Pressure

Measurement
 Pressure is one of the key thermodynamic parameters. It
is an intensive property. Pressure is defined as a ratio between
a force and a unit area, perpendicular to the direction of that
force, on which the force acts. Mathematically this definition
is expressed as:
 In its most basic form, pressure is defined as the amount
of force being applied to an area. As this force is distributed
over a specific area, a change in movement of the defined area
is occurring. It is important to remember that a force is just
an occurrence that is causing an object to move, either
accelerating or decelerating. The amount of movement from
that object is based upon the amount of force. So why is
pressure important? In everyday activities, pressure may not
be a concern whatsoever, however, in a process environment,
pressure is a key component to keeping a system functional.
PRESSURE OF A FLUID (P)
All fluid molecules will be in constant and random
motion called “Brownian motion”, due to which fluid at rest in
a vessel, does exerts force on all the walls of the vessel, with
which it is in contact.
 Total pressure of a fluid in a nominated point consists
of two elements:
1. Static pressure - Also referred as “hydrostatic pressure” is the
pressure of a fluid at rest.
2. Dynamic pressure – the pressure of a fluid moving.

Fluid - Any substance that does not conform to a fixed shape

such as liquid or gas.
Static pressure
Defined as a pressure not associated with the fluid
motion, but its state. It is the pressure which would be
indicated by a gauge moving together with the fluid.
Dynamic Pressure
A measurement of kinetic energy of a moving fluid and
depends on its velocity and density.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
At the end of the 16th century, the Italian Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642) was granted the patent for a water pump system used
on irrigation. Galileo Galilei found that 10 meters was the limit to
which the water would rise in the suction pump, but had no
explanation for this phenomenon. Scientists were then devoted to
find the cause for this. In 1643, the Italian physicist Evangelista
Torricelli (1608-1647) invented the barometer, with which he could
evaluate the atmospheric pressure. His research about mercury
columns pave way to his discovery of vacuum.
 Five years later, French physicist Blaise Pascal used the
barometer to show that the air pressure was smaller at the top
of the mountains. He also determined the weight of air and
called it “pressure”. In 1849, Eugène Bourdon was granted the
Bourdon Tube patent, used until today in relative pressure
measurements.
 The Four common reason why we measure Pressure

• Safety
– Prevent pressurized pipes and vessels from
bursting
• Process efficiency
– Variation of pressure below or above a set-point
will result in scrap rather than usable product in
some manufacturing process
• Cost saving
• Inferred measurement of other variable
Most common types of Pressure Measurement
In function of the reference, the pressure measurement can
be classified as: gauge, absolute and differential or relative.
• Absolute pressure: it is measured with relation to perfect vacuum,
namely, the pressure difference at a given measurement point by
the vacuum pressure (absolute zero). Normally the ABS notation
is used when this greatness is indicated. Example: The absolute
pressure applied by the atmosphere at sea level is 760mmHg.
Differential pressure : it is the pressure difference measured
between two points. When any point other than vacuum or
atmosphere is used as reference it means differential
pressure. For example, the differential pressure found on an
orifice plate.
Gauge pressure : it is measured in relation to the ambient
pressure, namely, in relation to the atmosphere. It is always
important to register on the notation that it is a relative
measurement. Example: 10Kgf/cm2 Relative Pressure.
Manometers
A very simple device used to
measure pressure is the manometer:
a fluid-filled tube where an applied
gas pressure causes the fluid height
to shift proportionately. As you can
see, a manometer is fundamentally
an instrument of differential
pressure measurement, indicating
the difference between two pressures
by a shift in liquid column height
Working Principle of Manometer:
The term manometer is derived from the ancient Greek words
'manós', meaning thin or rare, and 'métron'. A manometer works
on the principle of hydrostatic equilibrium and is used for
measuring the pressure (static pressure) exerted by a still liquid or
gas. Hydrostatic equilibrium states that the pressure at any point
in a fluid at rest is equal, and its value is just the weight of the
overlying fluid. In its simplest form, a manometer is a U-shaped
tube consisting of an incompressible fluid like water or mercury. It
is inexpensive and does not need calibration.
Manometer Types
Manometers come in a variety of forms and they are as
follows:
1. U-Tube Manometers
2. Well Manometers
3. Raised-Well Manometers
4. Inclined Manometers
U-Tube Manometers
It consists of a glass tube bent like the letter 'U'. In this type
of manometer, balancing a column of liquid is done by another
column of same or other liquid. One end of the U-tube is
attached to the point where pressure is to be measured, while the
other end is open to atmospheric pressure.
Well Manometers
As shown in the figure, the well
area is larger than the area of the
tube, denoted by A. The rise in liquid
level in the tube is considered while
that in the well is ignored. If p1 and p2
are absolute pressures applied as
shown in figure:
Raised Well Manometers
It is similar to a well type
manometer in construction. The
only difference being that the
vertical column limb is inclined
at an angle θ. Inclined
manometers are used for
accurate measurement of small
pressure.
Sphygmomanometer and Digital Manometer
A sphygmomanometer, a type of manometer, is commonly used
to check blood pressure in humans. Systolic pressure reading is the
mercury reading on the pressure gauge when the pulse is first
heard, while diastolic pressure reading is when the pulse can first no
longer be heard.
A digital manometer uses a microprocessor and pressure
transducer to sense slight changes in pressure. It gives the pressure
readout on a digital screen. It measures differential pressure across
two inputs. An analog/digital output in proportion to the
instantaneous pressure can be obtained.
Mechanical Pressure Elements
Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the
bellows, the diaphragm, and the bourdon tube. Each of these
devices converts a fluid pressure into a force.
Bellows
Bellows resemble an accordion constructed from metal
instead of fabric. Increasing pressure inside a bellows unit
causes it to elongate. They are thin-walled metallic cylinders,
with deep convolutions, of which one end is sealed and the
other end remains open. The closed end can move freely while
the open end is fixed.
Bellows Principle of Operation:
When pressure is applied
to the closed end, the bellows
will be compressed. The closed
end will move upwards and the
link, which is the rod in
between the closed end of the
bellows and the transmission
mechanism, will go up and
rotate the pointer.
Diaphragms
A diaphragm is nothing more than a thin disk of material
which bows outward under the influence of a fluid pressure.
Many diaphragms are constructed from metal, which gives them
spring-like qualities. Some diaphragms are intentionally
constructed out of materials with little strength, such that there is
negligible spring effect. These are called slack diaphragms, and
they are used in conjunction with external mechanisms that
produce the necessary restraining force to prevent damage from
applied pressure.
Diaphragm Principle of Operation:
A fluid in contact with a flexible membrane pushes on that
membrane, bending it. The pressure is a measure of how hard it
pushes. When the outside preference is low, the reference pressure
bends the membrane out. As the outside pressure increases, it pushes
back on the membrane, bending it back the other way. By measuring
how far the membrane bends, the gauge can detect the outside
pressure.
Bourdon Tubes
Bourdon tubes are made of spring-like metal alloys bent into
a circular shape. Under the influence of internal pressure, a
bourdon tube “tries” to straighten out into its original shape
before being bent at the time of manufacture. The Bourdon tube
is the namesake of Eugéne Bourdon, a French watchmaker and
engineer who invented the Bourdon gauge in 1849. Over the years,
the Bourdon tube has entrenched itself as the elastic element in
most pressure gauges in application today.
Bourdon Tube Working Principle:
The Bourdon pressure gauge
operates on the principle that, when
pressurized, a flattened tube tends to
straighten or regain its circular form
in cross-section. When a gauge is
pressurized, the Bourdon creates the
dial tip travel to enable pressure
measurement. The higher the
pressure requirement of the
application, the stiffer the Bourdon
tube needs to be
Electrical Pressure Elements
Several different technologies exist for the conversion of
fluid pressure into an electrical signal response. These
technologies form the basis of electronic pressure
transmitters: devices designed to measure fluid pressure and
transmit that information via electrical signals such as the 4-
20mA analog standard, or in digital form such as HART or
FOUNDATION Fieldbus.
Piezoresistive Sensors
Piezoresistive means “pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a
resistance that changes value with applied pressure. The strain gauge
is a classic example of a piezoresistive element: A Strain gauge is a
sensor whose resistance varies with applied force; It converts force,
pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance
which can then be measured. A strain gauge is an elastically
deformable transducer that transforms an applied force or a
mechanical displacement into a change in resistance. It is the
underlying mechanism for the working of a strain gauge load cell.
Strain Gauge Working Principle:
When external forces are applied to a stationary object,
stress and strain are the result. Stress is defined as the object's
internal resisting forces, and strain is defined as the
displacement and deformation that occur.
Applications of the Strain Gauges
The strain gauges are used for two main purposes:
1) Measurement of strain: Whenever any material is subjected to high
loads, they come under strain, which can be measured easily with
the strain gauges. The strain can also be used to carry out stress
analysis of the member.
2) Measurement of other quantities: The principle of change in
resistance due to applied force can also be calibrated to measure a
number of other quantities like force, pressure, displacement,
acceleration etc since all these parameters are related to each other
Differential capacitance sensors
Another common electrical pressure sensor design works on
the principle of differential capacitance. Like the strain gauge,
differential capacitance sensors use a change in electrical
characteristics to infer pressure. Here a change in capacitance is
used to infer pressure measurement. A capacitor is a device that
stores electrical charge. It consists of two metal plates separated by
an electrical insulator. The metal plates are connected to an
external electrical circuit through which electrical charge can be
transferred from one metal plate to the other.
 In this design, the sensing
element is a taut metal diaphragm
located equidistant between two
stationary metal surfaces, forming
a complementary pair of
capacitances. An electrically
insulating fill fluid (usually a liquid
silicone compound) transfers
motion from the isolating
diaphragms to the sensing
diaphragm, and also doubles as an
effective dielectric for the two
capacitors:
 A classic example of a pressure instrument based on the
differential capacitance sensor is the Rosemount model 1151
differential pressure transmitter, shown in assembled form in
the following photograph:
 The concentric corrugations in the metal of the
diaphragm allow it to easily flex with applied pressure,
transmitting process fluid pressure through the silicone fill
fluid to the taut sensing diaphragm inside the differential
capacitance cell.
Differential pressure transmitters
One of the most common, and most useful, pressure
measuring instruments in industry is the differential pressure
transmitter. This device senses the difference in pressure between
two ports and outputs a signal representing that pressure in
relation to a calibrated range.
 Regardless of make or model, every differential pressure (“DP”,
“d/p”, or ΔP) transmitter hast two pressure ports to sense different
process fluid pressures. One of these ports is labeled “high” and the
other is labeled “low”. This labeling does not necessarily mean that the
“high” port must always be at a greater pressure than the “low” port.
What these labels represent is the effect that a pressure at that point
will have on the output signal.
-End of Pressure Measurement-