CHAPTER TWO

2.1. UNDERSTANDING FOREIGN POLICY AND DIPLOMACY

2.1. Defining National Interest

National interest refers to set of values, orientation, goals and objectives of

a given country like to achieve in its international relations.
 It has been the main driving force that determines the contents of foreign
policy.
National interest is something related to the ambition of governments what
governments aspire to fulfill in its future interaction with others
National interest is related to set of purposes which a nation should seek to
realize in the conduct of its foreign relations.
National interest is the reason of state, to justify its actions and policy
towards other states at international level.
National Interest is considered as the objectives of foreign policy of a state
Different scholars in this area can put their own specific criteria to define
national interests. Among those Colmbis has provided the ff specific criteria to
define national interest, including
1. Operational Philosophy Criteria

2. Ideological Criteria

3. Moral and Legal Criteria

4. Pragmatic Criteria

5. Professional Advancement Criteria

6. Partisan Criteria

7. Foreign Dependency Criteria

1. Operational Philosophy Criteria ; according to this approach, national interest
of state depending on time, location, your orientation toward the world around
you, and in particular the action of your predecessors.
 In this condition you may choose one of two major style of operation.
 First, act in a bold and sweeping fashion and this style is referred as synoptic
in decision making literature.
 The decision maker with synoptic orientation assumes that he/she has enough
information about an important issue to develop a major policy with some
confidence that its consequence can be predicted or controlled.
 The second major style is to act in caution, probing, and experimental fashion,
following the trial and error approach. This style is called incremental
 The decision maker in an incremental orientation assumes that political and
economic problems are too complex to proceed with bsold initiative without
worrying about their consequence.
2.Ideological Criteria: based on this criteria governments may identify
their friends or enemies countries using the litmus test of ideology.

Hence, national interest may be shaped by underlying ideological

orientations of the regime in power.

3. Moral and Legal Criteria: states are expected to act morally, honestly
and making their public decision accordingly.

 Thus moral behavior, in international politics involves keeping your

promise treaties, living and letting others live, avoiding exploitation and
uneven development between countries.

 Acting legally means, abiding by the rules of international law to the

extent that such rules are identified and accepted.
4. Pragmatic Criteria: your action and decision based on scientific analysis of cost and

benefit or merit and demerit to your country interest. Here, your decisions are made

without considering normative issues, issues that involves judgment, be it bad or good.

5. Professional Advancement Criteria: In this case, your action may be manipulated and

adjusted in consideration of your professional survival and growth, in short your personal

success.

6. Partisan Criteria: Here you tend to equate the survival and the success of your political

party, ethnic or religious origin with the survival and success of your country.

7. Foreign Dependency Criteria: These criteria usually apply to less developing countries,

who had fall under the yoke of colonialism, and now, even after political independence.

These countries are still dependent on their ex-colonial states for technical aid; expertise

and technology, sometimes even for their security.

 However, realist international scholars reject the ideological, legal and moral
criteria to define and shape the contents of national interest.
 Realist scholars, particularly, Hans Morgenthau advised leaders to prioritize
pragmatic criteria when defining national interest and employing foreign
policy.
 On the other hand, idealists have strong belief in the relevance of legal,
ideological and moral elements which realists fail to recognize as the
constituting elements of national interest. They don‘t see legal and moral
factors apart from the so called reality.
 Idealists believe on the prevalence of common problems of human
beings as, environmental pollution, ecological imbalance,
population growth, poverty, war, arms race, uneven development
and the north-south gap…etc. Cognizant of such cross-cutting issues,
idealists call for global solutions than local (national) solutions.
2.2.Understanding Foreign Policy and Foreign Policy Behaviors

2. 2.1. Defining Foreign Policy

Foreign policy refers to the sets of objectives and instruments that a state
adopts to guide its relation with the outside world.

Foreign policy of a state is the actions, decisions and goals that states pursue
towards the outside world.

Foreign policy is plan that a state like to achieve in its external relations with
others countries.

It involves the general purposes and specific strategies a state employs to
achieve or promote its national interest.

The objectives of foreign policy which a state wants to achieve are in one
way or another related to national interest.
 Foreign policy of one state is shaped by both external systemic and
internal factors.
 Internally, the economic, technological and military capabilities of
states heavily affect foreign policy of one country.
 Externally, coming of different international organizations, international
regimes and the prevalence of great powers at international level are some
of systemic factors that affect foreign policy of a state.
 Foreign policy also involves specific instruments and tactics that must be
employed to realize those objectives and goals.
 The most widely employed instruments include: diplomatic
bargaining, economic instruments, propaganda, terrorism (sabotage),
and use of force (war).
2.2.2. Foreign Policy Objectives
Foreign policy objectives of states classification into three:

namely The short range objectives

Middle range objectives

Long range objectives.

Such classifications of foreign policy objectives is based on

the combination of the three criteria:

(1) The value placed on the objective;

(2) The time element placed on its achievement; and

(3) The kind of demands the objective imposes on other states in

international system.
1. Short Range Objectives

 The core value or interest in any given country depends on the attitudes of
those who make foreign policy.

 Security and survival of a state has always been considered as the first
priority among various foreign policy objectives in which a state aspires to
achieve in the short run.
 They are usually stated in the form of basic principles of foreign policy and
become article of faith that society accepts without any questioning it.
 The most essential objective of any foreign policy, core interests and
values, is to ensure the sovereignty and independence of the home
territory and to achieve a particular political, social, and economic
systems based on that territory.
2. Middle Range Objectives

In middle range Objectives, government try to fulfill the basic necessity

and aspiration of its people by creating relation with others sates.

The primary commitment of many modern governments must be to

pursue those courses of action that have the highest impact on

domestic, economic and social welfare of its people.

In this range state interact with other state in term of trade, foreign aid,
access to communication facilities, sources of supply, and foreign
market that are necessary for increasing social welfare.

It include the attempts of government to meet economic-betterment

demands and needs through international action.
3. Long- Range Objectives
 Long range goals are those plans, dreams, and visions concerning the
ultimate political or ideological organization of the international system,
and rules governing relations in that system.

 The long range objectives of states are a plan that aimed to restructuring
the international system based on their foreign policy objectives and it is
ideological form.

 The long range visions and dreams of one states are complemented with
capabilities and powers of these states, unless it will not have any
international significance beyond paper values and rhetoric level.

 . Every country has its own visions and ambition proportional to its
relative strength and capabilities to be realized in the long run.
2.3. Foreign Policy Behavior: Patterns and Trends

Foreign policy behavior refers to the actions states take towards each other.

The nature of foreign policy is such that one can expect to find double
standards and inconsistencies in the records of all countries.

It is not easy to label countries as simply peace loving or war-like or to use
other such categorizations.

Arnold Wolfers, a famous specialist in the field of International Relations,

suggested that all foreign policy behavior ultimately boils down to three
possible patterns:

(1) Self-preservation (maintaining the status quo);

(2) Self-extension (revising the status quo in one’s own favor);

(3) Self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some else’s favor).

2.4. Foreign Policy Dimensions

 The analysis of foreign policy behavior can also be done along a number of
specific dimensions.

 These dimensions include alignment, scope and Mode Operation

 Alignment: A country‘s alignment behavior can vary from time to time during
its history in response to changing circumstances and policy decisions.

Yet one can identify the alignment tendencies such as alliance, neutrality and non-
alignment.

• Alliances are formal agreements to provide mutual military assistance; as such,

they carry legal weight and certain benefits as well as risks.

• Neutrality is a stance of formal non partisanship in world affairs.

• Non-alignment has been the foreign policy pattern of most developing state
during cold war.
B. Scope
A second foreign policy dimension is the scope of a country’s activities
and interests of state at international level.
Some countries have extensive, far-reaching international contacts,
while other countries have more limited activities abroad.
A country’s scope of contact can affect the outcome of disputes and
crises.
Some actors act in Global terms, Regional terms, and those that follow
policy of Isolationism
C. Mode of Operation/ “Modus Opernadi’
Some countries often rely on multilateral institutions to address
different issues and others very much rely on unilateral means. But Still
others countries may choose to solve their problems by themselves.
2.6.Instruments of Foreign Policy
1. Diplomacy
Diplomacy can be defined as a process between actors who exist within
international relations and engage in private and public dialogue to pursue
their objectives in a peaceful manner.
it is a system of structured communication between two or more parties.
In the past diplomacy, The bargaining process and other diplomatic process,
such as exchange of ideas were the business of ambassadors, undertaken under
closed and secret manner.
They lacked many of the characteristics and commonalities of modern
diplomacy such as embassies, international law and professional diplomatic services

Nowadays the nature of diplomacy has been radically changed After WWI. There
arose multilateral diplomacy, public diplomacy, leader-to-leader (summitry
diplomacy) in sharp contrast to secret diplomacy and bilateral diplomacy.
 Regardless of whether diplomacy is conducted openly or secretly,
multilaterally or bilaterally, tactically or formally, by ambassadors
or leader-to-leader, the essence of diplomacy remains
bargaining/Negotiation.

 Bargaining can be defined as a means of settling differences over

priorities between parties/groups through an exchange of proposals
for mutually acceptable solutions.

 The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961) – only

references states as diplomatic actors.

 Yet, the modern international system also involves powerful actors

that are not states Like: INGOs and INGOs
 Rules of Effective Diplomacy

 The following are some of the basic rules that diplomats have
employed with greater effectiveness over the years:

• Be realistic: It is important to have goals that much your ability to

achieve them.

• Be careful about what you say: The experienced diplomats plans

out and weighs words carefully.

• Seek common ground: Dispute begins negotiations; finds common

ground ends them successfully. Almost any negotiation will involve
some concession, so it is important to maintain a degree of
flexibility.
Understand the other side: There are several aspects to
understanding the other side. One is to appreciate an opponent’s
perspective even if you do not agree with it.

Be patient: It is also important to bide your time. Being overly

anxious can lead to concessions that are unwise and may convey
weakness to an opponent.

Leave avenues of retreat open: states make considerable use of what

are known to be carrot and stick approaches when they rely on such

diplomatic tactics such as threats, punishment, promise, and rewards.

Threats and punishment represent the stick approach and the other two

tactics promise and reward represent the carrot approach.

2.Economic Instruments of Foreign Policy

Economic instruments can be used to achieve the foreign policy of

objective of a state.

States may reward or punish states through the manipulation of economic

policies.

According to Holisti, states used economic instruments of foreign policy for

the ff three purposes, namely:

(1) To achieve any foreign policy objective by offering economic rewards or

threat, ending or imposing economic punishments

(2) To increase a state‘s capability or deprive a potential enemy‘s capabilities ;

(3) To create economic satellites guaranteed markets and resources of supply.

 The specific techniques that can be used to reward or punish including ;.

 Tariff: Almost all foreign made products coming into a country are taxed for the

purpose of raising revenue and protecting domestic producers from foreign

competition.

 Quota:. The supplier usually sends his goods into the country at a favorable price,

but is allowed to sell only a certain amount in a given time period.

 Boycott: A trade boycott organized by a government eliminates the import of

either a specific commodity or the total range of export products sold by the

country against which the boycott is organized.

 Embargo: A government that seeks to deprive another country of goods prohibits

its own business men from concluding its transactions with commercial

organization in the country against which the embargo is organized.

 Loans, Credits and Currency Manipulations: Rewards may include

favorable tariff rates and quotas, granting loans (favorable reward

offered by the major powers to developing countries) or extending

credits.

 The manipulation of currency rates is also used to create more or less

favorable terms of trade between countries.

 Foreign Aid: The transfer of money, goods, or technical advice from

donor.

 Military Aid: probably the oldest type of aid which had been used for

buttressing alliances.
  Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia
1. Foreign Policy during Tewodros II (1855-1868)
 Ethiopian state traces its history back to more than 3000 years, the
modern imperial state did not begin until the middle of 19th century.
 Tewodros II introduced the idea of modernity and modern army at
the time.
 He tried to develop a dynamic foreign policy that reached out beyond
the Horn Region. He required the Western Christian world like
Britain, France and Russia to recognize his country and help him to
modernize his country.
 The emperor attempted to establish his diplomatic relations to fight his
immediate enemies like Turks and Egyptians ” by claiming
Christianity as instrument of foreign policy.
 However, the emperor‘s passionate demand for modern
technology and skilled man power from Britain was not
concluded to his satisfaction as the latter sent religious
missionaries.
 Despite his demand to be recognized as the emperor of Ethiopia
and treated with respect and equal footing with the British
Queen that was not that much accepted by Queen Victoria.
 Consequently, Tewodros took desperate measures by taking
hostage of several British missionaries including the consul.
 But later Tewodros‘s Troops were easily defeated and the King
did not surrender but tragically committed suicide.
2.Foreign Policy during Yohannes IV (1872-1889)
Like his predecessor, Yohannes considered Islam as a threat to the
territorial integrity of the regime.

Indeed Egypt tried to put a serious security threat in its continued attempt
to invade the country under many pretexts, yet its motive was to control
the source of Blue Nile.

 However, Egyptian faced subsequent defeat at battle of Gundet and

Gura respectively.

But later, the emperor died fighting with the “Mahadists”. The Sudanese
resistance groups against British rule happened to invade Western Ethiopia
because of their assumption that Yohannes IV was collaborating with the
British.
3.Foreign Policy during Menelik II (1889-13)
Following the death of Yohannes, Menlik II of Showa has assumed to the throne.

Menelik was the King of Shoa region before his coronation as the Kings of Kings
of Ethiopia.

He had expanded his sphere of influence towards the far South and East incorporating
new areas and communities peacefully or conquest.

Following the death of Yohannes, Italy continued to be the main challenge in the
North.

Moreover the King saw the other colonial powers surrounding all four corners of the
country as the scramble of Africa .

Italy expanded towards the hinterland of Ethiopia from its first hold of Bogess, later
named Eritrea, and Missawa port crossing Tekeze river.

Menelik was cautiously following such colonial expansionism of Italy.

In 1896, the emperor declared nation-wide war against Italy in
defense of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the century old
nation.
After a severe battle, Menelik and his people managed to defeat the
colonial power.
This happened at the bloody Battle of Adwa where Ethiopian forces
made a record of history by defeating a powerful European colonial
power.
The significance of the Adowa victory is loud and clear as many
European powers recognized Ethiopia as an independent African
state on similar footing with the Europeans.
In fact the present boundary of Ethiopia with its neighbors had been
defined at least on paper
 4.Foreign Policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I (1916-1974)
Emperor Haile Selassie I was dedicated to the creation of a stronger,
centralized and bureaucratic empire with unquestioned respect by the
international community.

This was clear as early as 1923, when as Regent to the Crown, Teferi
Mekonen, facilitated Ethiopia’s entry to the League of Nations.

When the Italian Fascists finally invade Ethiopia between 1936 and 1941,
the Emperor fled to London and established a government in exile.

The League ultimately failed to take any substantive measure against

Italy and the request of the King was ignored.
The diplomatic skills of emperor and Britain’s own strategic necessities in the area
enabled him to elicit the aid of the British in securing the liberation of Ethiopia.
British Military Aid was withdrawn in 1952, and the King

moved quickly to firm up relations with the United States.

As a result, the United States guaranteed Ethiopia’s security,

which added greatly to the confidence with which the emperor
could approach the task of political consolidation.

In addition to the military aid Ethiopia received from the

United States over the next 23 years, its armed forces also
benefited from the presence of a military assistance
Advisory Group, which was established in 1954.
The military aid was decisive for the Emperor to ensure his survival at
home and maintain the territorial integrity of the country.
Ethiopia also played significant role in Africa in fighting for
African independence and to end colonialism and apartheid.
The emperor can be considered as one of the founding fathers of
African Unification.
In the United Nations, Ethiopia played its part in raising agendas and
pressing for resolutions against colonialism in collaboration with some
countries that supported the cause.
In generally, Ethiopia played a significant role in maintaining
international peace and security by committing its troops for
peacekeeping operations in different part the world.
5. Foreign Policy during the Military Government (1974-1991)
The military regime that took control of state power in 1974 adopted a
foreign policy largely oriented to socialist ideology.

The primary objectives of the foreign policy were survival of the

regime and maintaining the territorial integrity of the country.

The major strategy to achieve the stated objectives heavily focused on

building the military capability of the country.

The corner stone of Ethiopia’s foreign policy at the time was

maintaining continuing friendship with the Soviet Union and other
socialist countries.

The regime was condemned by the west for its human rights
record, especially its treatment of former government officials.
This resulted in declining Ethio-US relations marking its
lowest point with the closure of the US military base and
operation of military assistance within 72 hours .

Following such problems, internal and external enemies

began to take action to hasten the demise of the regime.

Internally Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) launched

military attack on the Ethiopian Army.

Many external actors were involved in sponsoring the rebel

group, including; Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia and
later USA itself.
Apart from socialism, Ethiopia’s strategic locations and other
questions, such as; Eritrea, Somalia, and the issue of the Nile, had
also shaped the foreign policy orientation and behavior of military
government.
With regard to Africa’s broader issues of decolonization and
anti-Apartheid struggle, Ethiopia played significant role.
The regime had extended its military and technical support to
Freedom fighters in Angola and Rhodesia
Finally, the regime collapsed following the end of cold war
unable to survive in the absence of military aid from the socialist
blocs, USSR, Cuba and etc..
6. The Foreign Policy of Ethiopia in the Post 1991
In the post 1991 period, Ethiopia’s foreign policy is driven primarily by
the quest to ensure national interest and security.
The foreign policy of Ethiopia has been designed to create favorable
external environment to achieve rapid economic development and build
up democratic system.
The issue of democratization, good governance and development would
not be properly addressed. So, in order to address this problem government
use strategy called an inside-out approach.
At diplomatic level, economic diplomacy is adopted to strengthen the
domestic efforts in fighting poverty and backwardness and address the
issues of development.
Economic diplomacy involves attracting foreign investments,
seeking markets for Ethiopian exportable commodities, seeking aid
and confessional loans too.

The Security related Foreign Policy of the country also indicated that
Ethiopia would adopt a kind of East-look policy. The country would like
to learn from countries such as Singapore, Malaysian and Indonesia.

The other foreign policy strategy is building up the military

capability of the country.

Peaceful dialogues and negotiations will be taken prior attention to

deal disputes and create peacefully coexist with others.
NB: Looking at the patterns of the country’s foreign policies
over the years, there have been changes and continuities in
the foreign policy goals and tactics adopted by different
governments of Ethiopia
Though strategies may sometimes differ, but the primary
foreign policy objective of all the three regimes remained the
maintenance of the territorial integrity and independence of
the country.
To this end the three regimes used a combination of both
military force and diplomacy to address both internal and
external challenges depending on the circumstances.
 Short Summary of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia
Different regimes have visions, purposes and goals of
foreign policy depending upon their political ideology
Some of the Focus areas and strategies of all regimes on
the Foreign Policy:
Maintenance of the territorial integrity and independence of
the country
Ensuring national interest and security.
Ensuring the survival of the multi- national state.
Building up the military capability of the country.
Maintaining continuing friendship and alliance with other
countries
Peaceful dialogues and negotiations will be employed to
peacefully coexist with others