𝜃𝑟 𝜆
−𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛 + +
2 4 𝜋4
𝐼ሚ 𝑧𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼0 + 1 − 
𝜆 𝜃𝑟 𝜆
− 𝑧𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛 +
2 𝜋4
Comparing the Standing Waves

• The figures opposite show the voltage and current

standing waves when
Γ = 0.474𝑒 𝑗43.1
• Voltage
𝑉෨ 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 1.474 𝑉0 +
𝑉෨ 𝑧𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 0.526 𝑉0 +
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 = 2.80
• Current
𝐼ሚ 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 1.474 𝐼0 +
𝐼ሚ 𝑧𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 0.526 𝐼0 +
• When there is a voltage maximum there is a current
minimum
• When there is a voltage minimum there is a current
maximum
Impact on Impedance

• We will define an input impedance for our line.

𝑉෨ 𝑧
𝑍𝐼𝑛 𝑧 =
𝐼ሚ 𝑧
• Looking at the magnitude of 𝑍𝐼𝑛 𝑧
𝑉෨ 𝑧
𝑍𝐼𝑛 𝑧 =
𝐼ሚ 𝑧
• As the current is at a minimum when the voltage is
at a maximum the impedance must be higher at the
voltage maxima
• As the voltage is at a minimum when the current is
at a maximum the impedance must be lower at
voltage minima
Values of Input Impedance

• Maximum Value of Impedance magnitude.

1.474 𝑉0 + 𝑉0 +
𝑍𝐼𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑥 = = 2.80 +
0.526 𝐼0 + 𝐼0
𝜆 𝜃𝑟 𝜆
− 𝑧𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛 +
2 𝜋4
• Minimum Value of Impedance magnitude.
0.526 𝑉0 + 1 𝑉0 +
𝑍𝐼𝑛 𝑀𝑖𝑛 = =
1.474 𝐼0 + 2.80 𝐼0 +
𝜆 𝜆 𝜃𝑟 𝜆
−𝑧𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛 + +
2 4 𝜋4
Values of Input Impedance

• We can relate 𝑉0 + and 𝐼0 + through the characteristic

impedance
• For a lossless line 𝑍𝑜 real
+ 1
𝐼0 = 𝑉0 +
𝑍𝑜
• So
𝑉0 +
+ = 𝑍𝑜
𝐼0
• Maximum Value of Impedance magnitude.
𝑍𝐼𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 2.80𝑍𝑜 = 𝑆𝑍𝑜
−
1 1
𝑍𝐼𝑛 𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍 = 𝑍
2.80 𝑜 𝑆 𝑜
Formal Definition of Input Impedance

• We can define the input impedance 𝑍𝑖𝑛 at • Setting 𝑧 = −𝑙 in the equation above.
a position 𝑧 on our line
• 𝑧 = 0 is at the receiving end of the line
• Ratio of 𝑉෨ 𝑧 and 𝐼ሚ 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
𝑉෨ 𝑧 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝑍𝑖𝑛 −𝑙 = 𝑗𝛽𝑙 𝑍0
𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙

𝑉0 + −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐼ሚ 𝑧 = 𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝑍0
𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧
∴ 𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝑧 = −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑍
𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 0
Formal Definition of Input Impedance

𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙 • By going through some manipulations of

𝑍𝑖𝑛 −𝑙 = 𝑗𝛽𝑙 𝑍
𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙 0 the expression
• Defines input impedance in terms of the • Please see additional note
length, the reflection coefficient and 𝛽 • It can be shown that:
• Can be useful if we define behaviour in 𝑍𝐿 cos 𝛽𝑙 + 𝑗𝑍0 sin 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 −𝑙 = 𝑍0
terms of the length, 𝛽 and the load 𝑍𝐿 𝑍0 cos 𝛽𝑙 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 sin 𝛽𝑙
• Or
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑗𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 −𝑙 = 𝑍0
𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 tan 𝛽𝑙
Alternative Definition of Input Impedance

• Starting With • Using the 𝑧 = −𝑑 substitution our other

𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 expressions for input impedance would
𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝑧 = −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑍
𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 0 become
• We can rearrange this 𝑍𝐿 cos 𝛽𝑑 + 𝑗𝑍0 sin 𝛽𝑑
𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝑑 = 𝑍0
1 + 𝑒 𝑗2𝛽𝑧 𝑍0 cos 𝛽𝑑 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 sin 𝛽𝑑
𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑍0 • Or
1 − 𝑒 𝑗2𝛽𝑧

• Setting 𝑧 = −𝑑 the distance between the 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑗𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝑑

𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝑑 = 𝑍0
sending and receiving ends of the line 𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 tan 𝛽𝑑
gives
1 + 𝑒 −𝑗2𝛽𝑑
𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝑑 = 𝑍
1 − 𝑒 −𝑗2𝛽𝑑 0
Impedance on Line
 +
Voltage at sending end and 𝑉0

• To the generator the line looks like the • Therefore

circuit below 𝑍𝐼𝑛
𝑉෨𝑆 = 𝑉෨𝐺
• Acts as a potential divider 𝑍𝐼𝑛 + 𝑍𝐺
• The voltage at the input of the line due to
the standing waves on the line is
෨
𝑉(−𝑙) = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
• These two voltages are equal Therefore
𝑍𝐼𝑛
𝑉෨𝐺 = 𝑉0 + 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝐼𝑛 + 𝑍𝐺
• So
+ 𝑍𝐼𝑛 1
𝑉0 = 𝑉෨𝐺
𝑍𝐼𝑛 + 𝑍𝐺 𝑒 + 𝑒
𝑗𝛽𝑙 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
Electrical Length

• In lots of our expressions we are seeing • Another definition of electrical length is in

terms like 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 or tan 𝛽𝑙 wavelengths
• It can be convenient to deal not with the 𝑙
𝑙𝐸𝜆 = ↔ 𝑙 = 𝜆𝑙𝐸𝜆
physical length of the line but the electrical 𝜆
length • as
• One definition of the electrical length is that 2𝜋
𝜆=
it is the phase difference between the 𝛽
sending and receiving ends of the line • Therefore
𝑙𝐸𝜑 = 𝛽𝑙 𝛽𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑙𝐸𝜆
𝑙𝐸𝜑 = 2𝜋𝑙𝐸𝜆
Electrical Length

• In lots of our expressions we are seeing • Another definition of electrical length is in

terms like 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 or tan 𝛽𝑙 wavelengths
• It can be convenient to deal not with the 𝑙
𝑙𝐸𝜆 = ↔ 𝑙 = 𝜆𝑙𝐸𝜆
physical length of the line but the electrical 𝜆
length • as
• One definition of the electrical length is that 2𝜋
𝜆=
it is the phase difference between the 𝛽
sending and receiving ends of the line • Therefore
𝑙𝐸𝜑 = 𝛽𝑙 𝛽𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑙𝐸𝜆
𝑙𝐸𝜑 = 2𝜋𝑙𝐸𝜆
Electrical Length and Periodicity
• When we look at the expressions defining
our lines behaviour:
• We can express our electrical length in
• We frequently see trigonometric functions wavelengths as an integer and a fractional
Using the electrical length i.e.: part.
𝑍𝐿 cos 𝛽𝑙 + 𝑗𝑍0 sin 𝛽𝑙 𝑎
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0 𝑙 = 𝑛𝜆 + 𝜆 𝑎 < 𝑏
𝑍0 cos 𝛽𝑙 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 sin 𝛽𝑙 𝑏
• Or Therefore
𝑎
𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 = cos 𝛽𝑙 + 𝑗 sin 𝛽𝑙 𝑙𝐸𝜆 = 𝑛 +
𝑏

𝑎 𝑎
𝑙𝐸𝜙 = 2𝜋 𝑛 + = 2𝜋𝑛 + 2𝜋
𝑏 𝑏
Electrical Length and Periodicity
• As
𝑎
𝛽𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑛 + 2𝜋 • So in expressions like
𝑏
𝑍𝐿 cos 𝛽𝑙 + 𝑗𝑍0 sin 𝛽𝑙
• And for integer 𝑛 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
cos 2𝑛𝜋 + 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 𝑍0 cos 𝛽𝑙 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 sin 𝛽𝑙
sin 2𝑛𝜋 + 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑗𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
tan 2𝑛𝜋 + 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 tan 𝛽𝑙
• Therefore 1 + 𝑒 −𝑗2𝛽𝑙
𝑎 𝑎 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍
cos 𝛽𝑙 = cos 2𝜋𝑛 + 2𝜋 = cos 2𝜋 1 − 𝑒 −𝑗2𝛽𝑙 0
𝑏 𝑏 • We can replace 𝛽𝑙 using
𝑎 𝑎
sin 𝛽𝑙 = sin 2𝜋𝑛 + 2𝜋 = sin 2𝜋 𝛽𝑙 ≡ 2𝜋𝑙 ȁ𝜆
𝑏 𝑏
𝑎 𝑎 • This makes calculations much simpler
tan 𝛽𝑙 = tan 2𝜋𝑛 + 2𝜋 = tan 2𝜋
𝑏 𝑏
 𝜆
Special Line Lengths 𝑙 =
2
𝜆
• Consider a line that has a length of • The input impedance of a lossless half
2
wavelength line is equal to the load
• Therefore impedance attached to the line.
𝛽𝑙 = π • It is as if the line is not present.
tan𝛽𝑙 = 0
• Note this applies to any multiple of half
• The input impedance of our line wavelengths
𝑍𝐿 +𝑗𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝑙 𝜆
𝑍𝑖𝑛 −𝑙 = 𝑍0
𝑍0 +𝑗𝑍𝐿 tan 𝛽𝑙 𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝑛 = 𝑍𝐿
2
• Becomes
𝜆 𝑍𝐿 • As
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0 = 𝑍𝐿 𝜆
2 𝑍0
𝛽𝑛 = 𝑛π
2
𝜆
tan 𝛽𝑛 =0
2
 𝜆
Special Line Lengths 𝑙 =
4
𝜆
• Consider a line that has a length of • The input impedance of a lossless quarter
4
wavelength line has a simple relationship
• Therefore between 𝑍0 and 𝑍𝐿
π
𝛽𝑙 = 𝜆 𝑍0 2
2
cos𝛽𝑙 = 0, sin𝛽𝑙 = 1 𝑍𝑖𝑛 =
4 𝑍𝐿
• The input impedance of our line • Quarter wavelength lines are used to
𝑍𝐿 cos 𝛽𝑙+𝑗𝑍0 sin 𝛽𝑙 match impedances to minimise reflections
𝑍𝑖𝑛 −𝑙 = 𝑍0
𝑍0 cos 𝛽𝑙+𝑗𝑍𝐿 sin 𝛽𝑙 on lines supplying loads and therefore
• Becomes maximising power transfer
𝜆 𝑗𝑍0 𝑍0 2 • This will also occur for lines where
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0 =
4 𝑗𝑍𝐿 𝑍𝐿 2𝑛 + 1
𝑙= 𝜆
4
Standing Waves Complex Load

• Assume 𝑍𝐿 = 30 + 𝑗30Ω 𝑍0 = 50Ω

20 + 𝑗30 36.1𝑒 𝑗56.3
Γ= =
80 + 𝑗30 76.2𝑒 𝑗23.2
Γ = 0.474𝑒 𝑗43.1
In this case

𝑉෨ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
<2 𝑉෨ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
= 1 + Γ = 1.474

𝑉෨ 𝑀𝑖𝑛
>0 𝑉෨ 𝑀𝑖𝑛
= 1 − Γ = 0.526
Standing Waves Voltage Ratio

• We can define a parameter that describes

the voltage standing wave on a
transmission line.
• Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

• Defined as
𝑉෨ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 1 + Γ
𝑆= =
𝑉෨ 1− Γ
𝑀𝑖𝑛
• In this case
1.474
𝑆= = 2.80
0.526
Power on a transmission line

• The voltage phasor at a distance d from the receiving end of the line
𝑉෨ 𝑑 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑 + Γ𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑑
• Represents a time varying voltage
𝑣 𝑑, 𝑡 = 𝑉0+ cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑑 + 𝜙 + + Γ cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑑 + 𝜙 + + 𝜃𝑟

• The current phasor at a distance d from the receiving end of the line
𝑉0+ 𝑗𝛽𝑑
𝐼ሚ 𝑑 = 𝑒 − Γ𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑑
𝑍0
• Represents a time varying current
𝑉0+
𝑖 𝑑, 𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑑 + 𝜙 + − Γ cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑑 + 𝜙 + + 𝜃𝑟
𝑍0
Power on a transmission line
• The Instantaneous power at position d is given by:
𝑃 𝑑, 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑑, 𝑡 𝑖 𝑑, 𝑡
• Therefore:
𝑃 𝑑, 𝑡 = 𝑉0+ cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑑 + 𝜑+ + cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑑 + 𝜑 + + 𝜃𝑟
𝑉0+
× cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑑 + 𝜑 + + cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑑 + 𝜑 + + 𝜃𝑟
𝑍0
This can be expressed as
𝑉0+ 2
𝑃 𝑑, 𝑡 = 1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝛽𝑑 + 2𝜙 +
2𝑍0
𝑉0+ 2 2
− Γ 1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 2𝛽𝑑 + 2𝜙 + + 2𝜃𝑟
2𝑍0
Incident and reflected power

𝑉0+ 2
𝑃 𝑑, 𝑡 = 1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝛽𝑑 + 2𝜙 +
2𝑍0
𝑉0+ 2 2
− Γ 1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 2𝛽𝑑 + 2𝜙 + + 2𝜃𝑟
2𝑍0

• The component: • The component:

𝑉0+ 2 𝑉0+ 2 2
1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝛽𝑑 + 2𝜙 + Γ 1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 2𝛽𝑑 + 2𝜙 + + 2𝜃𝑟
2𝑍0 2𝑍0
• Represents the flow of power towards the • Represents the flow of power away from
load the load
Incident and reflected power

• Incident Power at load (d=0):

+ 2
𝑉0
𝑃𝑖 0, 𝑡 = 1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜙 +
2𝑍0

• Reflected Power at load:

+ 2
𝑉0
𝑃𝑟 0, 𝑡 = − Γ 2 1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜙 + + 2𝜃𝑟
2𝑍0
Incident and reflected power

• Looking at our incident power

+ 2
𝑉 0
𝑃𝑖 0, 𝑡 = 1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜙 +
2𝑍0
• We have a DC component and a time varying
component
+ 2 + 2
𝑉0 𝑉0
𝑃𝑖 𝑑, 𝑡 = + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜙 +
2𝑍0 2𝑍0
• The average incident power can be found by
integrating over one period of the travelling waves:
𝑇
𝑖
1
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑃𝑖 𝑑, 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0
Incident and reflected power

• Expressing the period in terms of angular frequency

2𝜋Τ𝜔
𝑖 =
𝜔
𝑃𝑎𝑣 න 𝑃𝑖 0, 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋
0

• Leads to
2𝜋Τ𝜔
𝑖
𝑉0+ 2
𝜔
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = න 1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜙 + 𝑑𝑡
2𝑍0 2𝜋
0
• By Definition
2𝜋Τ𝜔

න cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜙 + 𝑑𝑡 = 0
0
Incident and reflected power

• Therefore
𝑖
𝑉0+ 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣 =
2𝑍0
• Similarly for the reflected power
𝑟 =− Γ 2
𝑉0+ 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣
2𝑍0
Transmitted power

• The sum of the incident and reflected power

is transferred to the load
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖 𝑟
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣 +𝑃𝑎𝑣
• Therefore
+ 2 + 2
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑉0 𝑉0
𝑃𝑎𝑣 − Γ2
2𝑍0 2𝑍0
+ 2
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑉 0
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 1− Γ 2
2𝑍0
Transmitted power

• As the line is lossless the average power delivered to the line by the source must equal
the average power delivered to the line
Transient behaviour of lines

• In the previous sections we have • We are now going to exam the behaviour
considered the behaviour of a transmission of the line under transient conditions.
line • To do this we will look at the response to a
– Under Steady State conditions step function.
– Although voltages and currents were • We will find that the behaviours we
varying sinusoidaly, observed in terms of reflection and
– Sufficient time had passed to reach the transmission from line terminations still
steady state conditions apply
𝑉0 + , 𝑉0 − , 𝐼0 + , 𝐼0 − ,𝑍𝐼𝑛
Lets start with a Pulse Train

• If instead of applying a sinusoidal

waveform
• We apply a pulse train.
Pulse amplitude 𝐴
Pulse width 𝑡𝑝
1
Interval between pulses Τ • We can represent our pulse waveform as
2
• Assume that the interval between pulses a Fourier series.
∞
is much larger than the propagation time 𝑡𝑃 2 𝑡𝑃
on the line 𝑓𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴 +෍ sin 𝑛𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡
Τ 𝑛𝜋 Τ
𝑙 𝑛=1
Τ≫
𝑢𝑝
Pulse Train on Line

• If the line is lossless

𝛽 = 𝜔 𝐿′𝐶′
𝜔 1
𝑢𝑝 = =
𝛽 𝐿′𝐶′
• The multiple sinusoids associated with our
pulse train
– Travel at a common velocity • Pulse train with identical properties
appears at output of the line.
– Therefore there are no phase shifts ∞
𝑡𝑃 2 𝑡𝑃
– The amplitude of each sinusoid does 𝑓𝑅 𝑡 = 𝐴 +෍ sin 𝑛𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡
not change. Τ 𝑛𝜋 Τ
𝑛=1
Telegraphers Equations: Time Domain

• Telegraphers Equations for lossless line in • Solution takes the form:

time domain 𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 −
− 𝑣(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐿 ′ 𝑖(𝑧, 𝑡) 𝑢𝑝
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜕 • A disturbance defined by function
− 𝑖(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐶 ′ 𝑣(𝑧, 𝑡) 𝑓 propagating along the line at velocity 𝑢𝑝
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
1
These can be transformed by additional 𝑢𝑝 =
differentiation to: 𝐿′ 𝐶 ′
𝜕2 ′ ′
𝜕2 • General form of solution
2
𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝐶 2
𝑣(𝑧, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝑧 𝑧
2 + −
𝜕 ′ ′
𝜕2 𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − +𝑓 𝑡+
𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝐶 𝑖(𝑧, 𝑡) 𝑢𝑝 𝑢𝑝
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Time domain with sinusoids

• For compactness will represent 𝑧

𝑧 𝑧 𝑓 + 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔 𝑡 −
𝑡− +
= 𝜉 ,𝑡 + = 𝜉− 𝑢𝑝
𝑢𝑝 𝑢𝑝
𝜔
• The functions 𝑓 + 𝜉 + and 𝑓 − 𝜉 − are 𝑓 + 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑧
arbitrary and do not need to be identical 𝑢𝑝
1
𝑢𝑝 =
𝐿′ 𝐶 ′
• Consider 𝑓+ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔 𝐿′ 𝐶 ′ 𝑧
𝑓 + 𝜉 + = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜉 +
𝑓 + 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧
𝑓 − 𝜉 − = Γ𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜉 +
Where 𝛽 = 𝜔 𝐿′ 𝐶 ′
• Sinusoidal travelling wave moving in
direction z
Unit Step function u(x)

• A unit step function changes its value • If we are working in the time domain
discontinuously from 0 to 1.
• It is defined as: 1 for 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ
0 for 𝑡 < 0
1 for 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑢 𝑥 =ቊ
0 for 𝑥 < 0 1 for 𝑡 ≥ 𝜏
𝑢 𝑡−𝜏 =ቊ
0 for 𝑡 < 𝜏

1 for 𝑡 ≥ −𝜏
𝑢 𝑡+𝜏 =ቊ
0 for 𝑡 < −𝜏

Note the unit step function in time is

sometimes referred to as the Heavyside
Function (He was responsible for the theory
associated with distortion less lines)
Other Waveforms
• We can produce
– A rectangular pulse
– Voltage 𝑉 +
– Duration 
• By combining two

– Scaled step functions which change

values
𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉+𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑉+𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜏

• More complicated waveforms can be

produced by combining multiple step
functions
Behaviour of 𝑢 𝜉 +
• If we apply a step wave:
𝑢 𝑡
• To the input of a transmission line
• We see a voltage step propagating
along the line
Step Function On a Line

• Lets consider what happens in the circuit

below.
– There is a lossless line with
characteristic impedance 𝑍0 and length
𝑙 connected to a load of 𝑍𝐿

• The Generator produces a voltage step 𝑉𝐺

at 𝑡 = 0
• A voltage 𝑉1 + appears on the input of the
line
+ 𝑍0
𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝑍0 + 𝑅𝐺 𝐺
Step Function On a Line

• To support 𝑉1 +
• A current 𝐼1 + flows into the line from the
source
𝑉1 +
𝐼1 + =
𝑍0
• This current starts to charge the
capacitance of each section of the line in
sequence to a voltage 𝑉1 +
• This leads to a voltage pulse is
propagating along the line
Step Function On a Line

• At 𝑡 = Τ
• The voltage 𝑉1 + reaches the load end of the
line.
• The time Τ can be calculated from the
propagation velocity
𝑙
𝑇=
𝑢𝑝
• For a lossless line with 𝜇𝑟 = 1
𝜔 1
𝑢𝑝 = = 𝑐
𝛽 𝜀𝑟
What happens next?

• What happens after the step wave • If 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0

𝑉1 + , 𝐼1 + reaches the end of the line? 𝑉 +
𝑉 +
1 1
• This depends on the reflection coefficient 𝐼1+ = = = 𝐼𝐿
𝑍0 𝑍𝐿
between the load impedance and the line
• Current in line matches current in load
• Voltage along line remains constant
• Current flowing into the line from generator
matches current flowing into load
• No additional changes in voltage along the
line
Γ𝐿 = 0, Λ𝐿 = 1.
What happens next?

• What happens after the step wave • If 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0

𝑉1 + , 𝐼1 + reaches the end of the line? 𝑉 +
𝑉 +
1 1
• This depends on the reflection coefficient 𝐼1+ = = = 𝐼𝐿
𝑍0 𝑍𝐿
between the load impedance and the line
• Current in line matches current in load
• Voltage along line remains constant
• Current flowing into the line from generator
matches current flowing into load
• No additional changes in voltage along the
line
Γ𝐿 = 0, Λ𝐿 = 1.
Reflection at Load

• If the load does not match line impedance • KCL and KVL gives the relationships
𝑍𝐿 ≠ 𝑍0 between the step functions:
• The voltage and currents travelling towards 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉1+ + 𝑉1−
the load do not equal the voltage and 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼1+ − 𝐼1−
current in the load
𝑉1+ ≠ 𝑉𝐿 , 𝐼1+ ≠ 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐿 𝑉1+ + 𝑉1−
= 𝑍𝐿 = +
• As when we considered sinusoids 𝐼𝐿 𝐼1 − 𝐼1−
reflection must occur to satisfy KCL and • Following the same approach as with
KVL. sinusoids we can show:
• A voltage step 𝑉1 − appears on the line and 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 +
propagates towards the sending end of the 𝑉1− = 𝑉1 = Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
line with an associated current step 𝐼1 − 𝑉𝐿 = 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
1
𝐼1 − = − 𝑉1 −
𝑍0
Step function travelling towards source

• As the reflected voltage step propagates

back along the line
• We have a section of the line where the
voltage and current matches the conditions
for the load
𝑉 = 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑉1 + = 𝑉𝐿
+
1 + Γ𝐿 𝑉1 • And a section where they match the
𝐼 = 𝐼1+ − 𝐼1− = = 𝐼𝐿
𝑍𝐿 conditions for the source
+ 𝑍0
𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝑍0 + 𝑍𝐺 𝐺
𝑉1+ 1 𝑉𝐺
𝐼= = = 𝐼𝐺
𝑍0 𝑍0 𝑍0 + 𝑍𝐺
At the start of the line

• After an additional time Τ , 𝑉1 − arrives at the

generator end of the line
• The voltage and current at the sending end
are
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = (1 + Γ𝐿 )𝑉1 +
1 − Γ𝐿
𝐼𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉1 + • To Satisfy KCL at the input 𝐼𝑔 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛
𝑍0
𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉𝐼𝑛 𝑉𝑔 − 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
𝐼𝑔 = =
𝑅𝑔 𝑅𝑔
1
𝐼𝐼𝑛 = 1 − Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
𝑍0
At the start of the line 𝑅𝑔 = 𝑍0
• If 𝑅𝑔 = 𝑍0
𝑉𝑔 − 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑉1+ = 1 − Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
𝑉𝑔 = 1 − Γ𝐿 𝑉1+ + 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
+
1
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑔
2
• From initial calculation of 𝑉1+
+
𝑍0
𝑉1 = 𝑉 The current at the input of the line:
𝑍0 + 𝑅𝑔 𝑔
𝑍0 1 1 − Γ𝐿 𝑉1 +
+
𝑉1 = 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝐼𝐼𝑛 =
𝑍0
𝑍0 + 𝑍0 𝑔 2 𝑔
Is equal to the current at the load
Therefore KCl and KVL are satisfied at the input
1 + Γ𝐿 𝑉1 +
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑍𝐿
What if 𝑅𝑔 ≠ 𝑍0

• If the source impedance does not match

• The reflection coefficient Γ𝐺 depends on 𝑅𝑔
the load impedance.
and 𝑍0
• KCL and KVL cannot be satisfied 𝑅𝑔 − 𝑍0
𝑉𝑔 − 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑉1+ 1 Γ𝐺 =
≠ 1 − Γ𝐿 𝑉1+ 𝑅𝑔 + 𝑍0
𝑅𝑔 𝑍0
• An additional reflection occurs at the • The voltage at the input of the line is now
source end of the line. given by:
• Results in a new voltage and current step 𝑉𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉1+ + 𝑉1− + 𝑉2+ = 1 + Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐿 Γ𝐺 𝑉1+
𝑉2+ , 𝐼2+ travelling towards the load. • The current by:
𝑉2+ = Γ𝐺 𝑉1− 1
1 𝐼𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼1+ − 𝐼1− + 𝐼2+ = 1 − Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐿 Γ𝐺 𝑉1+
𝐼2 = Γ𝐺 𝑉1−
+ 𝑍0
𝑍0
Situation after reflection at source
Multiple reflections Voltages
• If both Γ𝐿 and Γ𝐺 are not zero then multiple reflections will occur
• Sending End Step waves appear at 0, 2T, 4T…
• Receiving End Step waves arrive at T, 3T, 5T…

0<𝑡<𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉1+ 𝑉𝐿 = 0

𝑇 < 𝑡 < 2𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉1+ 𝑉𝐿 = 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
2𝑇 < 𝑡 < 3𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑛 = 1 + Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 𝑉1+ 𝑉𝐿 = 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
3𝑇 < 𝑡 < 4𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑛 = 1 + Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 𝑉1+ 𝑉𝐿 = 1 + Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
4𝑇 < 𝑡 < 5𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑛 = 1 + Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐺 𝑉1+ 𝑉𝐿 = 1 + Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐿 𝑉1+

…
Multiple reflections Voltages
• If both Γ𝐿 and Γ𝐺 are not zero then multiple reflections will occur
• Sending End Step waves appear at 0, 2T, 4T…
• Receiving End Step waves arrive at T, 3T, 5T…

0<𝑡<𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉1+ 𝑉𝐿 = 0

𝑇 < 𝑡 < 2𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉1+ 𝑉𝐿 = 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
2𝑇 < 𝑡 < 3𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑛 = 1 + Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 𝑉1+ 𝑉𝐿 = 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
3𝑇 < 𝑡 < 4𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑛 = 1 + Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 𝑉1+ 𝑉𝐿 = 1 + Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
4𝑇 < 𝑡 < 5𝑇 𝑉𝐼𝑛 = 1 + Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐺 𝑉1+ 𝑉𝐿 = 1 + Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐿 𝑉1+

…
Multiple reflections Currents
• If both Γ𝐿 and Γ𝐺 are not zero then multiple reflections will occur
• Sending End Step waves appear at 0, 2T, 4T…
• Receiving End Step waves arrive at T, 3T, 5T…

0<𝑡<𝑇 1 + 𝑉𝐿 = 0
𝐼𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉
𝑍0 1
𝑇 < 𝑡 < 2𝑇 1 1
𝐼𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉1+ 𝐼𝐿 = 1 − Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
𝑍0 𝑍𝐿
2𝑇 < 𝑡 < 3𝑇 1 1
𝐼𝐼𝑛 = 1 − Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 𝑉1+ 𝐼𝐿 = 1 − Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
𝑍0 𝑍𝐿
3𝑇 < 𝑡 < 4𝑇 1 1
𝐼𝐼𝑛 = 1 − Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 𝑉1+ 𝐼𝐿 = 1 − Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 − Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
𝑍0 𝑍𝐿
4𝑇…< 𝑡 < 5𝑇 1 1
𝑉𝐼𝑛 = 1 − Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 − Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐺 𝑉1+ 𝐼𝐿 = 1 − Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 − Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 Γ𝐿 𝑉1+
𝑍0 𝑍𝐿
Does it go on for ever?

• The voltage at the receiving end of the transmission • The summation

line after 2𝑛 + 1 transits. 𝑛

෍ 𝛤𝐺 𝛤𝐿 𝑚
𝑡 = 2𝑛 + 1 Τ 𝑛 = 0,1 …
1 + Γ𝐿 + Γ𝐿 Γ𝐺 + Γ𝐿2 Γ𝐺 + Γ𝐿 Γ𝐺 2 … + 𝑚=0
𝑉𝐿 2𝑛 + 1 Τ = 𝑉1
𝑛 𝑛−1
+Γ𝐿 Γ𝐺 + Γ𝐿 Γ𝐺 𝑛 • Is a geometric series and
𝑛
• Can be expressed as 𝑛
1
෍ 𝑥 = for 𝑥 < 1
𝑉𝐿 2𝑛 + 1 Τ = 1 + Γ𝐿 1 + Γ𝐿 Γ𝐺 + Γ𝐿 Γ𝐺 2 … Γ𝐿 Γ𝐺 𝑛 1−𝑥
𝑖=0
• So we can write a general expression for the voltages
at the receiving end of the line : • 𝛤𝐺 𝛤𝐿 ≤ 0 so:
𝑛 ∞
+ 𝑚
1
𝑉𝐿 2𝑛 + 1 Τ = 1 + 𝛤𝐿 ෍ 𝛤𝐺 𝛤𝐿 𝑚
𝑉1 ෍ 𝛤𝐺 𝛤𝐿 =
1 − 𝛤𝐺 𝛤𝐿
𝑚=0 𝑚=0
Convergent solution

𝑛
𝑚 +
• As 𝑡 → ∞ the voltage at the sending
𝑉𝐿 2𝑛 + 1 Τ = 1 + 𝛤𝐿 ෍ 𝛤𝐺 𝛤𝐿 𝑉1 end of the line
𝑚=0 1 + 𝛤𝐿
• As 𝑛 → ∞, 𝑡 → ∞ 𝑉𝐼𝑛 ∞ = 𝑉𝐿 ∞ = 𝑉1 +
1 + 𝛤𝐿 1 − 𝛤𝐺 𝛤𝐿
𝑉𝐿 ∞ = 𝑉1 + • The voltage along the line is uniform
1 − 𝛤𝐺 𝛤𝐿
• After 2𝑛 reflections the magnitude of the
voltage steps are • Substituting
𝑉𝑛+ = 𝛤𝐿 𝑛 𝛤𝐺 𝑛 𝑉1 + , 𝑉2𝑛
−
= 𝛤𝐿 𝑛+1 𝛤𝐺 𝑛 𝑉1 + + 𝑍0
𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝛤𝐿 < 1, 𝛤𝐺 < 1 𝑍𝐺 + 𝑍0 𝐺
• Therefore as 𝑛 → ∞, 𝑡 → ∞ • leads to:
𝑉𝑛+ → 0, 𝑉𝑛− → 0 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑍0
𝑉∞ = 𝑉
1 − Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 𝑍𝐺 + 𝑍0 𝐺
Final State

• As the voltage at all points on the line has • The current flowing into the line at the
taken the value: sending end is now equal to the current
1 + Γ𝐿 𝑍0 flowing into the load
𝑉∞ = 𝑉𝐺
1 − Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 𝑍𝐺 + 𝑍0 𝐼𝐼𝑛∞ = 𝐼𝐿∞
• And is now constant the current flowing • Therefore
into the load is 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑍0
𝑉𝐼𝑛∞ 𝑉
1 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑍0 1 − Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 𝑍𝐺 + 𝑍0 𝐺
𝐼𝐿∞ = 𝑉 𝑍𝐼𝑛∞ = = = 𝑍𝐿
𝑍𝐿 1 − Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 𝑍𝐺 + 𝑍0 𝐺 𝐼𝐼𝑛∞ 1 1 + Γ𝐿 𝑍0
𝑉
𝑍𝐿 1 − Γ𝐺 Γ𝐿 𝑍𝐺 + 𝑍0 𝐺
• As the voltage profile is constant
𝑉𝐼𝑛∞ = 𝑉∞
• Power flowing into line is equal to power
supplied to load
Pulse Waveforms on a line

• When a pulse
– Duration 
– Amplitude 𝑉
• Is Travelling on a transmission line
• A section of the transmission line length
∆𝑙 = 𝑢𝑝 𝜏
– Is at a voltage 𝑉
– With a current I flowing
• The remainder of the line is
– at voltage 0
– With no current flowing Note horizontal axis is position on
line not time
Pulse Reflection

• Lets consider what happens when the

pulse comes to the end of the
transmission line and encounters a a
different impedance.
• Reflection and transmission will occur at
the boundary between the line and the
load impedance.
• We will assume that the load is a second
line
 1
• At a time 𝑡 = 𝜏 after leading edge of
4
pulse has met the boundary the situation
is as follows
• The step wave 𝑉
– is reflecting producing a step wave
𝑉𝑅 = Γ𝑉 moving back up the line
– is transmitting a step wave 𝑉𝑇 = (1 +
Γ)𝑉 moving beyond the end of the line
• The step wave –V is yet to meet the
boundary
 1
• At time 𝑡 = 𝜏
4
∆𝑙
• For a distance from the boundary along
4
line 1 and line 2 the voltage is 1 + Γ 𝑉
∆𝑙
• For a distance from the boundary to
4
3∆𝑙
along line 1 the voltage is 𝑉
4
• The voltage at all other points in the
system is zero
 1
• At a time 𝑡 = 𝜏 after leading edge of
2
pulse has met the boundary the situation
is as follows
• The step wave V is continuing to
– Reflect a step wave 𝑉𝑅 = Γ𝑉 back
along line 1
– Transmit a step wave 𝑉𝑇 = (1 +
Γ)𝑉 along line 2
• The step wave –V is yet to meet the
boundary
 1
• At a time 𝑡 = 𝜏 after leading edge of
2
pulse has met the boundary the situation
is as follows
∆𝑙
• For a distance from the boundary along
2
line 1 and line 2 the voltage is 1 + Γ 𝑉
• The voltage at all other points in the
system is zero
 3
• At a time 𝑡 = 𝜏 after leading edge of
4
pulse has met the boundary the situation
is as follows

– The step wave V is continuing to

• Reflect a step wave 𝑉𝑅 = Γ𝑉 back

along line 1

• Transmit a step wave 𝑉𝑇 = (1 +

Γ)𝑉 along line 2

– The step wave –V is yet to meet the

boundary
 3
• At a time 𝑡 = 𝜏 after leading edge of
4
pulse has met the boundary the situation
is as follows
3
• The voltage for a distance ∆𝑙 along line 2
4
is at a value 𝑉𝑇 = (1 + Γ)𝑉
1
• The voltage for a distance ∆𝑙 along line 1
4
is at a value 𝑉𝑇 = (1 + Γ)𝑉
1
• The voltage between ∆𝑙 and ∆ 𝑙 along
4
line 1 is at a value 𝑉𝑇 = Γ𝑉
• The voltage at all other points is zero
• At a time 𝑡 = 𝜏 after leading edge of pulse
has met the boundary the situation is as
follows

• The step wave V is continuing to

– Reflect a step wave 𝑉𝑅 = Γ𝑉 back

along line 1

– Transmit a step wave 𝑉𝑇 = (1 +

Γ)𝑉 along line 2

• The step wave –V has meet the boundary

• At a time 𝑡 = 𝜏 after leading edge of pulse
has met the boundary the situation is as
follows

• The voltage for a distance∆𝑙 along line 2 is

at a value 𝑉𝑇 = (1 + Γ)𝑉

• The voltage for a distance∆𝑙 along line 1 is

at a value 𝑉𝑇 = Γ𝑉

• The voltage at all other points is zero

 5
• At a time 𝑡 = 𝜏 after leading edge of pulse has
4
met the boundary the situation is as follows
• The step wave V is continuing to
– Reflect a step wave 𝑉𝑅 = Γ𝑉 back along line
1
– Transmit a step wave 𝑉𝑇 = (1 + Γ)𝑉 along
line 2
• The step wave –V has now reached the
boundary and is
– Reflecting a step wave 𝑉−𝑅 = −Γ𝑉 back along
line 1
– Transmits a step wave 𝑉−𝑇 = −(1 + Γ)𝑉
along line 2
 5
• At time 𝑡 = 𝜏
4
𝑙
• for a distance from the boundary to along line 1
4
and line 2
– The voltage is zero
∆𝑙 5
• For a distance from to ∆𝑙 along line 2
4 4
– The voltage is 1 + Γ 𝑉
∆𝑙 5
• For a distance from to ∆𝑙 along line 1
4 4
– The voltage is Γ𝑉
• The voltage at all other points in the system is zero
Bounded Transmission Based on Optical Fibre

Part 1
1. CONCETP OF TRANSMISSION LINE AND IMPLEMENTATIONS
2. OPTICAL FIBRE AS BOUNDED TRANSMISSION LINE
3. TRANSMISSION LINES APPLICATIONS, WORKED EXAMPLES
Part 2
4. FIBER BANDWIDTH AND USE OF LASERS/LEDS IN FIBRE TRANSMISSION LINES
5. FIBRE TRANSMISSION LINES IMPAIRMENTS
6. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
7. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Bounded Transmission Based on Optical Fibre
Reminder: What is Transmission line?

Transmission line (TL) is a pathway where a selected wave carrier moves power, data,
or signal between a transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx).
Tx Rx

Implementation:
- Bounded TL provides a guided transmission:
 Conducting wires – ‘twisted pair’ telephone cable, Ethernet cable, coaxial cable
 Microstrip of metal on PCB (printed circuit board)
 Optical fiber
- Unbounded TL provides unguided transmission using free space, atmosphere, water, etc.
Application of bounded & unbounded transmission lines:
- Data delivery: via cables (Ethernet, optical fibre, cable TV) or Free space (WiFi, 5G, Bluetooth, …)
- Power delivery: via cables or contactless (contactless charging, x-ray, radiation therapy)
Current mobile networks use both, unbounded and bounded TLs with
incorporated optical fibre

Mobile networks can be divided into two

parts:
- Core and
- Radio Access Network (RAN)

Core is usually based on optical fibre

and carries the most sensitive operations,
including authenticating users' identities
and making sure calls get sent to the right
radio tower to connect to another person's
phone.

Radio Access Network includes the base

stations and antennas. They provide a link
between individual mobile devices and the
core.

https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-53407096
Reminder:
Bounded transmission lines
- Wire transmission lines were first used
in telegraph networks in the USA in 1860-1861

Illustration of coaxial cable applications

 Fibre optic transmission lines
First fibre optic transmission was used in TV broadcast during
the Winter Olympics in Lace Placid, USA in 1980.

Fibre optic transmission line is based on optical fibre, so what is optical fibre?
Optical fibre - The basics. To watch this video, watch the video lecture on MyPlace
 Snell’s law reminder
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2

n 1 < n2 n1 > n2 n1 > n2 n1 > n2

2 < 1 2 > 1 2 = 90 2 > 90

1 1 c 1 > c

n1 sin c = n2 Total Reflection

c is critical angle 1 >  c
Worked Example:
Find maximum input angle for lunching signal into fibre optic TL.

n0
90
Laser nf
𝜃c

𝜽𝒊𝐧

nf sin 𝜽c = nc sin 90 (𝜽c = 90- 𝜃 2 ; where 𝜃c is critical angle for nf and nc interface)
nf sin (90- 𝜃2 ) = nc sin (A - B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B Recall Tutorial M

nf cos 𝜃2 = nc sin(90 - 𝜃 2) = sin 90 cos 𝜃 2 – cos 90 sin 𝜃 2 = cos 𝜃 2

cos 𝜃2 = nc /nf
sin 𝜃2 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 2 = (1 − nc / nf 2 cont.
cont.
At the fibre input interface, using Snell’s law we can write
n0 sin 𝜃a = nf sin 𝜃2
sin 𝜃a = (nf / n0) sin 𝜃2
sin 𝜃a = (nf /n0) (1 − nc / nf 2

Maximum input angle 𝜃 for lunching signal into fibre optic TL is

acceptance angle 𝜃 a given as:

1
sin 𝜃a = 𝑛𝑓2 − 𝑛𝑐2
𝑛0
Bounded Transmission Based on Optical Fibre
- Part 1 -

Part 1 Summary
1. CONCETP OF TRANSMISSION LINE AND IMPLEMENTATIONS
2. OPTICAL FIBRE AS BOUNDED TRANSMISSION LINE
3. TRANSMISSION LINES APPLICATIONS, WORKED EXAMPLES

Next : Bounded transmission based on optical fibre - Part 2

Professor Ivan Glesk

Bounded Transmission Based on Optical Fibre
- Part 2 -

Part 1
1. CONCETP OF TRANSMISSION LINE AND IMPLEMENTATIONS
2. OPTICAL FIBRE AS BOUNDED TRANSMISSION LINE
3. TRANSMISSION LINES APPLICATIONS, WORKED EXAMPLES
Part 2
4. FIBER BANDWIDTH AND USE OF LASERS/LEDS IN FIBRE TRANSMISSION LINES
5. FIBRE TRANSMISSION LINES IMPAIRMENTS
6. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
7. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Bounded Transmission Based on Optical Fibre
- Part 2 -
Transmission bandwidth is one of key parameters of fibre optic TL
In case of fibre optical TL such parameter is Passband

Passband of Silica Fibre

Passband gives us a wavelengths range the source such as a Laser or Light emitting
diode (LED) must generate to be compatible with fibre transmission lines.
LASER - the basics. To watch this video, watch the video lecture on MyPlace
Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation
 Illustration: Laser beam Monochromaticity
Nearly single 0 wavelength generation by laser
However narrow  is generated.  is called linewidth.
!! Laser linewidth is very narrow !!



side-mode suppression of >80 dB

0

Remember: Laser narrow  contributes to chromatic dispersion of fibre transmission lines

Illustration
High Directionality and Focusability of laser beam

Laser beam can be focused to a tiny spot size to match the fiber core area

Laser 0 D

Focus point diameter ~ 0 f / D

Since the SM fibre core diameter is only ~ 8 m this is the key property
for achieving a good coupling of laser light into fibre transmission line
Illustration: Laser & LED emitting characteristics

Light power
Laser diode

10 mW LE D

5 mW

Current
0
50 mA 100 mA
Lasing threshold

Typical
These optical
properties power output
are examined vs.labforward
in EE311 S2 exercises.current
for a LED and a laser diode.
© 1999 S.O. K asap,Optoelectronics(P rentice H all)
 Fibre transmission line impairments
There are three major impairments:

a) Chromatic dispersion

b) Waveguide (modal) dispersion

c) Attenuation

Illustration of their combine effect on data transmission

 a) Chromatic dispersion and data pulse broadening
𝒄
The cause is the group velocity vg () = depends on  via 𝑛𝑓 ()
𝒏𝒇 (  )

Inpu t 𝑛𝑐 Cla dding

v g ( 1 )
Core Output
Emitter
Laser Tx 𝑛𝒇 () v g ( 2 )
Very short
light p uls e

Intensity Intensity Intensity

Laser
Spectrum,
linewidth ² 
Spread, ² 

 t t
1 o 2 0 

All excitation sour ces are inherently non-monochromatic and emit within a
spectrum,², of wavelengt hs. W aves in t he guide wit h dif ferent fr ee space
wavelengths travel at dif ferent group velocities due t o the wavelength depend
of n1. T he waves arr ive at t he end of the fiber at different t imes and hence re
a br oadened output pulse.
© 1 99 9 S.O. K asap,Optoelectronics(P rentice H all)
Illustrating the impact of dispersion broadening
on data transmission rate

T Fibre TL
Laser Rx
RF data IN t

Optical data IN RF data OUT

T T

t
out out t
IN IN Received distorted data

The condition for maximum data rate f due to pulse broadening

2out < T ( where T = 1 / f )
1
f < (1)
2 𝜏𝑜𝑢𝑡
b) Waveguide dispersion and data pulse broadening

 
T
cladding
T
lmax
a
core
lmin = l
}  
cladding

- Data pulses after entering waveguide / fibre travel in different directions

- Travel in different directions means traveling different distances, i.e. different times.
- After exiting related segments reunite forming broader shaped pulses compare to
the input pulses.
- This type of broadening is called waveguide modal dispersion.
- Modal dispersion imposes limitation on the maximum data rate fibre will support
(see a tutorial question on this topic). a
Example 2: Evaluation of the effect of the waveguide dispersion on
maximal data rate the fiber transmission line can support.
l
nc 90
n0 lmax
2 nf 3
n0

nc

Using Snell’s law and a condition for total refection from fibre cladding at fibre end we get
nf sin3 = nc sin 90 3 = 90 − 2 (recall math Tutorial)
nf sin (90 - 2 ) = nc sin (90 - 2) = sin 90 cos 2 − cos 90 sin 2 = cos 2

nf cos2 = nC
cos2 = nc /nf
Therefore: lmax = l /cos2 = l nf / nc
2 speed of light in vacuum is c
=> tmax = lmax / up = l nf / (c nc) speed of light in the fibre core is up = c / nf
tmin = lmin / up = l / up = l nf /c cont.
cont.
tmax – tmin = l nf 2 /(c nc ) − l nf /c = l nf (nf − nc ) /c nc

Recall Eq.1 : To avoid the data pulses overlap at the transmission line output

2out < 1 / f , where out = tmax − tmin

After the substitution, the highest data rate f for the FTL of length l limited
by the modal dispersion is:
1 𝑐 𝑛𝑐
f < = (bits/s)
2 𝜏𝑜𝑢𝑡 2 𝑙 𝑛𝑓 (𝑛𝑓 − 𝑛𝑐 )
 c) Attenuation by fibre transmission line

and
input P(0) at fibre input z = 0.

we get Beers law:

(z)

𝑷 (𝟎)
Transmission line attenuation in dB: AttdB = 10 log10 𝑷 (𝐳)
This will be subject of investigation in EE311 S2 lab exercises
Illustration: Worldwide fibre deployment statistics
by The Daily Telegraph, Friday 3/1/2020

• In 1996 a typical dial-up (modem) connection was 33 kbit/s

• By 2000 first broadband (by optical fibre) offered 2 Mbit/s
• In 2010 fist Gbit/s connections were available
• In 2019 first 10 Gbit/s were available
• By 2030 full fibre connection will deliver 100 Gbit/s to a connected property
Current fibre to premise coverage: Example of street fibre cabinet in UK
• UK 10 %
• France 28 %
• Spain 71 %
• Portugal 89 %
• Japan 97 %
• South Korea 99 %
A 2018 report by Regeneris estimates that full fibre roll-out could boost the UK economy
by £120 billion over the next 15 years.
 Selected applications of lasers
• Medicine
- surgery
- vision correction
- dentistry
• Industrial applications
- welding
- mining
- architecture
- data communications
• Home entertainment
- CD & DVD Players, CD-RW, DVD-RW
Illustration: Fibre optic TL has clear advantages over wire TLs

wires vs fibre

Wire cable vs Fibre cable

 Illustrations
Installing optical fibre in the city Optical fibre welding using a fusion slicer
Bounded Transmission Based on Optical Fibre
Lecture summary
Part 1
1. CONCETP OF TRANSMISSION LINE AND IMPLEMENTATIONS
2. OPTICAL FIBRE AS BOUNDED TRANSMISSION LINE
3. TRANSMISSION LINES APPLICATIONS, WORKED EXAMPLES
Part 2
4. FIBER BANDWIDTH AND USE OF LASERS/LEDS IN FIBRE TRANSMISSION LINES
5. FIBRE TRANSMISSION LINES IMPAIRMENTS
6. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Next lecture: Nature’s forces and waves;contactless power transfer

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Impact of Transmission Media
on Unbounded Wave

Part 1
1. ELECTRIC FIELD IN FREE SPACE AND DIELECTRICS
2. PARAMETERS DESCRIBING WAVE PROPAGATION
3. WORKED EXAMPLES
Part 2
4. MEDIA DISPERSION – PROPAGATION CONSTANT – TRANSMISSION RATES
5. WAVES – PHOTONS DUALITY; ‘MATTER’ WAVES
6. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
7. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

What is the impact of transmission media on unbounded wave?

Example:
Freeview television goes down across Britain because of 'unusual weather'
People across the UK are unable to watch Freeview television because of high pressure weather
conditions with some viewers receiving French channels instead.
Read in The Telegraph, 30 December 2019: https://apple.news/AS-C0T9rZTyarpq1ewOcsAQ

Reminder: EMW is generated by electric charges.

1) Electric field generated by a charge q in free space:

𝑞
෡
𝑬(𝑅) = 𝑹 (V/m)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2
Permittivity of free space

Example: Shape of the generated electric field by a moving electric charge – interactive demo
http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/radiating-charge/radiating-charge_en.html

Professor Ivan Glesk

cont.

2) 2) Electric field in dielectrics (non-conducting media):

Polarization of media atoms weakens
the electric field strength in the media.
The resulting Electric field can be found by R
applying the permittivity  of this dielectric
𝑞
෡
𝑬(𝑅) = 𝑹
4𝜋 𝑅2
 = 0 r

We can see, electric field E in dielectrics is r times smaller then will be in vacuum
 E & M characteristics of dielectrics

 = o r
r is large in dielectrics

In future lectures we will investigate how the permittivity  of

- Free space
- Dielectrics
- Conductors
changes the electric field E and the propagating EM Wave
Example:

We use dielectrics in capacitors to lower E between capacitor’s plates.

This allows to store more charges thus increase the capacitance C while
preventing voltage breakdown (capacitor destruction).
Eext Eext
Eint
+𝑄 −𝑄
Air
0
𝐴 𝐴

d
0 𝐴
Capacitance in air: Cair =
𝑑 d
𝑟 0 𝐴
With dielectric: C = = 𝑟 Cair
𝒅

The capacitance is r -times larger when dielectric is used.

 Describing Unbounded Plane Wave Traveling
in Lossless Media
Recall from our previous lecture:
If the motion A(z,t) is a wave then it must be solution of the wave equation (WE):
𝜕2 𝐴(𝑧,𝑡) 𝜕2
=v2 𝐴(𝑧, 𝑡) (WE)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑧 2

The lossless medium does not attenuate the amplitude of the traveling wave and WE solution is

A( x, t )  A0 cos(t   x  0 )

where A0 is the amplitude of the wave, T is time period

 is wavelength, 𝜙0 is a reference phase and t is time
2 2 𝜔
  2 f  and phase velocity v =  f = m/s
T  𝛽

In a phasor domain WE solution is : A( x)  A0 e  j (  x 0 )

Understanding Direction of Wave Travel

Wave travels in +x direction

Wave travels in -x direction

+x direction: if coefficients of t and x have opposite signs

-x direction: if coefficients of t and x have same sign (both positive

or both negative)
What is Phase Lead & Lag

A( x, t )  A0 cos(t   x  0 )
Example 1 : Finding direction of wave travel

A0

x
Wave travels in – x direction:
A( x, t )  A0 cos(t   x) A( z )  A0 e j  x

Wave travels in + x direction:

A( x, t )  A0 cos(t   x) A( z )  A0 e  j  x
Example 2: Waves interactions: superposition leading to standing wave

- Nodes, anti nodes, constructive and destructive interference

2 2
A f ( x, t )  A0 cos( t x)
T 
2 2
Ar ( x, t )   A0 cos( t x)
T 

Recall trigonometry:

2 2
As ( x, t )  2 A0 sin( x) sin( t) +
 T

2λ 3λ/2 λ λ/2 0
Example 3: Working with Phasors
For useful Math reminders when working with phasors (see also Tutorials)

- Two traveling waves are describe by following phasors:

Solution:
 Describing unbounded wave traveling
in Lossy media
Lossy media cause wave attenuation
y ( x)  10e 0.2 x cos(t   x  0 )
Attenuation factor
 Wave attenuation and absorption
– examples, consequences and applications –

 Mobile phone signal is attenuated by building walls, …

 Absorption of ultraviolet waves by DNA is used for microbial

disinfection

 Absorption of microwaves by water contained in food is used

by microwave ovens to reheat the food

 Spectroscopy – identification of unknown samples is based

on differences in their spectral absorption
Example 4:
Find propagation parameters of the wave attenuated by sea water
2
when give by expression A( z , t )  e 0.126 z cos(2 103 t  z ) and
5
draw a graph.
Solution:
1
A0 = 1 A(z)
0.5
α = 0.126 m-1
𝜔
f = = 1 kHz 0 z (m)
2𝜋 0 5 10 15
2𝜋
λ= =5m -0.5
𝛽

-1
Science brief:

Colliding galaxies look like the glowing eyes of a ghostly face

Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and J. Dalcanton, B.F. Williams, and M. Durbin
(University of Washington)
 Impact of Transmission Media
on Unbounded Wave, Concept of Duality

Part 1 summary
1. ELECTRIC FIELD IN FREE SPACE AND DIELECTRICS
2. PARAMETERS DESCRIBING WAVE PROPAGATION
3. WORKED EXAMPLES

Next watch Part 2

4. MEDIA DISPERSION – PROPAGATION CONSTANT – TRANSMISSION RATES
5. WAVES – PHOTONS DUALITY; ‘MATTER’ WAVES
6. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Impact of Transmission Media
on Unbounded Wave
Part 2

Part 1
1. ELECTRIC FIELD IN FREE SPACE AND DIELECTRICS
2. PARAMETERS DESCRIBING WAVE PROPAGATION
3. WORKED EXAMPLES
Part 2
4. MEDIA DISPERSION – PROPAGATION CONSTANT – TRANSMISSION RATES
5. WAVES – PHOTONS DUALITY; ‘MATTER’ WAVES
6. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
7. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Part -2

Impact of propagation constant

on traveling wave
In the ideal world the propagation constant  is a constant:  = 0
y (x, t ) = A e- x cos ( t - 0 x + ∅0)
but that is not always the case.

Often,  is frequency dependent:  = (). (Recall chromatic dispersion)

In this case the unbounded traveling wave must be described as:

y (x, t ) = A e- x cos ( t -  () x + ∅0)

To better understand dependency of  on  , it is useful to Taylor expand
 ( ) around the carrier’s centre frequency 0 (see Math Tutorial):

 
 () = 0 + 1 ( - 0) + 2!2 ( - 0)2 . . . + 3!m ( - 0)m (E10)
2! = 1×2 ; 3! = 1×2×3
dm
where βm = ( dmβ ) =o where m = 0,1, …

β0 is known as wave propagation constant in the medium

β1 = (ddβ ) = o is related to media dispersion (E11)

0 
In engineering practice 1 is used to define Dispersion coefficient D:

D = ∂∂𝟏 [ps /(nm  km)]

D determines the temporal broadening of the pulse in picoseconds (ps).

Illustration of pulse broadening due to dispersion

before after transmission

Note: recall the impact of pulse broadening on the max data rate studied in our first lecture.
Recall from earlier lecture:
Pulse broadening due to dispersion has negative impact
on transmission line performance.

Outgoing Pulse broadened

pulse after traveling distanced L
Amplitude (mW)

due to media dispersion D

D ~ D L
0 D
0 L x (km)

Chromatic dispersion can be corrected by dispersion compensation

No Inter-symbol Inter-symbol No Inter-symbol

interference interference interference
Amplitude (mW)

0 0 D D Chromatic
0 0
Dispersion
0 L Compensator x (km)
Illustration:
Impact of higher order dispersion 3
(for illustration only)

 3 is responsible for the breakup of a data pulse traveling in optical fibre

Distorted shape of 0.5 ps temporal pulse after traveling 2.5 km in fibre

Chang, Sandesai, Weiner, Opt. Lett. 23, 283 (1998)
Worked Example 1:

In general: n = n 0 cos ( t -  z)
 Duality between wave and matter
At the 19 th century end:
- light was considered waves of electromagnetic fields described by Maxwell’s
equations
- matter was thought to consist of localized particles (protons, electrons, ...)
In 1900, Max Planck proposed that light (always understood to be a wave) is emitted
in a discrete quanta of energy (not continually).
Extending Planck's idea, Einstein proposed that light also propagates and is absorbed
in quanta called photons.

Photon energy is given by the Planck–Einstein formula E = hn

Photon momentum . The momentum is clearly the property of particles
Illustration:

EMW energy depends on frequency

 Wave energy
Examples of EMW Power density of different sources:

 Solar power density 1 kW/m2

 Laser, 2 mW/7 mm2 29 kW/m2
 UV disinfection of water 10 W/m2
 Mobile signals 2.2 cm from station antenna 200 W/m2
 Mobile phone signals for public access 10-3 W/m2
 Power used by microwave oven 900 W
 EMW interactions with Matter
Photoelectric and Photovoltaic effects and their applications

A0

External Photoelectric effect

Photon energy is E = hn, h Planck constant,n wave frequency Internal Photovoltaic (PV) effect
used to generate electricity
Solar energy can be harvested by Photovoltaic Solar Cells
Reminder of duality of electron:

Electron is a particle but can also behave and act as wave

De Broglie, in his 1924 PhD thesis, proposed that just as light has both wave-like and
particle-like properties, electron, a particle also has wave-like properties.

Electron’s wavelength λ can be associated with his momentum as p = h/ 

The proof of electron wave-like properties is this diffraction.

Demonstration of matter wave via diffraction of electrons

Worked Example 2:

Solution: a) Wave travels in + x direction

𝜔 3 × 1015
b) Phase velocity up = = 7 = 3 × 108 (m/s)
𝛽 10

c) At x = 200 m E ( x, t ) = 150 𝑒 - 0.03 × 200 = 0.37 (V/m)

 Home reading, and is for information only

Diesel cars, NOx pollution, why is it bad?

 Impact of Transmission Media
on Unbounded Wave
Lecture Summary
Part 1
1. ELECTRIC FIELD IN FREE SPACE AND DIELECTRICS
2. PARAMETERS DESCRIBING WAVE PROPAGATION
3. WORKED EXAMPLES
Part 2
4. MEDIA DISPERSION – PROPAGATION CONSTANT – TRANSMISSION RATES
5. WAVES – PHOTONS DUALITY; ‘MATTER’ WAVES
6. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Next lecture: EMW in lossless media

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Nature’s Forces and Waves
Contactless Power Transfer

Part 1
1. FROM FORCES TO UNBOUNDED WAVES IN NATURE
2. WAVE EQUATION; PROPAGATION PARAMETERS; EXAMPLES

Part 2
3. WIRELESS ENERGY TRANSFER & ROLE OF ANTENNAS
4. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
5. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Nature’s forces and waves
Contactless power transfer
- Part 1 -

Fundamental forces leading to unbounded waves for our use in communications

Professor Ivan Glesk

Sir Isaac Newton

1.
m1 m2
𝐅g = 𝐫ො G 2
r
Type equation here.
 Gravitation: General theory of relativity
https://www.sciencealert.com/mind-bending-study-suggests-time-did-actually-exist-before-the-big-
bang?utm_campaign=AppleNews&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=AppleNews

Albert Einstein published his General theory of relativity in 1915

Theory predicted:
 Objects with mass warp space-time fabric
 The existence of Gravitational Waves (GW)
GW were confirmed in 2016. Detected GW resulted from
a collision of two massive Black Holes (“2017 Nobel Price”)

Could GW be used to transfer data?

October 24, 2018 by Matt Williams
https://www.universetoday.com/140305/it-could-be-possible-to-transfer-data-through-gravitational-waves/
According to a study by scientists, gravitational waves could be used to transmit
information the same way as electromagnetic waves.
 NASA managed to catch Black hole totally annihilating a star
By Alex Perry; 2019-09-28 video clip - to watch this video, watch the video lecture on MyPlace
https://mashable.com/article/black-hole-sun-disruption-nasa/?europe=true
 2. Electric Force & Electric Field E
The source is electron - the smallest charge we know
- has negative charge 𝑅
𝑬 =𝑹
𝑒 ෡
1 𝑒
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2
𝑒 = -1.602 x 10-19 (C)
𝑬𝑒 (R) -
charge unit is Coulomb (C)
- 𝜀0 is permittivity of vacuum
- positive charge carries positron
1 C represents the charge of ~ 6.241 x 1018 electrons
Coulomb is named for a French physicist, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736 -1806),
who was the first to measure accurately the forces exerted between electric charges.

Charge conservation law: We can’t create or destroy the charge, only transfer it.
Electric charges interact with themselves & generated E field

law

Note the similarity:

𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑭𝑒21 = 𝑹12
෡
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
2 (N) in free space -
𝑭𝐺21 = 𝑹12 𝐺 2
෡
𝑅12
(N)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅12
Force of gravity
Electric force exerted on charge q2 by charge q1 exerted on mas m1 by mas m2
Electron can behave and act as wave

De Broglie, in his 1924 PhD thesis, proposed that just as light has both wave-like and
particle-like properties, electrons also have wave-like properties.
A relationship between the wavelength λ associated with an electron and its
momentum p is : p = h/

Demonstration of matter wave via diffraction of electrons

 Moving Electric Charges Result in
Electric Current & Magnetic Field
Magnetic field B induced by a constant Unity vector in cylindrical
coordinates. It indicates
dc electric current I flowing in a long wire: the orientation of vector B

𝜇0 𝐼
෡
B =𝝓 (T ) Tesla Biot–Savart law
2𝜋 𝑟
µ0 = 4π ×10-7 H/m (Henry/m)
is magnetic permeability of free space
𝐁
Magnetic intensity H=
𝜇0
B 𝐼 r H
෡
H =𝝓 ෡
=𝝓 (A/m) H
𝜇0 2𝜋 𝑟
෡ is a unity vector indicating direction of vectors B and H
𝝓
 Lorentz law for EM Force

Describes force F affecting moving charge q

Surrounded by Electric E and Magnetic B field:

𝑭 = q𝑬 + q v × 𝑩
electric magnetic
force force
where: q is electric charge
v is charge speed

Recall: EE311 – S1 Labs - Lorentz law also leads to electric motors

Earth’s magnetic field protects us from a cosmic radiation thus keeps us all alive!!
 Earth's Magnetic North is moving from Canada to Russia
Read more:
https://www.sciencealert.com/russia-is-stealing-magnetic-north-from-canada-and-this-could-be-what-s-behind-
it?utm_campaign=AppleNews&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=AppleNews

As the Earth's magnetic north pole heads towards Siberia, would northern lights move with it?
Find out more: https://apple.news/A25jPDcnURRme6MjS6m62zg
 From Forces to Waves in Nature
(We can’t control all types of forces, those we can’t use to serve our needs)

 Mechanical forces lead to

- Sound waves (ultrasound – medicine, underwater communications by submarines,
whales, dolphins, …)
- Earthquake waves, Tsunami waves (we can’t control)
- Tidal waves (can be used to power off shore generators – this is very expensive
way to generate our electricity needs)
 Electromagnetic forces lead to Electromagnetic waves
- Radio waves
- Light waves
 Gravitational forces lead to gravitational waves
Illustration:
Waves and oscillations during propagation
http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/waves/wavemotion.html
Type of oscillation:
 Longitudinal

 Transversal

 Mechanical waves in water

Waves share many common properties:

 Can propagate across different types of media

 Have direction of propagation and
 Warrying amplitude in space and time
 Can carry energy
 Have propagation speed
 Suffer from attenuation, reflection, refraction
 Their interaction leads to superposition or standing waves
Do all type of waves need ‘medium’ for their propagation?
 The Wave Equation
If the motion A(z,t) is a wave then it is solution of the wave equation:
𝜕2 A(𝑧,𝑡) 𝜕2
=v2 A(𝑧, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑧 2

If wave travels along z, the wave equation describes its amplitude A in location z in time t

Later we will learn that Maxwell's equations (named after J.C. Maxwell) describing EM wave
can be used to derive a wave equation describing EMW propagation.
We will see the speed of EMW v depends on material properties and can be calculated.
For EMW propagating in vacuum has its speed:
v  3  108 m / s  c
Later we will show that c is also the speed of light in vacuum.
If the index of refraction of medium is n, then speed of propagation in this medium is:
c
v Link to EE311 S2 labs
n
Wave equation solution describes transvers wave propagation
In lossless media the wave equation solution is:

A( z , t )  A0 cos(t   z  0 ) = A0 e – j ( t –  z + 0)
A (z, t )

A0 is starting amplitude
𝜙0 is starting phase
t is time
z

2 2
  2f (rad / s )  (rad / m)
T 
is angular frequency is a phase constant
(in lossless media  is called a wave number k)
Note, we will later see that  is not always wavelength independent,
this is especially true in fibre transmission lines
Finding the faze velocity v:
A( z , t )  A0 cos(t   z  0 )

𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜙0 = constant
d dz
(t   z  0 )  0  0
dt dt
dz  
v    f (m / s )
dt  T
 Nature’s Forces and Waves
Contactless Power Transfer

Part 1 Summary

1. FROM FORCES TO UNBOUNDED WAVES IN NATURE

2. WAVE EQUATION; PROPAGATION PARAMETERS; EXAMPLES

Next : Nature’s Forces and Waves Contactless Power Transfer - Part 2

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Nature’s forces and waves,
Contactless power transfer

Part 2

Part 1
1. FROM FORCES TO UNBOUNDED WAVES IN NATURE
2. WAVE EQUATION; PROPAGATION PARAMETERS; EXAMPLES
Part 2
3. WIRELESS ENERGY TRANSFER & ROLE OF ANTENNAS
4. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
5. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Contactless Power Transfer
Wireless power and/or electricity transfer was a Nicola Tesla’s dream

Nicola Tesla in his laboratory

Power transfer could be: Short range - Inductive coupling
Mid range - Resonance Inductive coupling
Long rage - Power transfer is very challenging
Example 1
For energy transfer can be used:
Non-resonant Inductive Coupling
This can be done by using inductive coupling

Charged
device

OK for short range. Not very efficient for longer distances.

Example 2
Energy transfer using Resonant Coupling (RC)
- very efficient -

fr L fr Charged
device

Transmission and Receiving coils are tuned to a the same frequency fr called resonant
frequency to optimize the power delivery (idea used in TV & Radio broadcast/reception
Illustration: Implementation of RC for charging
Illustration:

Wireless charging in Glasgow–Edinburgh Bus

Concept of Wireless energy transfer at home

We need transmitting and receiving antennas

 Antenna vs. Transmission Line

Antenna sole functionality is contactless power transmission / reception or both.

Transmission line is a conductor designed to carry current over large distances

with minimum losses.

Converting transmission line to become antenna to radiate power

If transmission line carries the current with the uniform velocity it should be bent,
truncated or terminated to radiate power.

If transmission line has current which accelerates or decelerates with a time varying
constant, then it will radiate the power even though it will be straight.
What is Antenna
Antenna is a transducer that converts
guided wave propagating on a
transmission line into an electromagnetic
wave propagating in an unbounded
medium (usually free space) or vice versa.

Antenna in the receiving mode can extract

signal from an incident wave only that
component whose electric field matches
the antenna polarization state properties
(we will investigate this later).
 Basic Types of Antennas
Dipole antenna - consists of two usually metallic wires
placed in a straight line, so that an alternating current flows
through the center of the antenna.

Monopole antenna (Marconi) – single straight wire mounted

over an infinite conductive surface also called a ground plane.

Yagi antenna – consists of active antenna and a number

of passive antennas serving as directors or reflectors. It is
used for transmission and reception of radio and TV signals.
Yagi antenna for TV reception
Printed antenna – is composed of a conductive layer
etched on an insulating substrate. The printed antenna
has come into use during the last decades for example
in mobile phones.

Horn antenna – funnel-shaped wave guide used mainly

for frequencies greater than 1 GHz.
cont.
cont.

Parabolic antennas - are microwave antennas.

Their frequency range is above 1 MHz and are
widely used for radio and wireless applications.
Parabolic reflectors help in producing high directivity
beam of narrow width.

Narrow band antennas - each dipole length is tuned

to target narrow band of communication frequencies.
 Antenna Key Properties

1. Ability to transmit / receive power

2. Directivity – the ability to direct transmitted power toward receiver or target

Omni Directional Antenna Directional Antenna: Illustration of

has 360° coverage has ‘focused’ coverage Antenna directivity
 Maximizing power transfer between
Antenna –> RF Receiver ; RF Source –> Antenna

If V is induced r.m.s. voltage into antenna than the resulting current i is:

Antenna impedance
RF Receiver i = V / (Zai + Rg )
V Zai VR Rg
VR = i Rg Ohm’s law
i

The power PR transferred to the Receiver from the antenna:

PR = VR i = i2 Rg = V2 Rg /(Zai+ Rg )2 (1)

Finding maximum power transfer condition between antenna and receiver:

𝑑PR 𝒅
= 0 => [(V2 Rg /(Zai + Rg )2 ] = 0
𝑑𝑅𝑔 𝒅𝑅𝑔 cont.
cont.
𝑢 ′ 𝑢′ 𝑣 − 𝑢 𝑣 ′
Recall: 𝑓′ =( ) =
𝑣 𝑣2

𝒅
[(V2 Rg/ (Zai + Rg )2] = [V2 × (Zai + Rg )2 - V2 Rg × 2(Zai + Rg )] /(Zai + Rg )4 =
𝒅𝑅𝑔

= [V2 × (Zai + Rg ) - V2 Rg × 2 ] /(Zai + Rg )3 =

= V2 [ Zai + Rg - 2 Rg ] /(Zai + Rg )3 = V2 [Zai - Rg ] /(Zai + Rg )3 = 0
=> Zai = Rg (2) so called impedance matching

After substituting (2) into (1) for max power transfer between antenna and receiver we get:

PR (max) = V2 Rg / (Zai + Rg )2 = V2 Rg / (2 Rg)2

𝑽𝟐
PR (max) = (2*)
𝟒Rg
 Understanding Antenna’s
Radiation Pattern and Directivity
Antenna Radiation Pattern is a diagrammatical representation
of the distribution of radiated energy into space, as a function of direction.

Antenna’s radiation patterns:

a) Field pattern is function of electric and magnetic fields.
b) Power pattern is function of magnitude square of electric and magnetic fields.

(a ) (b)
Field pattern of Power pattern of
vertical half-wave dipole antenna vertical half-wave dipole antenna
Illustration:

Power transmission directivity of selected antennas

Transmission pattern
(recall Q5 of Tutorial 1)

𝑅
𝑷𝟎 𝜃 𝑅

Waveguide
Radiated power 𝑷𝟎 × 𝜽
P (𝑅) =
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝟐

EMW source l/2 Dipole antenna

Near field Far field

𝑅 i 𝑅

𝟑𝟎 𝒊𝟐
𝑷𝟎 P (𝑅) =
𝝅𝑹𝟐
P (𝑅) = 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝟐 Eq. will be derived and used
in our later lectures
 Phased Array Antennas
- used for steering direction of EMW propagation
- have a number of military applications

Animation is showing how a phased array works. It consists of an array of antenna elements (A) powered by
a transmitter (TX). The feed current for each antenna passes through a phase shifter  controlled by a computer
(C). The moving red lines show the wavefronts of the radio waves emitted by each element. The individual
wavefronts are spherical, but they combine (superpose) in front of the antenna to create a plane wave, a beam of
radio waves travelling in a specific direction. The phase shifters delay the radio waves progressively going up the
line so each antenna emits its wavefront later than the one below it. This causes the resulting plane wave to be
directed at an angle θ to the antenna's axis. By changing the phase shifts the computer can instantly change the
angle θ of the beam.
Applications of Phased Array Radar Antennas
 Military radar location communications
 Astronomical studies

Active Phased Array Radar mounted The radiation pattern of

The active phased array radar antenna
on top of Sachsen-class frigate F220 a phased array in polar
inside the nose of the US F-22 Raptor
Hamburg's superstructure of the coordinate system
fighter aircraft. Virtually all combat
aircraft now use phased array radars German Navy
 Examples of Radio Wave Propagation

In Radio communication systems we use wireless electromagnetic waves as the channel.

The antennas of different specifications can be used for these purposes. The sizes of these
antennas depend upon the bandwidth and frequency of the signal to be transmitted.
Ground Wave Propagation Sky Wave Propagation
Ground wave propagation of the wave follows the contour of Preferred when the wave has to travel a longer distance.
earth. Such transmission is called as line-of -site. Here the wave is projected onto the sky and it is again
reflected back onto the earth.

Line-of-site propagation (used above 30 MHz) Ionized region of Atmosphere

Tx Rx
Antenna Antenna
Curved
Earth Surface
 ‘Duct propagation’

At a height of around 50 m from the Troposphere this phenomenon exists:

The temperature increases with the height. In this region of troposphere, the higher
frequencies or microwave frequencies tend to refract back into the Earth’s atmosphere
instead of shooting into ionosphere. These waves propagate around the curvature of
the earth up to a distance of 1,000 km.
This effect can be termed as Super refraction or Duct propagation.
 Nature’s Forces and Waves
Contactless Power Transfer

Lecture summary
Part 1
1. FROM FORCES TO UNBOUNDED WAVES IN NATURE
2. WAVE EQUATION; PROPAGATION PARAMETERS; EXAMPLES

Part 2
3. WIRELESS ENERGY TRANSFER & ROLE OF ANTENNAS
4. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Next lecture: Impact of Transmission Media on Unbounded Wave

Professor Ivan Glesk

 EMW in Good Conductors
EMW and Perfect Conductors

1. EM WAVE IN GOOD CONDUCTORS - SKIN EFFECT AND SKIN DEPTH

2. INTERACTION OF EM WAVE WITH PERFECT CONDUCTORS
3. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
4. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

a) EMW Propagation in Good Conductors
Recall (7.4) for permittivity of lossy media
  𝜎
c =  –j

= 𝜀 (1 – j

) In good conductors 1 <<
𝜔𝞮
 
=> 𝜀 c = 𝜀 ( 1 – j  ) = –j (7.4*)

Recall (7.14):  =   𝜀𝑐
1− j
−j = 2

𝜔𝜇𝜎
=>  ≃ − j
𝜇𝜎
𝜔
=
2
(1 – j ) =  + j => 𝛼 = 𝛽 =

𝟐

 = 𝜔𝜇𝜎 45 = | | 45 ; where | | = 𝜔𝜇𝜎

- In a good conductor,  is proportional to 𝜔 rather than 𝜔,
- The real and imaginary parts have equal amplitude, and E leads H by 45° cont.
cont.

To the find intrinsic impedance of good conductor we start with c


of lossy media, then we use the approximation 𝜀𝑐 = – j

for good conductors we have found:
1 1+ j
=
−𝑗 2
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇𝜔 𝛼 𝛽
c = 𝜀𝑐
≃
−𝑗 σ/𝜔
=
2σ
(1+ j ) = 1 + 𝑗
𝜎
= 1+𝑗
𝜎

j


2 |c |
c =

45˚
45

2

Intrinsic impedance of good conductor is equal its surface impedance: 𝜼𝒄 = Zs

Example 1:
Find a relationship between E and H in good conductors.
Solution:

For good conductors we found:

 
== and c = 
45˚
2
y
 z
We recall: Ex ( z , t )  E0 e cos(t   z ) Hy

෡ × 𝑬(𝑧,𝑡)
𝒌 ෝ 𝐸(𝑧,𝑡)
𝒛ො × 𝒙 Ex
H (𝑧, 𝑡) = =
and:
𝑐 𝑐 ෡
𝒌 x

z ෝ=𝒚
𝒛ො × 𝒙 ෝ

𝐸𝑥 (𝑧,𝑡) E0
H (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝒚
ෝ H y ( z, t )  e z cos(t   z  45)
𝑐 
 E leads H by 45°
Attenuation and skin depth in good conductors
We found, that in good conductors 𝛼 = 𝛽

Skin depth in conductors:

1 1
𝛿𝑠 = = (m)
𝛼 𝛽

Demos
DC vs AC Current Flow in Conductors
Example 2: Compare AC−DC resistance of a wire of length L,
 radius 𝑎, conductivity 𝜎 and skin depth 𝛿
𝒂
Solution:
 𝐿 𝐿
DC resistance: 𝑅𝐷𝐶 = =
𝜎 𝐴𝐷𝐶 𝜎 𝜋𝑎2

AXX is a wire cross-section for AC or DC

AC resistance:
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅𝐴𝐶 = = =
𝜎 𝐴𝐴𝐶 𝜎 [𝜋𝑎 − 𝜋(𝑎 − 𝛿) ] 𝜎𝜋[𝑎2 −𝑎2 +2𝑎𝛿 − 𝛿 2 ]
2 2

𝐿 𝑎𝐿 𝑎 𝑅𝐷𝐶 𝑎
≈ => RAC = RDC
2
= =
𝜎(2𝜋𝑎)𝛿] 𝜎(2𝜋𝑎2 )𝛿] 2𝛿
b) EMW Propagation and Perfect Conductors

Remember:
In perfect conductors the conductivity  = 

EMW can’t exist inside of perfect conductors

Example 3: Find a solution when EMW hits perfect conductor
Solution:
Incoming EMW is lossless medium

=

Because EM wave can’t exist inside of the perfect conductor, the incident EMW
will be reflected!

Recall: The incoming E traveling in lossless media is described as:

E ( z , t )  E x cos(t  kz ) k  2 /    / c    0 0  cont.

Therefor the resulting 𝑬(𝑧, 𝑡) must also satisfy the conservation of energy:

𝑬(z,t) = 𝒙ෝ [ 𝐸0 cos (t – kz) + 𝐸1 cos (t + kz)] = 0

At the boundary z = 0 : 𝐸1 = − 𝐸0

𝑬(0,t) = 𝒙ෝ [ 𝐸0 cos (t − 0) − 𝐸0 cos (t + 0 ]

Recall: cos A – cos B = – 2 [sin (A + B)/2 ] sin [(A – B)/2]

𝑬(z, t) = ෝ 2𝐸0 sin

𝒙 t sin kz

The resulted wave is standing wave

- Proof, why the metal shielding works - E can’t penetrate inside metals = recall Faraday cage
- We are safe from lighting strikes while being inside of metal cages (for example in a car)
Summary of EM properties of investigated transmission media
Low Loss Medium Good Conductor
Lossless Medium
Any Medium 𝜀′′ 𝜀′′
𝜎=0 ≪1 ≫1
𝜀′ 𝜀′
1
2
𝛼 𝜇𝜀′ 𝜀′′
2 𝜎 𝜇 
𝑁𝑝/𝑚 𝜔 1+ −1 0 = 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎
2 𝜀′ 2 𝜀 2

1
𝛽 𝜇𝜀′ 𝜀′′
2
2

𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚 𝜔 1+ +1 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 2
= 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎
2 𝜀′

 𝜇 𝜀 ′′ − 1 𝜇  " 𝜇 𝛼
(1 − 𝑗 ′ ) 2 (1+ j ′) ~ 1+𝑗
Ω
𝜀′ 𝜀 𝜀 ′ 2 𝜀 𝜎
𝑢𝑝 𝜔 1 1 4𝜋𝑓
𝑚/𝑠
𝛽 𝜇𝜀 𝜇𝜀 𝜇𝜎
2𝜋 𝑢𝑝 𝑢𝑝 𝑢𝑝 𝑢𝑝
𝝀 𝑚 =
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
𝛽 𝑓
𝜎
𝜀 ′ = 𝜀, 𝜀 ′′ = . In free space 𝜀 = 𝜀0 , 𝜇 = 𝜇0
𝜔
𝜀" 𝜎 𝜀" 𝜎
Notes = < 0.01 material is low-loss; = > 100 for good conductor
𝜀′ 𝜔𝜀 𝜀′ 𝜔𝜀
𝜀"
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃𝜀 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜃
𝜀′
 Summary of key EM properties
for different types of media

1. Free space (  0,   0 ,   0 , 0  377 

2. Loss-less dielectrics (  0,   r.0 , µ  µr µ0 , or  <<  

3. Lossy media ( ≠ 0, c , µ  µr µ0 )

4. Good conductors ( is very high, c , µ  µr µ0 , or  >>  

5. Perfect conductors (  ∞, c , µ  µr µ0 )
 Technical brief

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 EMW in Good Conductors
EMW and Perfect Conductors

Lecture Summary
1. EM WAVE IN GOOD CONDUCTORS - SKIN EFFECT AND SKIN DEPTH
2. INTERACTION OF EM WAVE WITH PERFECT CONDUCTORS
3. WORKED EXAMPLES

Next lecture: Energy carried by EM wave

Professor Ivan Glesk

 EM Wave in Lossless Media

1. FROM MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS TO WAVE EQUASION FOR EM WAWES

2. EM PLANE-WAVE IN LOSSLESS MEDIA
3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E, H AND k
4. POYNTING VECTOR AND TIME-AVERAGE POWER DENSITY FLOW
5. WORKED EXAMPLES
6. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

 From Maxwell’s equations to Wave Equation
For charge-free media
For the homogenous and isotropic media (no free charges or currents)
~
and J = 0
Eq. M1 Gauss’ law

Eq. M2 Faraday’s law

Eq. M3 Gauss’ magnetism law
Eq. M4 Ampere’s law
http://www.maxwells-equations.com/
Maxwell's equations describe the rules that universe uses to govern behaviour of EMWs:
෨.
M1 A separated free electric charge 𝜌෤ v (positive and negative) gives rise to an electric field 𝐄

෩ gives rise to a circulating (space varying) electric field 𝐄෨ .

M2 A time-varying magnetic field 𝐇

෩ , its field lines are closed lines. There are no

M3 The flow of current will produce a magnetic field 𝐇
magnetic monopoles.
෨ gives rise to a circulating (space varying) magnetic field 𝐇
M4 The current flow 𝐉ሚ and time-varying electric field 𝐄 ෩
Permittivity  represents electric and permeability  magnetic properties of the transmission media and  = 2f
is angular frequency of EMW. cont.
cont.

To define the permittivity  association with electric properties of transmission media / line

we use Maxwell Eq.M4 : ෩ = ( J෩ + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 ) 𝑬

𝛁 × 𝑯 ෩ J෨ = 𝜎 𝑬
using ෩

෩ = 𝑗𝜔 (𝜀 – j  ) 𝑬
= (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) 𝑬 ෩ = 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑐 𝑬
෩



Where we obtained complex permittivity : c =  – j

= ’ – j” (7.4 and 7.7)

Its real part : ’ =   = 2 f is EMW angular frequency


Imaginary part: ’’ = 

For the lossless media conductivity 𝝈 = 0, it follows that ’’ = 0 and c = ’ = 

Permittivity is a real number in lossless medium!
Wave equation for EM wave traveling in any media is found by
manipulating Maxwell’s Eq. M3 and Eq. M4:
෩ + 2 𝑬
𝛻2𝑬 ෩
c =0
(7.15)

by using 2 = –2c => ෩ − 2 𝑬

𝛻2𝑬 ෩ = 0 (7.14)

 links media parameters , c with wave angular frequency 

EMW propagation in Lossless media

Lossless media are non-conducting i.e., σ = 0 and c =  - no loss or attenuation
exists and we can set:
− 2 = k2
𝟐𝝅
k is called a wave number for lossless media, k = 𝝎 𝝁𝜺 =
𝝀

The wave equation then becomes:

෩ + 𝑘2𝑬
𝛻2 𝑬 ෩=0 (7.19)
If EMW propagates in +z direction and E oscillates along x-axis,
the Eq.(7.19) reduces to:
𝑑 2 𝐸෨ 𝑥
+ 𝑘 ෨𝑥 = 0
2𝐸 (7.23)
𝑑𝑧 2

Its solution is plane wave: Ex (z, t) = E0x cos(t – kz + 0) = E0x e j(t – kz + 0)
In phasor domain: 𝐸෨ x (z) = E0x e –jkz (7.24)
(compare k with  used in earlier lectures)

x
Ex0 Ex (z, t)

෡ = +z
𝒌
z

෡
Direction of propagation is given by the unity vector 𝒌.
Parameters describing propagating EM plane wave
- phase velocity. Depends on media parameters:
  1 1 3 108 c
up = = = = = = (m/s) (7.35)
k    0  r  r  0  r r n
For vacuum:
Relative permittivity εr , relative permeability µr and n -index of refraction all equal to one
µr = 1 => µ = µ0 = 4π ×10-7 H/m (Henry/m)
1
εr = 1 => ε = ε0 = 8.854 ×10-12 F/m ~ 36𝜋 × 10−9 F/m (Farad/m)

=> up = c = 3  108
(m / s)

- wavelength of EM plane wave propagating in the media:

2 2 up
= = = = u pT (m) (7.36)
k   f
Example 1: Using Fig. E1 find relationship between 𝑬 ෩, 𝑯
෩ and direction of
propagation 𝒌෡ for EM plane wave defined by a phasor 𝑬 ෩:
෩ (z) = 𝒙ෝ Ex0 e – jkz = 𝒙ෝ 𝐸෨ (z) = (𝐸෨ x (z) , 0, 0).
𝑬
Solution:
෩ (z) into the left side of Maxwell’s Eq.M2:
First, we plug 𝑬 ෩ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑯
𝛁×𝑬 ෩
We get: x ~
ෝ
𝒙 ෝ
𝒚 𝒛ො Ex0 E(z)
𝜕𝐸෨𝑥 𝑧 𝜕𝐸෨𝑥 (𝑧)
෩𝒙 𝒛
𝝏𝑬
෩
𝝯×𝑬 =
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
ෝ
=𝒚 − 𝒛ො 𝜕𝑦 ෝ
= 𝒚
~
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝝏𝒛 x̂ ො
𝒛 ෡
𝐸𝑥 (𝑧) 0 0 𝒌
ෝ
𝒚 z
෩ = (ෝ𝒙 𝐻
Second, in the right side of Eq. M2 we use: 𝑯 ෩x + 𝒚
ෝ𝐻෩ y + 𝒛ො 𝐻
෩ z) y Fig. E1
We get:
෩ = − j𝜔𝜇 (𝒙
− j𝜔𝜇 𝑯 ෝ𝐻෩x + 𝒚
ෝ𝐻෩ y + 𝒛ො 𝐻
෩ z) = − j𝝎𝝁 𝑯
෩y

Because 𝑬 ⊥ 𝑯 ⊥ 𝒛ො
Third, we compare above results :
෩𝑥 𝑧
𝜕𝐸 1 𝜕𝐸෨𝑥 𝑧
ෝ
𝒚 ෩ y (z)
= − j𝜔𝜇 𝐻 ෩ y (z) = 𝒚
𝐻 ෝ (7.37)
𝜕𝑧 −j𝜔𝜇 𝜕𝑧
Forth, we substitute 𝐸෨ x (z) = Ex0 e− jkz into above Eq. 7.37 cont.
cont.
We get:
1 𝜕 (Ex0 e −jkz ) 1 k
෩ y (z) = 𝒚
𝐻 ෝ ෝ
=𝒚 Ex0 (−jk) e −jkz = 𝒚
ෝ Ex0 e− jkz =
–j𝜔𝜇 𝜕𝑧 −j𝜔𝜇 𝜔𝜇

k ෨
ෝ
=𝒚
𝜔𝜇
𝐸 x (z) x
E(z)
෩ y (z) = 𝒚ෝ 1 𝐸෨ x (z)
𝐻 (7.39)

෡
𝒌
z
|E| 𝜔𝜇 𝜇
=> == = (A4*) y H ( z)
|H| 𝑘 𝜀

𝜇
In lossless media  is a real number :  = ∠0 ()
( no phase shift exists between E and H ) 𝜀

𝜇0
In vacuum : 0 = = 120 ≈ 377 ()
𝜀0
cont. By generalizing obtained result Eq. 7.39

k̂ - is a unity vector in the direction of EMW travel (in this case +z)

𝟏 ෡×𝑯
෡×𝑬, E=−𝜂𝒌
H= 𝒌 ! Very important !
𝜼

The right-hand rule applies: when we rotate the four fingers of the right hand from
෡
the direction of E towards that of H, the thumb points in the direction of wave travel, 𝒌.
Summary of EMW properties and lossless media parameters
Lossless Medium
𝜎=0
𝛼 0
𝑁𝑝/𝑚

k 𝜔 𝜇𝜀
𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚

𝜂 𝜇
in vacuum 𝜂0 = 377  = 120 
Ω 𝜀
𝑢𝑝 1
𝑚/𝑠 𝜇𝜀
𝑢𝑝
𝝀 𝑚
𝑓
1
In free space / vacuum 𝜀 = 𝜀0 = 8.854 ×10−12 F/m ~ × 10−9 F/m
36𝜋
Notes 𝜇 = 𝜇0 = 4π ×10−7 H/m
 Pointing vector
How much energy is carried by traveling EMW?

EMW Power Density Flow is given by Ponting vector 𝑺 = 𝑬 × 𝑯 (W/m2)

EMW flow through the surface A per a unit of time is:

Normal to the surface A
𝐴
P= ‫׬‬0 𝐒Ԧ ∙ 𝒏
ෝ 𝑑𝐴
If 𝑺 is uniformed across surface A
,𝑺
P = S A cos 𝜽

Remember: P varies in time!!

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Velma, Emma and Dean believe mobile phone signals, Wi-Fi and other modern technology makes them ill.
Read in BBC News: https://apple.news/AO4knhBcFSWi2IRlHsSMzIw
2) Time-average Power Density Flow of EMW, <𝑷(t)>

- can be calculated from Pointing vector as:

Re [ 𝑬෩ × 𝑯
1 𝑇 1 𝑇 1
< 𝑃 (t) > = Sav = ‫𝑺 ׬‬ 𝑡 dt = ‫𝑬 ׬‬ 𝑡 × 𝑯 𝑡 dt = ෩ ∗]
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2
Where T = 1/ f is the EMW period. *See the tutorial question asking to prove this identity

In lossless media:
1 ෡ |𝐸|2 ෡ |𝐻|2
෩ ×𝑯
Sav = Re [ 𝑬 ෩ ∗] = 𝒌 = 𝒌 (W/m2)
2 2 2

Note 1: In lossless media  is a real not a complex number.

Note 2: Sav is a vector indicating direction of EMW time-average power flow density.
Example 2:

In lossless media the

෡×𝐇
Recall: E = − 𝜂 𝒌
y
E = −0 𝑦ො × H = −0 (ෝ ො ) H = −0 (− 𝒛ො ) H = 0 𝒛ො H
𝒚×x ˆ
k
-z
Sav
H
ˆ = ŷ
k x
E
=> E z
|H|2
෡ 
Sav = 𝒌 0 2 = 𝑦ො
Applications of using EMW energy:
Shooting drones out of the sky with Pulse of Energy by Phasers
By Michael Dempsey Technology of Business reporter; 15 October 2019

https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-49984415

Raytheon Phaser uses microwaves to knock-out targets. Leonardo's Falcon Shield anti-UAV defence system.
A microwave-based weapon from defence giant Raytheon. Firing
from a disc resembling a giant satellite dish atop a sand-coloured
container it wipes out the digital elements inside a drone.
 EMW in Lossless Media

Lecture summary
1. FROM MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS TO WAVE EQUASION FOR EM WAVES
2. EM PLANE-WAVE IN LOSSLESS MEDIA
3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E, H AND k
4. POYNTING VECTOR AND TIME-AVERAGE POWER DENSITY FLOW
5. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Next Lecture: EMW in Lossy and Low-loss Media

Professor Ivan Glesk

 EMW in Lossy and Low-loss Media

Part 1

1. EMW PROPAGATION IN LOSSY

2. EMW PROPAGATION IN LOW-LOSS MEDIA
3. WORKED EXAMPLES
Part 2
5. CHARACTERIZATION OF LOSSY TRANSMISSION MEDIA
6. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
7. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

 EM wave propagation in
Lossless media Lossy media

 =   0 , k = −𝛾 2 =   = 𝟐
 ??


??
S=E×H

Wave equation for lossless media: ??

𝑑 2 𝐸෨ 𝑥
+ 𝑘 2 ෨
𝐸𝑥 = 0 recall (7.23) ??
𝑑 𝑧2
Its solution: E ( z , t )  E0 cos(t  kz  0 ) ??
To find EMW propagation parameters in lossy media
𝑑 2 𝐸෨ 𝑥
We recall Eq. (7.15): −  ෨𝑥 = 0
2𝐸
𝑑𝑧 2

Eq. (7.14) and (7.7):


= −𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 ′ + j𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 ′′ =  – j 

 2=
2

Next we compare Re and Im parts in the above two equations cont.

cont.

After comparing we get:

1
2
𝜇𝜀′ 𝜀′′ 2
𝛼=𝜔 1+ −1 Np/m
2 𝜀′

1
2
𝜇𝜀′ 𝜀′′ 2
𝛽=𝜔 1+ +1 rad/m
2 𝜀′
Cont.
𝑑 2 𝐸෨ 𝑥
For lossy media : – 2 𝐸෨ 𝑥 = 0 (7.67)
𝑑 𝑧2
its solution is:

𝐸෨ 𝑥 (z) = xො 𝐸෨ 𝑥0 e – 𝛾 z = xො 𝐸෨ 𝑥0 e –  z e – j  z (7.68)

recall  =  + j Ex
x
෩ ෩
෩ = 𝒌 × 𝑬 ; where c is intrinsic impedance of lossy media
Recall: 𝐻
𝜂𝑐 z k̂
෡ × 𝐸෨𝑥 (𝑧) Hy y
𝒌 𝐸෨𝑥 (𝑧) 𝐸෨𝑥0 (𝑧) –  z
෩
𝐻(𝑧) = = yො = yො e e–jz (7.69) ෡×𝒙
Finding 𝒌 ෝ=𝒚
ෝ
𝜂𝑐 𝜂𝑐 𝜂𝑐

Complex intrinsic impedance lossy media using Eq. A4* and 7.7 is:

𝜇 𝜇 𝜀 ′′ − 1
c = 𝜀𝑐
=
𝜀′
(1 − 𝑗 ′) 2
𝜀
(7.70)
Comparison of lossless and lossy propagation
Lossless Lossy
𝟐
k= −𝛾 2 =   =   =  + j
𝜇 𝜇 𝜺′′ − 𝟏
 = c = (1 − 𝑗 𝜺′ ) 𝟐 ; c = ’ − j’’
𝜀 𝜀′

x c =  − j 
෩
E x0
෡
𝒌
S=E×H z
y

Ex ( z , t )  Ex 0 cos(t  kz ) Ex ( z , t )  Ex 0e  z cos(t   z )
𝐸෨ (z) = xො 𝐸෨ x0 e – j 𝑘z 𝐸෨ (z) = xො 𝐸෨ x0 e – 𝛼z e – j 𝛽z
1 1
෩ (z) =
𝑯 ෡×
𝒌 ෩ (z)
𝑬 ෩ (z) =
𝑯 ෡×
𝒌 ෩ (z)
𝑬
𝜂 𝜂𝑐
Example 1.

Cont.
cont.

H
x
-z z
k̂
y E
 EMW Propagation in Low-loss Dielectric
Recall: In lossy media  and c are both complex
′′ 
 =  + j ; c = ’ (1 – j ′ ) =  (1 – j  )
′′ 
In low-loss
′ << 1 = >  << 1 thus we can approximate by applying Taylor expansion
Recall Eq. 7.14 :  2 = – 2  c . We substituting the above c , we get:

    
 = 𝑗   (1 − j
 ) = 𝑗   1 − j
 ≃ 𝑗   (1− j
2 )=
2  + j   =  + j
𝑥
𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝: 1− x ≃ 1−
2


After comparing:  = 2  ;  =  

𝜇 𝜀′′ − 1  " 
For c = (1 − 𝑗 𝜀′ ) 2 ≃ (1+ j ) = > c ≃ 
𝜀′ 𝜀′ 2 ′
𝑥
𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝: 1/ 1− x ≃ 1+
2

  
Summary: = 2  ;  =   ; c ≃ 
Wave attenuation by media

In lossy media E is given as:

𝐸෨ x (z) = Ex0 e –  z e – j  z = | 𝐸෨ x0 | e –  z

We define Skin depth

1
𝛿𝑠 =
𝛼

Skin depth defines how deep (perpendicularly to its propagation direction)

EMW penetrates into lossy transmission media.
Summary of EMW properties and transmission media parameters
Lossless Medium Low-loss Medium - more accurate
Any Medium 𝜀′′
𝜎=0 ≪1
𝜀′
1
2
2
𝛼 𝜇𝜀′ 𝜀′′ 0
𝜎 𝜇
𝑁𝑝/𝑚 𝜔 1+ −1 2 𝜀
2 𝜀′
1
2
2
𝛽 𝜇𝜀′ 𝜀′′ 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 1 𝜀" 2

𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚 𝜔 1+ +1 𝜔 𝜇𝜀′ 1 + [ ]
2 𝜀′ 8 𝜀′

𝜂𝑐 𝜇 𝜀′′ − 1 𝜇 𝜇  "
(1 − 𝑗 𝜀′ ) 2 (1+ j ′)
Ω 𝜀′ 𝜀 𝜀 ′ 2

𝑢𝑝 𝜔 1 1
𝑚/𝑠 𝛽 𝜇𝜀 𝜇𝜀
2𝜋 𝑢𝑝 𝑢𝑝 𝑢𝑝
𝜆 𝑚 =
𝑓 𝑓
𝛽 𝑓
𝜎 𝜀" 𝜎
𝜀 ′ = 𝜀, 𝜀 ′′ = 𝜔 = < 0.01 for low loss
𝜀′ 𝜔𝜀
Notes
𝜀"
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃𝜀 = tan 2𝜃
𝜀′
Tech brief: Thanks to the lossless propagation in the air

KRISTIN HOUSER November 5th 2019

Hackers Can Access Your Alexa by Shining a Laser in Your Window

Today, you might use an AI assistant such as Siri or Alexa to do everything from
make purchases online to control the locks in your smart home.
Just say the command that triggers the assistant, and the sound waves from your
voice will hit a part of your smart device’s microphone called the diaphragm.

Read in Futurism: https://apple.news/A0tp5StVuSo-C6HB3adCy3w

 EMW in Lossy and Low-loss media

Part 1 summary
1. EMW PROPAGATION IN LOSSY
2. EMW PROPAGATION IN LOW-LOSS MEDIA
3. WORKED EXAMPLES

Next watch Part 2

4. CHARACTERIZATION OF LOSSY TRANSMISSION MEDIA
5. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Professor Ivan Glesk

 EMW in Lossy and Low-loss media
Part 2

Part 1
1. PREVIOUS LECTURE REMINDERS
2. WAVE EQUATION FOR EMW
3. EMW PROPAGATION IN LOSSY & LOW-LOSS MEDIA
4. WORKED EXAMPLES
Part 2
4. CHARACTERIZATION OF LOSSY TRANSMISSION MEDIA
5. WORKED EXAMPLES
6. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

Characterization of lossy transmission media
𝜀 ′′
Recall: lossy media permittivity c = ’ - j’’ = ’ ( 1 − j ′ )
𝜀

′′
tan 𝜃𝜀 = ′

Example 2: Find the relationship between angle 𝜃 and angle 𝜃 
Solution:
c = ’ - j’’
′′ j
tan 𝜃𝜀 = ′

- ” 𝜃
|c |
Recall:
′′ ’ c
c = ’ − j ’’ = ’ (1 − j ′ ) = |c|𝑒 −𝑗𝜃ε

𝜇 𝜀′′ − 1
c = (1 − 𝑗 ′) 2
𝜀′ 𝜀

   𝑗𝜃ε
=> 2c = 𝑒
′ (1 − j ′ )
= =
′′
|c| 𝑒 −𝑗𝜽ε |c |


=> c = | | 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃𝜀 /2) = |c | 𝑒 j 𝜃
c

By comparing exponents we get: 𝜃 = 2𝜃 (L3.0)

Example 3:

ෝ [A/m]
𝒙

,loss tangent, S and Sav

Solution: ^
k
1
We note that: H0 = 10 ;  = ; 𝜃 = 30 ; | | = 200 ; x
2
S
From the previous lecture we remember: E
z
H
𝐄෨ = −c 𝒌
෡×𝐇
෩
y
෡×𝒚
𝒌 ෝ = 𝒛ො
 𝐄෨ = −c 𝒌 ෩ = − c 𝒌
෡×𝐇 ෡×𝒚 ෩ = − 𝒛ො c 𝐻
ෝ 𝐻 ෩

𝐸0
 E0 = c H0 => = c cont.
𝐻0
cont.
𝐸0
 = c = 200 30 = 200 e j /6 => E0 = H0 200 e j /6 = 2000 e j /6 Recall Math
𝐻0
By converting expression for E into exponential format: Tutorial

E = −ො𝒛 Re {E0 e- x e j t } = −ො𝒛 Re {E0 e- ( + j ) x e j t } = −ො𝒛 Re {2000 e j /6 e-( - j 1/2) x e j t }

E = −ො𝒛 Re { 2000 e-x e j ( t - 1/2 x + /6) }

or

E = −ො𝒛 2000 e- x cos ( t − 2 x +
1
6
) V/m

Recall:
𝜇𝜀′ 𝜀" 2 𝜇𝜀′ 𝜀" 2
= 𝜔 1 + [ 𝜀′ ] − 1 and 𝛽=𝜔 1 + [ 𝜀′ ] + 1
2 2

/ =
𝜀" 2
1 + [ 𝜀′ ] − 1 / 𝜇𝜀′
2
𝜀" 2
1 + [ 𝜀′ ] + 1 (L3.1)
cont.
cont.
𝜀"
Loss tangent: Recall: tan 𝜃ε =
𝜀′
Recall (L3.0): 𝜃 = 2𝜃 = 2 × 30 = 60 j
c
’’
𝜺" 𝜃 = 2𝜃 = 2 × 30 = 60
tan 𝜽𝜺 = tan 2𝜃 = tan 60 = 𝟑=
𝜺′ ’
After substitution into (L3.1) :

cont.
cont.

Finding EMW power density flow:

1  1
S = E × H = − 𝒛ො 2000 e- x cos ( t − 2 x + ෝ 10 e-  x cos (t −
)×𝒚 x) =
6 2

1  1 ^
ෝ 20,000
=𝒙 e- 2 x cos ( t − x + ) cos (t − x) = k
2 6 2 x
1   S
ෝ 20,000 e- 2 x
= 𝒙 [cos ( 6 ) + cos (2t – x + )] E
2 6 z
H
 
ෝ 20,000 e- 2 x [cos (
S=𝒙 ) + cos (2t – x + )] W/m2 y
6 6
ෝ=𝒙
− 𝒛ො × 𝒚 ෝ
Time-average power density flow :

1 |𝐸0 |2 1 2,0002
ෝ
Sav = 𝒙 e-2x cos 𝜃 = 𝒙
ෝ e-2x cos 30 = 𝒙
ෝ 20,000 e-2x cos 30 = 𝒙
ෝ 17,370.5 e-2x
2 |𝑐 | 2 100

ෝ 17,370.5 e- 0.5774 x
Sav = 𝒙 W/m2
 EMW in Lossy and Low-loss media

Lecture Summary:
Part 1

1. EMW PROPAGATION IN LOSSY

2. EMW PROPAGATION IN LOW-LOSS MEDIA
3. WORKED EXAMPLES
Part 2

4. CHARACTERIZATION OF LOSSY TRANSMISSION MEDIA

5. WORKED EXAMPLES

Next Lecture: EMW in Good Conductors; EMW and Perfect Conductor

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Energy Carried by EM Wave

Part 1

1. PREVIOUS LECTURE REMINDERS

2. POYNTING VECTOR AND LOSSY TRANSMISSION
3. TIME-AVERAGE POWER FLOW DENSITY IN LOSSY MEDIA & GOOD CONDUCTORS
4. WORKED EXAMPLES
Part 2

5. ENERGY CARRIED BY EM WAVES - APPLICATIONS

6. WORKED EXAMPLES
7. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Part 1

Recall:
EMW Power density flow is defined by Poynting vector
S=ExH (W/m2)

Illustration of traveling EMW in lossless media

In lossy media, including conductors, we like to use
a Time-average power density flow Sav
1
Recall: ෩ ×𝑯
Sav (z) = < 𝑃(𝑡) > = 2 R𝑒 { 𝑬 ෩∗ }

To find Sav (z) in lossy media we follow figure below

෩= 𝒙
𝑬 ෝ 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 = 𝒙
ෝ 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝑎𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧

෡
𝒌 ෡×𝒙
𝒌 ෝ=𝒚
ෝ
c= |c| 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝜂 y
෩ /c = 𝒚
෡×𝑬
෩=𝒌
𝑯 ෝ 𝐸0 /c 𝑒 −𝑎𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
cont.
cont.
In lossy media  is complex therefore 𝑐∗ = |c| 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝜂
1
෩ ×𝑯
Sav (z) = R𝑒 { 𝑬 ෩ ∗}
2
1 1
= R𝑒 { ෝ 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝑎𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧  [
𝒙 ෝ 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝑎𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 ]*
𝒚 }
2 𝑐

𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 × [𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 ]∗ = 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧+ +𝑗𝛽𝑧 = 𝑒 0 = 1

Because:
𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 × 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 = 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑧 , 𝒙
ෝ×𝒚
ෝ = 𝒛ො , 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝜂 = cos 𝜃𝜂 + j sin 𝜃𝜂 (***)
We get:
1 1 1 1
Sav (z) = 𝒛ො R𝑒 { ∗ } 𝐸0 2 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑧 = 𝒛ො R𝑒 { ∗ 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝜂 } 𝐸0 2 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑧
2 𝑐 2 𝑐

By taking the real part only:

|𝐸 0 |2 −2𝛼𝑧 Note:
ො
𝑺av 𝑧 = 𝒛 𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜂 (W/m2) The transmitted power is attenuated as 𝑒 −𝟐𝜶𝒛
2|𝜂𝑐|
Illustration:
EMW propagation in lossy media and impact
of attenuation on S and Sav

S( t ) and Sav
Example 1:
A submarine is at a depth of z = 200 m below the sea surface. Determine
time average -average density flow hitting the antenna when
|E(0)| = 4.44 mV/m, α = 0.126 Np/m and c = 0.044 45 .

Solution:
|𝐸 0 |2 −2𝛼𝑧 (4.44 × 10−3)2
𝑺av 𝑧 = 𝒛ො 𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜂 = 𝒛ො 𝑒 −2 × 0.126 × 200 cos 45° =
2|𝜂𝑐| 2 x 0.044

= 𝐳ො 0.16 × 10-3 × 𝑒 −50.4

𝑺av 𝑧 = 𝐳ො 2.06 × 10-26 W/m2

Example 2: Consider a rectangular box shown in figure and assume
𝐸02
ෝ
S ( y, t ) = 𝒚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑦).
𝜂0
a) Determine the net power flux  P ( t ) in y direction.
z
bb
b) Determine the net time-average power flux  Pav in the box
a
a
Solution: A
(a) Power flux into box Power flux out of box S (y=0,t) S (y=b,t)

Pin (0, t) = A S(0, t ) Pout (b, t) = A S(b, t ) cc ෝ

𝒏 0 y

Net power flux trough the box: x

𝑬𝟐𝟎
∆𝑃 𝑡 = 𝐴 [𝑆 0, 𝑡 − 𝑆 𝑏, 𝑡 ] = ac [𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑏)]
𝜼𝟎

1 𝑇=2𝜋/𝜔
(b) Net time-average power flux is  Pav = ‫׬‬ ∆𝑃 𝑡 dt
𝑇 0
After substituting :
𝐸02 𝜔 2𝜋/𝜔
∆𝑃𝑎𝑣 = ac { 2𝜋 ‫׬‬0 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑏)]dt }
𝜂0 Recall Math tutorial:
1 𝑇 1 𝑡 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑇 1
‫׬‬ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
𝜔𝑡 dt = [ + ]0 =
∆𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 0 Aa 𝑇 0 𝑇 2 4𝜔 2
This makes sense and confirms energy conservation because in 1 𝑇 2 1
‫׬‬ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑏) dt =
a given period of time what enters the box must also exit the box 𝑇 0 2
See next page for a proof:
Recall from our Math Tutorial
1 𝑇 1 1 cos [2(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑏)]
To find ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬2 (𝜔𝑡
𝑇 0
− 𝑘𝑏)dt = we start from 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑏) = +
2 2 2
T = 1/ f = 2 /

1 𝑇 1 cos [2 𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑏 ]  𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑏

1 𝑇
‫׬‬
𝑇 0
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑏)dt = ‫׬‬0 [ +
𝑇 2 2
] dt =
2
[ 2𝜔
+
sin [2(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑏)] 𝑡=2 /
4𝜔
]0 =

1 
=
2
+
2
[sin [2(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑏)] 𝑡=2 /
4𝜔
]0

Now we use: sin(A-B) = sinA cosB – cosA sinB

1  sin 2𝜔𝑡 cos (−2𝑘𝑏) cos 2𝜔𝑡 sin −2𝑘𝑏 𝑡=2𝜋/2

=
2
+
2
[ 4𝜔
−
4𝜔
]0 =

 sin 4 cos (−2𝑘𝑏) cos 4 sin (−2𝑘𝑏)

=
1
2
+
2
[ 4𝜔
- 4𝜔
−(
sin 0 cos (−2𝑘𝑏) cos 0 sin (−2𝑘𝑏)
4𝜔
- 4𝜔
)] =
1  1× sin (−2𝑘𝑏) 1× sin (−2𝑘𝑏) 1  − sin (2𝑘𝑏) − sin (2𝑘𝑏)
= + [ 0- − (0 - )] = + [- - (- )] =
2 2 4𝜔 4𝜔 2 2 4𝜔 4𝜔


=
1
2
+
2
[+ sin (2𝑘𝑏)
4𝜔
−(
+ sin (2𝑘𝑏)
4𝜔
)] =
1
2
Tech brief: Impact of Technologies on Society
Children are being ‘datafied’ from birth; BBC on 8 November 2018

The children's commissioner for England is calling on internet giants and toy-makers to be more
transparent about the data they are collecting on children.

The report estimates:

- between the ages of 11 and 16, children post on social media 26 times a day, on average by
the time they reach adulthood, they are likely to have posted 70,000 times

- by the age of 13, a child's parents will have posted on average 1,300 photos and videos of
them to social media

- the report warns that there could be risks to young people where profiling of internet usage is
utilised in areas of life where it can have deeper ramifications, such as the judicial system or
the education system.

- one worrying scenario it gives is if a health insurance company used information posted by a
child on social media about their mental health as part of its decision on whether to issue a
policy or how much to charge.
 Energy Carried by EM Wave
Part 1 Summary:

1. POYNTING VECTOR AND LOSSY TRANSMISSION

2. TIME-AVERAGE POWER FLOW DENSITY IN LOSSY MEDIA & GOOD CONDUCTORS
4. WORKED EXAMPLES

Next watch Part 2

4. ENERGY CARRIED BY EM WAVES - APPLICATIONS

5. WORKED EXAMPLES
6. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Energy Carried by EM Wave
Part 2

Previous lecture Part 1

1. PREVIOUS LECTURE REMINDERS
2. POYNTING VECTOR AND LOSSY TRANSMISSION
3. TIME-AVERAGE POWER FLOW DENSITY IN LOSSY MEDIA & GOOD CONDUCTORS
4. WORKED EXAMPLES
Part 2
5. ENERGY CARRIED BY EM WAVES - APPLICATIONS
6. WORKED EXAMPLES
7. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Energy carried by EM waves - Applications

Different approaches how we can use the energy carried by EM Waves

1) EMW is directly applied

2) Energy carried by EMW is harvested and converted into other form of energy

We always keep in mind safety

https://www.forbes.com/sites/br ucelee/2018/11/03/cel lphones-and-c ancer-r is k-how-to-us e- your- cellphone- more safely/#3f2d52b43386

 Mobile communications and safety

Is 5G safe? - Read more in Futurism: https://apple.news/A74t69bABT529PUlWiA8OjA ; or

https://futurism.com/neoscope/researcher-warns-5g-cancer
BY JON CHRISTIAN / 18 OCT 2019
“Researcher Warns That 5G Might Actually Cause Cancer After All”
As 5G cellular network tech looms, conventional wisdom dictates that cell phone radiation is more or less
safe for humans. But writing for the widely respected magazine Scientific American, University of California
public health researcher Joel Moskowitz argues that we don’t yet understand the risks — and that more
research is necessary before […]
Example 1:
At microwave frequencies, the time average power density considered
safe for human exposure is 1 (mW/cm2). If a radiated wave with an
electric field amplitude E decays with distance as E(R) = 3,000/R (V/m),
where R is the distance in meters. What is the radius of the unsafe region?

Solution:
|𝐸 𝑅 |2
𝑺av = where o = 120 , 1 𝑚𝑊/𝑐𝑚2 = 10 𝑊/𝑚2
2|𝜂0|

2
3 × 103 1 1.2 × 104
10 = × =
𝑅 2 × 120𝜋 𝑅2

𝑅 = 34.64 𝑚
Illustration:
Illustration: Medical Therapy

Linear particle accelerator

generates X- rays
(Röntgen tube)

X-rays application
in medicine

Learn about Chernobyl Fungus that Eats Radiation. It could shield us from deadly rays.
Read in Popular Mechanics: https://apple.news/AXS5iw1l_QyGbZzN5PN6ZuA
Illustration: Lasers in Medicine
Dentistry

Eye surgery
Refractive surgery is the term used to correct common vision problems (near-sightedness, far-sightedness,
astigmatism and presbyopia). LASIK (LAY-sik) is the most popular in the United States.
Illustration:
Lasers in industry

- Laser welding and cutting is not anymore in James Bond movies only

- Laser micro drilled holes using femtosecond laser

Illustration: Applications of using EMW energy:
Shooting drones out of the sky with Pulse of Energy by Phasers
By Michael Dempsey Technology of Business reporter; 15 October 2019

https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-49984415

Raytheon Phaser uses microwaves to knock-out targets. Leonardo's Falcon Shield anti-UAV defence system.
A microwave-based weapon from defence giant Raytheon. Firing
from a disc resembling a giant satellite dish atop a sand-coloured
container it wipes out the digital elements inside a drone.
Illustration Movie: Defense applications
Air Force Downs Drones With New ATHENA Laser Weapon System
ATHENA laser system could help protect air bases against drone swarms.
Read in Popular Mechanics: https://apple.news/AsRPCpt3nSaum1D1tT6UyGA
 Example 2:
The beam from a small laboratory laser typically has an average intensity
of about 10−3 W/m2. Assuming that the beam is composed of plane waves,
calculate the average amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields
in the beam.

Solution:
For a time average density flow:
𝐸o2
Sav = =>
2𝜂o

Eo = 2𝜂o Sav = 2 × 377 × 0.001 = 0.754 = 0.868 V/m

𝐻𝑜2
Sav = 𝜂o =>
2

2Sav 2 × 0.001
Ho = = 377
= 2.3 𝑚A/m
𝜂o
Example 3:
A light bulb in the room emits 5 W of average power as visible light.
What are the average electric and magnetic fields of this light
at a distance of 3.0 m?
Solution:
𝑃 𝐸o2
Sav ( r ) = =
4𝑟 2 2𝜂o

We recall 𝜂o = 377  for air.

𝜂o 𝑃 120 × 5 300
Eo = = =
2𝑟 2 2 × 32 9

Eo = 5.77 𝑉/m

Technology brief: Spies can eavesdrop by watching a light bulb’s variations

Technique allows for real-time listening in on a room hundreds of feet away.
https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2020/06/spies-can-eavesdrop-by-watching-a-light-bulbs-variations/
by Andy Greenberg, wired.com - 6/13/2020, 12:07 PM
Concept of Harvesting Solar EMW Energy

Example of two approaches:

- Photovoltaics : EMW energy is converted into electric current

- Solar collectors : EMW energy is converted to heat

Reminder

 / A [photons /(s m2)]

 Concept of Solar Energy Harvesting
by Photovoltaics (Solar Cells)

Biard 100 W Semi-Flexible Solar Panel Charger

Concept of Power Generation by Directly Converting
Sun EMW Energy Into DC Current
 Solar collectors
- converts EMW energy into heat -
Energy, Information Technologies and Carbon Footprint
Is the use of Information and Communication Technology green ?

Few examples:
ICT accounts for 8 – 10 % of the European electricity consumption and
up to 4% of its carbon emissions
- single email accounts for 4g of CO2 issued.
- email with attachment is account for 50g of CO2.

https://www.ictfootprint.eu/es/about/ict-carbon-footprint/ict-carbon-footprint
Information communication technologies, Carbon
footprint and big Data routers
Switch Core Linecards

Up to 1000ft
1 2 3 4 5 6 13 1415 161718 25 2627 282930
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516

17181920212223242526272829303132

7 8 9 10 1112 19 202122 2324 31 32

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516

17181920212223242526272829303132

Source: Nick McKeown http://yuba.stanford.edu/~nickm/

We need ‘more green’ solutions
 Energy Carried by EM Wave
Summary:
Part 1
1. POYNTING VECTOR AND LOSSY TRANSMISSION
2. TIME-AVERAGE POWER FLOW DENSITY IN LOSSY MEDIA & GOOD CONDUCTORS
3. WORKED EXAMPLES

Part 2
4. ENERGY CARRIED BY EM WAVES - APPLICATIONS
5. WORKED EXAMPLES

Next lecture: Transmission between antennas

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Transmission between Antennas

Part 1
1. POWER TRANSFER BETWEEN ANTENNAS
2. THE RADAR EQUATION
3. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Part 2
4. EMW POLARIZATION; LINEAR POLARIZATION AND ANTENNAS
5. /2 -DIPOLE AND OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNA RADIATION
6. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
7. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

Recall: Pointing vector 𝑺 = 𝑬 × 𝑯 (W/m2)

𝑺 defines EMW Power Density Flow through a unity surface

The amount of this power flow interacting with the receiving antenna
GR 𝟐
depends on the Effective receiving area of the antenna A =
𝟒𝝅
where:
- GR is receiving antenna gain
-  is the EMW wavelength

Remember: S varies in time thus can be ‘made’ to carry the information!!

Example 1:
Find the strength of electric field E (r) generated by an Omnidirectional
antenna transmitting power PT .
Solution:
Let us consider transmitted power PT by omnidirectional antenna in point O.
The power density Pd at point Q at the distance r from O is:
Isotrope E, Pd
Q Pd = PT / A = PT / (4r2) W/m2 (A3)
PT r
PO Recall: Pointing theorem S = E × H

=> In air |S|= |E||H| = Pd (A3*)

Surface at r is A = 4r2
Recall: in free space: |H|=|E|/0 = |E|/ (120) (A4*)
After substituting (A4*) to (A3*) we get:
Pd = E2 / (120 ) (A4)

After comparing (A3) and (A4) : 30𝑃T 30𝐺𝑃T

E= = V/m (A5)
(then including antenna gain G) 𝑟 𝑟
Example 2:
A transmitting aerial has a radiation resistance of RT = 50  and power gain of G = 20 dB in
the direction of the receiver r = 40 miles away.
(a) With the aerial supplied with a current i = 0.5 A, determine the power density Pd (W/m2) and
electric field strength E at the receiver.
(b) If the receiving aerial has an effective length of l = 1.5 m and its radiation resistance R = 75 , determine
the maximum power available to the receiver and the overall transmission loss in dB.
Solution:
Total power radiated by the antenna with gain G and radiation resistance RT when energized by current i
is PT = i U G = i2 Rr G. This power then flows out through an imaginary surface area 4r2.

G = 20 dB =102
(a) Power density Pd at a distance r is given by (A3):
i = 0.5 A Pd = PT / (4r2) = i2 RT G / (4r2) W/m2 (A5*)
RT = 50 
By recalling (A4):

PT r = 40 miles l = 1.5 m Pd = E2/ (120 ) watts/m2

R = 75  By comparing both equations for Pd we get:
PT = i2 RT E, Pd ,V =? i2 RTG/ (4r2) = E2/ (120 )
30 𝐺 𝑖2𝑅T 30 ×100 × 0.25 × 50
=> E = = = 3.02 mV/m (A4**)
𝑟 40 × 1600
Voltage V induced by E in the receiving antenna of length l is:
V = E . l = 3.02 × 10-3 × 1.5 = 4.53 mV cont.
cont.
Recall (A4*) : |H| = |E| / (120 )
|𝐸|
Since Pd = |E||H| = |E| . After substituting (A**) for E we get:
120 

30 𝐺 𝑖2𝑅T 2
30 𝐺 𝑖2𝑅T 𝐺 𝑖 𝑅T 100 × 0.25 × 50
Pd = × 120 𝑟
= = = 0.0243 𝝁W/m2
𝑟 4𝑟2 4 × 40 ×1,600 2

(b) For the maximum power available to the receiver under the matched conditions
recall Eq.2* we found in the earlier lecture) :
V2 4.532 × 10−6
Pr (max) = = = 0.684 mV
4R 4 × 75
0.5 2 × 50 × 100
Hence, the loss ratio: PT / Pr (max) = i2 RT G / Pr (max) = = 1.83 × 10 6
0.684 × 10−3

Transmission loss in [dB] = 10 log (PT /Pr (max) ) = 10 log (1.83 × 106) = 62.63 dB
Example 3: Transmission between Antennas in Space
The transmitter power is PT , antenna gain at the transmitted wavelength 
is GT and the receiving antenna gain is GR , find the received power Pr at a distance r.
Solution:
Power density Pd at distance r found in the previous example as (A5*):
Pd PT GT
𝑷𝐝 = W/m2 , where GT is the transmitting antenna gain
4𝑟 2
r
PT Receiving antenna with gain GR and operating at wavelength 
A, Pr GR 2
GT has its effective receiving area A = 4𝜋
.

Then, the power received by the receiving antenna is:

PT GT GR𝜆2 PT GT 𝝀 𝟐
𝑷𝒓 = A Pd = A × = × = × PT 𝐆𝐓 𝐆𝐑
4𝑟 2 4𝜋 4𝑟 2 𝟒𝝅 𝒓
 Transmission between Ground-based Antennas
Let us assume the previous conditions, but here transmitting and receiving antennas
separated by a distance r sit at heights hT and hR above the ground, respectively.
Tr
d1
Rec
hT 𝑷𝒓𝒈
hR
d2

r
The received signal will be a sum of a signal coming strait from the Tr after traveling d1 and its
reflection from the ground after traveling distance d2 from the Tr. Therefore, the received power
must be corrected by a factor |F|2 to account for the impact of these two signals interfering at
the receiving antenna Rec . Therefore for a case of an ideal reflection |R| = 1:
2𝜋
𝑃𝑟𝑔 = 𝑃𝑟 × |F| 2 where F = 1 − R e j𝜃 and 𝜃 = (d – d ) 2 1
𝜆

Where we assumed a perfect reflection from the ground.

Finding |F| is the task of one of the Tutorial questions

2𝜋 ℎ𝑅 ℎ𝑇
|F| = 2 sin { } A6
𝜆 𝑟

Power received by the antenna over ground transmission will be:

λ 2 2𝜋 ℎ𝑅 ℎ𝑇
𝑃𝒓𝒈 = × PT GT GR × sin2 { } A7
πr 𝜆 𝑟
 Empirical rules for microwave transmission in atmosphere
- for illustration only - no need to memorize -

❑ Carrier frequency above 100 MHz – is used for line of sight communication
❑ Parabolic antenna ~ 3 m dish diameter :
4hT
 rmax = 7.14 (km) where hT is antenna height (m)
3

Example for hT = 100 m: rmax = 7.14 (133)1/2 = 82 km

 Typical data rates:

Carrier band (GHz) Bandwidth (MHz) Data rate (Mb/s)
2 7 12
6 30 90
11 40 90
18 220 274

4𝜋 𝑟 2
 Signal Att [dB ] = 10 log ( ) , 𝜆 is used wavelength
𝜆
 Radar Equation and its Range
At point O is an airplane of echoing area  [m2] being targeted by a radar. If the radar
transmitted power is PT , power density Pd at point O at distance r from a radar is:
O PT GT
Pd  𝑃𝑑 = 2 watts/m2 , where GT is a transmitting antenna gain.
 Pd 4𝜋𝑟
r
r The airplane isotropically reflects  Pd of the power. This produces
PT
𝑃𝑑′ (r) reflected power density 𝑃𝑑′ (r ) traveling back towards the radar’s antenna:
A, Pr
′ σ P𝑑  PT G𝑇
𝑃𝑑 (r ) = = watts/m 2
4𝜋𝑟 2 (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) 𝟐

GR 𝟐
If the radar receiving antenna has a gain GR and has effective receiving area A = 𝟒𝝅
the received power 𝑃𝑟 by the radar is:
 P G 𝐺 𝜆2  PT GT 𝑃𝑟  GR GT 𝜆2 Radar
𝑃𝑟 = 𝐴 𝑃𝑑′ = A × T T
(4𝜋𝑟 2 )2
= 𝑅
4𝜋
×
(4𝜋𝑟 2 )2
=> 𝑃𝑇
=
4𝜋 3
× 4
𝑟
(RA)
Equation
Example 4:
Calculate the minimum transmitted power needed in a pulse radar to detect an
airplane of 10 m2 echoing area at a range of 120 km. The radar has following parameters:
Operating frequency 1.3 GHz, receiver sensitivity -135 dBW and the aerial gain of its
bidirectional antenna is 34 dB.
Assume an atmospheric attenuation of 0.008 dB/km.

Solution:
Pd  =10 m2 From radar equation - Eq.(RE):

r = 120 km 𝑃𝑟  G𝑅 G𝑇 𝜆2 Pr 4𝜋 3 𝑟4
PT = × => PT =
A, Pr 𝑃T 4𝜋 3 𝑟4  λ2 G𝑅 G𝑇
T

Due to atmospheric attenuation:

Path loss = 2r × 0.008 dB = 2 × 120 km × 0.008 dB/km = 1.92 dB = 100.192 ≅ 1.556
cont.
cont.
Pr 4𝜋 3 𝑟4
Therefore the transmitted power PT =
 λ2 GR GT
must be increased by 1.556 times to compensate for such atmospheric loss:
Pr 4𝜋 3 𝑟4
PT = 1.556  λ2 G G
R T

By substituting: r = 120 km = 120 000 m; GT = GR = 34 dB = 103.4 ≅ 2512;  = 10 m2 ;

 = c/f = 3 × 108 / (1.3 GHz) = 0.23 m;
Pr = -135 dBW = 10 -13.5 watts

We get:
1.556 × Pr × 4𝜋 3 × 𝑟4 1.556 × 10−13.5 × 4𝜋 3 × 120,0004
PT = = = 6 kW
 λ2 GR GT 10 × 0.232 × 25122
 Transmission between Antennas

Part 1summary
1. POWER TRANSFER BETWEEN ANTENNAS
2. THE RADAR EQUATION
3. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Next watch Part 2

5. EMW POLARIZATION; LINEAR POLARIZATION AND ANTENNAS
6. /2 -DIPOLE AND OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNA RADIATION
7. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Transmission between Antennas
Part 2

Previous lecture Part 1

1. POWER TRANSFER BETWEEN ANTENNAS
2. RADAR EQUATION
3. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Part 2
4. EMW POLARIZATION; LINEAR POLARIZATION AND ANTENNAS
5. /2 -DIPOLE AND OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNA RADIATION
6. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
7. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Part 2

Traveling EM wave could be in different

Polarization states

Linear polarization Circular polarization

Animation of antenna receiving vertically linearly
polarized EMW
(case of horizontal polarization)

Input load resistor

of the receiver
To receive transmitted signal the polarization states
Of transmitting and receiving antennas must match
- case of vertical polarization is shown -
Example:
Using two orthogonal polarizations and the same signal
frequency doubles transmission capacity

Rx

Rx

Orthogonal antennas orientations to receive differently polarized EM waves

Receiving Horizontal EMW polarization

Receiving Vertical EMW polarization

 Satellite Reception by Parabolic Antenna Dish
EMW detector

E1
E2

Parabolic-shaped antenna dish focusses incoming EM Wave on the EMW detector to increase
signal density (signal level). This improves the SNR and channel capacity.
Transmitted TV/Radio waves carrying individual signals are first linearly polarized into vertical
and horizontal state of polarization and then multiplexed together.
This arrangements doubles the transmission capacity.
EM Wave Detector orientation determines what polarization will be received: horizontal E1 or
vertical E2.
Illustration:
¼ -Wave Antenna and its reception

1
λ
1 4
λ
4 ‘Receiving’ antenna

50 cable
Radio

Note: ¼ wave antenna has

one side of a dipole grounded
 Antenna feeding rms current/voltage
What is rms (r.m.s. , RMS) current / voltage?

Vrms illustration

Vm

Why using RMS value of current and voltage?

Vm Im
Vm Vm
Example 1:
(a) Calculate the power density at the distance r = 10 km for an omnidirectional antenna
radiating a power P = i2 Rr ;
(b) Find the strength of an electric field E generated by a radiating half-wave dipole at a point
r = 10 km away in the horizontal plane bisecting the dipole;
(c) Calculate the gain G of the dipole in dB, then compared it with omnidirectional antenna.
In all calculations assume both antennas are fed with a current irms = 2 A and the radiation
resistance of the antenna dipole is Rr = 74 .

Solution:
(a)
By considering a transmitted power P at point O, the power density Pd at the distance r due to
omnidirectional antenna uniform radiation pattern is :

Isotrope Pd = P / (4r2) W/m2 (A3)

O r
P Pd In (A3) using the radiating power P = i2 Rr
P = i2 R r
𝑷 𝑖2 Rr 22 ×74 74
Pd = = = = W/m2
S = 4r2 4 r2 4 r2 4 10,0002  10,0002 cont.
 𝑖
(b) For /2 dipole in a bisecting plane we can use the Boil-Savart law : H =
2r
𝐸
We recall (A4*) : |E| = |H| = 120  |H|  H =
120 

𝑖 𝐸
Bisecting horizontal plane By comparing: =
2 r 120 
P = 𝒊𝟐 Rr E (r); H (r)
i(rms) = 2 A r = 10 km 60 𝑖 60 × 2
P’d
Rr = 74  => E = r
=
10,000
= 12 V/m

From (A4), the power density 𝑷′𝒅 at the distance r due to the radiating dipole is:
𝑷′𝒅 = E2 (r ) / (120) and after substituting the above E = 12 V/m
0.0122
𝑷′𝒅 = W/m2.
120 

(c) The dipole power gain G if compare to the omnidirectional antenna is:
0.0122 74
G= 𝑃𝑑′ /P𝑑 = / 10,000 = 1.62 = 10 log10 1.62 = 2.095 dB
120  2
 Increasing antenna gain by using antenna arrays

Radiation pattern produced would be the vector sum of the individual arrays.

Applications:
 Satellite communications
 Wireless communications
 Military radar communications
 Astronomical study
Toll collection RF system
Illustration:

Use of frequencies for different applications

Frequency Band Name Frequency Range Wavelength (Meters) Application

Extremely Low Frequency

3-30 Hz 10,000-100,000 km Underwater Communication
(ELF)
AC Power (though not a
Super Low Frequency (SLF) 30-300 Hz 1,000-10,000 km
transmitted wave)

Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) 300-3000 Hz 100-1,000 km

Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3-30 kHz 10-100 km Navigational Beacons

Low Frequency (LF) 30-300 kHz 1-10 km AM Radio

Medium Frequency (MF) 300-3000 kHz 100-1,000 m Aviation and AM Radio

High Frequency (HF) 3-30 MHz 10-100 m Shortwave Radio

Very High Frequency (VHF) 30-300 MHz 1-10 m FM Radio

Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300-3000 MHz 10-100 cm Television, Mobile Phones, GPS

Super High Frequency Satellite Links, Wireless

3-30 GHz 1-10 cm
(SHF) Communication
Extremely High Frequency
30-300 GHz 1-10 mm Astronomy, Remote Sensing
(EHF)
Lecture Summary
Part 1

1. PREVIOUS LECTURE REMINDERS

2. POWER TRANSFER BETWEEN ANTENNAS
3. RADAR EQUATION
4. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Part 2
5. EMW POLARIZATION; LINEAR POLARIZATION AND ANTENNAS
6. /2 -DIPOLE AND OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNA RADIATION
7. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Next Lecture: Transmission Line Channel Capacity and Impairments

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Transmission Line
Channel Capacity and Impairments
Part 2

Previous lecture Part 1

1. PREVIOUS LECTURE REMINDERS
2. DATA RATE & BANDWIDTH; DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
3. CHANNEL CAPACITY OF NOISELESS TRANSMISSION CHANNEL; NYQUIST THEOREM
4. CHANNEL CAPACITY OF NOISY TRANSMISSION CHANNEL; SHANNON THEOREM
Part 2
5. THERMAL NOISE; SNR; NOISE FIGURE
6. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
7. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

Recall:

Channel capacity of a noisy TL gives the Shannon theorem

= B log2(1 + SNR)
𝑆 (𝑓) 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
SNR = =
𝑁(𝑓) 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

Signal power S

Noise power
N=kTB

Bandwidth B
Illustration: Noise affecting data transmission
Data Transmitted 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

Signal

Noise

Signal + Noise

Sampling times
Data received 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Data Transmitted 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
Received bits with error
 Noise Figure
Noise Figure (NF) represents degradation in Signal to Noise ratio
as the signal passes through Device and/or Transmission line

Pd
𝑆𝑖 /𝑁𝑖 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑖
NF = =
Receiver 𝑆0 /𝑁0 𝑆𝑁𝑅0
Antenna
Output power level [dB]
Always: NF > 1
Input power level [dB]

So
No
Si
Ni

Frequency [GHz] Frequency [GHz]

 Effective Noise Temperature Te
Noise power N generated by a device can be expressed
trough its Effective noise temperature Te as
N = k Te B (N4)

Te of a device/TL also relates to its noise figure NF as

Te = (NF – 1)T0
where T0 = 290 K is a reference room temperature
A perfect device will have NF = 1 so its Te = 0
 Thermal noise and TL Channel capacity
Recall Shannon’s theorem
C = B log2 (1 + S/N) where S/N is signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

Reminder: !! S/N in the above formula is NOT expressed in dB !!

If the thermal noise power N is the main contributing factor to system’s noise
we recall that: N = N0 B = k T B

S
then: C = B log2 (1 + S/N) = B log2 (1 + )
kTB

Remark:
Noise density No is often used to calculate:
- carrier power c over noise density as c/N0 and
- energy bit power over noise density Eb /N0
See related tutorial questions
Example 1:
Satellite communication system operates at a wavelength 6 cm using a spherical balloon
of equivalent echoing area  = 10 m2. Identical aerials of gain G = 50 dB are used for the
transmission and reception.
The transmitter power is 10 kW, the receiving aerial noise temperature is 20 K and the
receiver noise temperature is 30 K. The distances from the balloon to the transmitting
and receiving antennas are 2,000 km and 3,000 km, respectively.
Estimate SNR at the receiver output assuming the receiver bandwidth B is 10 kHz.
Solution:
Balloon
𝑷′𝒅
 P
r The power density near a balloon was found in earlier lecture as
d1 d2
′ G PT
𝑻𝑨𝒆 𝑃𝑑 =
4𝑑12
PT Pd , watts/m2
𝑻𝑹
𝒆
G G R
Si /Ni S0 /N0
′ G PT
Pr =  𝑃𝑑 = 10 ×
4𝑑12
The reflected power density from the balloon is: watts/m2

Similarly, the power density Pd near the receiver P𝑟 10 G PT

Pd = =
4𝑑1𝑑2
watts/m2
after reflection from balloon is: 4 𝑑22 2
cont.
cont.

From the receiving antenna

the receiver receives Signal Power: Si = A Pd
G 2
where: A = ; G = 50 dB = 105; PT = 10 kW = 104;  = 6 cm = 6 × 10-2 m.
4𝜋

G2 10×G×PT 𝟐 10 PT × G × G 36×10−4 × 10 ×104 ×105 × 105 1

Si = = = =
4𝜋 4𝑑1𝑑2 2 4)3 (𝑑1𝑑2 2 4)3 (2,000,000 × 3,000,000 2 4 3 × 1013

Si = 5.05 × 10-17 watts (A7)

Antenna input Noise Power is defined by its effective Antenna noise temperature 𝑇𝑒𝐴 = 20 K
Ni = k 𝑻𝑨𝒆 B = 1.38×10-23 × 20 × 104 = 2.76×10-18 watts

Ni = 2.76 × 10-18 watts (A8) cont.

cont.
The effective Receiver noise temperature 𝑻𝑅𝑒
is related to Receiver Noise Figure NF by Eq. N4 as: 𝑻𝑹𝒆 = (NF – 1) T0
where: T0 = 290 K is the room temperature and given 𝑇e𝑅 = 30 K

30
=> NF = 1 + 𝑇e𝑅 /T0 = 1 + 290 = 1.1 (A9)

𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑖 𝑆𝑖 /𝑁𝑖
Receiver noise figure NF is also defined as: NF = = (A10)
𝑆𝑁𝑅o 𝑆o /𝑁o
𝑆𝑖 /𝑁𝑖 𝑆𝑖
=> 𝑆o /𝑁o =
𝑁𝐹
=
𝑁𝑖 × 𝑁𝐹

After substitutions from Eq. A7, A8, A9:

5.05 × 10−17
𝑆o /𝑁o = 2.76×10−18 × 1.1 = 16.5 => 𝑆o /𝑁o [dB] = 10 log10 16.5 = 12.18 dB

𝑺𝐨 /𝑵𝐨 = 12.18 dB
Important observation
It is possible to transmit data even if the signal is weaker than
the background noise level (i.e., SNR <1 ).

Example 2:
If SNR = 0.5 and the channel’s B = 1 MHz, the maximum estimated data rate:
C = 1 log2 (1 + 0.5) = log2 (1.5) = 0.58 Mb/s.

However, If SNR → 0 then C → 0 and no data (information) can be transmitted!!

C = 1 log2 (1 + 0) = log2 (1) = 0 Mb/s.
Example 3:
The electric field phasor of a uniform plane wave traveling downward in water
is given by E(z) = 5 e−0.1z e−j 0.1z (V/m) where zƸ is the downward direction and
z = 0 is the water surface. Use  = 4 S/m and f = 10 MHz.
(a) Obtain an expression for the average power density at depth z.
(b) Calculate the system channel capacity change if the power density after traveling in the
water was reduced 40 000 times.
Solution:
(a) Since a = b = 0.1, the medium is a good conductor.
Recall:
hc = (1+ j) a = (1+ j) 0.1 = (1+ j) 0.025 =
◦
2 e j45 × 0.025 = 0.03535 e j45 (W)
◦
4

|E0|2 −2az |5|2

Sav = zො 2|hc| e cos qh = zො e−0.2z cos 45◦ ~ zො 250 e−0.2z (W/m2)
2 × 0.03535
cont.
cont.
(b) C = B log2 (1 + SNR)

Before the attenuation SNR was 40,000 and therefore:

CBefore = 10 × 106 log2 (1 + 40,000) = 107 log2 (40,001) ≈ 107 × 15.3 ≈ 153 Mb/s

Due to the attenuation SNR dropped 40,000 times i. e. , from 40,000 to ~ 1:

CAfter = 10 × 106 log2 (1 + 1) = 107 log2 2 = 107 × 1 ≈ 10 Mb/s

Channel capacity relative change:  C = 153

10
= 15.3 times drop
 Transmission Line
Channel Capacity and Impairments

Lecture summary
Part 1
1. DATA RATE & BANDWIDTH; DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
2. CHANNEL CAPACITY OF NOISELESS TRANSMISSION CHANNEL; NYQUIST THEOREM
3. CHANNEL CAPACITY OF NOISY TRANSMISSION CHANNEL; SHANNON THEOREM
Part 2
4. THERMAL NOISE; SNR; NOISE FIGURE
5. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Professor Ivan Glesk

 Transmission Line
Channel Capacity and Impairments

Part 1
1. DATA RATE & BANDWIDTH; DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
2. CHANNEL CAPACITY OF NOISELESS TRANSMISSION CHANNEL; NYQUIST THEOREM
3. CHANNEL CAPACITY OF NOISY TRANSMISSION CHANNEL; SHANNON THEOREM

Part 2
4. THERMAL NOISE; SNR; NOISE FIGURE
5. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
6. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

Reminder

TLs are selected based on channel capacity needs

Network Type Time Delay Data rates

3G Network 60 ms (actual)* 384 k bit/s
4G Network 50 ms (actual)* 100 Mbit/s
5G Network 1ms (theoretical) 10 Gbit/s
illustration only – no need to memorize

Twisted Pair applications:

❑ Category 3 (Cat 3): Voice Grade. Telephone wire.
❑ Category 5 (Cat 5): Data Grade. Better quality.
100 Mbps over 50 m possible
❑ Cat 6e (current): 600 Mbps over 50 m possible
Transmission line channel capacity can vary

3G - max data transfer rate is up to 41 Mbit/s EDGE - max data transfer rate is up to 384 kbit/s
Signal strength Signal strength
Data rate Data rate
 Factors affecting TL channel capacity

1) Data carrier used

2) Data encoding
3) Channel noise, attenuation, dispersion, and more

How do we assess transmission line ability to carry data?

 Evaluation of TL ability to carry data
The key terminology

Signal Bandwidth – the range of frequencies in the signal.

Channel Bandwidth [in Hz] – frequencies allowed by a transmission line

without significant signal attenuation and distortion.

Channel Capacity – maximum bits/second transmission line (channel)

supports.

Transmission line can be viewed also as Transmission channel

 Transmission Line Bandwidth
When talking about transmission line bandwidth, we usually mean
a range of frequencies the transmission line can carry with no or very
little distortion.

Example 1:
This transmission line will pass signal frequencies between f1 and f2.

B = f2 – f1

The bandwidth depends on physical parameters of the transmission line.

Copper wire will have a different bandwidth from wireless channel or optical fiber.
Quantifying Channel Capacity of Noiseless TL

Noiseless transmission line channel capacity (C) is given by the Nyquist theorem
Nyquist theorem gives an upper bound on a bit rate (amount of data = capacity) C
the noiseless transmission line (or transmission system) can support:

C = 2 B log2 M

C - capacity in bits per second [bps] and means the max data rate achievable.
B - channel / transmission line bandwidth in [Hz]
M - number of encoding levels

!! Nyquist theorem holds only for a noiseless transmission channel !!

Examples 2:

Channel Capacity of Noiseless TL

❑ Channel capacity of TL when using Binary Encoding (On/OFF keying):
In binary encoding M = 2 because it has two levels: 0 and 5V (see figure below)

decision threshold

C = 2B log2 M = 2B log2 2 = 2 B

❑ Channel capacity when using Multilevel Encoding with M = 4 levels

C = 2B log2 M = 2B log2 4 = 4 B
Transmission line always negatively impacts transmitted
signal, thus the data rate

Recall previous lectures

Attenuation Dispersion

0 0 D D
z
Noise

TL attenuation, dispersion and noise have negative impact on the channel capacity
 Understanding Thermal Noise
Thermal noise arises from thermal fluctuations of the electron density within
conductors. Equation 1 was introduced by Nyquist in 1928 and gives resulting
Voltage mean squared as:
2 𝑓
𝑉𝑡𝑛 = 4 k T ‫ 𝑓׬‬2 𝑅 df (1)
1
Where:
2
𝑉𝑡𝑛 - voltage mean squared value across the resistor
R - resistance Ω
k - Boltzmann’s constant k = 1.3803 × 10-23 [ J/K ]
T - temperature of the resistor in Kelvin (Reminder: Kelvin = Celsius + 273.16)
f1 & f2 - lower and upper frequency of the signal passing through R. ( f2 – f1 = B is called bandwidth).
Mostly, the resistive component R is constant over the used bandwidth B [Hz].
Therefore it is possible to solve Eq. 1:
2 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
𝑉𝑡𝑛 = 4 k T ‫ 𝑓׬‬2 𝑅 df = 4 k T R ‫ 𝑓׬‬2 df = 4 k T R [ f ]𝑓 2 = 4 k T R [ f2 – f1 ] = 4 k T R B
1 1 1

Its root mean square (r.m.s.) 2 then defines Thermal Noise Voltage
𝑉𝑡𝑛

Vtn = 2 =
𝑉𝑡𝑛 4𝑘𝑇𝐵𝑅 (volts) (2)
Example 3:
Calculate the thermal noise voltage Vtn of a transmission line having a 50 Ω
impedance, 1 Hz bandwidth and operates at a room temperature T = 300 K.
Solution:
Vtn = 4 𝑘 𝑇 𝐵 𝑅 = 4 × (1.3803 × 10−23 ) × 300 × 50 × 1 ≅ 1 nV (nano volts)

Thermal Noise Power N

It is more practical expressing the thermal noise in terms of the Noise Power N (watts).
To find N we model a noisy resistor R as an ideal resistor in series with a noise voltage source
Vtn connected to a matched load R (see figure).
𝑅 Vtn 𝑉𝑡𝑛 R
N = I VR where VR = Vtn = and I =
𝑅+𝑅 2 2𝑅 R VR
Vtn
𝑉𝑡𝑛 𝑉𝑡𝑛 2
𝑉𝑡𝑛 ( 4 𝑘 𝑇 𝐵 𝑅 )2
N = I VR = = = =kTB I
2𝑅 2 4𝑅 4𝑅

Thermal Noise Power N = k T B (watts) (3)

Thermal noise power N is independent of the resistance R and depends only on bandwidth B
and temperature T. cont.
cont.

Thermal noise power given per 1 Hz of bandwidth is called Noise density N0

𝑁 𝑘𝑇𝐵
N0 = = = kT watts/Hz [W/Hz]
𝐵 𝐵
k = 1.3803 × 10-23 [J /K ] is Boltzmann’s constant
T is temperature in Kelvin [K ]

In summary we can write:

N = N0 × B = k T B [W ]
N is often shortly called noise power. N describes the total thermal noise power found in a
device operating over bandwidth B.
Noise power N is often given in dBm i.e., NdBm
dBm relates the noise power level N to 1 milliwatt of power in decibels:
𝑵 [𝑾] 𝑁 [𝑊]
NdBm = 10 log 𝟏 [𝒎𝑾] = 10 log = 10 log (N × 103) = 10 log (k T B × 103)
10−3 [𝑊]

= 10 log (k T × 103) + 10 log B

Example 4:
Find thermal noise power in resistor at room temperature T = 300 K expressed in dBm:
NdBm (300 K) = 10 log (k T × 103 ) + 10 log B =10 log (1.3803×10-23 × 300 × 103 ) + 10 log B

NdBm (300 K) = -174 + 10 log B

Any system operating at room temperature having 1 Hz of bandwidth will be affected
by -174 dBm of thermal noise density.
Example: : at 300K
Understanding Signal-to-Noise Ration (SNR)

𝑆 (𝑓) 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

SNR = =
𝑁(𝑓) 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

SNR may depend on signal frequency f

Signal power S

Noise power N
N=kTB

Bandwidth B
 Channel Capacity of Noisy TL
- noisy transmission -

In real life, the achievable transmission line channel capacity depends on several factors.
One is the signal to noise ratio S/N (or SNR).

Upper bound on a noisy transmission is called channel capacity of a noisy channel

(in case of the binary encoding) is given by the Shannon theorem as:

= B log2(1 + SNR)

C - channel capacity (in bits per second);

B - bandwidth of the channel (in Hertz) or passband bandwidth in case of a modulated signal);
S - average signal power received over the bandwidth measured in watts [W] or V2 (volts squared)
(in case of modulated signal, often denoted c, i.e. modulated carrier);
N - average noise or interference power over the bandwidth measured in watts (or volts squared);
S/N - signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) of the communication signal to the
Gaussian noise - expressed as a linear power ratio. (SNR in the formula is NOT expressed in dB).
Example 5:

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise

ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint.

Solution:
For this channel, a capacity C is calculated as:

C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 0) = B log2 1 = B × 0 = 0

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth.

We can’t receive any data when the transmission channel SNR = 0

Example 6:
Find a Channel Capacity of Wireless transmission based on 802.11a
and 802.11g standards. Assume that SNR = 3162.
Solution:

Depending on the wireless standard, channels have differing bandwidth B:

For 802.11a B = 20 MHz:

C = 20,000,000 log2(1 + 3162) = 20,000,000 x (11.62) = 232,400,000 b/s ~ 232 Mb/s

For 802.11g B = 54 MHz:

C = 54,000,000 log2(1 + 3162) = 54,000,000 x (11.62) = 627,480,000 b/s ~ 627 Mb/s
Applications of Shannon’s Theorem
Example 8:

If the phone line bandwidth B = 3,100 Hz what is the maximum

data rate if SNR is 30 dB?
Solution:
If SNR is 30 dB then 10 log SNR = 30
log SNR = 3
SNR = 103 = 1,000
Cannel capacity (data rate):
C = 3100 log2 (1 + 1,000) = 30,894 b/s ~ 30.9 kb/s
 Transmission Line
Channel Capacity and Impairments
Part 1 summary
1. DATA RATE & BANDWIDTH; DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
2. CHANNEL CAPACITY OF NOISELESS TRANSMISSION CHANNEL; NYQUIST THEOREM
3. CHANNEL CAPACITY OF NOISY TRANSMISSION CHANNEL; SHANNON THEOREM

Next watch Part 2

4. THERMAL NOISE; SNR; NOISE FIGURE
5. WORKED EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
6. LECTURE SUMMARY

Professor Ivan Glesk

Boundary Conditions at Interface

For electrical field Magnetic Fields

• Tangential Components • Tangential components
𝑬1𝑡 = 𝑬2𝑡 𝑯1𝑡 = 𝑯2𝑡
𝛻×𝑬=0
ර 𝑯 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = 𝐼
• Normal components
𝜀1 𝑬1𝑛 − 𝜀2 𝑬2𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠
𝛻 ∙ 𝑫 = 𝜌𝑣 Assumes no surface current
• Normal components
𝜇1 𝑯1𝑛 = −𝜇2 𝑯2𝑛
𝛻∙𝑩=0
Tangential Electric Fields

• Medium 1
• The total value of the electric field phasor
is:
෩1 𝑧 = 𝑬
𝑬 ෩𝑖 𝑧 + 𝑬෩ 𝑟 (𝑧)
• Which can be written as
෩1 𝑧 = 𝑥ො 𝐸0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1𝑧 + 𝐸0𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝑘1 𝑧
𝑬
• Medium 2
• The total value of the electric field phasor
is:
෩2 𝑧 = 𝑬
𝑬 ෩𝑡 𝑧
෩ 2 𝑧 = 𝑥𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑧
Tangential Electric Fields

• At boundary (𝑧 = 0)
• Continuity (Kirchoff’s Voltage Law) implies
𝐸෨1 0 = 𝐸෨2 0
𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡
Tangential Magnetic Fields

• Medium 1
• The total value of the magnetic field phasor
is:
෩1 𝑧 = 𝑯
𝑯 ෩𝑖 𝑧 + 𝑯
෩ 𝑟 (𝑧)
• Which can be written as
෩ 1 𝑧 = 𝑦ො 𝐻0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑧 − 𝐻0𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝑘1 𝑧
𝑯
• Medium 2
• The total value of the magnetic field phasor
is:
𝑯෩2 𝑧 = 𝑯 ෩𝑡 𝑧
෩ 2 𝑧 = 𝑦𝐻
𝑯 ො 0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑧
Tangential Magnetic Fields

• At boundary (𝑧 = 0)
• Continuity (Gausses Law) implies
෩1 0 = 𝑯
𝑯 ෩2 0
𝐻0𝑖 − 𝐻0𝑟 = 𝐻0𝑡
Relationships between Phasors

𝐻0𝑖 − 𝐻0𝑟 = 𝐻0𝑡

• Can be expressed as
𝐸0𝑖 − 𝐸0𝑟 𝐸0𝑡
=
𝜂1 𝜂2
• Substituting
𝐸0𝑡 = 𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟
• Gives
𝐸0𝑖 − 𝐸0𝑟 𝐸0𝑖 +𝐸0𝑟
=
𝜂1 𝜂2
• Rearranging
𝑟
𝜂2 − 𝜂1 𝑖
𝐸0 = 𝐸
𝜂2 + 𝜂1 0
Reflection Coefficient

• Defines the reflection coefficient:

𝐸0𝑟 = Γ𝐸0𝑖
𝜂2 − 𝜂1
Γ=
𝜂2 + 𝜂1

• Note similarity to transmission lines:

𝑉0− = Γ𝑉0+
𝑍2 − 𝑍1
Γ=
𝑍2 + 𝑍1
Relationships between Phasors
𝐸0𝑡 = 𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟
• substitute
𝐸0𝑟 = Γ𝐸0𝑖
• Gives
𝐸0𝑡 = 𝐸0𝑖 + Γ𝐸0𝑖 = 1 + Γ 𝐸0𝑖
• Or
𝐸0𝑡 = 𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟
• Substitute
𝜂2 − 𝜂1 𝑖
𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0
𝜂2 + 𝜂1
𝑡 𝑖
𝜂2 − 𝜂1 𝑖 2𝜂2
𝐸0 = 𝐸0 + 𝐸0 = 𝐸0𝑖
𝜂2 + 𝜂1 𝜂2 + 𝜂1
Transmission Coefficient

• Defines the transmission coefficient

𝐸0𝑡 = 𝜏𝐸0𝑖
𝜏 = 1+Γ
2𝜂2
𝜏=
𝜂2 + 𝜂1

• Note similarity to transmission lines:

𝑉෨𝐿 = Λ𝑉0+
2𝑍𝐿
Λ=
𝑍2 + 𝑍1
Normal Incidence
• Let consider an electromagnetic wave
• incident on the boundary at 𝑧 = 0 between
two media.
• Media have differing electromagnetic
properties: 𝜀1 , 𝜇1 , 𝜂1 , 𝜀2 , 𝜇2 , 𝜂2
• For ease in analysis we will assume that
the wave is travelling in direction 𝑘෠ = 𝑧Ƹ
normal to the surface of the boundary
𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟 = 0
• at the boundary
– An Incident Wave 𝑘෠ = 𝑧Ƹ
Normal Incidence
• Let consider an electromagnetic wave
• incident on the boundary at 𝑧 = 0 between
two media.
• Media have differing electromagnetic
properties: 𝜀1 , 𝜇1 , 𝜂1 , 𝜀2 , 𝜇2 , 𝜂2
• For ease in analysis we will assume that
the wave is travelling in direction 𝑘෠ = 𝑧Ƹ
normal to the surface of the boundary
𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟 = 0
• at the boundary
– An Incident Wave 𝑘෠ = 𝑧Ƹ
– A Reflected Wave 𝑘෠ = −𝑧Ƹ
Normal Incidence
• Let consider an electromagnetic wave
• incident on the boundary at 𝑧 = 0 between
two media.
• Media have differing electromagnetic
properties: 𝜀1 , 𝜇1 , 𝜂1 , 𝜀2 , 𝜇2 , 𝜂2
• For ease in analysis we will assume that
the wave is travelling in direction 𝑘෠ = 𝑧Ƹ
normal to the surface of the boundary
𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟 = 0
• at the boundary
– An Incident Wave 𝑘෠ = 𝑧Ƹ
– A Reflected Wave 𝑘෠ = −𝑧Ƹ
– A Transmitted wave 𝑘෠ = 𝑧Ƹ
Behaviour of Incident Wave

• Incident wave is propagating in the

+ 𝑧 direction has electric Field phasor
described by
෩ 𝑖 (𝑧) = 𝑥𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1𝑧
• We can derive expected magnetic phasor
associated with wave if we know the
intrinsic impedance
1
෩𝑖 𝑧 =
𝑯 𝑧Ƹ ෩𝑖 𝑧
×𝑬
𝜂1
𝐸0𝑖 −𝑗𝑘 𝑧
෩𝑖
𝑯 𝑧 = 𝑦ො 𝑒 1
𝜂1
Behaviour of Incident Wave

• Incident wave is propagating in the

+ 𝑧 direction has electric Field phasor
described by
෩ 𝑖 (𝑧) = 𝑥𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1𝑧
• We can derive expected magnetic phasor
associated with wave if we know the
intrinsic impedance
1
෩𝑖 𝑧 =
𝑯 𝑧Ƹ ෩𝑖 𝑧
×𝑬
𝜂1
𝑖
෩ 𝑖 𝑧 = 𝑦ො 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1𝑧
𝑯
𝜂1
Behaviour of reflected wave

• As direction of travel of 𝑬෩ 𝑖 is normal to the

boundary between the two media
• Therefore the reflected wave will travel in
the −𝑧 direction we can describe this as
෩ 𝑟 (𝑧) = 𝑥𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝑘1𝑧
• Again with the intrinsic impedance we can
determine the corresponding magnetic
phasor
1
෩ 𝑟
𝑯 𝑧 = −𝑧Ƹ × 𝑬 ෩𝑟 𝑧
𝜂1
𝑟
𝐸 0
෩ 𝑟 𝑧 = −𝑦ො 𝑒 𝑗𝑘1𝑧
𝑯
𝜂1
Behaviour of reflected wave

• As direction of travel of 𝑬෩ 𝑖 is normal to the

boundary between the two media
• Therefore the reflected wave will travel in
the −𝑧 direction we can describe this as
෩ 𝑟 (𝑧) = 𝑥𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝑘1𝑧
• Again with the intrinsic impedance we can
determine the corresponding magnetic
phasor
1
෩ 𝑟
𝑯 𝑧 = −𝑧Ƹ × 𝑬 ෩𝑟 𝑧
𝜂1
𝑟
𝐸 0
෩ 𝑟 𝑧 = −𝑦ො 𝑒 𝑗𝑘1𝑧
𝑯
𝜂1
Behaviour of transmitted wave

• As direction of travel of 𝑬 ෩ 𝑖 is normal to the

boundary between the two media
• Therefore the transmitted wave will travel
in the +𝑧 direction we can describe this as
෩ 𝑡 (𝑧) = 𝑥𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2𝑧
• We can find the magnetic field phasor in
medium 2 we if we know the intrinsic
impedance
1
෩ 𝑡
𝑯 𝑧 = 𝑧Ƹ × 𝑬 ෩𝑡 𝑧
𝜂2
𝑡
𝐸0
෩ 𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑦ො 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑧
𝑯
𝜂2
Behaviour of transmitted wave

• As direction of travel of 𝑬 ෩ 𝑖 is normal to the

boundary between the two media
• Therefore the transmitted wave will travel
in the +𝑧 direction we can describe this as
෩ 𝑡 (𝑧) = 𝑥𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2𝑧
• We can find the magnetic field phasor in
medium 2 we if we know the intrinsic
impedance
1
෩ 𝑡
𝑯 𝑧 = 𝑧Ƹ × 𝑬 ෩𝑡 𝑧
𝜂2
𝑡
𝐸0
෩ 𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑦ො 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑧
𝑯
𝜂2
Average Power Flows

1
𝑆𝑎𝑣1 𝑧 = ℜ 𝑬 ෩𝟏 𝑧 × 𝑯 ෩ 𝟏∗
2
ො 0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑧 + Γ𝑒 𝑗𝑘1𝑧
𝑥𝐸
1 ∗
𝑆𝑎𝑣1 𝑧 = ℜ 𝐸0𝑖
2 × 𝑦ො 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑧 − Γ𝑒 𝑗𝑘1𝑧
𝜂1
2
𝐸0𝑖 2
𝑆𝑎𝑣1 𝑧 = 𝑧Ƹ 1− Γ
2𝜂1
Average Power Flows

• Power in incident wave is

𝑖 2
𝑖 𝑧 = 𝑧Ƹ
𝐸0
𝑆𝑎𝑣
2𝜂1
• Power in reflected wave is
𝑖 2
𝑖 𝑧 = −𝑧Ƹ Γ
𝐸
2 0
𝑆𝑎𝑣
2𝜂1
Average Power Flows

• For transmitted wave

1 ∗
2 ෩
𝑆𝑎𝑣 𝑧 = ℜ 𝑬𝟐 𝑧 × 𝑯𝟐 ෩
2
𝑖 2
2 2
𝐸0
𝑆𝑎𝑣 𝑧 = 𝑧Ƹ 𝜏
2𝜂2
Average Power Flows

• Power flow in both media must be

equal
1 𝑧 = 𝑆2 𝑧
𝑆𝑎𝑣 𝑎𝑣
𝑖 2 𝑖 2
𝐸0 2
𝐸
2 0
𝑧Ƹ 1− Γ = 𝑧Ƹ 𝜏
2𝜂1 2𝜂2
Therefore
1− Γ 2 𝜏2
=
𝜂1 𝜂2
Comparing Unbounded and Bounded

𝐸෨1 = 𝑥𝐸
ො 0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑧 + Γ𝑒 𝑗𝑘1 𝑧 𝑉෨1 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽1 𝑧 + Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽1 𝑧
𝐸0𝑖 −𝑗𝑘 𝑧 𝑉0+ −𝑗𝛽 𝑧
෩1 = 𝑦ො
𝐻 𝑒 1 − Γ𝑒 𝑗𝑘1 𝑧 𝐼ሚ1 = 𝑒 1 − Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽1 𝑧
𝜂1 𝑍01
𝐸෨2 = 𝑥𝜏𝐸
ො 0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑧 𝑉෨2 = Λ𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽1 𝑧
𝐸0𝑖 −𝑗𝑘 𝑧 𝑉0+ −𝑗𝑘 𝑧
𝐻෩2 = 𝑦𝜏
ො 𝑒 1 𝐼ሚ2 = Λ 𝑒 1
𝜂2 𝑍02
𝜂2 − 𝜂1 𝑍02 − 𝑍01
Γ= Γ=
𝜂2 + 𝜂1 𝑍02 + 𝑍01
2𝜂2 2𝑍02
𝜏 =1+Γ= Λ= 1+Γ =
𝜂2 + 𝜂1 𝑍02 + 𝑍01
𝑘1 = 𝜔 𝜇1 𝜀1 , 𝛽1 = 𝜔 𝐿′1 𝐶 ′1 = 𝜔 𝜇1 𝜀1
𝑘2 = 𝜔 𝜇2 𝜀2
𝛽2 = 𝜔 𝜇2 𝜀2
Relationship between Γ∥ and 𝜏∥

• For perpendicular polarisation • For parallel polarisation

• We saw the result that 1 + Γ⊥ = Λ ⊥ 𝜏∥ ≠ 1 + Γ∥
• This does not occur for parallel • Comparing 𝜏∥ and 1 + Γ∥ shows that
polarisation. cos 𝜃𝑖
𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡 − 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜏∥ = 1 + Γ∥
Γ∥ = cos 𝜃𝑡
𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡 +𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑖
2𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝜏∥ =
𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡 +𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑖
2 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡
1 + Γ∥ =
𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡 +𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑖
Behaviour of Γ⊥ and Γ∥

• If we are dealing with a non magnetic

medium 𝜇1 = 𝜇2 = 𝜇0
• The behaviour of Γ⊥ can be related to 𝜃𝑖
𝜀2 𝜀
cos 𝜃𝑖 − 1 − 1 sin2 𝜃𝑖
𝜀1 𝜀2
Γ⊥ =
𝜀2 𝜀
cos 𝜃𝑖 + 1 − 1 sin2 𝜃𝑖
𝜀1 𝜀2
Behaviour of Γ⊥ and Γ∥

• If we are dealing with a non magnetic

medium 𝜇1 = 𝜇2 = 𝜇0
• The behaviour of Γ∥ can be related to 𝜃𝑖
𝜀2 𝜀2
− cos 𝜃𝑖 + − sin2 𝜃𝑖
𝜀1 𝜀1
Γ∥ =
𝜀2 𝜀2
cos 𝜃𝑖 + − sin2 𝜃𝑖
𝜀1 𝜀1
Behaviour of Γ⊥ and Γ∥

• If we are dealing with a non magnetic

medium 𝜇1 = 𝜇2 = 𝜇0
• The behaviour of Γ∥ can be related to 𝜃𝑖
𝜀2 𝜀2
− cos 𝜃𝑖 + − sin2 𝜃𝑖
𝜀1 𝜀1
Γ∥ =
𝜀2 𝜀2
cos 𝜃𝑖 + − sin2 𝜃𝑖
𝜀1 𝜀1
• Note plot of actual value of Γ∥ not its
magnitude
Dependence on permittivities

• As we change the value of 𝜀2 the

behaviour of Γ⊥ and Γ∥ shifts
Dependence on permittivities

• As we change the value of 𝜀2 the

behaviour of Γ⊥ and Γ∥ shifts
• As 𝜀2 increases:
• The magnitudes of Γ⊥ and Γ∥ at normal
incidence increase.
• The angle at which Γ∥ = 0 (Brewster angle)
increases.
Dependence on permittivities

• As we change the value of 𝜀2 the

behaviour of Γ⊥ and Γ∥ shifts
• As 𝜀2 increases:
• The magnitudes of Γ⊥ and Γ∥ at normal
incidence increase.
• The angle at which Γ∥ = 0 (Brewster angle)
increases.
Dependence on permittivities

• As we change the value of 𝜀2 the

behaviour of Γ⊥ and Γ∥ shifts
• As 𝜀2 increases:
• The magnitudes of Γ⊥ and Γ∥ at normal
incidence increase.
• The angle at which Γ∥ = 0 (Brewster angle)
increases.
Dependence on permittivities

• As we change the value of 𝜀2 the

behaviour of Γ⊥ and Γ∥ shifts
• As 𝜀2 increases:
• The magnitudes of Γ⊥ and Γ∥ at normal
incidence increase.
• The angle at which Γ∥ = 0 (Brewster angle)
increases.
Incident Power

• Consider a circular beam of light

illuminating an area A on a media
boundary. The medium the beam is
propagating through has an intrinsic
impedance 𝜂1
• If beam is incident at angle 𝜃 𝑖 to the
surface the cross section of the beam is
𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑖 • The power in the incident beam is the
• The average power density associated average power density × cross sectional
with the incident beam is area of beam
1 2 1 2
𝑖
𝑆 = 𝐸0𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑃 =𝑆 𝐴 =𝑖 𝐸0𝑖 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑖
2𝜂1 2𝜂1
Reflected Power

• If reflection occurs at angle 𝜃 𝑟 to the

surface
• the reflected beam is propagating through
the medium with intrinsic impedance 𝜂1
• the cross section of the reflected beam is
𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑟
• The average power density associated
with the reflected beam is • The power in the reflected beam is
1 𝑟 2
1 2 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑆 𝑟 𝐴𝑟
𝑟
𝑆 = 𝐸0 = Γ 2 𝐸0𝑖 1
2𝜂1 2𝜂1 2
𝑟
𝑃 = Γ 2 𝐸0𝑖 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑟
2𝜂1
Reflectivity

• We can calculate the Reflectivity or

Reflectance 𝑅 of the surface:
Γ 2 1 𝐸 𝑖 2 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑟
𝑃 𝑟
2𝜂1 0
𝑅= 𝑖 =
𝑃 1 𝑖 2
𝐸0 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑖
2𝜂1
• As the intrinsic impedance for the two
beams is common and Snell’s law implies • The Reflection coefficient is dependent on
𝜃 𝑟 = 𝜃 𝑖 , the reflectivity becomes: the polarization of the electromagnetic
𝑅= Γ2 waves. Therefore two values for the
Reflectivity.
2
𝑅∥ = Γ∥ , 𝑅⊥ = Γ⊥ 2
Transmitted Power

• If there is a transmitted beam propagating

at angle 𝜃 𝑡 through the second medium
which has intrinsic impedance 𝜂2
• Cross section of beam
𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑡
• The average power density associated
with the beam is
𝑡
1 𝑡 2 2
1 𝑖 2
𝑆 = 𝐸 = τ 𝐸
2𝜂2 0 2𝜂2 0
• The power in the transmitted beam is
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑆 𝑡 𝐴𝑡
1 2
𝑃𝑡 = τ 2 𝐸0𝑖 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑡
2𝜂2
Transmissivity

• The Transmissivity or Transmittance 𝑇 is

defined as
2 1 𝑖 2 𝑡
𝑃 𝑡 τ 𝐸0 𝐴 cos 𝜃
2𝜂2
𝑇= 𝑖=
𝑃 1 2
𝐸0𝑖 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑖
2𝜂1
• so
𝑃𝑡 𝜂 1 cos 𝜃 𝑡
𝑇= 𝑖= τ2
𝑃 𝜂2 cos 𝜃 𝑖
• Two Values of transmissivity, depending on 𝑡
2 𝜂1 cos 𝜃
polarisation: 𝑇∥ = τ∥
𝜂2 cos 𝜃 𝑖
𝜂 cos 𝜃 𝑡
2 1
𝑇⊥ = τ⊥
𝜂2 cos 𝜃 𝑖
Energy Conservation

• The sum of the reflected and transmitted

power at the boundary must equal the
Incident power.
𝑃∥𝑖 = 𝑃∥𝑟 + 𝑃∥𝑡
𝑃⊥𝑖 = 𝑃⊥𝑟 + 𝑃⊥𝑡

• This implies that

𝑇∥ + 𝑅∥ = 1
𝑇⊥ + 𝑅⊥ = 1
Brewster Angle

• The Brewster angle defines the angle at • ⊥ Polarisation

which no reflection takes place. • For Γ⊥ = 0
Γ = 0, 𝜏=1 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡
• The behaviour of the Brewster angle
depends on both the permitivities and the
permeabilities of the two media
• ∥ Polarisation
• It also depends on the polarisation
• For Γ∥ = 0
• The conditions are given by: 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡
Brewster Angle ⊥ Polarisation

• Starting with: • It can be shown that:

𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡
𝜀2 𝜇1 𝜇1 2
• Using: sin 𝜃𝐵⊥ = 1− ൘ 1− 2
𝜔 𝜇1 𝜀1 𝜀1 𝜇2 𝜇2
sin 𝜃𝑡 = sin 𝜃𝑖
𝜔 𝜇2 𝜀2 • Note if 𝜇1 = 𝜇2 denominator is zero and
2
𝜇1 𝜀1 2
⟷ sin 𝜃𝑡 = sin 𝜃𝑖 there is no Brewster angle
𝜇2 𝜀2
• And • This is the case for all nonmagnetic
𝜂1 2 𝜇1 𝜀2 materials 𝜇1 = 𝜇2 = 𝜇0
=
𝜂2 2 𝜀1 𝜇2
Brewster Angle ∥ Polarisation

• Starting with: • It can be shown that

𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡
𝜀1 𝜇2 𝜀1 2
• Again using: sin 𝜃𝐵∥ = 1− ൘ 1− 2
𝜔 𝜇1 𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜇1 𝜀2
sin 𝜃𝑡 = sin 𝜃𝑖
𝜔 𝜇2 𝜀2 • Note if nonmagnetic material 𝜇1 = 𝜇2 = 𝜇0
2
𝜇1 𝜀1 2
⟷ sin 𝜃𝑡 = sin 𝜃𝑖 equation becomes
𝜇2 𝜀2
• And 𝜀1
sin 𝜃𝐵∥ = 1ൗ 1 +
𝜂2 2 𝜇2 𝜀1 𝜀2
=
𝜂1 2 𝜀2 𝜇1
• Or
tan 𝜃𝐵∥ = 𝜀2 Τ𝜀1
Brewster Angle

• For non magnetic materials

• The magnitude of the reflection coefficient
is always greater for perpendicular
polarisation
• There will be an angle of incidence where
the parallel polarised component is
completely transmitted
Reflected Power and Polarisation

• For ⊥ polarisation
𝜀2
cos 𝜃𝑖 − − sin2 𝜃𝑖
𝜀1
Γ⊥ =
𝜀2
cos 𝜃𝑖 + − sin2 𝜃𝑖
𝜀1
• For ∥ polarisation
𝜀 𝜀2
− 2 cos 𝜃𝑖 + − sin2 𝜃𝑖
𝜀1 𝜀1
Γ∥ =
𝜀2 𝜀2
cos 𝜃𝑖 + − sin2 𝜃𝑖
𝜀1 𝜀1
𝑃𝑟
𝑅= 𝑖 = Γ2
𝑃
Reflected Power and Polarisation

• For Natural light (Sunlight) Polarisation is

random therefore:
𝑃⊥𝑖 = 𝑃∥𝑖 = 0.5𝑃𝑖
• Therefore a much larger quantity of the
reflected energy is made up of the
perpendicularly polarised light
Reflected Power and Polarisation

• For Natural light (Sunlight) Polarisation is

random therefore:
𝑃⊥𝑖 = 𝑃∥𝑖 = 0.5𝑃𝑖
• Therefore a much larger quantity of the
reflected energy is made up of the
perpendicularly polarised light
• This principal is used in polarising filters to
reduce reflected glare.
Perpendicular and Parallel Polarisation

• We will have to consider two possible

orientations of the Electric and Magnetic
Fields
• Parallel polarisation:
– Transverse Magnetic (TM)
– E field has component parallel to plane
of incidence
• Any polarisation state can be resolved into
the TE and TM components
Incident Wave Parallel

• Looking at the incident wave travelling in

the direction 𝛾ො𝑖
• Incident on the boundary at angle 𝜃𝑖
Incident Wave Parallel

𝑖
𝐸0
෩ 𝑖 = 𝑦ො
𝑯
𝜂1
෩ 𝑖 = (𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑖 ) 𝐸0𝑖
𝑬
• Express as plane waves:
𝑖
𝐸0
෩ 𝑖 = 𝑦ො 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1
𝑯 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝜂1
෩ 𝑖 = (𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑖 ) 𝐸0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1
𝑬 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑖

෩ 𝑖 as tangential and normal components

• 𝑬
෩ 𝑖𝑡 = 𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑖 𝐸0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝑬
𝑬𝑖𝑛 = −𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑖 𝐸0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑖
Reflected Wave Parallel

• Looking at the reflected wave travelling in

the direction 𝛾ො𝑟 in medium 1
• Reflected from the boundary at angle 𝜃𝑟
Reflected Wave Parallel

𝑟
𝐸0
෩ 𝑟 = −𝑦ො
𝑯
𝜂1
෩ 𝑟 = (𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑟 + 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑟 ) 𝐸0𝑟
𝑬
• Express as plane wave
𝐸0𝑟 −𝑗𝑘
෩𝑟
𝑯 = −𝑦ො 𝑒 1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑟
𝜂1
෩ 𝑟 = (𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑟 + 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑟 ) 𝐸0𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1
𝑬 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑟

෩ 𝑟 as tangential and normal components

• 𝑬
෩ 𝑟𝑡 = 𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑟 𝐸0𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑟
𝑬
෩ 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑟 𝐸0𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1
𝑬 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑟
Transmitted Wave Parallel

• Looking at the transmitted wave travelling

in the direction 𝛾ො𝑡 in medium 2
• Travels from the boundary at angle 𝜃𝑡
Transmitted Wave Parallel

𝑡
𝐸0
෩ 𝑡 = 𝑦ො
𝑯
𝜂2
෩ 𝑡 = (𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑡 − 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑡 ) 𝐸0𝑡
𝑬
• Express as plane wave
𝑡
𝐸0
෩ 𝑡 = 𝑦ො 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2
𝑯 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑡
𝜂2
෩ 𝑡 = (𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑡 − 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑡 ) 𝐸0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2
𝑬 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑡

෩ 𝑡 as tangential and normal components

• 𝑬
෩ 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑡 𝐸0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡+𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑡
𝑬
𝑬𝑡𝑛 = −𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑡 𝐸0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑡
Tangential Components at Boundary

• Electrical waves at boundary 𝑧 = 0

෩ 𝑖𝑡 ቚ
𝑬 = 𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑖 𝐸0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖
𝑧=0
෩ 𝑟𝑡 ቚ
𝑬 = 𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑟 𝐸0𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟
𝑧=0
෩ 𝑡𝑡 ቚ
𝑬 = 𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑡 𝐸0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡
𝑧=0
• Continuity implies
෩ 𝑖𝑡 ቚ
𝑬 +𝑬෩ 𝑟𝑡 ቚ ෩ 𝑡𝑡 ቚ
=𝑬
𝑧=0 𝑧=0 𝑧=0

• cos 𝜃𝑖 𝐸0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 + cos 𝜃𝑟 𝐸0𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟

= cos 𝜃𝑡 𝐸0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡

Tangential Components at Boundary

• Magnetic waves at boundary 𝑧 = 0

𝑖
𝐸 0
෩ 𝑖ቚ
𝑯 = 𝑦ො 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖
𝑧=0 𝜂1
𝑟
𝐸 0
෩ 𝑟ቚ
𝑯 = −𝑦ො 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟
𝑧=0 𝜂1
𝐸0𝑡 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃
෩ ቚ
𝑯 𝑡 = 𝑦ො 𝑒 2 𝑡
𝑧=0 𝜂2
• Continuity implies
𝑯෩ 𝑖ቚ +𝑯 ෩ 𝑟ቚ =𝑯෩ 𝑡ቚ
𝑧=0 𝑧=0 𝑧=0
𝐸0𝑖 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖
𝐸0𝑟 𝐸0𝑡
𝑒 1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡
𝜂1 𝜂1 𝜂2
Plane wave in continuous medium

• Consider a plane wave passing through

the surface 𝑧 = 0
• Wavenumber 𝒌 at angle 𝜃
• Wave would be described by
𝐴ሚ 𝑥, 𝑧 = 𝑦𝐴
ො 0 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃+𝑧 cos 𝜃
Plane wave in continuous medium

• Consider a plane wave passing through

the surface 𝑧 = 0
• Wavenumber 𝒌 at angle 𝜃
• Wave would be described by
𝐴ሚ 𝑥, 𝑧 = 𝑦𝐴
ො 0 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃+𝑧 cos 𝜃
• At an instant in time as we move along the
z axis
• We would see a shift in phase
∆𝜑 = −𝑘∆𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Plane wave in continuous medium

• Consider a plane wave passing through

the surface 𝑧 = 0
• Wavenumber 𝒌 at angle 𝜃
• Wave would be described by
𝐴ሚ 𝑥, 𝑧 = 𝑦𝐴
ො 0 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃+𝑧 cos 𝜃
• At an instant in time as we move along the
x axis
• We would see a shift in phase
∆𝜑 = −𝑘∆𝑥 sin 𝜃
Plane wave in continuous medium

• So the terms:
𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 , 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 , 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡
• Describes the phase shifts in the
Incident
Reflected
and Transmitted
Waves as we move across the surface x
Plane wave in continuous medium

• In our Equations to solve

𝐸0𝑖 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃 𝐸0𝑟 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟
cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑒 1 𝑖 − cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑒 1
𝜂1 𝜂1
𝐸0𝑡 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃
= cos 𝜃𝑡 𝑒 2 𝑡
𝜂2
𝐸0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡

• If for any value of x

𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 ≠ 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟
• the value of the reflection coefficient will change
across the surface
Plane wave in continuous medium

• In our Equations to solve

𝐸0𝑖 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃 𝐸0𝑟 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑒 1 𝑖 − cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑒 1 𝑟
𝜂1 𝜂1
𝐸0𝑡 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃
= cos 𝜃𝑡 𝑒 2 𝑡
𝜂2
𝐸0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡

• If for any value of x

𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 ≠ 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡
• the value of the transmission coefficient will
change across the surface
Phase Matching Condition

• As we expect the transmission and • if 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟

reflection coefficients to remain constant • for all x then:
as we move across the surface we have 𝑘1 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑘1 sin 𝜃𝑟
the conditions:
• Which implies 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟 :Snell’s law of
𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟
reflection
• The phase shift associated with the
incident and reflected waves is the same at
any point on the surface
Phase Matching Condition

• As we expect the transmission and • if 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡

reflection coefficients to remain constant • for all x then:
as we move across the surface we have sin 𝜃𝑡 𝑘1
the conditions: 𝑘1 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑘2 sin 𝜃𝑡 ↔ =
sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑘2
𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 𝑘1 𝜔 𝜀1 𝜇1 𝑢𝑝2 𝑛1
= = =
• The phase shift associated with the 𝑘2 𝜔 𝜀2 𝜇2 𝑢𝑝1 𝑛2
incident and reflected waves is the same at • Therefore
any point on the surface sin 𝜃𝑡 𝑛1
=
𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡 sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑛2
• The phase shift associated with the • Snell’s law of refraction
incident and reflected waves is the same at
any point on the surface
After Phase Matching

• Initial Equations before phase matching

𝐸0𝑖 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃 𝐸0𝑟 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟
cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑒 1 𝑖 − cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑒 1
𝜂1 𝜂1
𝐸0𝑡 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃
= cos 𝜃𝑡 𝑒 2 𝑡
𝜂2
𝐸0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡

• Equations to solve after phase matching

𝐸0𝑖 𝐸0𝑟 𝐸0𝑡
cos 𝜃𝑖 − cos 𝜃𝑟 = cos 𝜃𝑡
𝜂1 𝜂1 𝜂2
𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡
After Phase Matching: Reflection

• With the Equations:

𝐸0𝑖 𝐸0𝑟 𝐸0𝑡
cos 𝜃𝑖 − cos 𝜃𝑟 = cos 𝜃𝑡
𝜂1 𝜂1 𝜂2
𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡
• We can use 𝜃𝑟 = 𝜃𝑖 so 𝑯 boundary equation becomes:
cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝑡
𝐸0 − 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0
𝜂1 𝜂2
• Substitute 𝐸0𝑡 = 𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 and rearrange:
𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 𝐸0𝑖 − 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟
After Phase Matching: Reflection

• The Expression
𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 𝐸0𝑖 − 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟
• can be rearranged:
𝑟
𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝑖
𝐸0 = 𝐸
(𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 ) 0
• Therefore
𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡
Γ⊥ =
(𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 )
• If 𝜃𝑖 = 0 → 𝜃𝑡 = 0 (Normal Incidence)
𝜂2 − 𝜂1
Γ⊥ =
(𝜂2 + 𝜂1 )
After Phase Matching: Transmission

• Substitute:
𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝑖
𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸
(𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 ) 0
• In
𝐸0𝑡 = 𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟
• Gives
𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡
𝐸0𝑡 = 1+ 𝐸0𝑖
(𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 + 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 )
• so
2𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝐸0𝑡 = 𝐸0𝑖
(𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 + 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 )
After Phase Matching: Transmission

• Therefore
2𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖
τ⊥ =
(𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 + 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 )

• If 𝜃𝑖 = 0 → 𝜃𝑡 = 0 (Normal Incidence)
2𝜂2
τ⊥ =
(𝜂1 + 𝜂2
• Note for perpendicular polarisation
τ⊥ = 1 + Γ⊥
Apply Phase Matching + Snell’ Laws

• Continuity Equations Become:

cos 𝜃𝑖
𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡
cos 𝜃𝑡
𝜂2 𝑖
𝐸0 − 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡
𝜂1
• Substituting for 𝐸0𝑡
cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂2 𝑖
𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0 − 𝐸0𝑟
cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂1
cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1 𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 = cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 𝐸0𝑖 − 𝐸0𝑟
Reflection Coefficient

• Continuity Equations Become: • Rearranging

cos 𝜃𝑖
𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡 𝐸0𝑟 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 +cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1 = cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 − cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1 𝐸0𝑖
cos 𝜃𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 − cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1 𝑖
𝜂2 𝑖 𝑟
𝐸0 = 𝐸
𝐸0 − 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 +cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1 0
𝜂1
• Therefore
• Substituting for 𝐸0𝑡
cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂2 𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 − cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1
𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0 − 𝐸0𝑟 Γ∥ =
cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 +cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1
cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1 𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 = cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 𝐸0𝑖 − 𝐸0𝑟 • If 𝜃𝑖 = 0 → 𝜃𝑡 = 0 (Normal Incidence)
𝜂2 − 𝜂1
Γ∥ =
𝜂2 + 𝜂1
Transmission Coefficient

• Substituting for 𝐸0𝑟 in • Therefore

𝜂2 2cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂2
𝐸0𝑖 − 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡 𝜏∥ =
𝜂1
cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 +cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1
• Gives
𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 − cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1 • If 𝜃𝑖 = 0 → 𝜃𝑡 = 0 (Normal Incidence)
𝑡
𝐸0 = 1− 𝐸0𝑖 2𝜂2
𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 +cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1 𝜏∥ =
𝜂2 + 𝜂1
𝑡
𝜂2 2cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1
𝐸0 = 𝐸0𝑖
𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 +cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1
𝑡
2cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂2
𝐸0 = 𝐸0𝑖
cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 +cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂1
Comparing Perpendicular and Parallel

• Perpendicular • Parallel
𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡 − 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑖
Γ⊥ = Γ∥ =
(𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 ) 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡 +𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑖
2𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 2𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖
τ⊥ = 𝜏∥ =
(𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑡 ) 𝜂2 cos 𝜃𝑡 +𝜂1 cos 𝜃𝑖
Introduction

• We are going to look at what happens

when an electromagnetic wave
– Propagating in a medium with one set
of properties 𝜀1 , 𝜇1 , 𝜂1
– Encounters a boundary to a second
medium with different properties
𝜀2 , 𝜇2 , 𝜂2
– At an angle
Perpendicular and Parallel Polarisation

• We will have to consider two possible

orientations of the Electric and Magnetic
Fields
• Perpendicular polarisation:
– Transverse Electric (TE)
– E field perpendicular to plane of
incidence
Perpendicular and Parallel Polarisation

• We will have to consider two possible

orientations of the Electric and Magnetic
Fields
• Parallel polarisation:
– Transverse Magnetic (TM)
– E field has component parrallel to
plane of incidence
• Any polarisation state can be resolved into
the TE and TM components
Incident Wave Perpendicular

• Looking at the incident wave travelling in

the direction 𝛾ො𝑖
• Incident on the boundary at angle 𝜃𝑖
Incident Wave Perpendicular

• Looking at the incident wave travelling in

the direction 𝛾ො𝑖
• Incident on the boundary at angle 𝜃𝑖
Incident Wave Perpendicular

෩ 𝑖 = 𝑦𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑖
𝑖
𝐸 0
෩ 𝑖 = (−𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑖 )
𝑯
𝜂1
• Express as plane waves:
෩ 𝑖 = 𝑦𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝑖
𝐸 0
෩ 𝑖 = (−𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑖 ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝑯
𝜂1
෩ 𝑖 as tangential and normal components
• 𝑯
𝑖
𝐸 0
෩ 𝑖𝑡 = −𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑖
𝑯 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝜂1
𝑖
𝐸 0
෩ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑖
𝑯 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝜂1
Reflected Wave Perpendicular

• Looking at the reflected wave travelling in

the direction 𝛾ො𝑟 in medium 1
• Reflected from the boundary at angle 𝜃𝑟
Reflected Wave Perpendicular

෩ 𝑟 = 𝑦𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑟
𝑟
𝐸 0
𝑯෩ 𝑟 = (𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑟 + 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑟 )
𝜂1
• Express as plane wave
෩ 𝑟 = 𝑦𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 +𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑟
𝐸0𝑟 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃 −𝑧 cos 𝜃
𝑯෩ = (𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑟 + 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑟 ) 𝑒 1
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝜂1
෩ 𝑟 as tangential and normal components
• 𝑯
𝐸0𝑟 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃 −𝑧 cos 𝜃
෩ 𝑡 = 𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑟
𝑯 𝑟
𝑒 1 𝑟 𝑟
𝜂1
𝑟
𝐸 0
෩ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑟
𝑯 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 −𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑟
𝜂1
Transmitted Wave Perpendicular

• Looking at the transmitted wave travelling

in the direction 𝛾ො𝑡 in medium 2
• Travels from the boundary at angle 𝜃𝑡
Transmitted Wave Perpendicular

෩ 𝑡 = 𝑦𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑡
𝑡
𝐸 0
෩ 𝑡 = (−𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑡 + 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑡 )
𝑯
𝜂2
• Express as plane wave
෩ 𝑡 = 𝑦𝐸
𝑬 ො 0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡+𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑡
𝑡
𝐸
෩ 𝑡 = (−𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑡 + 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑡 ) 0 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡+𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑡
𝑯
𝜂2
෩ 𝑡 as tangential and normal components
• 𝑯
𝑡
𝐸0
𝑯෩ 𝑡𝑡 = −𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡+𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑡
𝜂2
𝑡
𝐸 0
෩ 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑧Ƹ sin 𝜃𝑡
𝑯 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡+𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑡
𝜂2
Tangential Components at Boundary

• Electrical waves at boundary 𝑧 = 0

෩𝑖 ቚ
𝑬 ො 0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖
= 𝑦𝐸
𝑧=0
෩𝑟 ቚ
𝑬 ො 0𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1
= 𝑦𝐸 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟
𝑧=0
෩𝑡 ቚ
𝑬 ො 0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2
= 𝑦𝐸 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡
𝑧=0
• Continuity implies
෩𝑖 ቚ
𝑬 +𝑬෩𝑟 ቚ ෩𝑡ቚ
=𝑬
𝑧=0 𝑧=0 𝑧=0

• so
𝐸0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡
Tangential Components at Boundary

• Magnetic waves at boundary 𝑧 = 0

𝑖
𝐸 0
෩ 𝑖𝑡 ቚ
𝑯 = −𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖
𝑧=0 𝜂1
𝐸0𝑟 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃
෩𝑡ቚ
𝑯 𝑟
= 𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑟 𝑒 1 𝑟
𝑧=0 𝜂1
𝐸0𝑡 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃
෩ 𝑡ቚ
𝑯 𝑡
= −𝑥ො cos 𝜃𝑡 𝑒 2 𝑡
𝑧=0 𝜂1
• Continuity implies
𝑯෩ 𝑖𝑡 ቚ +𝑯 ෩ 𝑟𝑡 ቚ =𝑯 ෩ 𝑡𝑡 ቚ
𝑧=0 𝑧=0 𝑧=0
𝐸0𝑖 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖
𝐸0𝑟 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟
𝐸0𝑡 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡
cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑒 1 − cos 𝜃𝑟 𝑒 1 = cos 𝜃𝑡 𝑒 2
𝜂1 𝜂1 𝜂2
Tangential Components at Boundary

• Equations to solve
𝐸0𝑖 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃 𝐸0𝑟 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟
cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑒 1 𝑖 − cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑒 1
𝜂1 𝜂1
𝐸0𝑡 −𝑗𝑘 𝑥 sin 𝜃
= cos 𝜃𝑡 𝑒 2 𝑡
𝜂2
𝐸0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡

• Need to address the terms:

𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑖 , 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘1 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑟 , 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘2 𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑡
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 – Electronic & Electrical Principles 3

TUTORIAL: AC power fundamentals and 3-phase systems

Phasors (review)

1. Convert the following time varying values to a phasor form:

a) 𝑣𝑣1 = 3√2 sin(314𝑡𝑡 + 25°) V 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 = ?

b) 𝑖𝑖1 = 0.5√2 sin(314𝑡𝑡 − 30°) A 𝐈𝐈𝟏𝟏 = ?

c) 𝑖𝑖2 = 0.25√2 sin(314𝑡𝑡 − 55°) A 𝐈𝐈𝟐𝟐 = ?

2. Draw the phasors found in question 1 by taking 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 as the reference.

3. Taking 𝐕𝐕𝐀𝐀 = 1∠0 ° V as the reference, draw and label phasors 𝐕𝐕𝐁𝐁 and 𝐕𝐕𝐂𝐂 which have the same
magnitude but lead and lag this phasor by 45° respectively.

4. Calculate and then draw the resultant of the following phasor additions and subtractions:

𝐕𝐕𝛂𝛂 = 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 + 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 + 𝐕𝐕𝟑𝟑

𝐕𝐕𝛃𝛃 = 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 − 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 + 𝐕𝐕𝟑𝟑

Where: 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 = 4∠0° V, 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 = 2∠45° V, 𝐕𝐕𝟑𝟑 = 6∠90° V

5. Is it possible to draw phasors for the following sinusoids on the same diagram?

𝑣𝑣50𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 3√2 sin(314𝑡𝑡 + 25°) V

𝑣𝑣60𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 6√2 sin(377𝑡𝑡 + 50°) V

Explain your reasoning!

6. The voltage 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 = 5√2 sin(314𝑡𝑡 + 45°) V is applied across the following components in turn:

(i) a resistance of 0.5Ω

(ii) a capacitor of reactance 0.25Ω
(iii) an inductor of inductance 1mH

In each case determine the current flowing into the component and express these in time varying
and phasor forms.

Determine the real (P), reactive (Q) and apparent (S) powers in each case and illustrate them with a
power triangle.
Three-phase systems

7. Three impedances of 10/35° Ω are delta connected to a 415V supply. Calculate the total real,
reactive and apparent power supplied. If the three impedances are then connected in star,
calculate the new real, reactive and apparent power supplied.
[42.32kW; 29.64kVAr; 51.67kVA; 14.11kW, 9.88 kVAr; 17.22kVA]

8. A star connected generator supplies a delta connected motor which is delivering 111.9kW. If the
motor has an efficiency of 95% and operates at a power factor of 0.9 lagging, calculate the
current magnitude drawn from the generator with line voltage 600V. Also calculate the
magnitude of the currents in the motor windings.
[125.9A; 72.71A]

9. A three phase delta connected load, each phase of which has an inductive reactance of 40Ω and
a resistance of 25Ω (connected in series), is supplied from the secondary of a three phase star
connected transformer which has a phase voltage of 240V. With the aid of a circuit diagram
calculate
(a) voltage magnitude across each phase of the load
(b) the current magnitude in each phase of the load
(c) the magnitude of the transformer winding currents
(d) the total real power and power factor
[a) 415V; b) 8.8A; c) 15.25A; d) 5820W; 0.53 lag]

10. A 25kVA, 0.8 power factor lagging, three phase balanced star load is supplied from a delta
connected generator through feeders of impedance (0.1+j0.2) Ω per phase. If the line voltage at
the load end of the feeders is 230V calculate:
(a) the magnitude of the phase voltage at the load
(b) the load current magnitude
(c) the line voltage magnitude at the generator
(d) the generator phase current magnitude
(e) the generator power factor
[a) 132.8V; b) 62.7A; c) 251.97V; d) 36.2A; e) 0.77 lag]

11. A commercial property is supplied via a 415V three phase power cable. The load on the site is
star connected, is balanced and has phase sequence ABC and an earthed star point. The property
draws 4.82kW at 0.87 lagging power factor. The phase voltage at the load was measured at
239.5V. Take VAN as reference.
(a) Determine the line voltages for each phase of the load (magnitude and phase).
(b) Determine the reactive power absorbed in each of the three phases of the load.
(c) Determine the three line currents (magnitude and phase) drawn by the load, and sketch
these in a phasor diagram together with the load voltages.
(d) Determine the phase impedance of the load.
(e) Suppose a fault develops on phase C of the load such that its impedance is decreased to
90% of its original magnitude (impedance angle remains unchanged). Determine the new
values of the three phase currents and also the resulting current in the neutral.
[b) 910.5VAr; c) 7.71/-29.54° A; d) 31.06/29.54° Ω;
e) 7.71/-29.54° A, 7.71/-149.54° A, 8.56/90.45° A, 0.8568/90.45° A]
12. Three wattmeters are connected to a three-phase symmetrical load supplied from a balanced
three-phase source as shown in Figure 1. The following two measurements have been noted:
𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊1 = 643 W and 𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊2 = 356 W.
(a) What is the real and reactive power of this load?
(b) Assuming the load contains series connected RL elements configured in delta, calculate the
resistance and reactance of each phase.
(c) What would be the reading shown on wattmeter W3 considering its specific connection
shown in Figure 1?

A W1

symmetrical load
Delta connected
symmetrical voltage
400V 3-phase

3-phase
B W2

C W3

Figure 1. Two-wattmeter measurement setup

[a) 999W; 497.1VAr; b) 385.12 Ω; 191.64 Ω; c) -287W]
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 – Electronic & Electrical Principles 3

TUTORIAL: Power generation and load

1. A commercial customer has two major loads on his site. One load draws 20kW at a power factor
of 0.9 lagging, while the second demands 40kVA and 12kVAr. What is the total real power
demanded at the site, and the site’s complex power and power factor? Sketch the power
triangle.
[58.16kW; (58.16+j21.68) kVA; 0.9371 lagging]

2. A certain consumer demands 50kW at an effective voltage of 230V. Assuming the supply system
can be represented by a 0.1 resistance, find the transmission losses in the event of the load
being supplied (a) with power factor of 0.6 lagging, (b) with the addition of power factor
correction resulting in a combined power factor of 0.96 lagging. For case (b), determine the
apparent power and sketch the power triangle.
[13.13kW; 5.126kW; 52.08kVA]

3. There are 3 consumers of electricity with different load requirements at different times:
Consumer 1: max demand of 5kW@6pm, demand of 3kW@7pm, daily load factor of 20%;
Consumer 2: max demand of 5kW@11am, demand of 2kW@7pm, average load of 1.2kW;
Consumer 3: max demand is 3kW at 7pm, and average load of 1kW.
Determine (a) diversity factor, (b) load factor and average load for each consumer, (c) average
load and load factor of the combined load.
[1.625; 20%; 1kW; 24%; 1.2kW; 33.33%; 1kW; 3.2kW; 40%]

4. The power demanded by a small power system over a period of a year has been analysed. A
curve fit is used to approximate this variation as follows: P(kW)=4000+8t-0.00091t2 where t is in
hours. This load is supplied by three 10MW generators and for reasons of cost it is advantageous
to fully load a machine before connecting the others. Sketch the variation in demand against
time and then determine:
(a) the load factor on the system as a whole;
(b) the total magnitude of installed load if the diversity factor is equal to 3;
(c) the minimum number of hours each machine is in operation;
(d) the approximate peak magnitude of installed load capacity to be cut off to enable only
two generators to be used.
[73.2%; 64.7MW; 8760h; 7135h; 2637h; 4.74MW]

5. If the after diversity maximum demand (ADMD) for each property in a 80 house development is
considered to be 1.3kW then explain:
(a) What is the expected maximum demand for this housing development?
(b) If the diversity factor across individual properties can be assumed to be 2.5, what is the
total installed load?
(c) Why might it be appropriate to choose a cable bigger than the maximum demand for
installation?
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 – Electronic & Electrical Principles 3

TUTORIAL: Network design

1. For the three phase system and loads shown in the figure, determine suitable cable sizes such
that the voltage at each load remains within statutory limits. Use the cables sizes and parameters
given in the table.
150m 20kW, 0.95 lag
1 10kVA, 0.8 lag
2
415V, 50Hz 50m

100m

25kW, unity pf
3
Conductor Cross- Resistance (/km) Reactance (/km) Maximum Current
section (mm2) Rating (A)
2.5 8.71 0.11 25
10 2.16 0.094 60
25 0.863 0.086 106
35 0.627 0.083 131
50 0.375 0.082 159

2. Two new loads (4 and 5) have been added to the network. Load 5 consists of six 3kW heating
loads with diversity factor 1.5 and power factor 0.95lag, and these are connected to the network
via a 40m cable. Based on the cable sizes derived in Q1,
a. Determine the maximum demand drawn by load 5;
b. Calculate an appropriate size for the cable connecting load 5;
c. Analyse the effect of load 4 on the network voltages and the current carried by the cables;
d. Determine if cables need to be replaced and, if so, the appropriate size of the cables.

20kW, 0.95 lag

1 10kVA, 0.8 lag

5
2
415V, 50Hz

25kW, unity pf
5kVA, 0.85 lag 4 3
 EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles 3
EE702 Key Power Systems Concepts and Foundations
EO305 Key Power Systems Concepts and Foundations

Transmission lines

You can check your answers to the questions below using the
myplace quiz for this topic

Q1: A 220kV, 50Hz, three-phase overhead transmission line is 90km long and rated at
150MVA. Its parameters are: r=0.09Ω/km, x=0.88Ω/km, y=4.1×10-6S/km. The
voltage at the receiving end of the transmission line is 210kV.
a) What is the per-phase series impedance and shunt admittance of this
transmission line?
b) What is the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated apparent power at
a power factor of 0.85 lagging?
c) What is the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated apparent power at
a power factor of 1.0?
d) What is the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated apparent power at
a power factor of 0.85 leading?
e) What is the voltage regulation and efficiency of the transmission line when it is
supplying rated apparent power at a power factor of 0.85 lagging?

Q2: A 132kV, 50Hz, three-phase underground cable is 18km long and rated at 130MVA.
Its parameters are: r=0.018Ω/km, x=0.038Ω/km, y=3.1×10-6S/km. The voltage at
the receiving end of the transmission line is 129kV.
a) What is the per-phase series impedance and shunt admittance of this
transmission line?
b) What is the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated apparent power at
a power factor of 0.9 lagging?
c) What is the voltage regulation and efficiency of the transmission line when it is
supplying rated apparent power at a power factor of 0.9 lagging?

Q3: A 400kV, 50Hz, three-phase overhead transmission line is 320km long Its
parameters are: r=2.65×10-3Ω/km, x=2.55×10-2Ω/km, y=3.79×10-6S/km, and it is
rated at 2000MVA. The voltage at the receiving end of the transmission line is
395kV.
a) What is the per-phase series impedance and shunt admittance of this
transmission line?
b) What is the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated apparent power at
a power factor of 0.95 lagging?

1 IE/AD/GMB/DT 03/10/2019
 c) What is the voltage regulation and efficiency of the transmission line when it is
supplying rated apparent power at a power factor of 0.95 lagging?
Q4: Calculate the ABCD parameters of:
a) The overhead line in Q1.
b) The underground cable in Q2.
c) The overhead line in Q3

Q5: A 50Hz three phase transmission line is 300km long. It has a total series impedance
of 23+j75 Ω and a shunt admittance of j500µS. It delivers 50MW at 220kV, with a
power factor of 0.88 lagging. Find the voltage at the sending end using:
a) The short transmission line model.
b) The medium transmission line model
c) The long transmission line model
Assuming that the long transmission line model gives the true voltage, calculate the
percentage error in the voltages given by the short and medium models.

Q6: A 275kV, 50 Hz overhead line is rated at 750MVA and is 25km long. It has the
following parameters: r=0.034Ω/km, x=0.323Ω/km, y=3.6×10-6S/km. As part of an
urban renewal project, it is intended to replace this overhead line with an
underground cable with the following parameters: r=0.025Ω/km, x=0.22Ω/km,
y=2.5×10-4S/km. Assuming that power factor and voltage at the receiving end are
0.92 lagging and 270kV respectively and that the cable follows the same route as
the overhead line, calculate:
a) The sending end voltage of the overhead line at rated load and at minimum load
of 10% rated load.
b) The expected sending end voltage of the cable under the same loading
conditions.
c) The expected sending end voltage of the cable at minimum load when a
200MVAr reactor is added at the receiving end.

Q7: A 275kV transmission line has a reactance of 65Ω. If the sending end voltage and
receiving end voltage are both measured at 275kV when the line transmits 300MW
towards the receiving end:
a) Calculate the angle between the sending and receiving end voltages
b) Calculate the maximum power which can be carried by the transmission line
with these voltages

2 IE/AD/GMB/DT 03/10/2019
Q8: A 132kV transmission line connecting substations A and B has a reactance of 40Ω.
The voltage at substation A is measured as 133 ∠ 15° kV and the voltage at
substation B is measured as 129 ∠ –5° kV
a) Calculate the amount of power transmitted and its direction of flow.
b) Calculate the maximum power which can be carried by the transmission line

3 IE/AD/GMB/DT 03/10/2019
 EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles 3
EE702 Key Power Systems Concepts and Foundations
EO305 Key Power Systems Concepts and Foundations

Transformers

You can check your answers to the questions below using the
myplace quiz for this topic

Q1: A transformer having a 2:1 turns ratio has a primary winding resistance and
reactance of 1Ω and 2Ω respectively, and a secondary resistance and inductance of
1Ω and 6.37mH respectively. Magnetising current for this transformer is negligible.
A 50Hz power supply is connected to the primary side with a primary current of
10A measured when a resistive load of 60Ω is connected to the secondary. Calculate:
a) The primary referred total winding resistance
b) The primary referred total winding reactance
c) The load voltage
d) The supply voltage

Q2: The following results were obtained on a 3300/400V, 50 kVA single-phase

transformer:

Test Winding Voltage Current Power

Open circuit 400V 400V 2.16A 430W (core losses)

Short circuit 3300V 124V 15.3A 525W (full load copper losses)

a) For a load power factor of 0.7 lagging, calculate the efficiency at full load.
b) For a load power factor of 0.7 lagging, calculate the efficiency at half load.
c) Calculate the parameters of the equivalent circuit model when referred to the
3300V side.
d) Assuming nominal voltage at the 400V terminals, calculate the voltage
regulation at full load for a load power factor of 0.7 lagging.

Q3: Each of two transformers, A and B, has an output of 40kVA. The core losses in A and
B are 500W and 250W respectively, and the full load copper losses are 500W and
750W respectively. For a load power factor of 0.8 lagging, calculate the efficiency of
each transformer at:
a) 25% of rated load.
b) 50% of rated load.
c) 100% of rated load.

1 IE/AD/GMB/DT 19/10/2019
Q4: In the following diagram, fill in the boxes to show the missing voltages, angles and
transformer winding arrangements.

Q5: A three phase transformer has a Dy11 winding arrangement. The number of turns
per phase on the primary is 4 times that on the secondary, and the secondary line
voltage is 440V. A balanced load of 20kW, at lagging power factor 0.8 is connected
to the secondary side. Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate:
a) The line voltage magnitude on the primary side
b) The phase and line current magnitudes on the secondary and primary side.
Sketch a circuit diagram and phasor diagram for the primary and secondary sides,
showing the values of voltages and currents; upload your diagram to the forum.

Q6: A 60MVA 132/33kV three-phase transformer has a Yd1 winding arrangement. Its
characteristic parameters are as shown in the table below:

RP = 20.9Ω RS = 0.36Ω RC = 40kΩ

XP = 48.5Ω XS = 2.6Ω XM = 30kΩ

The transformer is supplying rated secondary current at to a balanced load with a

power factor of 0.9 lagging, and the secondary line voltage is measured to be 33kV.
Taking the secondary phase voltage VAB as the reference phasor, calculate:
a) The secondary line current IA of the transformer
b) The primary line current IA and voltage VAB
c) The power factor at the primary terminals
d) The efficiency of the transformer

2 IE/AD/GMB/DT 19/10/2019
Q7: The following test measurements were taken on a 500kVA 11kV/400V Yy0
connected three-phase transformer. Find the parameters of the per-phase
transformer equivalent circuit model and calculate the voltage regulation when
supplying a balanced load of 75% rated current at a power factor of 0.87 lagging
and rated primary voltage.

Test Winding Line Line 3-phase power

Voltage Current

Open circuit 400V 400V 105A 45kW

Short circuit 11kV 3520V 26.2A 45kW

Q8: A three phase 35MVA star-connected autotransformer is required to connect a

three phase 400kV line to a 275kV substation. The total number of turns in each
winding is 2000. Calculate:
a) The tapping position for the 275kV winding (the star point is at turn 0).
b) The current magnitude in each part of the winding at full load.

3 IE/AD/GMB/DT 19/10/2019
 EE311 Electronic and Electrical Principles 3

Induction Machines

You can check your answers to the questions below using this
week’s myplace quiz

Q1: A three phase, 15hp, 460V, 4-pole, 60Hz induction motor delivers rated output
power to a load connected to its shaft at a speed of 1728rpm. The windage and
friction loss of the motor is 750W. Determine:
a) The mechanical power delivered to the load.
b) The air gap power.
c) The rotor copper loss.

Q2: A three-phase, star-connected, 36hp, 400V, 4-pole, 50Hz, wound rotor induction
motor has the following parameters per phase:

R1 = 0.35Ω X1 = 0.75Ω XM = 40Ω

R2’ = 0.3Ω X2’ = 0.75Ω Mechanical losses = 2700W

Initially the rotor terminals are short-circuited. Calculate:

a) The stator supply current and power factor when supplying rated power at a
slip of 8.5%.
b) Calculate the value of magnetising current, IM, at this operating point.
c) Calculate the torque produced at this operating point.
d) The maximum value of torque with the rotor short-circuited and the speed this
maximum torque occurs at.
e) The value of extra rotor resistance required to be added in the rotor circuit to
achieve maximum torque at start-up, i.e. the level of torque calculated in (d).

1 IE/AD/GMB/TW 29/10/2019
Q3: The following tests are carried out on the 400V two-pole, three-phase, star-
connected 50Hz induction motor shown below:

DC resistance (between 2Ω
terminals)

No load test P = 192W I = 5.66A

Locked rotor test P = 480W I = 10A V = 35V

Calculate the parameters of the IEEE-recommended equivalent circuit model.

Draw the model and label it with the parameter values.

Q4: The motor in Q3 is used to drive a constant power mechanical load. With rated
voltage at the motor terminals, motor speed is measured to be 2750rpm. Calculate:
a) The line current in the supply.
b) The power factor of the motor.
c) The shaft torque
d) The efficiency of the motor.

Q5: The following tests are carried out on a 690V six-pole, three-phase, delta-connected
60Hz induction motor:

DC resistance (between 0.4Ω

terminals)

No load test P = 480W I = 19.75A

Locked rotor test P = 1.32kW I = 34.6A V = 29.6V

Calculate the parameters of the IEEE-recommended equivalent circuit model.

2 IE/AD/GMB/TW 29/10/2019
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 – Electronic & Electrical Principles 3

TUTORIAL: Synchronous machines

1. How is the active power output controlled in synchronous generators? Sketch a block
diagram of the associated controller.

2. What is the difference between an AC machine with a salient pole rotor and a cylindrical rotor?
Which type of rotor would commonly be used for a low speed generator such as that used in a
hydro power station?

3. From the equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor, prove that the total power from the machine,
3|𝑉𝑡 ||𝐸𝑓 |
P, is given by 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑋𝑠
sin(𝛿). Include the equivalent circuit diagram and phasor diagram
in your answer.

4. A 480V, 60Hz, delta-connected, four pole synchronous generator has a synchronous reactance of
0.1Ω and an armature resistance of 0.015Ω. At full load, the machine supplies 1200A at a power
factor of 0.8, lagging. Under full-load conditions, the friction and windage losses are 40kW, and
the core losses are 30kW. Ignore any field circuit losses.
a) What is the speed of rotation of this generator?
b) Calculate the internal generated voltage EA under the full load conditions described above.

5. A synchronous motor is rated at 100MW at 0.8pf. If the terminal phase voltage of the machine is
17kV.
a) What is the current delivered to this machine at rated load and voltage?
b) At rated power, the excitation to this machine produces an internal voltage EA of 16.536 kV at
a machine rotor load angle of 71.5°. What value of excitation (EA) is required to enable this
machine to operate at unity power factor at rated load?
[ 2.451kA, 23.13kV]

6. A three phase, 2000hp, 13.2kV, 60Hz, six pole, wye (star) connected, cylindrical rotor synchronous
motor operates at rated load, 0.85 power factor leading, and an efficiency of 94%. The
synchronous reactance per phase is 32Ω and the armature resistance is negligible. Calculate:
a) Rated torque;
b) Armature current;
c) Internal voltage EA;
d) Power angle.
[11.87kNm, 81.66A, 9.268 kV, /-13.86V]

7. A three phase, 11kV, 2MVA, 4 pole, 50Hz, star connected, synchronous motor is required to be
operated as a synchronous condenser, delivering 1MVAr of reactive power to the network it is
connected to. Calculate the excitation required to achieve this operational state if the
synchronous reactance is 6Ω/phase, and draw the resulting phasor diagram. Assume the motor
has zero friction and windage losses, and that the armature resistance is negligible.
[6665/0V]
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 – Electronic & Electrical Principles 3

TUTORIAL: Analysing power networks – per-unit system

1) Calculate the base impedance of a transformer rated at 250kVA, 4160/480V on both the primary
and secondary sides. Given that such transformers typically exhibit a primary and secondary
resistance of 0.005 (or 0.5%), determine the approximate real values of primary and secondary
winding resistance.
[69Ω; 0.92Ω; 0.35Ω; 4.6mΩ]

2) A small part of a three phase network is illustrated in Figure Q2. Select suitable common base
values then determine the resulting per unit values for all the network impedances. Show these
on a sketch of the single line diagram.
a) Suppose now that the loads at substation D are disconnected. If a voltage of 0.94pu is to be
maintained at busbar C, what level of voltage must be maintained at the busbar A connected
to the grid?
[0.9559pu = 126.19kV]
b) What would be the effect on the grid voltage (busbar A) of running a local gas turbine
generator at substation C whose rating is 12MVA, 11kV, 0.1pu? Assume that the generator
output is 10MW at pf=0.95 lagging and that control system maintains the voltage at 0.94pu
on the generator terminals.
[0.9255pu = 122.16kV]

20MVA,
33/11kV, 12MVA, 11kV,
X=0.075pu M1 Xs=0.2pu
X=1.9Ω/ph

40MVA, 5MW, 0.90 lag

132/33kV, D
Grid X=0.1pu
infeed
X=2.1Ω/ph
FL=1350
MVA A 40MVA, B 15MVA, C 5MW, 0.95 lag
132/33kV, 33/11kV,
X=0.1pu X=0.08pu
Figure Q2

3) Consider the following system. A 75MVA, 15kV generator with reactance of XG,pu=0.75 is
connected to a 50MVA, 15/220kV transformer with reactance of XT,pu=0.1 which is in turn
connected via 200km of overhead line to a unity power factor load of 400Ω. The overhead
conductor can be considered to have reactance of 0.5Ω per phase per km. Draw a single line
diagram of this arrangement. Using a base of 120MVA, determine the magnitude of the
generator emf when the load busbar measures 215kV. Under these same conditions determine
the voltage on the HV terminals of the transformer.
[28.94kV; 221.6kV]
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 – Electronic & Electrical Principles 3

TUTORIAL: Additional single-phase power factor questions

1) In order to use three 100V, 60W lamps on a 230V, 50Hz supply, they are connected in parallel
and a capacitor is connected in series with the group. Find: (a) the capacitance required to give
the correct voltage across the lamps; (b) the power factor of the network. Show the network
voltages and currents on a phasor diagram. If one of the lamps is removed, to what value will the
voltage across the remaining two rise, assuming that their resistances remain unchanged?
[27.7µF, 0.435 leading, 134.9V]

2) A single phase motor takes 8.3A at a power factor of 0.866 lagging, when connected to a 230V,
50Hz supply. Two similar capacitors are connected in parallel with each other to form a
capacitance bank. This capacitance bank is now connected in parallel with the motor to raise the
power factor to unity. Determine the capacitance of each capacitor. Sketch the phasor diagram.
[28.7µF]

3) A cable is required to supply a welding set taking a current of 225A at 110V alternating current,
the average power factor being 0.5 lagging. An available cable has a rating of 175A and it is
decided to use this cable by installing a capacitor across the terminals of the welding set. Find: (a)
the required capacitor current to limit the cable current to 175A; (b) the overall power factor
with the capacitor in circuit. Sketch the phasor diagram.
[60.8A, 0.643 lag]
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 – Electronic & Electrical Principles 3 TUTORIAL: Fault analysis

1. Determine the three-phase fault level at each busbar of the 33 kV network shown in Figure Q1. The
plant details (ignoring resistance) are as follows:
Generators G1 and G2: 25 MVA, 𝑋𝑋 ′ = 0.125 p. u.
Synch. Motors M1 and M2: 20 MVA, 𝑋𝑋 ′ = 10%
Transmission lines: 𝑋𝑋 = 10.89 Ω/phase
[343 MVA]

2. Part of a 3-phase 11kV distribution network is shown in Figure Q2 with overhead line reactances
shown in per unit to a base of 10 MVA (resistance has already been neglected). The fault level of
the grid infeed at “B” is 50 MVA, and the embedded generator at “A” is known to be rated at
20 MVA, X’=0.2 pu. A three-phase fault occurred at a point two-thirds of the way along one line of
the double circuit between substations “A” and “C”. Determine the total fault current and the fault
current carried from each of the two ends.
[3.06 kA; 1.59 kA from A; 1.47 kA from C]

3. Consider the system shown in Figure Q3 (solved in tutorial 4-2), with the loads at D reconnected.
Calculate the steady state fault level at busbar C when the local GT generator is (i) not running, and
(ii) running. What is the fault current generated by the local GT in case (ii).
[110MVA; 230MVA; 6.3kA]

G1 G2

A 0.15 B

0.3
0.3 0.2

F C
M1 M2

Figure Q1 Figure Q2

20MVA,
33/11kV, 12MVA, 11kV,
X=0.075pu M1 Xs=0.2pu
X=1.9Ω/ph

40MVA, 5MW, 0.90 lag

132/33kV, D
Grid X=0.1pu
infeed
X=2.1Ω/ph GT 12MVA, Xs=0.1pu
FL=
1350MVA A B
40MVA, 15MVA, C 5MW, 0.95 lag
132/33kV, 33/11kV,
X=0.1pu X=0.08pu

Figure Q3
 DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONIC & ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Semester 2 Topic10:
EE311 EE Principles 3 Dr MJ Given
Line Parameters

In this tutorial remember

𝜇 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 = 𝜇𝑟 ∙ 4𝜋 × 10−7 [𝐻][𝑚−1 ]
𝜀 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 = 𝜀𝑟 ∙ 8.86 × 10−12 [𝐹][𝑚−1 ]

𝜋𝑓𝜇
𝜂𝑆 = √
𝜎𝐶

Q1
A transmission line of length l connects a load to a sinusoidal voltage source with an
oscillation frequency f. Assuming that the velocity of propagation on the line is c, for
which of the following situations is it reasonable to ignore the presence of the
transmission line in the solution of the circuit:

(a) l = 30 cm, f = 20 kHz

(b) l = 50 km, f = 60 Hz
(c) l = 30 cm, f = 600 MHz
(d) l = 2 mm, f = 100 GHz

Ans:
a) 𝑙/ = 2 × 10−5 (This is negligible so ignore transmission line
characteristics)
b) 𝑙/ = 0.01 (borderline)
c) 𝑙/ = 0.60 (not negligible so acts as transmission line)
d) 𝑙/ = 0.66 (not negligible so acts as transmission line)
Q2
Calculate the line parameters R’, L’, G’, and C’ for a coaxial line with an inner
conductor diameter of 0.5 cm and an outer diameter of 1 cm, filled with an insulating
material where µ = µ0, εr = 4.5 and σ = 10-3 S/m. The conductors are made of
copper with µc = µ0, and σc = 5.8 x 107 S/m. The operating frequency is 1 GHz.
Ans: 𝑅 ′ = 0.788 [][𝑚−1 ]; 𝐿′ = 139 [𝑛𝐻][𝑚−1 ]; 𝐺 ′ = 9.1[ 𝑚𝑆][𝑚−1 ]; 𝐶 ′ =
362 [𝑝𝐹][𝑚−1 ]
Q3
If the transmission line in Q1 is operated at a frequency of 500 MHz would you
expect any of the line parameters to change? If so which parameter or parameters
would you expect to change?
Ans 𝑅′ would decrease other parameters would remain the same.
Q4
Derive the expressions for the line parameters 𝑅′, 𝐺′ and 𝐶′ for a transmission line
with a parallel plate geometry.
Ans: see Table at end
Q5
A parallel plate geometry transmission line has a width of 5 cm and the separation of
the plates is 2mm. The conductors are made of copper with µc = µ0, and σc = 5.8 x
107 S/m. The insulating material between the plates has a relative permittivity r =
2.6 and a permeability µc = µ0. The conductivity of the insulating material is
negligible. Calculate the line parameters for this transmission line at a frequency of 5
Ghz
Ans: 𝑅 ′ = 0.738 [][𝑚−1 ]; 𝐿′ = 50.3 [𝑛𝐻][𝑚−1 ]; 𝐺 ′ = 0[ 𝑚𝑆][𝑚−1 ]; 𝐶 ′ =
579 [𝑝𝐹][𝑚−1 ]

Table of Parameters for 3 Geometries

Parameter Co axial Two Wire Parallel Plate

𝜂𝑆 1 1 2𝜂𝑆 2𝜂𝑆
𝑹′ [𝛀][𝒎−𝟏 ] ( + )
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑏 𝜋𝑑 𝑤

𝜇 𝑏 𝜇 𝑑 𝑑 2 𝜇h
𝑳′ [𝐇][𝒎−𝟏 ] ln ( ) √
ln ( + ( ) − 1)
2𝜋 𝑎 𝜋 𝐷 𝐷 𝑤

𝜋𝜎𝐺
2𝜋𝜎𝐺 𝜎𝐺 𝑤
𝑮′ [𝐒][𝒎−𝟏 ] 𝑑 𝑑 2
ln(𝑏⁄𝑎 ) ln (𝐷 + √(𝐷) − 1) h

𝜋𝜀
2𝜋𝜀 𝜀𝑤
𝑪′ [𝐅][𝒎−𝟏 ] 𝑑 𝑑 2
ln(𝑏⁄𝑎 ) ln (𝐷 + √(𝐷) − 1) h
 DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONIC & ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Semester 2 Tutorial 2:
EE311 EE Principles 3 Dr M.J. Given
Line Parameters

Q1
Find 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑢𝑝 , and 𝑍0 for a coaxial line with the following parameters
𝑅 ′ = 0.788 [][𝑚−1 ]; 𝐿′ = 139 [𝑛𝐻][𝑚−1 ]; 𝐺 ′ = 9.1[ 𝑚𝑆][𝑚−1 ]; 𝐶 ′ =
362 [𝑝𝐹][𝑚−1 ]
Ans: 𝛼 = 0.109[𝑁𝑝][𝑚−1 ] ; 𝛽 = 44.5[𝑟𝑎𝑑][𝑚−1 ] ; 𝑢𝑝 = 1.41 × 108 [m][𝑆 −1 ]
𝑍0 = (19.6 + 𝑗0.03)[Ω] ≅ 19.6[Ω]
Q2
A distortionless line has a characteristic impedance of 50 Ω and an attenuation
constant of 10 [𝑚𝑁𝑝][𝑚1 )]. If the speed of propagation of the wave is 2.5 ×
108 [𝑚][𝑠 −1 ], find the line parameters and the wavelength at 100 MHz.

Ans: 𝑅’ = 0.5 [Ω][m−1 ]; 𝐿’ = 200 [𝑛𝐻][m−1 ]; 𝐶’ = 80 [𝑝𝐹][m−1 ]; 𝐺’ =

200 [𝜇𝑆][m−1 ]; 𝜆 = 2.5 [𝑚]

Hint in the lecture on characteristic impedance, the distortionless line was

discussed and the relationships between 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑍0 and 𝑢𝑝 with the line
parameters are given. Write these down and see where it takes you.
 DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONIC & ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Semester 2 Week 12:

EE311 EE Principles 3 Dr M.J. Given
Reflection and Travelling Waves

Q1
A transmission line with characteristic impedance 75 Ω is connected to a load
of 125 + 𝑗50 Ω Calculate the reflection and transmission coefficients.

Ans: Γ𝑉 = 0.343𝑒 𝑗30.9° , Λ 𝑉 = 1.29 + 𝑗0.176 = 1.31𝑒 𝑗7.77°

Q2
The voltage appearing across a load of 230[Ω] connected to a line with
characteristic impedance 𝑍0 = 50[Ω] is 12𝑒 −𝑗30° [𝑉]
Calculate the values of 𝑉0+ and 𝑉0−
Ans: 𝑉0+ = 7.31𝑒 −𝑗30° [𝑉], 𝑉0− = 4.7𝑒 −𝑗30° [𝑉]

Q3
For the line and load used in Q2 calculate the current waveforms 𝐼0+ ,𝐼0− and
𝐼̃𝐿 .
Ans: 𝐼0+ = 0.146𝑒 −𝑗30° [𝐴], 𝐼0− = −0.094𝑒 −𝑗30° [𝐴] = 0.094𝑒 𝑗150° [𝐴], 𝐼̃𝐿 =
0.052𝑒 −𝑗30° [𝐴]

Q4
A transmission line with 𝑍0 = 50Ω is connected to a load 𝑍𝐿 . If the value of
𝑉0+ = 10𝑒 𝑗0° and the value of 𝑉0− = 4.24𝑒 −𝑗63.4° Calculate the value of 𝑍𝐿
Ans: Z𝐿 = 51.5 − 𝑗47.6
 DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONIC & ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Semester 2 Tutorial 4:
EE311 EE Principles 3 Dr M.J. Given
Standing Waves and their Ratio

Q1
A 50Ω lossless line is terminated in a load 𝑍𝐿 = 30 − 𝑗60 Ω. The wavelength
of the signal is 5𝑐𝑚 . Find the reflection coefficient Γ, the VSWR 𝑆, and the
positions of the first voltage maximum and minimum with respect to the load.
Answers: Γ = 0.632𝑒 −𝑗71.1° ; 𝑆 = 4.45; 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2.00 [𝑐𝑚]; 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.75 [𝑐𝑚]
Q2
On a 120 Ω lossless transmission line, the following observations were made:
distance of first voltage minimum from the load = 2 cm; distance of first
voltage maximum from the load = 8 cm; S= 3. Find ZL.
Answer 𝑍𝐿 = 51.2 − 𝑗58.9 [Ω]

Q3
A 50 Ω lossless transmission line is connected to a load composed of a 75 Ω
resistor in series with a an unknown capacitance. If at 10 MHz the voltage
standing wave ratio on the line was measured to be 5, determine the
capacitance C.
Answer 𝐶 = 150 𝑝𝐹

Q4
A lossless transmission line, with a characteristic impedance of 120 Ω and
having an electrical length of 0.8λ, is terminated in a load impedance of (60 +
j50) Ω. Determine Γ, S, and Zin.

Answers: Γ = 0.418𝑒 𝑗124.5 ; 𝑆 = 2.44 ; 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 83 − 𝑗84

 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles Prof Ivan Glesk

Tutorial on Bounded Transmission Based on Optical Fibre

Using Fig. Q1
a) Obtain a general expression for the maximum data rate 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 as a function of Θ’ for optical
fibre of length l placed in air (n0 = 1) having core index nf .
b) Find 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 for Θ’ = 30o for case of l = 1 km and nf = 1.52.
l

n0 lmax nf n0
Θ2
Θ’

Fig. Q1

Ans:
−𝟏𝟏
𝒄𝒄 𝒏𝒏𝒇𝒇
(a) 𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑 = � − 𝟏𝟏�
𝟐𝟐 𝒍𝒍 𝒏𝒏𝒇𝒇
�𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 −(𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔′ )𝟐𝟐
𝒇𝒇

(b) 𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑 ≈ 1.67 Mbit/s

Hint: To avoid data pulses overlap at the transmission line output

2 τ < T = 1 / fp where 2 τ = tmax – tmin

l
T
lmax
Θ2 }
τi lmin = l τ τ τ τ
τi

Q2
The wave is propagating in optical transmission line, i.e., optical fibre. The optical fibre attenuation
constant αp = 0.1 km-1. If the launched power P0 = 10 W, how much power will exit from the fibre
at the distance 10 km from the launching point?

Ans:
P (10 km) = 3.68 W

Q3
If you have a choice between single and multi-mode optical fibre to be used to build the highest
possible data rates what type of optical fibre would you select? Explain your choice.

Ans:
Single mode fibre. No modal spreading is present in single mode fibre to limit the bit
rate.

Q4
A transmitter immerged in the water at point T at a depth of 30 cm is transmitting data towards the
water surface. Determine the diameter d of a piece of a non-transparent disk placed to float on the
water surface directly above the transmitter that would totally obscure its transmission from water.
Treat the transmitter as an omnidirectional transmitting point, index of refraction of water is
n = 1.33 and of air n0 = 1.
Ans:
d = 68.42 cm.
A hint towards obtaining the solution:

T
CAL CONSTANTS AND MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

εo = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m

μo = 4π × 10-7 H/m
c = 3 × 108 m/s
ηo = 120π Ω
k = 1.3803 ×10-23 J/K

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

2 cosA cosB = cos(A-B) + cos(A+B)

2 sinA sinB = cos(A-B) – cos(A+B)
2 sinA cosB = sin(A+B) + sin(A-B)

COMPLEX NUMBERS

eiα = cosα + j sinα

|z| = ; x = |z| cosα ; y = |z| sinα
R e jα = R 0.5e j 0.5α
 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

INPUT IMPEDANCE OF A LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE IS GIVEN BY

 Z + jZ O tan βl  1 + Γe − j 2 βl 
Z in (−l ) = Z O  L  Z in (−l ) = Z O  − j 2 βl 
 Z O + jZ L tan βl  Ω OR  1 − Γe  Ω

AT THE BOUNDARY OF A TRANSMISSION LINE

Z − Zo 2Z L
Γ =L τ=
Z L + Zo Z L + Zo
WAVE PROPAGATION IN A MEDIUM

C = B log2(1 + SNR)
1/4
2
√30 𝐺𝐺 𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅T λ2 σ 𝐺𝐺𝑅𝑅 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 λ2
E= ; r=[ ] ; PR = Pd A GR = Pd GR
𝑟𝑟 (4𝜋𝜋)3 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 4π
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖
Te = (NF – 1) T0 ; NF =
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆o

WAVE PROPAGATION ACROSS MEDIA AT NORMAL INCIDENCE

η − η1 ; 2η 2 ; R = Γ 2 ; T = τ 2  η 
Γ = 2 τ =  1 
η 2 + η1 η 2 + η1  η2 
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 EE Principles 3 Prof Ivan Glesk

Tutorial on Unbounded Waves

Q1
Verify that the function Ey = f (x – vo t) describes the propagation of a wave. A hint:
Ey must be a solution of the wave equation.

Ans:
1
Yes, Ey describes a wave propagation with propagation velocity vo = .
√𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Q2
A plane wave travelling in the positive x direction in lossless material. Give the time
domain expression for its amplitude if frequency f = 10 MHz, speed of propagation is
up = 108 m/s and the starting amplitude is Eo = 5 V/m.
Ans:
πx
E ( x, t ) = 5 cos(2π × 10 7 t − ) V/m
5

Q3
Write general expressions for a 1-GHz sinusoidal wave traveling in the +y-direction in
a lossless medium. The wave oscillations are along the x-direction, its peak value is 6
V/m, and its amplitude E = 4 V/m at t = 0 and y = 2 cm and a wave number k = 20π
rad/m. Find the wave wavelength.

x
Ans:

� 6 cos (2π ×109 t − 20πy + 120.19◦)

E(y, t) = 𝒙𝒙 (V/m).

λ = 0.1 m
Q4
A wave traveling along a string is given by: y (x, t) = 7 e -3x sin (6π t + 10π x) (m).
Determine:
(a) Direction of wave travel
(b) Reference phase φ0
(c) Frequency f
(d) Wavelength λ
(e) Phase velocity up
(f) Amplitude A
(g) Wavenumber β
(h) Attenuation coefficient α
(h) Attenuation coefficient α
(i) Find y (1, -2.2)

Ans:
(a) Wave travels in - x direction

(b) φ0 = - π /2
(c) f = 3 Hz
(d) λ = 0.2 m
(e) up = 0.6 m/s
(f) A = 7 m
(g) β = 10π rad/m
(h) Attenuation coefficient α = 3 m-1
(i) y (1, -2.2) ~ 0.2 m
 KEY IDENTITIES, PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

εo = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m

μo = 4π × 10-7 H/m
c = 3 × 108 m/s
ηo = 120π Ω
k = 1.3803 ×10-23 J/K

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

2 cosA cosB = cos(A-B) + cos(A+B)

2 sinA sinB = cos(A-B) – cos(A+B)
2 sinA cosB = sin(A+B) + sin(A-B)

COMPLEX NUMBERS

eiα = cosα + j sinα

|z| = ; x = |z| cosα ; y = |z| sinα
R e jα = R 0.5e j 0.5α
 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

INPUT IMPEDANCE OF A LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE IS GIVEN BY

 Z + jZ O tan βl  1 + Γe − j 2 βl 
Z in (−l ) = Z O  L  Z in (−l ) = Z O  − j 2 βl 
 Z O + jZ L tan βl  Ω OR  1 − Γe  Ω

AT THE BOUNDARY OF A TRANSMISSION LINE

Z − Zo 2Z L
Γ =L τ=
Z L + Zo Z L + Zo
WAVE PROPAGATION IN A MEDIUM

C = B log2(1 + SNR)
1/4
2
√30 𝐺𝐺 𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅T λ2 σ 𝐺𝐺𝑅𝑅 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 λ2
E= ; r=[ ] ; PR = Pd A GR = Pd GR
𝑟𝑟 (4𝜋𝜋)3 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 4π
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖
Te = (NF – 1) T0 ; NF =
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆o

WAVE PROPAGATION ACROSS MEDIA AT NORMAL INCIDENCE

η − η1 ;  η1 
2η 2 ; R = Γ 2 ; T = τ 2 
Γ = 2
η 2 + η1
τ =
η 2 + η1  η 
 2
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 EE Principles 3 Prof Ivan Glesk

Tutorial on Unbounded EM Wave in Lossless Media

Q1
Write general expressions for electric and magnetic fields of a 1-GHz sinusoidal plane
wave travelling in the +y direction in a lossless nonmagnetic medium with relative
permittivity εr = 9. The electric field is polarized along the x-direction, its peak value is
6 V/m, and its intensity is 4 V/m at t = 0 and y = 2 cm.
Then using Fig. Q1 indicate the orientation of vectors E, H and direction of travel k.

x
Fig. Q1

Ans:
∧
E ( y, t ) = x 6 cos(2π × 109 t − 20πy + 120.19 o ) V / m
∧ 6
H( y, t ) = - z cos(2π × 109 t − 20πy + 120.19 o ) A/ m
40π
z

~
k
E y

Q2
E = 𝒚𝒚� 3 sin (π ×107 t – 0.2π x) + 𝒛𝒛� 4 cos (π ×107 t – 0.2π x). Determine
a) λ
b) εr
c) H
d) η
 Ans:
a) λ = 10 m
b) εr = 36
∧ 3 ∧ 4
=c) H z sin(π × 107 t − 0.2π x) − y cos(π × 107 t − 0.2π x) A/ m
20π 20π
d) η = 20π

Q3
A wave radiated by a source in air is incident upon a soil surface where upon a part of
the wave is transmitted into the soil medium. If the wavelength of the wave is 30 cm
in air and 15 cm in the soil medium, what is the soil’s relative permittivity? Assume
the soil to be low-loss medium.

Ans: εr = 4

Q4
A wave traveling in a lossless, nonmagnetic medium has electric field amplitude of
24.56 V/m and an average power density of 2.4 W/m2. Determine the phase velocity
of the wave.

Ans: up = 108 m/s

Q5
Show that the time-average power flow density Sav = <P(t)> = < E(t) × H(t) > =
1 𝑇𝑇
= 𝑇𝑇 ∫0 𝑬𝑬(t) × 𝑯𝑯(t) dt can be also expressed as Sav = ½ Re {E × H*}.
(Hint: Recall Math Tutorial).

Q6
(a) Find the average power density Sav of a uniform sinusoidal plane wave propagating
in the air which has the following expression for the instantaneous magnetic and
electric field:
1 1
H(x, z, t) = (− �+
𝒙𝒙 𝐳𝐳� ) cos (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 6𝑥𝑥 − 8𝑧𝑧) (A/m).
15𝜋𝜋 20𝜋𝜋
−j(6x + 8z)
� 10 e
E(x, z, t) = 𝒚𝒚 (V/m).
(b) Find and compare the solution you obtained for Sav in (a) if the plane
wave is defined the following way: E0 = 10 V/m, η = η0 = 120π and the
propagation direction of Sav is â = 0.6x̂ + 0.8ẑ.

1 1
Ans: (a) Sav = ( 4𝜋𝜋 𝐱𝐱� + 3𝜋𝜋
𝐳𝐳� ) W/m2.

(b) The solution for Sav found in (a) and (b) is the same.
 KEY IDENTITIES, PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

εo = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m

μo = 4π × 10-7 H/m
c = 3 × 108 m/s
ηo = 120π Ω
k = 1.3803 ×10-23 J/K

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

2 cosA cosB = cos(A-B) + cos(A+B)

2 sinA sinB = cos(A-B) – cos(A+B)
2 sinA cosB = sin(A+B) + sin(A-B)

COMPLEX NUMBERS

eiα = cosα + j sinα

|z| = ; x = |z| cosα ; y = |z| sinα
R e jα = R 0.5e j 0.5α
 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

INPUT IMPEDANCE OF A LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE IS GIVEN BY

 Z + jZ O tan βl  1 + Γe − j 2 βl 
Z in (−l ) = Z O  L  Z in (−l ) = Z O  − j 2 βl 
 Z O + jZ L tan βl  Ω OR  1 − Γe  Ω

AT THE BOUNDARY OF A TRANSMISSION LINE

Z − Zo 2Z L
Γ =L τ=
Z L + Zo Z L + Zo
WAVE PROPAGATION IN A MEDIUM

C = B log2(1 + SNR)
1/4
2
√30 𝐺𝐺 𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅T λ2 σ 𝐺𝐺𝑅𝑅 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 λ2
E= ; r=[ ] ; PR = Pd A GR = Pd GR
𝑟𝑟 (4𝜋𝜋)3 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 4π
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖
Te = (NF – 1) T0 ; NF =
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆o

WAVE PROPAGATION ACROSS MEDIA AT NORMAL INCIDENCE

η − η1 ; 2η 2 ; R = Γ 2 ; T = τ 2  η 
Γ = 2 τ =  1 
η 2 + η1 η 2 + η1  η2 
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 EE Principles 3 Prof Ivan Glesk

Tutorial on Unbounded EM Wave in Lossy Media

Q1
The skin depth of a certain nonmagnetic conducting material is 2 µm at 5 GHz.
Determine the phase velocity in the material.

Ans: 9.42 × 104 m/s

Q2
The electric field of a plane wave propagating in a nonmagnetic medium is given by:
E = 𝒛𝒛� 25 e-30x cos (2π ×109 t – 40 x). Obtain the corresponding expression for H.
a) Obtain the corresponding expression for H.
b) Using Fig. Q2 draw relationship between E, H, and direction of propagation.

x
Fig. Q2

Ans:
∧
a) H = − y 0.16e −30 x cos(2π × 10 9 t − 40 x − 36.85 o ) A/ m

b)
z

E
H y
~
k

x
Q3
A team of scientists is designing a radar as a probe for measuring the depth of the ice
layer over the Antarctic land mass. In order to measure a detectable echo due to the
reflection by the ice-rock boundary, the thickness of the ice sheet should not exceed
three skin depths. If εr′ = 3 and εr′′ = 10-2 for ice and if the maximum anticipated ice
thickness in the area under exploration is 1.2 km, what frequency range is useable
with the radar?

Ans:
f = 41.6 MHz.

The useable frequency range is

0 < f ≤ 41.6 MHz

Q4
Calculate the phase constant, intrinsic impedance and wavelength of a 3 GHz wave
traveling in a non-magnetic material with a dielectric constant of 2.5 and a loss
tangent of 0.01; μo = 4π ×10-7 H/m, and εo = 8.854 ×10-12 F/m.

Ans:
β = 99.4148 rad/m
α = 0.497 Np/m
ηc = 238.4212 + j 1.1921 Ω
λ = 63.2 cm

Q5.
Starting from the generic equation for a phase constant, attenuation constant, and
intrinsic impedance for “any media” and with the help of Taylor expansion find their
equivalents for a low-loss non-magnetic media. Then, use a dielectric constant of 2.5,
loss tangent of 0.01, μo = 4π ×10-7 H/m, εo = 8.854 ×10-12 F/m, and wave frequency
3 GHz to find corresponding numerical values.

Ans:
1 𝜀𝜀" 2
β ≃ 𝜔𝜔�𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇′ �1 + [ ] � = 99.2743 rad/m
8 𝜀𝜀′
1
α ≃ 2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔"�𝜇𝜇/𝜀𝜀′ = 0.497 Np/m

µ ε"
ηc ≃ � (1+ j ′) = 238 + j 1.19 Ω
ε'
β = 99.2743 rad/m 2ε
λ = 63.29 cm
Q6
The electric field intensity of a linearly polarised uniform plane wave propagating in
the +z direction in seawater is E = 𝒙𝒙�100 cos (π ×107 t) at z = 0. Parameters of seawater
are εr = 72, µr = 1, σ = 4 S/m, μo = 4π ×10-7 H/m and εo = 8.854 ×10-12 F/m.
a) Determine the attenuation constant, intrinsic impedance, phase velocity, skin
depth and wavelength.
b) Find the distance at which the amplitude of the electric field is 1% of its value
measured at z = 0.
c) Write expressions for E (z, t) and H (z, t). Using Fig. Q5 draw the relationship
between E, H and the direction of propagation.
d) Compute the skin depth at a frequency of 1 GHz.

x
Fig. Q5

Ans:
a)
α = β = 8.89 rad/m or Np/m, respectively
ηc = π e jπ /4 Ω
up = 3.53 x 106 m/s
λ = 0.707 m
δ = 0.112 m

b) e-αz1 = 0.01 ; z1 = 0.518 m

c)
E(z,t) (V/m )

H(z,t) (A/m)

~
k

E y
H

d) α = 80.837 Np/m and δ = 1/α = 12.37 mm.

 KEY IDENTITIES, PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

εo = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m

μo = 4π × 10-7 H/m
c = 3 × 108 m/s
ηo = 120π Ω
k = 1.3803 ×10-23 J/K

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

2 cosA cosB = cos(A-B) + cos(A+B)

2 sinA sinB = cos(A-B) – cos(A+B)
2 sinA cosB = sin(A+B) + sin(A-B)

COMPLEX NUMBERS

eiα = cosα + j sinα

|z| = ; x = |z| cosα ; y = |z| sinα
R e jα = R 0.5e j 0.5α
 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

INPUT IMPEDANCE OF A LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE IS GIVEN BY

 Z + jZ O tan βl  1 + Γe − j 2 βl 
Z in (−l ) = Z O  L  Z in (−l ) = Z O  − j 2 βl 
 Z O + jZ L tan βl  Ω OR  1 − Γe  Ω

AT THE BOUNDARY OF A TRANSMISSION LINE

Z − Zo 2Z L
Γ =L τ=
Z L + Zo Z L + Zo
WAVE PROPAGATION IN A MEDIUM

C = B log2(1 + SNR)
1/4
2
√30 𝐺𝐺 𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅T λ2 σ 𝐺𝐺𝑅𝑅 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 λ2
E= ; r=[ ] ; PR = Pd A GR = Pd GR
𝑟𝑟 (4𝜋𝜋)3 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 4π
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖
Te = (NF – 1) T0 ; NF =
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆o

WAVE PROPAGATION ACROSS MEDIA AT NORMAL INCIDENCE

η − η1 ; 2η 2 ; R = Γ 2 ; T = τ 2  η 
Γ = 2 τ =  1 
η 2 + η1 η 2 + η1  η2 
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 EE Principles 3 Prof Ivan Glesk

Tutorial on Unbounded Transmission between Antennas

Q1
An astronaut is on a Moon exploration mission cruising 1 km away from a base station.
He needs to send a distress signal to the base station (see Fig.Q1). He knows that the
receiver the base station uses can only detect signals of power densities greater than
1/π [mW/m2]. The astronaut has these two options for sending his distress call:
(i) Use powerful omnidirectional RF transmitter (i.e., a transmitter having a point
source like transmission characteristics) emitting 1 kW of power or
(ii) Use a laser pointer that can transmit 1 mW of power and its beam has 1 mrad
(milli-radian) diffraction.
a) Find out if any of this option will work for the astronaut.
b) Based on your calculations decide how many times (as a minimum) the antenna
sensitivity must be increased to guarantee signal reception from any individual
transmitter.
Transmitting
astronaut Base station
Receiver
Transmitting
astronauts
1km 1km

Fig.Q1
φ
Ans:
a) Astronaut’s choice should be (ii) and use the laser.

b) To support both means of communications the receiver would need to be

4 times more sensitive than the current one in order to detect both
transmitters.

A hint helping to find the solution.

 1km
Base station
receiver
Astronaut's
RF Transmitter

RF Transmitter Astronaut’s l = 1km

Laser
1km Pd at the Base station
l = 1km receiver location r
φ = 1mrad
1km

Sphere

Q2
An earth station is receiving transmission from a space research satellite on a frequency
of 136 MHz. The satellite is at a range of 500 km and its transmitter supplies P = 0.5 W
into aerial having gain of 3 dB with reference to an isotropic aerial. Assuming free space
propagation, and taking the impedance of free space as  = 120 . Calculate:
a) The power flux density Pd in W/m2
b) The field strength in 𝝁V/m at the earth station.
c) If the aerial at the earth station has a gain of 20 dB with reference to an isotropic
aerial, what is the signal power received. (The effective absorbing area of an
2
isotropic aerial is A = ).
4
Ans:
30 𝐺 𝑃 30 × 2 × 0.5
a) Pd = = = 0.318 × 10-12 W/m2
120 𝑟 2 120 × 500,0002

b) E = 11 𝝁V/m
-12
c) PR = 12.3 × 10 W.

A hint for obtaining the solution see Fig.Q2:

P = 0.5 W ;
G=2

r = 500 km
E, Pd
GR=20 dB = 100
PR = ?
Fig.Q2
Q3
Find a correction factor | F | for the receiving antenna Rec needed to calculate the
received signal level from the transmitting antenna Tr for a ground-based
communication. Both antennas are stationed as is indicated in Fig.Q3, 𝜃 is an
2𝜋
accumulated path phase difference defined as 𝜃 =  (𝑑2 − 𝑑1 ) and F = 1 – 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 .

Tr
d1
Rec
hT
hR
d2

Fig.Q3
Ans:
2𝜋 ℎ𝑅 ℎ𝑇
|F| = 2 sin { }
𝜆 𝑟

Q4 (challenging optional question)

A simple antenna of length 𝛿𝒍 called a doublet (Hertzian dipole) is shown in Fig.Q4(b).
When this antenna is fed by an r.m.s. current of value I, the intensity of the radiated
electric field E in a vertical plane in 𝜃 direction measured at the distance r at the
60𝜋 𝐼 𝛿𝒍 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
wavelength 𝜆 is given by a simple equation E (r, 𝜃) = (V/𝑚). Its radiated
𝜆𝑟
power is defined by Pointing vector.

a) Find the radiation resistance Rr of this dipole. Assume the power feed into the dipole
as P = I2 Rr. (Hint: To find Rr compare the power fed into the antenna with the power
being radiated through the imaginary surface A of the sphere in Fig.4(a).
b) For a dipole length of 1 𝑚 and radiated wavelength 𝜆 = 10 𝑚 calculate value of Rr.
𝜋
Use ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 4/3.

\d
𝜃
𝒍I 𝒍 I

(a) (b)
Fig.Q4
Ans:
𝛿𝒍 2
a) Rr = 80𝜋 2 ( 𝜆 ) 
b) Rr = 7.9 
 KEY IDENTITIES, PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
εo = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m
μo = 4π × 10-7 H/m
c = 3 × 108 m/s
ηo = 120π Ω
k = 1.3803 ×10-23 J/K

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
2 cosA cosB = cos(A-B) + cos(A+B)
2 sinA sinB = cos(A-B) – cos(A+B)
2 sinA cosB = sin(A+B) + sin(A-B)

COMPLEX NUMBERS
ei = cos + j sin
|z| = ; x = |z| cos ; y = |z| sin
R e j  R0.5e j 0.5

WAVE PROPAGATION IN A MEDIUM

C = B log2(1 + SNR)
1/4
2
√30 𝐺 𝑖 𝑅T 2  𝐺𝑅 𝐺𝑇 2
E= ; r =[ 𝑇
] ; PR = Pd A GR = Pd GR
𝑟 (4𝜋)3 4
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑖
Te = (NF – 1) T0 ; NF =
𝑆𝑁𝑅o
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 EE Principles 3 Prof Ivan Glesk

Tutorial on Transmission Line Channel Capacity and Impairments

Q1
The electric field phasor of a uniform plane wave traveling downward in water is given
by E (z) = z� 5 e−0.1z e−j 0.1z (V/m) where z� is the downward direction and z = 0 is the
water surface. Use σ = 4 S/m and f = 10 MHz.
(a) Obtain an expression for intrinsic impedance of water for depth z.
(b) Find the average power density Sav.
(c) Find Sav at z = 0 and in depths z = 20, 40, 50 m and then calculate the system channel
capacity. Assume SNR is given as SNRz = Sav (z) for z = 0, 20, 40, 50 m.
Ans:

(a) 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐 = 0.03535 e j 45° (Ω)

(b) Sav (z) ≅ z� 250 e−0.2 z (W/m2)
(c) Sav (0) = 250 (W/m2) ; S0 = 70.97 Mb/s
Sav (20) = 4.578 (W/m2) ; S20 = 25 Mb/s
Sav (40) = 0.0838 (W/m2) ; S40 = 1.1 Mb/s
Sav (50) = 0.011 (W/m2) ; S50 = 0.16 Mb/s

Q2
Consider a wave given by vector E = x̂ E0 e-αy cos (ωt - ky), (V/m) in the lossy medium
characterized by parameters α and η:
(a) Find the corresponding intensity of magnetic field H.
(b) Write the equation for the corresponding Poynting vector S.
(c) Now consider orthogonal coordinates (x,y,z) in Fig. Q2 and draw the relationship
between vectors E, H, and S.
z

x
Fig. Q2
 Ans:

(a) H = − η 𝒛𝒛� 𝐸𝐸0 𝑒𝑒−𝛼𝛼𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(ω𝑡𝑡 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)

1

� 𝑒𝑒−2𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝐸𝐸20 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2 (ω𝑡𝑡 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)

1
(b) S(t) = η 𝒚𝒚

(c)
x

E
H
z

k, S

Q3
For a particular coding, a 10-4 BER is achieved if Eb /N0 is 8.4 dB. How much of
signal 'level' S is required for a data rate of 2,400 bps at the temperature of 290 K?

Ans: 10 log10 S = -161.8 dB-W

Q4
The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the
channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. What is the theoretical channel capacity?

Ans: C = 24 Mb/s
 KEY IDENTITIES, PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

εo = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m

μo = 4π × 10-7 H/m
c = 3 × 108 m/s
ηo = 120π Ω
k = 1.3803 ×10-23 J/K

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

2 cosA cosB = cos(A-B) + cos(A+B)

2 sinA sinB = cos(A-B) – cos(A+B)
2 sinA cosB = sin(A+B) + sin(A-B)

COMPLEX NUMBERS

eiα = cosα + j sinα

|z| = ; x = |z| cosα ; y = |z| sinα
R e jα = R 0.5e j 0.5α
 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

INPUT IMPEDANCE OF A LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE IS GIVEN BY

 Z + jZ O tan βl  1 + Γe − j 2 βl 
Z in (−l ) = Z O  L  Z in (−l ) = Z O  − j 2 βl 
 Z O + jZ L tan βl  Ω OR  1 − Γe  Ω

AT THE BOUNDARY OF A TRANSMISSION LINE

Z − Zo 2Z L
Γ =L τ=
Z L + Zo Z L + Zo
WAVE PROPAGATION IN A MEDIUM

C = B log2(1 + SNR)
1/4
2
√30 𝐺𝐺 𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅T λ2 σ 𝐺𝐺𝑅𝑅 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 λ2
E= ; r=[ ] ; PR = Pd A GR = Pd GR
𝑟𝑟 (4𝜋𝜋)3 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 4π
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖
Te = (NF – 1) T0 ; NF =
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆o

WAVE PROPAGATION ACROSS MEDIA AT NORMAL INCIDENCE

η 2 − η1 ; 2η 2 ; 2η 
R = Γ ; T = τ  1 
2
Γ = τ =
η 2 + η1 η 2 + η1  η2 
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Tutorial 2-1: Phasors - Solutions

Question 1
Convert the following time varying values to a phasor form:

𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 = 𝟑𝟑√𝟐𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒐𝒐 ) 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

𝒊𝒊𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓√𝟐𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 − 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 ) 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨

𝒊𝒊𝟐𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐√𝟐𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 − 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒐𝒐 ) 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨

𝑉𝑉1 = 3 ∠ 25𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

𝐼𝐼1 = 0.5 ∠ − 30𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝐼𝐼2 = 0.25 ∠ − 55𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

Question 2
Draw the phasors found in question 1 by taking V1 as the reference:

V1

I1
I2
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Question 3
Taking 𝑽𝑽𝑨𝑨 = 𝟏𝟏 ∠𝟎𝟎𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 as the reference, draw and label phasors 𝑽𝑽𝑩𝑩 and 𝑽𝑽𝑪𝑪 which have the same
magnitude but lead and lag this phasor by 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝒐𝒐 respectively.

VB

VA

VC

Question 4
Calculate and then draw the resultant of the following phasor additions and substractions:

𝑽𝑽𝜶𝜶 = 𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 + 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 + 𝑽𝑽𝟑𝟑

𝑽𝑽𝜷𝜷 = 𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 − 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 + 𝑽𝑽𝟑𝟑

Where:

𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 = 𝟒𝟒 ∠𝟎𝟎𝒐𝒐 = 𝟒𝟒 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋, 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽,

𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐 ∠𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝒐𝒐 = √𝟐𝟐 + 𝒋𝒋√𝟐𝟐, 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽,
𝑽𝑽𝟑𝟑 = 𝟔𝟔 ∠𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝒐𝒐 = 𝟎𝟎 + 𝒋𝒋𝟔𝟔, 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽,

𝑉𝑉𝛼𝛼 = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 → 𝑉𝑉𝛼𝛼 = (4 + 𝑗𝑗0) + �√2 + 𝑗𝑗√2� + (0 + 𝑗𝑗6) → 𝑉𝑉𝛼𝛼 = 5.4142 + 𝑗𝑗7.4142 → 𝑽𝑽𝜶𝜶 =
𝟗𝟗. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∠𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

𝑉𝑉𝛽𝛽 = 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 → 𝑉𝑉𝛼𝛼 = (4 + 𝑗𝑗0) − �√2 + 𝑗𝑗√2� + (0 + 𝑗𝑗6) → 𝑉𝑉𝛼𝛼 = 2.5858 + 𝑗𝑗4.5858 → 𝑽𝑽𝜷𝜷 =
𝟓𝟓. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ∠ 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

V3 Vα
Vβ

V2

V1

Question 5
Is it possible to draw phasors for the following sinusoids on the same diagram?

𝒗𝒗𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 = 𝟑𝟑√𝟐𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒐𝒐 ) 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

𝒗𝒗𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = 𝟔𝟔√𝟐𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒐𝒐 ) 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

It is not possible to draw phasors on the same diagram, because the above sinusoids have different
frequency. Phasors can only be used in systems with single frequency, at a time.

Question 6
The voltage 𝒗𝒗𝒂𝒂 = 𝟓𝟓√𝟐𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝒐𝒐 )𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 is applied across the following components in turn:

a) A resistance of 0.5 Ω
b) A capacitor of reactance 0.25 Ω
c) An inductor of inductance 1mH

In each case determine the current flowing into the component and express these in time varying and phasor
forms. Determine the real (P), reactive (Q) and apparent (S) power in each case and illustrate them with a
power triangle.
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Resistive Load

• Calculate Current (Frequency Domain):

𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 5∠45
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 = → 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 = → 𝑰𝑰𝑹𝑹 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∠𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝒐𝒐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
𝑅𝑅 0.5

• Calculate Current (Time Domain):

𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅 (𝑡𝑡) = 10√2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(314𝑡𝑡 + 45𝑜𝑜 ) 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

• Calculate Apparent (S), Active (P) and Reactive Power (Q):

𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝐼𝐼 ∗ → 𝑆𝑆 = (5∠45𝑜𝑜 ) ∙ (10∠45𝑜𝑜 )∗ → 𝑆𝑆 = (5∠45𝑜𝑜 ) ∙ (10∠ − 45𝑜𝑜 ) → 𝑺𝑺 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓∠𝟎𝟎𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

It is obvious that there is no reactive power consumption by the load.

𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝐼𝐼 ∙ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜃𝜃𝑉𝑉 − 𝜃𝜃𝐼𝐼 ) → 𝑃𝑃 = 5 ∙ 10 ∙ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(45 − 45) → 𝑃𝑃 = 5 ∙ 10 ∙ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(0) → 𝑷𝑷 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

Alternatively:

𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼 2 ∙ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑃𝑃 = 102 ∙ 0.5 → 𝑷𝑷 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝐼𝐼 ∙ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜃𝜃𝑉𝑉 − 𝜃𝜃𝐼𝐼 ) → 𝑄𝑄 = 5 ∙ 10 ∙ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(45 − 45) → 𝑄𝑄 = 5 ∙ 10 ∙ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(0) → 𝑷𝑷 = 𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

Capacitive Load

• Calculate Current (Frequency Domain):

𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 5∠45
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = → 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = → 𝑰𝑰𝑪𝑪 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∠𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐶𝐶 −𝑗𝑗0.25

• Calculate Current (Time Domain):

𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡) = 20√2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(314𝑡𝑡 + 135𝑜𝑜 ) 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

• Calculate Apparent (S), Active (P) and Reactive Power (Q):

𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝐼𝐼 ∗ → 𝑆𝑆 = (5∠45𝑜𝑜 ) ∙ (20∠135𝑜𝑜 )∗ → 𝑆𝑆 = (5∠45𝑜𝑜 ) ∙ (20∠ − 135𝑜𝑜 ) → 𝑺𝑺 = 𝟎𝟎 − 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∠ − 𝟗𝟗𝟎𝟎𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

It is obvious that there is no active power consumption by the load.

𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝐼𝐼 ∙ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜃𝜃𝑉𝑉 − 𝜃𝜃𝐼𝐼 ) → 𝑃𝑃 = 5 ∙ 20 ∙ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(45 − 135) → 𝑃𝑃 = 5 ∙ 20 ∙ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(−90) → 𝑷𝑷 = 𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝐼𝐼 ∙ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜃𝜃𝑉𝑉 − 𝜃𝜃𝐼𝐼 ) → 𝑃𝑃 = 5 ∙ 20 ∙ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(45 − 135) → 𝑃𝑃 = 5 ∙ 20 ∙ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(−90) → 𝑸𝑸 = −𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

Alternatively:

𝑄𝑄 = 𝐼𝐼 2 ∙ 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 → 𝑄𝑄 = 202 ∙ 0.25 → 𝑸𝑸 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Capacitive Load

• Calculate Current (Frequency Domain):

𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 5∠45
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = → 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = → 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = → 𝑰𝑰𝑳𝑳 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗∠ − 𝟒𝟒𝟓𝟓𝒐𝒐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐿𝐿 𝑗𝑗(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) −𝑗𝑗(2 ∙ 𝜋𝜋 ∙ 3.14 ∙ 10−3 )

• Calculate Current (Time Domain):

𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡) = 15.42√2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(314𝑡𝑡 − 45𝑜𝑜 ) 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

• Calculate Apparent (S), Active (P) and Reactive Power (Q):

𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝐼𝐼 ∗ → 𝑆𝑆 = (5∠45𝑜𝑜 ) ∙ (15.92∠−45𝑜𝑜 )∗ → 𝑆𝑆 = (5∠45𝑜𝑜 ) ∙ (15.92∠45𝑜𝑜 ) → 𝑺𝑺 = 𝟎𝟎 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋. 𝟔𝟔 = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟔𝟔∠𝟗𝟗𝟎𝟎𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

It is obvious that there is no active power consumption by the load.

𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝐼𝐼 ∙ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜃𝜃𝑉𝑉 − 𝜃𝜃𝐼𝐼 ) → 𝑃𝑃 = 5 ∙ 15.92 ∙ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(45 − (−45)) → 𝑃𝑃 = 5 ∙ 15.92 ∙ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(90) → 𝑷𝑷 = 𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝐼𝐼 ∙ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜃𝜃𝑉𝑉 − 𝜃𝜃𝐼𝐼 ) → 𝑃𝑃 = 5 ∙ 15.92 ∙ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠�45 − (−90)� → 𝑃𝑃 = 5 ∙ 15.92 ∙ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(90) → 𝑸𝑸 = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟔𝟔 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

Alternatively:

𝑄𝑄 = 𝐼𝐼 2 ∙ 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 → 𝑄𝑄 = 15.922 ∙ 3.14 → 𝑸𝑸 = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟔𝟔 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

• Phasor Diagrams:

Resistive Load Capacitive Load Inductive Load

P QS
S

QS
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

IC

IR

VA

IL
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Tutorial 2-2: Three Phase - Solutions

Question 1
Three Impedances of 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ∠ 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 𝜴𝜴 are delta connected to a 415 V supply. Calculate the total real, reactive
and apparent power supplied. If the three impedances are the connected in start, calculate the new real,
reactive and apparent power supplied.

Delta Connection:

IPh
415 Volts

• Calculate current flowing through the load (Phase Current):

𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ 415
|𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ | = → |𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ | = → |𝑰𝑰𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 | = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟓𝟓 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
|𝑍𝑍| 10

• Calculate Real Power P:

𝑃𝑃 = 3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ ∙ 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ ∙ cos(𝜃𝜃) → 𝑃𝑃 = 3 ∙ 415 ∙ 41.5 ∙ cos(35) → 𝑷𝑷 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

• Calculate Reactive Power Q:

𝑄𝑄 = 3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ ∙ 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ ∙ sin(𝜃𝜃) → 𝑄𝑄 = 3 ∙ 415 ∙ 41.5 ∙ sin(35) → 𝑸𝑸 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

• Calculate Apparent Power S:

𝑆𝑆 = �𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑄𝑄 2 → 𝑆𝑆 = �42,2342 + 29,6352 → 𝑺𝑺 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓, 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Star Connection:

IPh
415 Volts

• Calculate current flowing through the load (Phase Current):

𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ 415
|𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ | = → |𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ | = → |𝑰𝑰𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 | = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
|𝑍𝑍| √3 ∙ 10

• Calculate Real Power P:

415
𝑃𝑃 = 3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ ∙ 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ ∙ cos(𝜃𝜃) → 𝑃𝑃 = 3 ∙ ∙ 23.96 ∙ cos(35) → 𝑷𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
√3

• Calculate Reactive Power Q:

415
𝑄𝑄 = 3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ ∙ 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ ∙ sin(𝜃𝜃) → 𝑄𝑄 = 3 ∙ ∙ 23.96 ∙ sin(35) → 𝑸𝑸 = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝟒 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽
√3

• Calculate Apparent Power S:

𝑆𝑆 = �𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑄𝑄 2 → 𝑆𝑆 = �14,1082 + 9878.42 → 𝑺𝑺 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Question 2
A star connected generator supplies a delta connected motor which is delivering 111.9 kW. If the motor has
an efficiency of 95% and operates at a power factor of 0.9 lagging, calculate the current magnitude drawn
from the generator with line voltage 600 Volts. Also calculate the magnitude of the currents in the motor
windings.

IGen
IMotor
600 Volts

• Calculate the electric power(Active) delivered by the generator:

𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 111.9
𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = → 𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = → 𝑷𝑷𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 0.95

• Calculate the apparent power required by the generator:

𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 117.79
𝑆𝑆 = → 𝑆𝑆 = → 𝑺𝑺 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
0.9 0.9

• Calculate the current drawn from the generator:

𝑆𝑆 13.878 ∙ 103
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = → 𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = → 𝑰𝑰𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
√3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 √3 ∙ 600

• Calculate the current in the motor windings:

𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 125.937
𝐼𝐼𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = → 𝐼𝐼𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = → 𝑰𝑰𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
√3 √3
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Question 3
A three phase delta connected load, each phase of which has an inductive reactance of 40 Ω and a resistance
of 25 Ω (connected in series), is supplied from the secondary of a three phase star connected transformer
which has a voltage of 240 Volts. With the aid of a circuit diagram calculate:

a) Voltage magnitudes across each phase of the load.

b) Current magnitude in each phase of the load.
c) The magnitude of the transformer winding currents
d) The total real and power factor.

240 Volts ITransformer

ILoad

Load voltage magnitude:

𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 ∙ √3 → 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 240 ∙ √3 → 𝑽𝑽𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

Load Current magnitude:

𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 240 ∙ √3
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = → 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = → 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = → 𝑰𝑰𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
|𝑍𝑍| √𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋 2 �252 + 𝑗𝑗402

Transformer Current magnitude:

𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ∙ √3 → 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 8.81266 ∙ √3 → 𝑰𝑰𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨

Active Power:
𝑃𝑃 = 3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 2 ∙ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑃𝑃 = 3 ∙ 8.812662 ∙ 25 → 𝑷𝑷 = 𝟖𝟖, 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

Power Factor:
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 25
𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. = → 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. = → 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. = → 𝒑𝒑. 𝒇𝒇. = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
|𝑍𝑍| √𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋 2 √252 + 402
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Question 4
A 25kVA, 0.8 power factor lagging, three phase balanced star load is supplied from a delta connected
generator through feeders of impedance 0.1 +j0.2 Ω per phase. If the line voltage at the load end is 230
Volts, calculate:
a) The magnitude of the phase voltage at the load.
b) The load current magnitude.
c) The line voltage magnitude at the generator.
d) The generator phase current magnitude.
e) The generator power factor

XL RL A

ILoad ZL VPh(Load)
VPh(Gen) IGen

ZL ZL
XL RL
B
C

XL RL

Load phase voltage:

𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 230
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = → 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = → 𝑽𝑽𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽
√3 √3

Load current magnitude:

𝑆𝑆 25 ∙ 103
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = → 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = → 𝑰𝑰𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
√3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 √3 ∙ 230
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Generator Line Voltage:

In order to calculate the line voltage magnitude at the generator, the following loop has to be considered:

A’ ILine(A) XL RL A

IGen VLine(A)
ILoad ZL
VPh(Gen) VAB

ZL
B
B’ C
ILine(B)

XL RL
VLine(B)

Applying Kirchoff’s Law:

𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝐴𝐴) + 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝐵𝐵) → 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = �𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝐴𝐴) ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝐴𝐴) � + (𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ) − �𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝐵𝐵) ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝐵𝐵) �

Knowing that:

𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝐴𝐴) = 62.755 ∠ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 0.8 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 → 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝐴𝐴) = 62.755 ∠ − 36.87𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝐵𝐵) = 62.755 ∠ − 36.87𝑜𝑜 − 120𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 → 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝐵𝐵) = 62.755 ∠ − 156.87𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 = 132.75 ∠0𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 132.75 ∠−120𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

The line voltage magnitude at the generator can be calculated as follows:

𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = �(62.755 ∠ − 36.87𝑜𝑜 ) ∙ (0.1 + 𝑗𝑗0.2)� + �(132.75 ∠0𝑜𝑜 ) − (132.75 ∠−120𝑜𝑜 )� − �(62.755 ∠ − 156.87𝑜𝑜 ) ∙
(0.1 + 𝑗𝑗0.2)� → 𝑽𝑽𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∠𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟓𝟓𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

Generator Phase Current Magnitude:

𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 62.755
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = ∠𝜃𝜃𝐿𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 30𝑜𝑜 → 𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = ∠ − 36.87𝑜𝑜 + 30𝑜𝑜 → 𝐈𝐈𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∠ − 𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝐨𝐨 𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀
√3 √3
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Generator Power Factor:

• Calculate generator angle:

𝜃𝜃𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑝𝑝.𝑓𝑓. = 𝜃𝜃𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 (𝑉𝑉) − 𝜃𝜃𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 (𝐼𝐼) → 𝜃𝜃𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑝𝑝.𝑓𝑓. = 32.5𝑜𝑜 − (−6.87𝑜𝑜 ) → 𝜃𝜃𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑝𝑝.𝑓𝑓. = 39.37𝑜𝑜

• Calculate generator’s power factor:

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = cos(𝜃𝜃𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑝𝑝.𝑓𝑓. ) → 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = cos(39.37)) → 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕

Question 5
A commercial property is supplied via a 415V three phase power cable. The load on the site is star connected,
is balanced and has phase sequence ABC and an earthed star point. The property draws 4.82kW at 0.87
lagging power factor. The phase voltage at the load was measured at 239.5V. Take VAN as reference.

a) Determine the line voltages for each phase of the load (magnitude and phase).
b) Determine the reactive power absorbed in each of the three phases of the load.
c) Determine the three line currents (magnitude and phase) drawn by the load, and sketch these in a phasor
diagram together with the load voltages.
d) Determine the phase impedance of the load.
e) Suppose a fault develops on phase C of the load such that its impedance is decreased to 90% of its original
magnitude (impedance angle remains unchanged). Determine the new values of the three phase
currents and also the resulting current in the neutral.

ILoad VPh

B
C

Line Voltages:

𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ ∙ √3 ∠𝜃𝜃𝑃𝑃ℎ + 30𝑜𝑜

𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ(𝐴𝐴) ∙ √3 ∠𝜃𝜃𝑃𝑃ℎ(𝐴𝐴) + 30𝑜𝑜 → 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 239.5 ∙ √3 ∠0 + 30𝑜𝑜 → 𝑽𝑽𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 ∠𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ(𝐵𝐵) ∙ √3 ∠𝜃𝜃𝑃𝑃ℎ(𝐵𝐵) + 30𝑜𝑜 → 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 239.5 ∙ √3 ∠ − 120 + 30𝑜𝑜 → 𝑽𝑽𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 ∠−𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ(𝐶𝐶) ∙ √3 ∠𝜃𝜃𝑃𝑃ℎ(𝐶𝐶) + 30𝑜𝑜 → 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 239.5 ∙ √3 ∠120 + 30𝑜𝑜 → 𝑽𝑽𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 ∠𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Reactive Power absorbed in each phase:

𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 −1
4.82 ∙ 103
𝑄𝑄 = tan 𝜃𝜃 → 𝑄𝑄 = tan(cos 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.) → 𝑄𝑄 = tan(cos−1 0.87) → 𝑸𝑸 = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽
3 3 3

Line Currents:
3
𝑆𝑆 𝑃𝑃 4.82 ∙ 10
|𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ | = → |𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ | = → |𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ | = → |𝑰𝑰𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 | = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ (𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. ) ∙ 3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ (0.87) ∙ 3 ∙ 239.5

𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 = (cos −1 0.87) → 𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 = −𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒐𝒐 (𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓)

Since the load is balanced the currents will have the same magnitude with an angle difference of 120 Degr.

Hence:

𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐴𝐴) = 7.7108 ∠ −29.541𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐵𝐵) = 7.7108 ∠ −149.541𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐶𝐶) = 7.7108 ∠ 90.541𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

VC

IC

VA
IB
IA

VB
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Phase Impedance:
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ 239.5
𝑍𝑍 = ∠ cos−1(𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓) → 𝑍𝑍 = ∠ cos−1(0.87) → 𝒁𝒁 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 ∠ 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒐𝒐 𝜴𝜴
𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ 7.7108

Post Fault Currents:

|𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 |′ = |𝑍𝑍| ∙ 0.9 → |𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 |′ = 31.06 ∙ 0.9 → |𝒁𝒁𝑪𝑪 |′ = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝜴𝜴

𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐴𝐴) = 7.7108 ∠ −29.541𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐵𝐵) = 7.7108 ∠ −149.541𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

′
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃ℎ(𝐶𝐶) ′ 239.5∠ 120𝑜𝑜 ′
𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐶𝐶) = → 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐶𝐶) = → 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐶𝐶) = 8.85676 ∠−90.459𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍′𝑃𝑃ℎ(𝐶𝐶) 27.954 ∠ 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒐𝒐

Neutral Current:
′
𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐴𝐴) + 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐵𝐵) + 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐶𝐶) → 𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = (7.7108 ∠ −29.541𝑜𝑜 ) + (7.7108 ∠ −149.541𝑜𝑜 ) +
(8.85676 ∠−90.459𝑜𝑜 ) → 𝑰𝑰𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖∠𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝒐𝒐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Tutorial 2-3: Power Generation, Demand & Time - Solutions

Question 1
A commercial customer has two major loads on his site. One load draws 20kW at a power factor of 0.9
lagging, while the second demands 40kVA and 12kVAr. What is the total real power demanded at the site,
and the site’s complex power and power factor? Sketch the power triangle.

Total Active Power:

𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(1) + 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(2) → 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(1) + �𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(2) 2 − 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(2) 2 → 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 20 + √402 − 122 →
𝑷𝑷𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

Total Reactive Power:

𝑄𝑄𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(1) + 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(2) → 𝑄𝑄𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(1) tan�𝜃𝜃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(1) � + 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(2) → 𝑄𝑄𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 =
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(1) tan�cos−1 �𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(1) �� + 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(2) → 𝑄𝑄𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 20 tan�cos−1 0.9� + 12 → 𝑸𝑸𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

Apparent Power:
𝑆𝑆𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 58.158 + 𝑗𝑗21.686 = 62.07 ∠20.45𝑜𝑜 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Power Factor:
p. f. = cos(20.45𝑜𝑜 ) → 𝐩𝐩. 𝐟𝐟. = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋

Power Triangle:

S
Q
20.45 Deg

P
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Question 2
A certain consumer demands 50kW at an effective voltage of 230V. Assuming the supply system can be
represented by a 0.1Ω resistance, find the transmission losses in the event of the load being supplied (a)
with power factor of 0.6 lagging, (b) with the addition of power factor correction resulting in a combined
power factor of 0.96 lagging. For case (b), determine the apparent power and sketch the power triangle.

Supply Demand
RLine Side Side

ILOAD

50 kW 230 Volts

Power Factor 0.6 lagging:

• Calculate load current:

𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 50 ∙ 103

𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = → 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = → 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = → 𝑰𝑰𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 0.6 ∙ 230

• Calculate transmission losses:

𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = |𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 |2 ∙ 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 → 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = |362.32|2 ∙ 0.1 → 𝑷𝑷𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

Power Factor 0.96 lagging:

• Calculate load current:

𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ′ 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 50 ∙ 103

𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ′ = → 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = → 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ′ = → 𝑰𝑰𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 ′ = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.′ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 0.96 ∙ 230

• Calculate transmission losses:

𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ′ = |𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ′|2 ∙ 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ′ → 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = |226.45|2 ∙ 0.1 → 𝑷𝑷𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 ′ = 𝟓𝟓, 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟗 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Power Triangle:

Q=14.571 kVAr
16.26 Deg
P=50 kW

Question 3
There are 3 consumers of electricity with different load requirements at different times:
• Consumer 1: max demand of 5kW@6pm, demand of 3kW@7pm, daily load factor of 20%;
• Consumer 2: max demand of 5kW@11am, demand of 2kW@7pm, average load of 1.2kW;
• Consumer 3: max demand is 3kW at 7pm, and average load of 1kW.
Determine (a) diversity factor, (b) load factor and average load for each consumer, (c) average load and
load factor of the combined load.

Diversity Factor:
𝑃𝑃1(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) + 𝑃𝑃2(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) + 𝑃𝑃3(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) 5+5+3
𝐷𝐷. 𝐹𝐹. = → 𝐷𝐷. 𝐹𝐹. = → 𝑫𝑫. 𝑭𝑭. = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝑃𝑃1(7 𝑝𝑝.𝑚𝑚.) + 𝑃𝑃2(7 𝑝𝑝.𝑚𝑚.) + 𝑃𝑃3(7 𝑝𝑝.𝑚𝑚.) 3+2+3

Load Factor / Average Load:

• Load 1:

𝐿𝐿. 𝐹𝐹.1 = 20%

𝑃𝑃1(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 𝑃𝑃1(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) ∙ 𝐿𝐿. 𝐹𝐹.1 → 𝑃𝑃1(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 5 ∙ 0.2 → 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏(𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨) = 𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

• Load 2:

𝑃𝑃2(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 1.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑃𝑃2(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) 1.2
𝐿𝐿. 𝐹𝐹.2 = → 𝐿𝐿. 𝐹𝐹.2 = → 𝑳𝑳. 𝑭𝑭.𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐%
𝑃𝑃2(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) 5

• Load 3:

𝑃𝑃3(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑃𝑃3(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) 1
𝐿𝐿. 𝐹𝐹.3 = → 𝐿𝐿. 𝐹𝐹.3 = → 𝑳𝑳. 𝑭𝑭.𝟑𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑%
𝑃𝑃3(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) 3
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Combined Average Load:

𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃1(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) + 𝑃𝑃2(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) + 𝑃𝑃3(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) → 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1 + 1.2 + 1 →
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑷𝑷𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪

Combined Load Factor:

𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 3.2
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐿𝐿. 𝐹𝐹.𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = → 𝐿𝐿. 𝐹𝐹.𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = → 𝑳𝑳. 𝑭𝑭.𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒%
𝑃𝑃1(7 𝑝𝑝.𝑚𝑚.) + 𝑃𝑃2(7 𝑝𝑝.𝑚𝑚.) + 𝑃𝑃3(7 𝑝𝑝.𝑚𝑚.) 3+2+3

Combined Combined
Max Demand Demand @ 7 Load Factor Average
Load Average Load Load Factor
[kW] p.m. [kW] [%] Load [kW]
[kw] [%]
1 5 3 20 1
2 5 2 24 1.2 3.2 40
3 3 3 33.3 1

Question 4
The power demanded by a small power system over a period of a year has been analysed. A curve fit is used
to approximate this variation as follows: P(kW)=4000+8t-0.00091t2 where t is in hours. This load is supplied
by three 10MW generators and it is advantageous to fully load a machine before connecting the others.
Determine:
• Τhe load factor on the system as a whole
• Τhe total magnitude of installed load if the diversity factor is equal to 3
• Τhe minimum number of hours each machine is in operation
• Τhe approximate peak magnitude of installed load capacity to be cut off to enable only two generators
to be used
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Load Factor:

𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ∙ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

• Calculate maximum load:

In order to determine the maximum load the first derivative of 𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡) is required. Then the time t for which the first
derivate is equal to zero needs to be calculated. Hence:

𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡) ̇
̇ = (4000 + 8𝑡𝑡 − 0.00091𝑡𝑡 2 ) → 𝑷𝑷 ̇ = 𝟖𝟖 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
(𝒕𝒕)

̇ = 0 → 8 − 0.00182𝑡𝑡 = 0 → 𝒕𝒕𝑷𝑷=𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯

𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡)

𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 4000 + 8𝑡𝑡𝑃𝑃=𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 0.00091𝑡𝑡𝑃𝑃=𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 → 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 4000 + 8 ∙ 4395.6 − 0.00091 ∙ 4395.62 → 𝑷𝑷𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 =
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟒𝟒 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

• Calculate units of energy supplied (Over a period of year):

(4000 + 8𝑡𝑡 − 0.00091𝑡𝑡 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → 𝐸𝐸 = 8760 �4000𝑡𝑡 + 4𝑡𝑡 2 − 0.00091𝑡𝑡 3 � → 𝑬𝑬 =

8760 8760 1
𝐸𝐸 = ∫0 𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → 𝐸𝐸 = ∫0
0 3
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴

𝐸𝐸 138.08 ∙ 106
𝐿𝐿. 𝐹𝐹. = → 𝐿𝐿. 𝐹𝐹. = → 𝑳𝑳. 𝑭𝑭. = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∙ 𝑇𝑇 21.852.4 ∙ 8760

Installed Load Capacity:

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = → 𝐼𝐼. 𝐿𝐿. 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐷𝐷. 𝐹𝐹 ∙ 𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 → 𝐼𝐼. 𝐿𝐿. 𝐶𝐶 = 3 ∙ 21,852.4 → 𝑰𝑰. 𝑳𝑳. 𝑪𝑪 =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔, 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Unit Commitment:

t3(ON)
t3(OFF)

t2(ON)
t2(OFF)

• Generator 2
Assuming that the first generator in ON during all the time period. The second generator will turn ON when
𝑷𝑷𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 > 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 and will turn OFF again when 𝑷𝑷𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 < 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴. Hence:

4000 + 8𝑡𝑡 − 0.00091𝑡𝑡 2 = 10,000 → −6000 + 8𝑡𝑡 − 0.00091𝑡𝑡 2 = 0

Roots of this equation will determine the turn on & turn off time of the second generator. Hence:

𝑡𝑡2(𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂) = 827.98 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 , 𝑡𝑡2(𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂) = 7,963.2 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

𝑡𝑡2 = 𝑡𝑡2(𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂) − 𝑡𝑡2(𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂) → 𝑡𝑡2 = 7,963.2 − 827.98 → 𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐 = 𝟕𝟕, 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯

• Generator 3
The second generator will turn ON when 𝑷𝑷𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 > 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 and will turn OFF again when 𝑷𝑷𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 < 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴. Hence:

4000 + 8𝑡𝑡 − 0.00091𝑡𝑡 2 = 20,000 → −16000 + 8𝑡𝑡 − 0.00091𝑡𝑡 2 = 0

Roots of this equation will determine the turn on & turn off time of the second generator. Hence:

𝑡𝑡3(𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂) = 3,076.4 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 , 𝑡𝑡3(𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂) = 5,714.3 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

𝑡𝑡3 = 𝑡𝑡3(𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂) − 𝑡𝑡3(𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂) → 𝑡𝑡3 = 5,714.3 − 3,076.4 → 𝒕𝒕𝟑𝟑 = 𝟐𝟐, 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟒𝟒 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Load to disconnect:
Since each generator provides 10 MW of power, the load required to be disconnected can be calculated as follows:

𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 − 𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 → 𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 21,852.4 − (2 ∙ 10,000) → 𝑷𝑷𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟒𝟒 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

Hence:

𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ∙ 𝐷𝐷. 𝐹𝐹 → 𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 1,582.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 3 → 𝑷𝑷𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒕 = 𝟒𝟒, 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Tutorial 2-4: Network Design - Solutions

Question 1
For the three phase system and loads in the figure, determine suitable cable sizes such that the voltage at
each load remains within statutory limits. Use the cables sizes and parameters given in the table.

20 kW
Bus A Bus B 0.95 Lagging
150m 1

50m
2
415 V, 50 Hz 10 kVA, 0.8
100m
Lagging

3
25 kW, Unity
p.f.

Conductor Cross Section Resistance [Ω/km] Reactance [Ω/km] Maximum Current

[mm2] Rating [A]
2.5 8.71 0.11 25
10 2.16 0.094 60
25 0.863 0.086 106
35 0.627 0.083 131
50 0.375 0.082 159

Note:
The maximum permitted voltage drop is 6%. Consequently at this system the lowest voltage can be:

𝑉𝑉 = 415 ∙ (1 − 0.06) → 𝑽𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉 = 415 ∙ 0.06 → 𝜟𝜟𝑽𝑽𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟗 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

Load 3:

• Calculate Current:
𝑃𝑃3 25 ∙ 103
𝑃𝑃3 = √3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼3 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.3 → 𝐼𝐼3 = → 𝐼𝐼3 = → 𝑰𝑰𝟑𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
√3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉3 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.3 √3 ∙ 390.1 ∙ 1

• Select Cable:

From the table, the cable with a cross section of 10 mm2 is initially selected.
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

• Check for voltage drop limits:

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉3 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼3 ∙ 𝐿𝐿3 ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠:10 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉3 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼3 ∙ 𝐿𝐿3 ∙ �𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠:10 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠:10 2 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉3 = √3 ∙ 37 ∙ 0.1 ∙ √2.162 + 0.0942 →
𝜟𝜟𝑽𝑽𝟑𝟑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉3 < 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ↔ 13.856 < 24.9 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑡𝑡.

Load 2:

• Calculate Current:
𝑆𝑆2 10 ∙ 103
𝑆𝑆2 = √3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉2 ∙ 𝐼𝐼2 → 𝐼𝐼2 = → 𝐼𝐼2 = → 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
√3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉2 √3 ∙ 390.1

• Select Cable:
From the table, the cable with a cross section of 2.5 mm2 is initially selected.

• Check for voltage drop limits:

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉2 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼2 ∙ 𝐿𝐿2 ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠:2.5 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉2 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼2 ∙ 𝐿𝐿2 ∙ �𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠:2.5 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠:2.5 2 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉2 = √3 ∙ 14.8 ∙ 0.05 ∙ √8.712 + 0.112 →
𝜟𝜟𝑽𝑽𝟑𝟑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉2 < 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ↔ 11.165 < 24.9 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑡𝑡.
In order to calculate the total current flowing from Bus A to Bus B, the current which load 1 consumes is needed. The
voltage level at Bus B is required in order to calculate this current. Since voltage drop at line 3 is greater than voltage
drop at line 2, voltage level of Bus B will be calculated as follows:

𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝐵𝐵) = 390.1 + 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉3 → 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝐵𝐵) = 390.1 + 13.856 → 𝑽𝑽𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩(𝑩𝑩) = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

Since the operating voltage at Bus B is 403.96 Volts the new maximum voltage drop is calculated as follows:
′
𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 415 − 403.96 → 𝜟𝜟𝑽𝑽′𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

Load 1:

• Calculate Current:

𝑃𝑃1 20 ∙ 103
𝑃𝑃1 = √3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝐵𝐵) ∙ 𝐼𝐼1 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.1 → 𝐼𝐼1 = → 𝐼𝐼1 = → 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
√3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝐵𝐵) ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.1 √3 ∙ 403.96 ∙ 0.95

Total Current (Bus A to Bus B):

𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐼3 → 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 30.089 + 14.8 + 37 → 𝑰𝑰𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 = 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Cable Selection (Bus A to Bus B)

From the table, the cable with a cross section of 25 mm2 is initially selected.

• Check for voltage drop limits:

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼0 ∙ 𝐿𝐿0 ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠:25 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼0 ∙ 𝐿𝐿0 ∙ �𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠:25 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠:25 2 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 = √3 ∙ 81.889 ∙ 0.15 ∙ √0.8632 + 0.0862 →
𝜟𝜟𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

′
𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 > 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ↔ 18.452 > 11.04 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 → 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.

From the table, the cable with a cross section of 35 mm2 is selected.

• Check for voltage drop limits:

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼0 ∙ 𝐿𝐿0 ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠:35 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼0 ∙ 𝐿𝐿0 ∙ �𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠:35 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠:35 2 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 = √3 ∙ 81.889 ∙ 0.15 ∙ √0.6272 + 0.0832 →
𝜟𝜟𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

′
𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 > 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ↔ 13.456 > 11.04 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 → 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.

From the table, the cable with a cross section of 50 mm2 is selected.

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼0 ∙ 𝐿𝐿0 ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠:50 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼0 ∙ 𝐿𝐿0 ∙ �𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠:50 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠:50 2 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 = √3 ∙ 81.889 ∙ 0.15 ∙ √0.3752 + 0.0822 →
𝜟𝜟𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

′
𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 < 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ↔ 8.1667 < 11.04 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑡𝑡

LINE Current [A] Conductor Cross Section [mm2]

Load 1 30.089 No Line
Load 2 14.8 2.5
Load 3 37 10
Bus A to Bus B 81.889 50
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Question 2
Two new loads (4 and 5) have been added to the network. Load 5 consists of six 3kW heating loads with
diversity factor 1.5 and power factor 0.95lag, and these are connected to the network via a 40m cable. Based
on the cable sizes derived in Q1,

• Determine the maximum demand drawn by load 5;

• Calculate an appropriate size for the cable connecting load 5;
• Analyse the effect of load 4 on the network voltages and the current carried by the cables
• Determine if cables need to be replaced and, if so, the appropriate size of the cables.

25 kW
0.95 Lagging

150m 1

5 50m
2
415 V, 50 Hz 40m 10 kVA
6 x 3 kW
0.95 Lagging 0.8 Lagging
100m
D.F: 1.5

4 3
5 kVA 25 kW
0.85 Lagging Unity p.f.

Maximum Demand of Load 5:

∑�𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 ′ 𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷� ∑𝑖𝑖1 𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(𝑖𝑖) 3∙6∙103

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
→ 𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(5) = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
→ 𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(5) = 1.5
→
𝑷𝑷𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴(𝟓𝟓) = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

Cable Selection for Load 5:

• Calculate Current:
𝑃𝑃5 12 ∙ 103
𝑃𝑃5 = √3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉5 ∙ 𝐼𝐼5 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.5 → 𝐼𝐼5 = → 𝐼𝐼5 = → 𝑰𝑰𝟓𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
√3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉5 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.5 √3 ∙ 390.1 ∙ 0.95
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

• Select Cable:

From the table, the cable with a cross section of 2.5 mm2 is initially selected.

• Check for voltage drop limits:

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉5 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼5 ∙ 𝐿𝐿5 ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠:2.5 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉5 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼5 ∙ 𝐿𝐿5 ∙ �𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠:2.5 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠:2.5 2 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉5 = √3 ∙ 18.6948 ∙ 0.04 ∙
√8.712 + 0.112 → 𝜟𝜟𝑽𝑽𝟓𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉5 < 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ↔ 11.2822 < 24.9 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑡𝑡.

Effects of Load 4:
Load 4 will increase the voltage drop on the line (100m), as more current will have to pass through the line. This extra
current, required to supply load 4, will have to pass through the line connecting Bus A and Bus B. Consequently the
voltage drop on the line (150m) will increase, resulting at a decreased voltage level on Bus B, where loads 1 and 2 are
connected. At this case the pre-calculated values of the cables might be not be suitable for carrying more current. This
could lead to an unaccepted value of voltage level, at load terminals.

Cable Sizing Validation

Load 3 & 4:

𝑃𝑃3 𝑆𝑆4 25∙103 5∙103

𝐼𝐼3&4 = 𝐼𝐼3 + 𝐼𝐼4 → 𝐼𝐼3&4 = � 3∙𝑉𝑉
� + � 3∙𝑉𝑉 � → 𝐼𝐼3&4 = � � + � 3∙390.1� → 𝐼𝐼3&4 = 37 + 7.4 → 𝑰𝑰𝟑𝟑&𝟒𝟒 =
√ 3 ∙𝑝𝑝.𝑓𝑓. 3 √ 4 √ 3∙390.1∙1 √
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟒𝟒 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨

The cable selected in Question 1, has a cross section of 10mm2 with a maximum rating current of 60 Amperes. Initially
there is no need to change cable. The voltage drop will determine if there is a need for replacing the cable:

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉3&4 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼3&4 ∙ 𝐿𝐿3&4 ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠:10 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉3&4 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼3&4 ∙ 𝐿𝐿3&4 ∙ �𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠:10 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠:10 2 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉3&4 = √3 ∙ 44.4 ∙ 0.1 ∙
√2.162 + 0.0942 → 𝜟𝜟𝑽𝑽𝟑𝟑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉3&4 < 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ↔ 16.6268 < 24.9 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑡𝑡.

Load 2:

No change in calculation and consequently the cable size

In order to calculate the total current flowing from Bus A to Bus B, the current which load 1 consumes is needed. The
voltage level at Bus B is required in order to calculate this current. Since voltage drop at line 3 is greater than voltage
drop at line 2, voltage level of Bus B will be calculated as follows:
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝐵𝐵) = 390.1 + 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉3&4 → 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝐵𝐵) = 390.1 + 16.628 → 𝑽𝑽𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩(𝑩𝑩) = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

Since the operating voltage at Bus B is 406.728 Volts, the new maximum voltage drop is calculated as follows:
′
𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 415 − 406.728 → 𝜟𝜟𝑽𝑽′𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

Load 1:

• Calculate Current:

𝑃𝑃1 20 ∙ 103
𝑃𝑃1 = √3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝐵𝐵) ∙ 𝐼𝐼1 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.1 → 𝐼𝐼1 = → 𝐼𝐼1 = → 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
√3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝐵𝐵) ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.1 √3 ∙ 406.728 ∙ 0.95

Total Current (Bus A to Bus B):

𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐼3&4 → 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 29.0842 + 14.8 + 44.4 → 𝑰𝑰𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 = 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨

The cable selected in Question 1, has a cross section of 50mm2 with a maximum rating current of 159 Amperes. Initially
there is no need to change cable. The voltage drop will determine if there is a need for replacing the cable:

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼0 ∙ 𝐿𝐿0 ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠:50 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 = √3 ∙ 𝐼𝐼0 ∙ 𝐿𝐿0 ∙ �𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠:50 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠:50 2 → 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 = √3 ∙ 89.0842 ∙ 0.15 ∙
√0.3752 + 0.0822 → 𝜟𝜟𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉0 > 𝛥𝛥𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ↔ 8.88436 > 8.27 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 → 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.

LINE Current [A] Conductor Cross Section [mm2]

Load 1 29.8842 No Line
Load 2 14.8 2.5
Load 3 37
10
Load 4 7.4
Bus A to Bus B 81.889 --
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Tutorial 2-5: Transformers - Solutions

Question 1
A transformer having a 2:1 turns ratio is considered to have a primary resistance and reactance of 1Ω and
2Ω respectively, and a secondary resistance and inductance of 1Ω and 6.37mH respectively. Magnetising
current for this transformer is negligible. A 50Hz supply is connected such that a primary current of 10A flows
when a resistive load of 60Ω is connected. Determine the primary referred total winding resistance and
reactance, and the load and supply voltages. (Hint: Remember that the voltage angles will depend on what
you take as your reference.) Determine the magnitude of the supply voltage required to establish the same
load voltage if the transformer were regarded as ideal, and thereby determine the percentage increase in
voltage supplied to account for the transformer losses.

Winding Resistance & Reactance (Referred to Primary):

𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 → 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 1 + 21 ∙ 1 → 𝑹𝑹𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = 𝟓𝟓 𝜴𝜴

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷

𝛸𝛸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝛸𝛸𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝛸𝛸𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 → 𝛸𝛸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝛸𝛸𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + 𝑎𝑎2 ∙ (2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓) → 𝛸𝛸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 2 + 22 ∙ (2𝜋𝜋50 ∙
6.37 ∙ 10−3 ) → 𝜲𝜲𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝜴𝜴
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷

Supply and Load Voltages:

In order to determine the supply and load voltages, the total impedance (including load) is required to be calculated.
Hence:

• Calculate total impedance Z:

2
2 2
𝑍𝑍𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = ��(𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ∙ 𝑎𝑎2 ) + 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 � + �𝛸𝛸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 � → 𝑍𝑍𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = ��(60 ∙ 22 ) + 5� + (10)2 →
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
245
𝑍𝑍𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = √2452 + 102 → 𝑍𝑍𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 245.2 ∠ cos−1 → 𝒁𝒁𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟐 ∠𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 𝜴𝜴
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 √2452 +102 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷

• Calculate Supply Voltage:

𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑍𝑍𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ∙ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 → 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = (245.2 ∠2.33𝑜𝑜 ) ∙ 10 → 𝑽𝑽𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ∠𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

• Calculate Load Voltage:

𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 �𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 +𝛸𝛸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 �→𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 (𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ∠𝟐𝟐.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 )−10(5+𝑗𝑗10) 2400∠0𝑜𝑜

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝑎𝑎
= → 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = → 𝑽𝑽𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 =
2 2
𝒐𝒐
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ∠𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Ideal Transformer:

• Calculate Supply Voltage:

𝑉𝑉′𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ∙ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 → 𝑉𝑉′𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑎𝑎2 ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 → 𝑉𝑉′𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 22 ∙ 60 ∙ 10 →
𝑽𝑽′𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 ∠ 𝟎𝟎𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

• Calculate Percentage Increase in Voltage:

𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − 𝑉𝑉′𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 2452 − 2400
𝑉𝑉% = ∙ 100% → 𝑉𝑉% = ∙ 100% → 𝑽𝑽% = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 %
𝑉𝑉′𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 2400

Question 2
The following results were obtained on a 50 kVA transformer:

• Open circuit test: 3300V (primary), 400V(secondary), 2.16A (secondary), 430W.

• Short circuit test: 124V (primary), 15.3A (primary), 525W.

The short circuit test was performed with full load secondary current being measured. For this transformer: calculate
the efficiencies at full load and at half load for 0.7 power factor; derive the equivalent circuit parameters from the
test results; assuming nominal voltage on the secondary side calculate the full load voltage regulation and the
corresponding primary terminal voltage magnitudes for a lagging and a leading power factor of 0.7.

Full Load Efficiency:

𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. → 𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 50 ∙ 103 ∙ 0.7. → 𝑷𝑷𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 ∙ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 → 𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 → 𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 35 ∙ 103 + 430 + 527 → 𝑷𝑷𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑, 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 35,000
𝑛𝑛% = ∙ 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = ∙ 100% → 𝒏𝒏% = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 %
𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 35,955

Half Load Efficiency:

𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑆𝑆 ∙ 0.5 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. → 𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 50 ∙ 103 ∙ 0.5 ∙ 0.7. → 𝑷𝑷𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 ∙ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 → 𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 → 𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 35 ∙ 103 + 430 + (527 ∙ 0.52 ) → 𝑷𝑷𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 17,500
𝑛𝑛% = ∙ 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = ∙ 100% → 𝒏𝒏% = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 %
𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 18,061

Note: The Short Circuit losses are proportional to the square of load current in p.u.
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Equivalent Circuit Parameters:

REq XEq

RC XC

𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 525
𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 2 → 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = → 𝑹𝑹𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝜴𝜴
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 15.32

𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 525
�𝛧𝛧𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 � = → �𝛧𝛧𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 � = → �𝜡𝜡𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 � = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝜴𝜴
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 15.3

𝛸𝛸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = �𝛧𝛧𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2 − 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2 → 𝛸𝛸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = �8.10462 − 2.24272 → 𝜲𝜲𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝜴𝜴

𝜡𝜡𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ∠ 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝒐𝒐 𝜴𝜴

𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 3,3002
𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 = → 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 = → 𝑹𝑹𝑪𝑪 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝜴𝜴
𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 430

𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 3,3002

𝛸𝛸𝐶𝐶 = → 𝛸𝛸𝐶𝐶 = → 𝛸𝛸𝐶𝐶 = → 𝛸𝛸𝐶𝐶 = → 𝜲𝜲𝑪𝑪 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝜴𝜴
𝑄𝑄𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 �(400 ∙ 2.16)2 − 4302
�𝑆𝑆𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 − 𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 �(𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 ∙ 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 )2 − 𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2

Voltage Regulation (Lagging Power Factor):

• Calculate Current at Secondary Side:

𝑆𝑆 50,000
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 = ∠ −cos −1(𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. ) → 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 = ∠ − cos −1 (0.7) → 𝑰𝑰𝑺𝑺 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ∠ −𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒐𝒐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 400
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

• Calculate Current at Primary Side:

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 400
𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 ∙ → 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 = (25 ∠ −45.573𝑜𝑜 ) ∙ → 𝑰𝑰𝑷𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ∠ −𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒐𝒐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 3,300

• Calculate Voltage at Primary Side:

𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃= 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁−𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 → 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃= (3300 ∠ 0𝑜𝑜 ) + (15.152 ∠ −45.573𝑜𝑜 ) ∙ (8.1046 ∠ 73.935𝑜𝑜 ) →
𝑽𝑽𝑷𝑷= 𝟑𝟑, 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔 ∠𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

• Calculate Voltage Regulation:

�𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 � − �𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁−𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 � |3,408.6| − |3,300|

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = ∙ 100% → 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = ∙ 100% → 𝑽𝑽𝑹𝑹 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 %
�𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁−𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 � |3,300|

Voltage Regulation (Lagging Power Factor):

• Calculate Current at Secondary Side:

𝑆𝑆 50,000
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 = ∠ cos−1(𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. ) → 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 = ∠ cos−1(0.7) → 𝑰𝑰𝑺𝑺 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ∠ 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒐𝒐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝒆𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 400

• Calculate Current at Primary Side:

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 400
𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 ∙ → 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 = (25 ∠ 45.573𝑜𝑜 ) ∙ → 𝑰𝑰𝑷𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ∠ 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒐𝒐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 3,300

• Calculate Voltage at Primary Side:

𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃= 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁−𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 ∙ 𝑍𝑍𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 → 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃= (3300 ∠ 0𝑜𝑜 ) + (15.152 ∠ 45.573𝑜𝑜 ) ∙ (8.1046 ∠ 73.935𝑜𝑜 ) →
𝑽𝑽𝑷𝑷= 𝟑𝟑, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 ∠𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝒐𝒐 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

• Calculate Voltage Regulation:

�𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 � − �𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁−𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 � |3,239.5| − |3,300|

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = ∙ 100% → 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = ∙ 100% → 𝑽𝑽𝑹𝑹 = −𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 %
�𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁−𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 � |3,300|
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Question 3
Each of two transformers, A and B, has an output of 40kVA. The core losses in A and B are 500W and 250W
respectively, and the full load copper losses are 500W and 750W respectively. Tabulate the losses and
efficiencies for both transformers at quarter, half and full load for a power factor of 0.8.

Quarter Load:

• Transformer A:
1 1
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.∙ → 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 40 ∙ 103 ∙ 0.8 ∙ → 𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 = 𝟖𝟖, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
4 4
𝑷𝑷𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

1 2
𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 500 ∙ � � → 𝑷𝑷𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
4
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 8,000
𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
∙ 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 100% → 𝒏𝒏% =
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 +𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 8,000+500+31.25

𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 %

• Transformer B:
1 1
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.∙ → 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 40 ∙ 103 ∙ 0.8 ∙ → 𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 = 𝟖𝟖, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
4 4
𝑷𝑷𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

1 2
𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 750 ∙ � � → 𝑷𝑷𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
4
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 8,000
𝑛𝑛% = ∙ 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 100% → 𝒏𝒏% =
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 +𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 8,000+250+46.875

𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 %

Half Load:

• Transformer A:
1 1
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.∙ → 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 40 ∙ 103 ∙ 0.8 ∙ → 𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
2 2
𝑷𝑷𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

1 2
𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 500 ∙ � � → 𝑷𝑷𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
2
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 16,000
𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
∙ 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 100% → 𝒏𝒏% =
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 +𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 16,000+500+125

𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 %
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

• Transformer B:
1 1
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.∙ → 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑢𝑢𝑡𝑡 = 40 ∙ 103 ∙ 0.8 ∙ → 𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
2 2
𝑷𝑷𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

1 2
𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 750 ∙ � � → 𝑷𝑷𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
2
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 16,000
𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
∙ 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 100% → 𝒏𝒏% =
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 +𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 16,000+250+187.5

𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 %

Full Load:

• Transformer A:

𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.∙→ 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 40 ∙ 103 ∙ 0.8 ∙→ 𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
𝑷𝑷𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
𝑷𝑷𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 32,000
𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
∙ 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 100% → 𝒏𝒏% =
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 +𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 32,000+500+500

𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 %

• Transformer B:
1 1
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.∙ → 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 40 ∙ 103 ∙ 0.8 ∙ → 𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
2 2
𝑷𝑷𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
𝑷𝑷𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 32,000
𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
∙ 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 𝑃𝑃 100% → 𝑛𝑛% = 100% → 𝒏𝒏% =
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 +𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 32,000+250+750

𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 %

Efficiency [n%]
Transformer
Quarter Load Half Load Full Load
A 93.773 96.24 96.97
B 96.422 97.338 96.97
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Question 4
A three phase 35MVA star-connected autotransformer is required to connect a three phase 400kV line to a
275kV substation. The total number of turns is 2000. Determine the position of the tapping points on the
windings. Calculate the current magnitude in each part of the phase A winding at full load.

IH

NSE

IL
VH

VL NC

𝑽𝑽𝑯𝑯 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑵𝑵𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 + 𝑵𝑵𝑪𝑪

= = = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
𝑽𝑽𝑳𝑳 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵𝑪𝑪

𝑵𝑵𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 + 𝑵𝑵𝑪𝑪 = 𝟐𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕

The system above is a system with 2 equations and 2 unknowns. Hence:

𝑁𝑁𝐶𝐶 = 1,375 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

𝑁𝑁𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 625 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

Current at HV side:
𝑆𝑆𝑁𝑁 35 ∙ 106
𝐼𝐼𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = → 𝐼𝐼𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = → 𝑰𝑰𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
√3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 √3 ∙ 400 ∙ 106

Current at LV side:
𝑁𝑁𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 2,000
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 ∙ → 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 50.518 ∙ → 𝑰𝑰𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
𝑁𝑁𝐶𝐶 1,375

Current at Common Winding:

𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 𝐼𝐼𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 → 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 73.481 − 50.518 → 𝑰𝑰𝑪𝑪 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Question 5
A three phase transformer has its primary winding delta-connected and its secondary winding star-
connected. The number of turns per phase on the primary is 4 times that on the secondary, and the secondary
line voltage is 440V. A balanced load of 20kW, at lagging power factor 0.8 is connected across the secondary
terminals. Assuming an ideal transformer calculate:
• The primary line voltage magnitude;
• The phase and line current magnitudes on the secondary and primary sides of the transformer.
• Sketch a circuit diagram and phasor diagrams for the primary and secondary side of the transformer,
and indicate the values of the voltages and currents on the diagram.

Primary Winding Secondary Winding

IS(line)
IP(line)

IP(Phase)
VS(phase)
VP(Line) VS(Line)

Primary Line Voltage Magnitude:

𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝑎𝑎 440 ∙ 4
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = → 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = → 𝑽𝑽𝑷𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽
√3 √3

Line/Phase Current (Secondary Side):

𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 20,000
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = → 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = → 𝑰𝑰𝑺𝑺 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝑰𝑰𝑺𝑺 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
√3 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ∙ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. √3 ∙ 440 ∙ 0.8

Phase Current (Primary Side):

𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 32.084
𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = → 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = → 𝑰𝑰𝑷𝑷 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
𝑎𝑎 4

Line Current (Primary Side):

𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∙ √3 → 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 8.201 ∙ √3 → 𝑰𝑰𝑷𝑷 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
EE311 Electronic & Electrical Principles

Phasor Diagram:

VS(Line)

o
30

VP(Line)
IS(line)
IP(line)
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 – Electronic & Electrical Principles 3 TUTORIAL 4-2: Analysing power networks

1) Calculate the base impedance of a transformer rated at 250kVA, 4160/480V on both the primary and
secondary sides. Given that such transformers typically exhibit a primary and secondary resistance of
0.005 (or 0.5%), determine the approximate real values of primary and secondary winding resistance.
[69; 0.92; 0.35; 4.6m]

2) A small part of a three phase network is illustrated in Figure Q2. Select suitable common base values
then determine the resulting per unit values for all the network impedances. Show these on a sketch of
the single line diagram.
a) Suppose now that the loads at substation D are disconnected. If a voltage of 0.94pu is to be
maintained at busbar C, what level of voltage must be maintained at the busbar A connected to the
grid?
[0.9559pu = 126.19kV]
b) What would be the effect on the grid voltage (busbar A) of running a local gas turbine generator at
substation C whose rating is 12MVA, 11kV, 0.1pu? Assume that the generator output is 10MW at
pf=0.95 lagging and that control system maintains the voltage at 0.94pu on the generator terminals.
[0.9255pu = 122.16kV]

20MVA,
33/11kV, 12MVA, 11kV,
X=0.075pu M1 Xs=0.2pu
X=1.9/ph

40MVA, 5MW, 0.90 lag

132/33kV, D
Grid X=0.1pu
infeed
X=2.1/ph
FL=1350
MVA A 40MVA, B 15MVA, C 5MW, 0.95 lag
132/33kV, 33/11kV,
X=0.1pu X=0.08pu
Figure Q2

3) Consider the following system. A 75MVA, 15kV generator with reactance of XG,pu=0.75 is connected to a
50MVA, 15/220kV transformer with reactance of XT,pu=0.1 which is in turn connected via 200km of
overhead line to a unity power factor load of 400. The overhead conductor can be considered to have
reactance of 0.5 per phase per km. Draw a single line diagram of this arrangement. Using a base of
120MVA, determine the magnitude of the generator emf when the load busbar measures 215kV. Under
these same conditions determine the voltage on the HV terminals of the transformer.
[28.94kV; 221.6kV]
Some extra single phase power factor questions:

4) In order to use three 100V, 60W lamps on a 230V, 50Hz supply, they are connected in parallel and a
capacitor is connected in series with the group. Find: (a) the capacitance required to give the correct
voltage across the lamps; (b) the power factor of the network. Show the network voltages and currents
on a phasor diagram. If one of the lamps is removed, to what value will the voltage across the remaining
two rise, assuming that their resistances remain unchanged?
[27.7F, 0.435 leading, 134.9V]

5) A single phase motor takes 8.3A at a power factor of 0.866 lagging, when connected to a 230V, 50Hz
supply. Two similar capacitors are connected in parallel with each other to form a capacitance bank. This
capacitance bank is now connected in parallel with the motor to raise the power factor to unity.
Determine the capacitance of each capacitor. Sketch the phasor diagram.
[28.7F]

6) A cable is required to supply a welding set taking a current of 225A at 110V alternating current, the
average power factor being 0.5 lagging. An available cable has a rating of 175A and it is decided to use
this cable by installing a capacitor across the terminals of the welding set. Find: (a) the required
capacitor current to limit the cable current to 175A; (b) the overall power factor with the capacitor in
circuit. Sketch the phasor diagram.
[60.8A, 0.643 lag]
Question 2
A small part of a three phase network is illustrated in Figure Q2.
Select suitable common base values then determine the resulting per
unit values for the network. Show these on a sketch of the single
line diagram.

(%i158) FL:1350e6 $
V1:132e3 $
V2:33e3 $
V3:11e3 $
ST1:40e6 $
XT1: 0.1 $
ST2:20e6 $
XT2: 0.075 $
ST3:15e6 $
XT3: 0.08 $
XLbd: 1.9 $
XLbc: 2.1 $
PL1:5e6 $
pfL1:0.9 $ /*lagging*/
PL2:5e6 $
pfL2:0.95 $ /*lagging*/
SM1:12e6 $
XsM1:0.2 $

Assume Base MVA

(%i47) Sb:100e6 $

System infeed

(%i48) FLpu:FL/Sb ;
Zsyspu:1/FLpu;

Trafo 132/33 A-B

(%i34) XT1pu : XT1* Sb/ST1;

Trafo 33/11 20MVA B-D

(%i35) XT2pu : XT2* Sb/ST2;

Trafo 33/11 15MVA B-C

(%i36) XT3pu : XT3* Sb/ST3;

Line BD

(%i42) Zb33 : V2^2/Sb;

XLbdpu : XLbd/Zb33;

Line BC

(%i44) XLbcpu : XLbc/Zb33;

Motor M1

(%i176) XsM1pu : XsM1* Sb/SM1;

a) Suppose now that the loads at substation D are disconnected.
If a voltage of 0.94pu is to be maintained at busbar C, what level of
voltage must be maintained at the busbar connected to the grid?

b) What would be the effect on the grid voltage of running a local gas turbine
generator at substation C whose rating is 12MVA, 11kV, 0.1pu?
Assume that the generator output is 10MW at pf=0.95 lagging and
that control system maintains the voltage at 0.94pu on the generator
terminals.

(%i274) Sg:12e6 $
Pg:10e6 $
Xsg:0.1 $
pfg:0.95 $
Vcpu:0.94 $

Generator current

(%i279) Pgpu:Pg/Sb;
Igpu:Pgpu/pfg/Vcpu*exp(-j*acos(pfg)) $
ppf1("Igpu=",Igpu) $

total load current

(%i282) ILtotalpu:IL2pu-Igpu $
ppf(ILtotalpu)$

Va with generator connected

(%i286) VapuG:Vcpu+ILtotalpu*j*Xtotal $
ppf1("VapuG=",VapuG)$
VaG:abs(VapuG)*V1;
 UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE311 – Electronic & Electrical Principles 3 TUTORIAL 4-2: Transmission lines and induction motors

1. What happens to the receiving end voltage as the load on a short transmission line is increased if
the load has a lagging power factor? Sketch a phasors diagram showing the resulting behaviour.

2. A 220kV, 150MVA, 50Hz, three phase transmission line is 70km long. The characteristic
-6
parameters of the transmission line are: r=0.09Ω/km, X=0.88Ω/km, y=4.1×10 S/km. The voltage
at the receiving end of the transmission line is 210kV. Answer the following questions.
(a) What is the per phase series impedance and shunt admittance of this transmission line?
(b) What is the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated apparent power at 0.85PF
lagging, at unity PF and at 0.85 PF leading?
(c) What is the voltage regulation of the transmission line for each of the cases in (b)?
(d) What is the efficiency of the transmission line when it is supplying rated apparent
power at 0.85 PF lagging?
-6
[6.3Ω, 61.6Ω, 287×10 S; 239.6kV, 219kV, 194.6kV; 14.1%, 4.3%, -7.3%; η=97.5%]

3. A 50Hz three phase transmission line is 300km long. It has a total series impedance of 23+j75 Ω
and a shunt admittance of j500µS. It delivers 50MW at 220kV, with a power factor of 0.88
lagging. Find the voltage at the sending end using:
(a) The short line approximation.
(b) The medium length line approximation.
(c) The long line π mode equation.
How accurate are the short and medium length line approximations for this case?
[227kV; 230.8kV; 230.7kV]

4. What is meant by the slip of an induction motor, and define the expression allowing evaluation of
this parameter?

5. A three phase, 15hp, 460V, 4 pole, 60Hz, 1728rpm induction motor delivers full output power to
a load connected to its shaft, The windage and friction loss of the motor is 750W. Determine the
(a) Mechanical power developed. (b) Air gap power. (c) Rotor copper loss.
[11,940W, 12,437.5W, 497.5W]

6. A three phase, 36hp, 400V, 4 pole, 50Hz, wound rotor induction motor has the following
parameters/per phase: R1= 0.35Ω, R2’ = 0.3Ω, X1= X2’ = 0.75Ω, Xm = 40Ω. Friction and windage
losses are assumed to be 2700W. Initially the rotor terminals are short-circuited, hence find (a)
The stator supply current and power factor when supplying rated power at a slip of 8.85%. (b)
Calculate the value of magnetizing current, Iφ, at this operating point. (c) Calculate the torque
produced at this operating point. (d) The maximum value of torque with the rotor short-circuited
and the speed this maximum torque occurs at. (e) The value of extra rotor resistance required to
be added in the rotor circuit to achieve maximum torque at start-up, i.e. the level of torque
calculated in (d).
[57.725A, 0.9 lagging, 4.9/-98.260A, 206.4Nm, 262.8Nm @ 1206rpm, 1.23Ω/phase.]
Question 2
Question 3
Question 5

Question 6
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
19.358 POWER ENGINEERING TUTORIAL 5 – fault analysis

1. Determine the three phase fault level at each busbar of the 33kV network shown in Figure Q1. The plant details
(ignoring resistance) are as follows:
Generators G1 and G2: 25MVA, X’ = 0.125 p.u.
Synch. Motors M1 and M2: 20 MVA, X’ = 10%
Transmission lines: X = 10.9/phase
[343 MVA]

2. Part of a 3-phase 11kV distribution network is shown in Figure Q2 with overhead line reactances shown in per unit to a
base of 10MVA (resistance has already been neglected). The fault level of the grid infeed at “B” is 50MVA, and the
embedded generator is known to be rated at 20MVA, X’=0.2pu. A three phase fault occurred at a point two-thirds of the
way along one line of the double circuit between substations “A” and “C”. Determine the total fault current and the fault
current carried from each of the two ends.
[3.06kA; 1.59kA from A; 1.47kA from C]

3. Consider the system shown in Figure Q3 (solved in tutorial 4), with the loads at D reconnected. Calculate the steady
state fault level at busbar C when the local GT generator is (i) not running, and (ii) running. What is the fault current
generated by the local GT in case (ii).
[110MVA; 230MVA; 6.3kA]

G1 G2

A 0.15 B

0.3
0.3 0.2

F C
M1 M2

Figure Q1 Figure Q2

20MVA,
33/11kV, 12MVA, 11kV,
X=0.075pu M1 Xs=0.2pu
X=1.9/ph

40MVA, 5MW, 0.90 lag

132/33kV, D
Grid X=0.1pu
infeed
X=2.1/ph GT 12MVA, X=0.1pu
FL=1350
MVA A 40MVA, B 15MVA, C 5MW, 0.95 lag
132/33kV, 33/11kV,
X=0.1pu X=0.08pu

Figure Q3
Question 1
Question 2
 2
1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2

0.15 0.15

2
0.

0.
0.

0.
0.

0.
3

3
2

2
0.

0.
1

1
3 4
0.1 0.2 0.1

0.06 0.06
92 9 2
0.0462 0.2462
0.

0.
2

2
3
0.09

92
0.1
23
0.
1

5 6
3

3
59

59
0.0

0.0
0.0167
0.0

67
21
41

0.
0

33
0.

23
2

0.

3
92
0.1

7
16
7
0.1
Question 3
3.Consider the system shown in Figure Q3 (solved in tutorial 4),
with the loads at D reconnected. Calculate the steady state
fault level at busbar C when the local GT generator is
(i) not running, and (ii) running.
What is the fault current generated by the local GT in case (ii).
(%i1) E:1 $
FL:1350e6 $
V1:132e3 $
V2:33e3 $
V3:11e3 $
ST1:40e6 $
XT1: 0.1 $
ST2:20e6 $
XT2: 0.075 $
ST3:15e6 $
XT3: 0.08 $
XLbd: 1.9 $
XLbc: 2.1 $
Sg:12e6 $
Xsg:0.2 $
Pg:10e6 $
pfg:0.95 $ /*leading*/
PL1:5e6 $
pfL1:0.9 $ /*lagging*/
PL2:5e6 $
pfL2:0.9 $ /*lagging*/
SM1:12e6 $
XsM1:0.2 $
SGT:12e6 $
XsGT:0.1 $
System infeed
(%i26) Sb:100e6 $
FLpu:FL/Sb ;
Xsyspu:1/FLpu;

Trafo 132/33
(%i29) XT1pu : XT1* Sb/ST1;

Trafo 33/11 20MVA

(%i30) XT2pu : XT2* Sb/ST2;
Trafo 33/11 15MVA
(%i31) XT3pu : XT3* Sb/ST3;

Line BD
(%i32) Zb33 : V2^2/Sb;
XLbdpu : XLbd/Zb33;

Line BC
(%i34) Zb33 : V2^2/Sb;
XLbcpu : XLbc/Zb33;

Load M1
(%i36) XsM1pu:XsM1*Sb/SM1;

Gas turbine
(%i37) XsGTpu:XsGT*Sb/SGT;

Simlification 1
(%i38) X1 : Xsyspu + XT1pu/2; X1
X2
XsGT

(%i39) X2: XLbdpu + XT2pu + XsM1pu ; X3 C

(%i40) X3:XLbcpu + XT3pu ;

Simplification 2
(%i41) X4:X1*X2/(X1+X2)+X3;
C
XsGT

X4
X equivalent
(%i42) Xeqpu: X4*XsGTpu/(X4+XsGTpu);

(i) GT not running

(%i43) FL1pu:E/X4;
FL1:FL1pu*Sb;

(ii) GT running
(%i45) FL2pu:E/Xeqpu;
FL2:FL2pu*Sb;

Current from GT
(%i47) IGTpu : E/XsGTpu;
Ibase11 : Sb/sqrt(3.0)/V3;
IGT:IGTpu*Ibase11;

Created with wxMaxima.