23083_Chapitre12a.

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Adoption of a regulation
in Québec targeting the
2000 recovery of discarded
paint containers and paints
1989
Invention of the first
biodegradable plastics

Invention of polyethylene,
1933
a thermoplastic widely
used to manufacture bags
1915 Invention of Pyrex, an
extremely heat-resistant glass

1886 Discovery of the

electrolytic process for
manufacturing aluminum
1865 Synthesis of celluloid,
the first plastic

1836 Invention of fibreglass

1650 Manufacture of varnish,

wax, grease and lamp
13 1 1 oil from petroleum
Construction of first blast
furnaces for iron extraction
CIRCA 620 Earliest production of S ince the beginning of human history, people have con-
porcelain, a type of ceramic tinually sought to improve their living conditions. In the
pursuit of a better world, they have imagined, designed
CIRCA -100 Invention of glassblowing
and created a multitude of tools and objects of all kinds.
Now, at the dawn of the 21st century, modern life brings

CIRCA -1500 Earliest iron quenching

us constant reminders of the many ingenious inventions
of humankind—inventions that we will refer to here as
technical objects.
CIRCA -3500 Invention of welding
CIRCA -4000 Discovery of glass
What materials are used most often to manufacture these
CIRCA -5000 First lead, copper objects? What types of drawings do we usually work
and tin mines
with to determine the shape and assembly of the parts in a
technical object? Finally, which manufacturing techniques,
tools and machines are used most frequently to produce
technical objects? This chapter will provide the answers to
these questions.
CIRCA -10 000 Earliest manufacture
of ceramic pots
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E T EC HN O L O
TH GI
C

AL
WO
12
RLD
Manufacturing
technical objects

CONTENTS

1. MATERIALS ....................................... 386 2.2 Ceramics ............................................. 392 4. MANUFACTURING: TOOLS

1.1 Constraints and 2.3 Metals and alloys ........................... 394 AND TECHNIQUES................... 410
deformations ............................. 386 2.4 Plastics ................................................. 396 4.1 Measuring and laying out ......... 412
1.2 Properties .......................................... 388 2.5 Composites ........................................ 399 4.2 Machining .......................................... 413
1.3 Degradation and protection.... 389 4.3 Assembling and finishing .......... 417
3. TECHNICAL DRAFTING ............... 401
2. CATEGORIES OF 3.1 Projections......................................... 402
MATERIALS AND 3.2 Engineering drawings ................. 403
THEIR PROPERTIES ............... 390
3.3 Diagrammatic
2.1 Wood and modified wood ....... 390 representations ........................ 408

385
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ST
EST
AST 1 Materials
In our daily lives, we are becoming increasingly dependent on various tech- CONCEPT REVIEW
nical objects. The textbook you are reading, the chair you are sitting on and Material
the shoes you are wearing are examples of techni- Material comes from the Constraints (tension,
cal objects. All technical objects, whatever they may Latin materia, meaning compression, torsion)
“matter” or “substance.” Mechanical properties
be, are made of one or more materials .
Technical objects are designed for specific purposes. Their uses expose them
to different types of stress, which can cause the materials they are made of to
deform. To decide which materials are suitable for making technical objects,
manufacturers must first determine the stress the objects will be exposed to
and the possible resulting deformations. The manufacturers must also know
the properties of the selected materials.

ST
EST
AST
1.1 CONSTRAINTS AND DEFORMATIONS
The parts of a technical object may be subjected to one or more external
1
FORCES. These forces tend to deform the parts. To consider the effects an
external force can have on a material is to study the different types of
stress the material undergoes, referred to as constraints. The weight of the
building in Figure 12.1, for example, is causing compression (a constraint)
on the columns. In Figure 12.2, the mountain climber’s weight will tighten
the rope (tension).

12.1 The columns of this building are 12.2 The mountain climber is applying
subjected to compression. tension to the rope attached to
the mountain.

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A CONSTRAINT describes the effect of external forces on

a material.

The main types of constraints are presented in Table 12.3.

12.3 THE MAIN TYPES OF CONSTRAINTS

Type of constraint Description Symbol Examples

Compression A material subjected to forces hands squeezing a wet sponge
that tend to crush it is
a foot crushing a can
undergoing compression.

Tension A material subjected to forces copper stretched into wire

that tend to stretch it is
two teams in a tug of war
undergoing tension.

Torsion A material subjected to forces an earthquake twisting a bridge

that tend to twist it is
hands wringing a wet towel
undergoing torsion.

Deflection A material subjected to forces a fish bending a fishing rod

that tend to bend it is
clothes weighing down a clothesline
undergoing deflection.

Shearing A material subjected to forces scissors cutting paper

that tend to cut it is
metal cutters trimming shapes from metal
undergoing shearing.

Depending on the constraints on the constituent materials of an object, three

types of DEFORMATION can take place. They are presented in Table 12.4.

12.4 THE THREE TYPES OF MATERIAL DEFORMATION

Type of deformation Description

Elastic The constraint leads to a temporary change in the shape or
dimensions of the material. When the constraint is removed,
the material returns to its original form.
Plastic The constraint leads to a permanent change in the shape or
dimensions of the material. Even when the constraint is
removed, the material remains deformed.
Fracture The constraint is so intense that the material breaks.

In the example of the rope pulled tight by the mountain climber’s weight
(Figure 12.2, page 386), the deformation is elastic because the rope will nor-
mally return to its original form once released. However, as soon as the rope
begins to fray or no longer returns to its original shape when it is untied, it
becomes an example of plastic deformation. Finally, if the rope breaks, the
stress on it has led to its fracture.

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ST
EST
AST
1.2 PROPERTIES
As we saw in the previous section, not all materials react in the same way
to the constraints they undergo. The reaction of a material under stress
often depends on its properties. By defining these properties, experts can
predict how a material will behave when subjected to various constraints.
For example, before a bridge is built, an engineer must compare the prop-
erties of various materials to select the
most suitable for the construction proj-
ect. Among other concerns, the engi-
neer must ensure that the bridge will
not collapse under the deflection caused
by crossing vehicles.

ST
EST MECHANICAL
AST
PROPERTIES
When engineers compare the ability of
materials to resist deflection, for example,
they are comparing the mechanical prop-
erties of the materials because deflection
is a mechanical constraint.

The MECHANICAL PROPER-

TIES of a material describe how
it reacts when subjected to one
or more constraints.

Table 12.6 presents a few examples of

12.5 This snowboard is elastic enough to return to its original shape.
mechanical properties.

12.6 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Mechanical Definition
property
Hardness Ability to resist indentation or abrasion
Elasticity Ability to return to their original shapes after
undergoing a constraint
Resilience Ability to resist shocks without breaking
Ductility Ability to be stretched without breaking
Malleability Ability to be flattened or bent without breaking
Stiffness Ability to retain their shapes when subjected
to various constraints

12.7 This motorcycle helmet is resilient

enough to resist shocks.

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ST
EST
AST
OTHER PROPERTIES

We have just seen that materials can exhibit mechanical properties,

but the ability to resist constraints is not the only aspect of a mate-
rial that may be of value. For example, an engineer who has to
design a corrosion-resistant object will look for a material possess-
ing this quality. Table 12.8 presents other interesting properties
engineers may take into account when choosing materials.

12.8 OTHER PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Property Definition
Resistance Ability to resist the effects of corrosive substances (such as
to corrosion water, various salts and some components of fumes), which
cause the formation of rust, for example
Electrical Ability to carry an electric current
conductivity
Thermal Ability to transmit heat
conductivity 12.9 These copper wires are excellent
conductors of electricity.

12.10 These hubcaps are made of a material that 12.11 The stainless steel of this pot transmits heat evenly.
resists corrosion.

ST
EST
AST
1.3 DEGRADATION AND PROTECTION
All materials degrade, although at different rates. Sooner or later their orig-
inal properties are attacked and diminished by the surrounding environment.
If nothing is done to counteract these damaging effects, the materials are
doomed to eventual destruction.

The DEGRADATION OF A MATERIAL is the decline in some of its

properties due to the effects of the surrounding environment.

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12.12 The rust on this car

body is a sign that its
materials are degrading.

Although all materials deteriorate, whether rapidly or slowly, there are

nonetheless ways to prevent or delay their degradation. Methods of pro-
tection vary according to the materials in question. For example, some
cars are treated with rustproofing to prevent or delay the formation of
rust on the body.

The PROTECTION OF A MATERIAL is the application of proce-

dures that prevent or delay its degradation.

ST
EST
AST 2 Categories of materials
and their properties
Wood was one of the first materials humans used to improve their living CONCEPT REVIEW
conditions. Early in their history, however, people had to use their imagina- Wood and modified wood
tions to find other materials to satisfy other needs; they invented ceramics. Nonferrous metals
Later, they discovered uses for metals. For a long time, humans made do and alloys
Ferrous alloys
with these basic materials and their derivatives and with textiles. Centuries Plastics (thermoplastics)
later, the arrival of plastics marked a turning point in the manufacture of (AST)
technical objects. Composites, made by combining materials from different
categories, were then added to the list. In the following sections, we will take
a look at these different types of materials, their properties and some ways
to protect them.

ST
EST
AST
2.1 WOOD AND MODIFIED WOOD
Wood was one of the first materials to be put to use by humans.

WOOD is a material obtained by harvesting and processing trees.

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Wood is generally divided into two categories. Wood with a high degree of
hardness is called hardwood. It usually comes from deciduous trees, such as
oak or maple. Wood with a lower degree of hardness is called softwood. This
type of wood usually comes from conifers, such as pine or spruce.
The mechanical properties of wood vary with the type of wood. The varia-
tions are mainly due to the following factors:
the species of tree from which the wood originates
the speed of growth of the tree and any injuries it may have sustained
the water content of the wood
Wood is often used to make objects such as cabinets or furniture
because of its aesthetic appeal. However, many other properties may also
influence the choice of this type of material, such as:
its hardness, elasticity, resilience and toughness (resistance to fracture)
its low thermal and ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
the ease with which it can be shaped and assembled
its colours and shades
its lightness

Modified wood
The majority of the trees harvested in our forests today are no longer
shaped into wooden planks, boards or beams but used to make materials
called modified wood instead. As its name suggests, modified wood consists
mainly of wood but also contains other substances, such as glue, plastics
and preservatives.

MODIFIED WOOD is treated wood or a material made from

wood mixed with other substances.
12.13 Many people
Most modified wood is made by gluing together pieces, sheets or residues of appreciate the
wood left over after timber harvesting. Common products include plywood, aesthetic qualities of
wood, which is why
particleboard and fibreboard. While the properties of different woods vary it is still widely used
enormously from one species to another, the properties of modified wood to make furniture.
products are usually more consistent.

Plywood Particleboard Fibreboard

12.14 Plywood, particleboard and fibreboard are types of modified wood.

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ST
EST
AST
THE DEGRADATION AND PROTECTION
OF WOOD AND MODIFIED WOOD
2
Wood is a material that can degrade swiftly. One of the main
reasons for its rapid deterioration is its organic origin: it
comes from a living organism. Many fungi, microorganisms
and insects can infest the wood, feed off it and cause it to rot,
thus reducing its mechanical properties. Rotten wood, for
example, is not as hard as wood that is intact.
Various means exist to protect wood from the effects of organ-
isms that degrade it. For example, it can be varnished, painted
or treated with protective coatings.
Many types of wood that have been treated to prevent degra-
dation are also available on the market. This wood is called
treated wood and is prepared in one of the following two ways:
by dipping it in an alkaline solution containing copper.
Wood treated in this way has a greenish colour.
by heating it to a high temperature. The change in appear-
ance of the wood is less pronounced, but the procedure is
usually more expensive.

ST
EST
AST
2.2 CERAMICS
Although humans have been using wood longer than any
12.15 Wood exposed to water is more likely to
other type of material, our use of ceramics also has a long be damaged by rot-causing organisms.
history. Ceramics are obtained by heating inorganic raw
materials containing various compounds, usually OXIDES ,
such as silicon dioxide (SiO2).
When the raw material is heated, the water
in it evaporates, and the bonds between
the constituent compounds are rearranged. A
ceramic is always solid at room temperature.

A CERAMIC is a solid material

obtained by heating inorganic
matter containing various com-
pounds, usually oxides.

12.16

Figures of the life-size Terracotta

Army, made in China around 210 BCE

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Traditionally, ceramic objects were made with pot- Ceramic comes from the
tery techniques; products included dishes, pots and Greek keramikos, meaning
works of art. Most of these objects were made out “of potter’s clay.”
of clay, which was shaped and then baked. Sand was another common raw
material, particularly for glassmaking.
Clay and sand are still widely used because they are plentiful and inexpensive.
Industries have also turned to other raw materials, both natural and artificial,
to manufacture ceramics.

12.17 Some examples of the many ceramics that have been commercialized

The properties of ceramics vary with the raw materials used to make them
and with the baking method. Certain properties make one or another type
of ceramic especially suitable for a particular application.
Because of their low electrical conductivity, ceramics are often
used as insulators in the electronics sector.
FRAGILE YET
Because of their generally high degree of hardness, ceramics RESISTANT
are in great demand as building materials (bricks, tiles, etc.) American space shuttles are
and for use in certain cutting tools (titanium carbide or quartz built with a heat shield con-
blades, etc.). taining nearly 24 000 ceramic
tiles. The tiles are designed to
Because of their heat resistance and low thermal conductivity,
resist temperatures up to
ceramics are found in the kitchen—in dishes and as thermal 1650°C as the shuttle reenters
insulators, especially in ovens. the atmosphere. Although
Because of their resistance to corrosion, ceramics can be used in they are thin, light and fragile,
ducts for fumes or water. the tiles are nonetheless highly
heat-resistant. Damage to the
Most ceramics are fragile. However, by carefully controlling heat shield could jeopardize a
the raw materials used and the baking method, some industries shuttle’s return to Earth.
manage to manufacture ceramics that are so resilient they can
be used in engines, in spite of the frequent shocks engine
materials undergo.

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ST
EST
AST
THE DEGRADATION AND
PROTECTION OF CERAMICS TRADE
ESSENTIALS
In general, ceramics are very durable. Archaeologists frequently
discover ancient pottery that is remarkably well preserved. In antiquity, ceramics were
essential to trade. They were
However, some ACIDS, such as sulphuric acid (H2SO4), and some used especially to make am-
BASES, such as calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), can have a degrading phorae, the jars in which many
effect on ceramics. Furthermore, when ceramics are subjected to a types of food were stored and
thermal shock (a sudden variation in temperature), the properties transported. However, the first
of the material tend to deteriorate. century BCE saw the advent of
glassblowing and kilns powerful
Since ceramics are very durable, little thought is given to protecting enough to liquefy sand. These
them. Nevertheless, exposure to acids, bases or thermal shocks should innovations led to the large-
be avoided whenever possible. In addition, as we have seen, certain scale production of another
properties of ceramics can be further enhanced by choosing suitable type of ceramic—glass.
raw materials and baking temperatures.

ST
EST
AST
2.3 METALS AND ALLOYS
While ceramics are made from clay or other inorganic matter, 1945
metals are produced from substances extracted from MINERAL 1995
ORE. These materials are usually shiny in appearance and exhibit
good thermal and electrical conductivity. Certain metals are
valued for their ductility and malleability; iron and aluminum are
the two most commonly used metals in this category. Other
Marianne
frequently used metals are presented in Appendix 5.
Mareschal
A METAL is a material extracted from a mineral ore.
Metals are usually shiny in appearance and are good
conductors of electricity and heat.
Marianne Mareschal
Metallic materials are rarely made of pure metal. They are usually was a Belgian-born
mixed with other substances, metallic or otherwise, which enhance geophysicist. In 1987,
their properties. These mixtures are called alloys. she joined the Institut
de recherche minérale at
An ALLOY is a mixture of a metal with one or more other the École Polytechnique
substances, which may be metallic or nonmetallic. de Montréal as a
researcher. She
Alloys can be divided into two types. The most common are FER- eventually became a
ROUS ALLOYS, whose main component is iron. All other alloys professor at the school,
(whose main component is a metal other than iron) are called in 1989, while continuing
NONFERROUS ALLOYS. The most commonly used alloys are pre- her research work.
sented in Appendix 5. She pioneered the
use of electromagnetic
methods to detect
mineral ores—
methods that she
perfected herself.

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ST
EST
AST
THE DEGRADATION AND
PROTECTION OF METALS AND ALLOYS
The main cause of metal and alloy degradation is OXIDATION, which causes
corrosion.
12.18 These two nails are made
of iron. The nail on the right
has been galvanized, which
means it has been coated
with zinc. It degrades much
more slowly than the
ungalvanized nail on the left.
To protect metals and alloys from degradation, coatings and sur-
face treatments are often used. The material is isolated from its 1813
surroundings, and then the surface is treated so that a protective 1898
coating can adhere to it (Table 12.19).

12.19 COATINGS USED TO PROTECT METALS

Type of coating Examples Henry

Metallic coatings Zinc, chrome, gold, silver, nickel, aluminum, lead
Bessemer
Other coatings Paint, enamel, grease, resin

This British engineer

Some techniques even enhance the properties of metals and alloys. figures prominently
One example is the heat treatments used on steel. among the scientists
who contributed to
STEEL HEAT TREATMENTS are methods of enhancing developing steel as a
certain mechanical properties of steel through periods material. In the 1850s,
of heating. he invented the
revolutionary Bessemer
Steel is an alloy made mostly of iron and carbon. Heat treatment converter, which
causes the various atoms inside the material to rearrange themselves. opened the way
to industrial mass
Harder steels are obtained through the processes of QUENCH HARD-
production of the alloy.
ENING and TEMPERING.

12.20 STAGES AND EFFECTS OF QUENCH HARDENING AND TEMPERING STEEL

No. Stage Description Effect

1 Heating (quench Elevation of furnace temperature to more The atoms inside the piece of steel are
hardening) than 800ºC rearranged.

2 Cooling (quench Rapid drop in temperature through quenching The new arrangement of atoms becomes set.
hardening) in a solution (bath quench or spray quench) The steel is harder, but more brittle.

3 Heating Elevation of furnace temperature, but to a lower The atoms inside the piece of steel are
(tempering) level than that of the quenching temperature rearranged, making it less brittle.

ANNEALING, another type of heat treatment, restores the original properties of

steel after it has been deformed—by welding, for example.

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ST
EST
AST
2.4 PLASTICS
Plastics are materials developed mainly from petroleum and natural gas. 3
From these FOSSIL FUELS, basic units called
monomers are extracted industrially and used Monomer comes from the Greek
words monos, meaning “single,”
in the synthesis of plastics. Monomers are and meros, meaning “part.”
arranged in chains to form polymers . Plastics
are thus made up of different polymers, Polymer comes from the Greek
which vary with the type of plastic. The words polus, meaning “many,”
and meros, meaning “part.”
most widely used plastics are presented in
Appendix 5, at the end of this textbook. 12.21 Polypropylene is a
polymer formed from
Various substances can be added to polymers an arrangement of
to produce plastics with certain desirable many propylene
properties. monomers. It is often
A propylene
used to make food
monomer containers.

Plastic bags: good for shopping,

ENVIRONMENT EXTRA

+
bad for the environment
When Quebeckers go shopping, they usually leave
the store with a plastic bag. Most plastic bags are
made of low-density polyethylene, a recyclable
thermoplastic. Few of them are actually recycled,
however, and few are even reused, which means
that roughly a billion bags end up in Québec land-
fills every year. Since the bags are hardly bio-
degradable, they take many years to decompose.
They pile up in landfills, where the wind often
catches them and blows them away, scattering
them about the environment, even as far as the
Arctic. In the wild, animals, especially marine
species, may swallow the bags and die.

There are alternatives to using low-density polyeth-

ylene bags. Bags made of paper or fabric are two
examples. Increasing numbers of biodegradable
plastic bags are also becoming available, but the
decomposition of these bags produces methane, a
powerful greenhouse gas. All plastic bags may
therefore be harmful to the environment in some
way. The clearest path to reducing their environ-
mental impact is to reuse them as many times as Many of the plastic bags piling up in dumps are scattered
possible before throwing them away. by the wind, littering the environment.

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A PLASTIC is a material made of polymers, to which

other substances may be added to obtain certain
A MORE “SENSITIVE”
desirable properties.
PLASTIC WRAP
The invention of plastics marked a veritable revolution in the Brazilian researchers are work-
world of materials. Their popularity is unquestionable: they are ing on the development of a
used to manufacture many technical objects. Plastics are generally new type of biodegradable,
divided into two subcategories: thermoplastics and thermoset- and even edible, plastic wrap-
ting plastics. Let’s look at the characteristics of these two types ping for food. This plastic film,
of plastics. reportedly made from cassava
and sug ar, wou ld cha nge
Thermoplastics colour when it comes in con-
Thermoplastics soften when heated and harden when cooled. tact with microorganisms, thus
When a thermoplastic becomes soft, it can be given a new form. indicating whether the food is
contaminated. 17
When it is cooled, its form is set.

A THERMOPLASTIC is a plastic that becomes soft

enough when heated to be moulded or remoulded and
that hardens enough when cooled to hold its shape.
This subcategory of plastics unites more than three quarters of
all the plastics produced in the world, including all kinds of 1896
1937
containers. Some thermoplastics are recyclable, where facilities
exist. They then carry a recycling code (Appendix 5, page 530).

Thermosetting plastics
Unlike thermoplastics, which soften when heated, thermoset- Wallace
ting plastics form a group of plastics that remain permanently Carothers
hard, even when heated. If heat is applied to a thermosetting
plastic, it keeps the same stiffness until it reaches its decomposi-
tion temperature.
This American chemist
A THERMOSETTING PLASTIC is a plastic that remains invented a thermoplastic
permanently hard, even when heated. of the polyamide family
that would revolutionize
Clearly, the term thermosetting does not mean that this group the world of materials: in
of plastics can be hardened with heat. It refers instead to the 1935, he synthesized
manufacturing process. Thermosetting plastics are obtained by nylon. Today, many
mixing monomers in a hot mould. Once the material has hard- variants of nylon are
ened, its form can no longer be altered. Although they are sold manufactured and used to
in various forms, such as melamine and polyesters, thermosetting make clothing and fabric,
plastics are used less than thermoplastics partly because they can- among other products.
not be reshaped.

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Certain mechanical properties of thermosetting plastics nevertheless give the

materials several advantages over thermoplastics. For example, thermosetting
plastics are often harder and more resilient than thermoplastics.
Furthermore, when a manufacturing process calls for materials that are poor
conductors of electricity and heat, both thermosetting plastics and thermo-
plastics are usually good choices. In Québec, however, thermosetting plastics
are not recyclable, which puts them at a considerable disadvantage environ-
mentally, compared to many thermoplastics. Figure 12.22 shows one use of
thermosetting plastics.

12.22 The hulls of the kayaks

on this beach are made
of thermosetting plastic.

ST
EST
AST
THE DEGRADATION AND PROTECTION OF PLASTICS

Plastics tend to degrade over time. Their deterioration can be observed most
often in the appearance of cracks or a change in colour. The process is fre-
quently slow, but always irreversible.
Table 12.23 presents three causes of plastic degradation. The effects depend
on the type of plastic. For example, a concentrated solution of sulphuric acid
will tend to degrade nylon rapidly but will have practically no effect on poly-
styrene; yet both materials are thermoplastics. For each cause of degradation
in the table below, a means of protection is proposed.

12.23 THE MAIN CAUSES OF PLASTIC DEGRADATION

Cause Description Example of a

method of protection
Penetration Substances in the liquid state (such as water) or solutions (such as an Protection with a waterproof
by a liquid acid) can penetrate certain plastics and cause them to degrade. coating

Oxidation Oxygen and other gases with similar properties can react with the Addition of antioxidants, such as
polymers in certain plastics and cause the material to degrade. carbon black

Ultraviolet Ultraviolet rays, especially those from the sun, can damage plastic Addition of pigments that absorb
rays polymers. ultraviolet rays

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ST
EST
AST
2.5 COMPOSITES
Sometimes, to obtain a material with the desired properties, materials from
different categories are combined. The result is a composite, whose proper-
ties are enhanced in comparison to those of the original materials.

A COMPOSITE is formed by combining materials from different

categories to obtain a material with enhanced properties.

A composite has two main components: the matrix

and the reinforcement. The matrix constitutes the Matrix is a Latin word
meaning “source“ or
skeleton of the material and gives it its shape. It sur- “origin.“
rounds and supports the reinforcements, which are
inserted into the matrix to strengthen it.
For example, plastic reinforced with fibreglass (a type of ceramic) is used
in many airplanes. The plastic is the matrix while the fibreglass constitutes
the reinforcement. The properties of the two basic materials are thus
combined. While plastics are usually not very stiff, they are resilient.
Fibreglass, on the other hand, is usually not very resilient, but extremely
stiff. By combining the two, airplane manufacturers obtain a composite
that is both stiff and resilient.

A NEW LIFE FOR FIBREGLASS

Unlike plastics, composite materials
that are reinforced with fibreglass—
used to make kayaks, showers, bath-
tubs and boat hulls, for example—
are not recyclable. The only prospect
for used fibreglass composites at
present is disposal in a landfill. The
Regroupement des Industries des
Composites du Québec (RICQ) would
like to change this state of affairs.
Association members have been
racking their brains to find ways
to shred, neutralize and recycle
these materials. Several options are
the
under study. Rather than making its way to a landfill, fibreglass waste, such as
be
material piling up in this factory in the Beauce region, will soon
“Even if this waste isn’t considered given a new lease on life.
hazardous to the environment, we
could reduce the cost of their waste Source: Adapted from Gilbert Leduc,
would like to be proactive,” declared “Seconde vie pour la fibre de verre,”
RICQ President, François Chevarie. disposal and, at the same time,
Le Soleil, December 4, 2007, Affaires,
In his opinion, manufacturers could lower their production costs by p. 39. [Translation]
kill two birds with one stone. They reusing recycled materials.

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Table 12.24 presents the main matrices and reinforcements used in

composites. The name of a composite is usually based on the type of
reinforcement used. In surfboards, for example, the composites are often
made of plastic matrices combined with fibreglass reinforcements. This
type of surfboard is then said to be made of fibreglass.

12.24 THE MAIN MATRICES AND REINFORCEMENTS USED IN COMPOSITES

Description Properties often sought

in composites
Plastic Thermosetting plastics are preferred for plastic matrices, although Durability
matrices thermoplastics are also used. Thermosetting plastic matrices are Lightness
often called resins.
Resilience
Matrices

Low cost
Metallic Made from metals or alloys Ductility
matrices Thermal and
electrical conductivity
Stiffness
Ceramic Made from ceramics, often glass Durability
matrices Heat resistance

Fibreglass Made of glass (a ceramic) in the form of fibres. Their length and Stiffness
diameter, as well as the type of glass used, may vary.
Reinforcements

Corrosion resistance

Aramid Known by the trade name Kevlar and one of the few plastics used Low density
fibres as a reinforcement Resilience
Carbon Obtained by carbonizing polymers, mostly polyacrylonitriles Stiffness
fibres Low density
Electrical conductivity

12.25 The surfboard and the hull of the sailboat are both made of composites.

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Each composite thus has its own characteristics, depending

on the matrix and the type of reinforcement. Composites are
present in an increasing number of sectors, including:
the aeronautical industry—in the wings of an airplane,
for example
the sports sector, especially in the manufacture of swim-
ming pools, bicycle helmets and frames, rackets, hockey
equipment and sticks, sailboards, etc.
the arts—for example, in violin bows
the mechanical industry, especially in engines and high-
performance brakes
the military and police sectors, notably in bulletproof vests

12.26 The sports sector is making increasing use of

ST composites to enhance equipment performance.
EST THE DEGRADATION AND
AST
PROTECTION OF COMPOSITES
Like the other categories of materials, composites may also deteriorate.Their
degradation usually takes one of two forms:
the deformation or fracture of the matrix or the reinforcements
a loss of adherence between the matrix and the reinforcements
The speed at which degradation occurs depends on the type of matrix in
the composite, its reinforcements and the conditions of its use. For example,
a plastic-matrix composite will normally tend to degrade more quickly if it
is immersed in salt water than if it is simply left in the open air.
To protect composites from degradation, it is important to ensure that their
constituent materials are not likely to become deformed or break under the
conditions of their intended use. Assuring a strong adherence between the
matrix and the reinforcements is also essential.

EST
AST 3 Technical drafting
After choosing suitable materials for a technical object, and before pro- CONCEPT REVIEW
ceeding with its manufacture, the forms and dimensions of the different Geometric lines
parts of the object must be determined. One way of establishing this infor- Basic lines
mation is through drafting, which is the process of creating technical draw- Scales
Dimensioning
ings. More and more, drafters are using computers to produce the types of
Sections
drawings needed to manufacture technical objects. To understand the
meaning of these drawings, we must know how to recognize and analyze
different projections.

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EST
AST 3.1 PROJECTIONS
The main difficulty in drafting lies in a contradiction: the objects being CONCEPT REVIEW
drawn have three dimensions, while the drawing is done on a surface with Forms of representation
only two dimensions, such as a piece of paper. To overcome this difficulty, (sketch, perspective drawing,
drafters use projections. oblique projection)
Orthogonal projections
(multiview, isometric)
A PROJECTION is the representation of a three-dimensional
object on a two-dimensional surface.

Among all the possible projections in drafting, two types are the most com-
monly used: isometric projections and multiview projections.

EST
AST ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS

When an object is drawn so that the lines representing its length, height and
depth form 120° angles on the paper, the drawing is an isometric projection.
Figure 12.27 illustrates an isometric projection. HOW TO DRAW PROJECTIONS
HOW TO DRAW BASIC
LINES IN DRAFTING

12.27 An isometric projection

of a locomotive

EST
AST MULTIVIEW PROJECTIONS

To create a multiview projection of an object, the drafter must visualize

the object in the middle of a transparent cube. Using basic lines, the drafter
draws the different views of the object as they would appear on the sides
of the cube. The result is a multiview projection. Usually, only the front,
top and right-side views are illustrated in a multiview projection.

402 CHAPTER 12
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Top view

Left-side view Front view Right-side view Rear view

Bottom view

12.28 A multiview projection of a locomotive

Isometric and multiview projections each meet a specific need when it

comes to manufacturing an object. An isometric projection shows the object
in PERSPECTIVE: it represents the three dimensions of the object in a single
view.With a multiview projection, on the other hand, at least three views are
required to represent the object in its entirety. However, multiview projec-
tions have the advantage of providing greater detail without distortion.
Now that we have presented the two main projections used in drafting, let’s
see how they actually appear in technical drawings.

EST
AST 3.2 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS CONCEPT REVIEW

Axonometric projection:
To manufacture an object, it is often useful to have a drawing that depicts exploded view (reading) (AST)
the general appearance of that object.The type of drawing that performs this
function is called a general arrangement. It is usually drawn to SCALE.

A GENERAL ARRANGEMENT is a technical drawing representing

the overall appearance of an object. HOW TO MAKE
SCALE DRAWINGS

Multiview projections are suitable for drawing general arrangements

because they contain many details of the object. An isometric projection
is often added because it offers the advantage of showing the object, in
perspective, in a single view. Figure 12.29 (page 404) shows a general
arrangement drawing, including a TITLE BLOCK. 4

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12.29 A general arrangement drawing of a locomotive

EST
AST EXPLODED VIEWS

An exploded view is useful for visualizing

all the component parts of an object.The
entire object is shown in an isometric
projection, but the parts are separated
from one another. Exploded views are
usually drawn to scale.

An EXPLODED VIEW is a draw-

ing in which the various parts
of the object are separated
from one another.

12.30

An exploded view of a locomotive

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This type of drawing is often included in instruction leaflets 1895

describing the steps for do-it-yourself assembly of an object. The 1985
drawing is accompanied by a list of the parts, indicating their
names and the numbers of parts provided. Figure 12.30 (page 404)
shows an exploded view of a locomotive.
Esther
Marjorie Hill
EST
AST DETAIL DRAWINGs

To manufacture an object, it is essential to know the dimensions

and all the other details for each of the parts. This information is Drafting is not used only
provided in detail drawings, which are almost always made to scale in engineering; it is also
and show one or more views of the part in question. essential to architecture.
In 1920, Esther Marjorie
A DETAIL DRAWING is a drawing specifying all the Hill became the first
relevant information for manufacturing a part. Canadian woman to
obtain a degree in
Figure 12.31 shows a detail drawing of a part for a decorative loco- architecture in the
motive. Two views of the part are presented. country. After a difficult
start, her career reached
its peak in the 1950s and
early 1960s. She set up
her own practice, doing
all the design work and
drawings for her
projects herself.

12.31 A detail drawing provides complete information for manufacturing a part.

Dimensional tolerances
Since the machines, tools and instruments used to manufacture objects are CONCEPT REVIEW
not perfect, the actual size of parts often differs from that indicated in the Tolerances (AST)
detail drawing. To set an acceptable margin of error between a DIMENSION
in the drawing and the actual measurements of a part after it has been man-
ufactured, engineers establish a tolerance.

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A DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE is
an indicator of the maximum
acceptable difference between a
. .
specified measurement and the
actual measurement on the fin-
ished object.

For example, if the diameter of the inner

hole in the wheels of the locomotive is too
large, the axle will tend to slip. If the hole is
too small, it will be impossible to attach the
wheels to the axle. It is therefore important
for the drafter to indicate the tolerance for
the diameter of the hole. If a tolerance
applies to all the dimensions in a drawing, it
is written in the title block. Figure 12.32 12.32 In a technical drawing, a dimensional tolerance can be indicated
by a measurement preceded by a ± sign.
shows another way of indicating the toler-
ance for the hole in the wheel.

Functional dimensioning
To ensure that certain technical objects or systems work, their various parts
must be assembled according to specific instructions. These operating con-
ditions may be indicated in the detail drawing with dimensions referred to
HOW TO SHOW DIMENSIONS
as functional dimensions. Functional dimensioning thus involves the inclusion IN A DRAWING
of operational information about an object in a drawing.

The FUNCTIONAL DIMENSIONING of a drawing specifies the

information required for the object to work.

Let’s consider the example of a retractable utility knife. For the blade to
move along the slide that is holding it, there must be a certain space, called
the play, between the blade and the slide.
When a drafter indicates a piece of infor-
mation like the play of the blade, the draw-
ing then features functional dimensioning.
To determine the functional dimensions of
an object, engineers must analyze how the
object works.

Blade

Slide

12.33 This drawing indicates functional dimensioning: it shows

the space required between the blade and the slide for
the knife to work.

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Developments
Sheet metal is used to manufacture some technical objects. It can be bent to
form parts of various shapes. A detail drawing that shows the surface area of 5
material needed to make a part by bending is necessarily drawn as a devel-
opment. Figure 12.34 illustrates examples of developments for parts in the
shape of a cuboid, a cone, a square pyramid and a cylinder.

A DEVELOPMENT is the representation of the surface area

required to make a part by bending.

CUBOID SQUARE PYRAMID

CONE CYLINDER

12.34 The developments for four differently shaped parts

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AST 3.3 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATIONS

In addition to knowing the shapes and dimensions of the parts of an object, it 6
is often useful to understand its operating principles and any specific charac-
teristics that should be taken into account during the manufacturing process.
This information can be obtained from drawings called diagrams. CONCEPT REVIEW

Standards and
A DIAGRAM is a simplified representation of an object, a part representations
of an object, or a system. (diagrams, symbols)

AST TYPES OF DIAGRAMS

Drafters can choose among various types of diagrams, depending on the

information they wish to convey.The most common diagrams are the design
plan, the technical diagram and the circuit diagram. Table 12.35 presents
HOW TO DRAW
these three types. A DIAGRAM

12.35 THE MOST COMMON TYPES OF DIAGRAMS

Type of Purpose Information usually

diagram conveyed
Design Provides information Names of the parts
plan on one or more of the Movement of the parts
operating principles
Operational forces involved
of an object.
Any other useful information for understanding how the object works

Technical Provides information Important shapes and dimensions to be considered in the manufacture of parts
diagram on the selected Names of the parts
manufacturing
Materials to be used
process of an
operational object. Linking components, if applicable
Types of guiding controls, if applicable
Any other useful information for manufacturing the object

Circuit Provides information Various circuit components

diagram on the layout of Any other useful information for understanding how the electrical circuit
various components should be built
of an electrical circuit.

12.36 This sketch of a

flying machine, by
Leonardo da Vinci
(1452–1519), is the
precursor of modern
design plans and
technical diagrams.

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Handle 1

Handle 2

12.37 Design plan for a pair of pliers

Handle 1

Serrated Serrated
Covering
edges edges

LEGEND FOR MATERIALS

Handle 2 Cutting edges

Steel

Plastic

12.38 Technical diagram for a pair of pliers

12.39 Circuit diagram for an electrical circuit assembly

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AST STANDARDIZED SYMBOLS IN DIAGRAMS

Standardized symbols are used in diagrams to convey information as simply

as possible. The symbols represent forces and motion in objects, electrical
components, types of guiding controls, etc.Table 12.40 presents some examples
of symbols.

12.40 SYMBOLS USED IN DIAGRAMS

Elements Examples
symbolized
Forces and
constraints

Force Compression Tension Shearing

Motion

Unidirectional Bidirectional Unidirectional Bidirectional

translation translation rotation helical motion

Links and
guiding
controls
Complete link Translational Rotational Translational and
guiding control guiding control rotational guiding control

Electrical
components

Push-button
Battery Light bulb Electrical wire switch

EST
AST 4 Manufacturing:
tools and techniques 7
Once suitable materials have been selected and the shapes and dimensions
of the parts have been determined and drawn, the manufacture of a tech- CONCEPT REVIEW
nical object can begin. A series of operations is carried out to obtain the Manufacturing process sheet
target object. Machines and tools (AST)
Roughing and finishing (AST)
MANUFACTURING is a series of operations resulting in the cre- Characteristics of laying out
(AST)
ation of a technical object.
Direct measurement (ruler)
(AST)
The various operations essential to manufacturing a functional object
require the use of a number of instruments. First, we will look at several
examples of these instruments, and then we will describe various manufac-
turing techniques.

410 CHAPTER 12
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Any instrument used to accomplish a task in the manufacture of 1856

an object is called a tool. For example, a backsaw is a tool used to 1915
cut out wooden parts, and a screwdriver is a tool for screwing dif-
ferent pieces together.

A TOOL is an instrument used in the manufacture of an Frederick

object. Winslow
Taylor
Tools can be divided into two categories: hand tools and machine
tools. Hand tools must be held and operated by the force of the
person using them. For example, to saw wood with a backsaw, the
This American engineer
sawer provides the force needed to apply a back-and-forth move-
is considered a pioneer
ment to the tool. Other tools can be held and operated by devices in the organization of
that keep them in motion. In a band saw, for example, a motor factory and workshop
causes the movement of the saw. Tools like these are referred to as production, for which
machine tools. he developed methods
of analysis. With these
A MACHINE TOOL is a tool that is held and operated methods, engineers
by forces other than human force. were able to assign
each worker limited and
Illustration 12.41 below shows some examples of the hand and
specific responsibilities
machine tools required to manufacture a part. in the manufacturing
Many hand and machine tools may be used to produce techni- process and provide
cal objects. The manufacturing process is usually divided into workers with the
three stages: appropriate tools for
their tasks.
measuring and laying out the parts
machining the parts
assembling and finishing the parts
Let’s see how an object is made by following these three steps.

12.41 A workshop is
equipped with a
variety of hand and
machine tools.

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THE ALL-PURPOSE MACHINE

have to select a nutcracker, an MP3 all-purpose machine would produce
Some science-fiction fans dream of
player or a toaster, for example, on a stream of matter forming three-
a futuristic household appliance that
their computer screens. As easily as dimensional components.
can manufacture any object its
owner desires. Users would simply a printer sprays ink onto paper, the Perhaps this dream is not as com-
pletely unrealistic as it sounds.
Neil Gershenfeld, professor and
researcher at the Media Lab of the
famous Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT), considers “the
development of this type of personal-
ized factory inevitable.” He believes
that the technologies for creating
such machines already exist. Will
industries and mass production
become obsolete one day?
Source: Adapted from Jean-François
Arnaud, “Chacun pourra enfin satisfaire
toutes ses envies,” Le Figaro, October
20, 2007, Économie, p. 20. [Translation]
the famous
Neil Gershenfeld, professor and researcher at the Media Lab of
Massach usetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

EST
AST 4.1 MEASURING AND LAYING OUT
To begin manufacturing a technical object, the position of the markings or
reference points for each part must first be determined and then laid out on
the materials. The information needed for this measuring can be found in
HOW TO MANUFACTURE AN
the detail drawings of the object or on its MANUFACTURING PROCESS SHEET. OBJECT – MEASURING AND
LAYING OUT PARTS
MEASURING is the act of determining the size or position of a
marking.

LAYING OUT is the act of tracing markings or reference points

onto a material.

Measuring involves more than determining the length of a marking. For

example, when manufacturing an object, the size of an angle or the depth
of a hole may also need to be measured. Different tools are used depending
on the type of measurement to be made.
The next step, the layout, is a delicate operation. In fact, if this step is not done
properly, the configuration of the part may be faulty, which could cause prob-
lems during the manufacturing process and result in wasted materials. It is

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important, therefore, to make precise markings that show clearly and accu-
rately where machining operations such as sawing or drilling should be done.
Although measuring tools can be used to indicate the position of markings,
more specific layout instruments, such as combination squares, bevel squares
and punches, may be more suitable.

12.42 Measuring and layout are two important steps in the process of manufacturing a
technical object.

EST
AST 4.2 MACHINING
Once the parts have been laid out on the appropriate materials, machining
can begin. Normally, the first step in machining a part is to cut it out
roughly, in an approximate shape of the finished part.This operation is called HOW TO MANUFACTURE AN
ROUGHING. Then various techniques are applied to give the part its desired OBJECT – MACHINING PARTS
configuration. Throughout the machining process, the part is inspected
several times to ensure that the configuration corresponds to the plan.

MACHINING consists in shaping a material into

a desired configuration.

The most common machining techniques used in manu-

facturing technical objects are cutting, drilling, tapping,
threading and bending. Let’s look at these techniques in
greater detail.

12.43

Factory personnel are assigned different predefined tasks.

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EST
AST CHARACTERISTICS OF CUTTING

Cutting materials is frequently part of the manufac-

turing process of a technical object. Cutting gives a
material the shape needed to make a particular part.

CUTTING consists in giving a material a

desired shape.

A variety of tools can be used for cutting. Choosing

the right one depends on several factors, including the
type of material and its thickness. For example, a rel-
atively thin piece of metal can be cut with aviation
shears, while metal that is too thick for shears must be
cut with a band saw. For a piece of plastic, a retractable
knife with a suitable blade or a band saw may be used,
depending on the thickness of the material.

EST
AST CHARACTERISTICS OF DRILLING

During the manufacture of a technical object, it is 12.44 Safety glasses should always be worn when cutting.
often necessary to make holes in a material. To do
this, a craftsperson uses drilling techniques.

DRILLING consists in making a hole in a material.

Drilling is usually carried out with a bit mounted on a tool such as a hand
or an electric drill. Bits can be distinguished by the shank—the end that is
inserted into the drill. A straight shank is cylindrical, while a taper shank has
a non-cylindrical shape (Figure 12.45).

Chuck

Electric drill
Taper shank bits

Straight shank bits

12.45 Straight shank and taper shank bits can be distinguished by examining the end of the
bit that is inserted into the drill chuck.

414 CHAPTER 12
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The drill bit to be used is not chosen at random. The choice depends first
on the diameter of the hole to be drilled. Second, it is always advisable to
consider the type of material in which the hole is being made. Different drill
bits are designed specifically for certain types of materials, such as wood or
metal. The rotation speed of the drill bit also depends on the type of mate-
rial and the diameter of the hole to be bored.

EST
AST CHARACTERISTICS OF TAPPING AND THREADING

Tapping and threading are machining techniques that produce threaded parts.
8
For some technical objects, such as nuts, screw threads must be formed inside
a hole.This process is known as tapping and is accomplished with a tool called
a tap, as shown in Figure 12.46.

TAPPING is a machining technique in which screw threads are

formed inside holes drilled into a material.

In other technical objects, such as screws, the threads must be machined

around a rod.This process is known as threading and is carried out with a tool
called a die, mounted on a diestock, as shown in Figure 12.47.

THREADING is a machining technique in which screw threads

are formed around a rod.

Tap wrench Diestock

Tap Rod to
be threaded
Part to
be tapped

12.46 Tapping a part 12.47 Threading a part

AST CHARACTERISTICS OF BENDING

Parts are frequently shaped by bending during the machining process. With
this technique, a material is curved into a particular form.The materials most
likely to be machined by bending are metals and thermoplastics.

BENDING is a machining technique in which a material is curved

into a certain shape.

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AST inspecting PARTS

Parts are checked in various ways during machining to

ensure that the configuration matches the detail drawing.
Inspecting a part may include:
checking its length, width and thickness
ensuring that any holes are the right size and in the cor-
rect places
checking that it has the right shape (square, hexagonal, tri-
angular, etc.) and is bent at the correct angle
ensuring that surfaces are level
Different techniques, such as sanding or filing, can be used
to correct certain errors that may occur in the process of
12.48 A vernier caliper is often used to check
manufacturing parts.
parts.

Recycling rainbow:
ENVIRONMENT EXTRA

+
keeping paint out
of the environment
Every year in Québec, millions of litres of paint and
varnish are sold for a variety of household uses.
Paints brighten our walls, and they protect our
homes thanks to the antimould agents they con-
tain, but they remain potentially hazardous to the
environment. They contain liquid contaminants,
which can enter easily into the ground and water,
causing pollution.

Unfortunately, once our renovations are completed,

we often find ourselves with leftover paint that we no
longer want. Even empty paint containers still con-
tain residues that are harmful to the environment.
Since June 1, 2000, however, a regulation adopted
by the government agency Recyc-Québec requires
every company that sells paint in Québec to set up
a system for recycling discarded surplus paint. To Municipal site for recovering discarded paint and paint cans
comply with the regulation, most companies have
chosen to work with Éco-peinture, an organization Between 1998 and 2004, paint and varnish recycling
that sorts the discarded paints, checks and adjusts increased almost fivefold. For 2008, the Recyc-Québec
their composition and filters them. The leftover paint target was to recover 75 percent of discarded paint
is thus recycled and prepared for resale. and paint containers.

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EST
AST 4.3 ASSEMBLING AND FINISHING
Once the various parts of an object have been formed, inspected and adjusted,
they must be assembled. HOW TO MANUFACTURE AN
OBJECT – ASSEMBLING
AND FINISHING PARTS
ASSEMBLING is a set of techniques by which various parts are
united to form a complete technical object.

There are numerous assembly techniques, including:

1879
nailing 1951
screwing
bonding
riveting
joining Peter
bolting Lymburner
welding Robertson
To complete the manufacturing process, an object undergoes fin-
ishing. The main reasons for finishing are to protect the materials
After cutting his hand
from the elements or from wear and to enhance the appearance of
with a flat-headed
the object. screwdriver, this
Canadian engineer
FINISHING is a set of techniques that complete the
invented the square-
manufacture of the parts of a technical object.
headed screw and
Finishing techniques are also numerous and include polishing, var- screwdriver. His
nishing, staining and dyeing. Finishing is usually done after assem- invention met with
great success because a
bling the parts. However, since some parts can be difficult to reach
person could drive the
once assembled, they may be finished before assembly.
screw in more rapidly,
using only one hand. In
workshops, the new
tools increased the rate
of production and
reduced the number of
damaged parts. Square-
headed screwdrivers are
still called Robertson
screwdrivers today.

12.49 Varnishing a table

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ST 1–5, A and D. AST 1–14 and A–D.

EST 1–7, 9, 11, 14, SE None.
A, B and D.

2. When manufacturing a technical object, it

1 Materials (pp. 386–390)
is often necessary to define the mechanical
1. Depending on how they are used, technical properties of different materials in order
objects are likely to be subjected to stress. to make the most suitable choice. Which
Name the constraint at work in the part of mechanical property is sought in each of
the object indicated in the photos below. the following examples?
a) a plastic that keeps its shape even
when twisted
A B
b) wooden flooring that resists indentation
by pointed objects, such as shoe heels
c) a metal that stretches well to make wire
d) a boat hull that resists shocks caused by
running into shoals
e) a material that bends easily, without
breaking, to make eavestroughing

2 Categories of materials
and their properties (pp. 390–401)

3. Identify the category of material used to

C D
make the following objects. Choose from
the following categories (each category
may be used only once):
– wood and modified wood
– plastics
– composites
– metals and alloys
– ceramics
a) coins
b) a sheet of plywood
c) a pane of glass
d) a soft-drink bottle
E
e) a bulletproof vest
4. Which category of material would you
suggest to meet the following needs?
Choose from the same categories as
in question 3 (each category may be
used only once).

418 CHAPTER 12
23083_Chapitre12d.qxd:Observatory4 6/25/09 12:14 PM Page 419

a) a shiny material that conducts electricity well

b) a light, durable and inexpensive material A B
c) a material that combines the properties of
several categories of materials
d) a natural-looking material, with variations
in colour and shade, that can be shaped
and assembled easily
e) a durable material with low electrical
conductivity and high degrees of heat
resistance and hardness
5. During an experiment, a student puts two
iron nails in a beaker containing an aqueous
solution. One of the two nails was previously
coated in grease. Which of the two nails will
take longer to rust? Explain your answer.
6. In the Middle Ages, when knights had swords
forged, the steel blades were heated then
dipped in water. 8. Look at the drawing below, which represents
a three-ski sled.

Name the thermal treatment just

described and identify the main advantage
of the treatment for the eventual properties
of the blade.

3 Technical drafting (pp. 401–410)

7. Look at the following two drawings of a

compact disk storage tower.
a) Name the type of projection used
in each drawing.
b) Could these two drawings be called
general arrangements? Explain why
or why not.

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a) What type of drawing is it?

4 Manufacturing:
b) The number 12 parts are metal tools and techniques (pp. 410–417)
screws. Determine how many of
these screws are needed to 11. Drilling is one of the most frequently
assemble this technical object. used techniques in the manufacture of
c) If we wished to represent all the technical objects.
parts with detail drawings, what is the a) What is the purpose of drilling?
minimum number of drawings we would b) What are the two main factors to
have to make? Explain your answer. consider when choosing a drill bit?
d) Part number 3 can be machined by c) Must the two factors in question b) also
bending. How can we represent, in be considered when determining the
a detail drawing, the surface area speed of rotation of the drill bit? If not,
required to manufacture this part? what should be considered instead?
9. To manufacture a part, a student relies on 12. The roof of the birdhouse below has been
the drawing below. covered in aluminum, obtained from a
a) When the actual single sheet of metal. Which machining
part dimensions technique was used to shape the sheet of
are checked, the aluminum? Explain your answer.
width of the
indentation is
found to measure
22 mm. Does this
part comply with
the drawing?
Explain your answer.
b) What is the minimum width the
indentation could have?
10. Match each solid below with the correct
development.
Solids
1 2
13. Name three ways to inspect parts for a
technical object.
14. For which assembly technique is each of the
following tools most often used?
Developments a) a hammer
A B b) carpenter’s glue
c) a soldering iron
d) a screw

420 CHAPTER 12
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review questions
A. The photo below shows a handsaw, a tool often used to saw wood.
The cutting part of this tool is made out of steel, while the handle is
made of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS).
a) Which category of material does
the cutting part belong to?
b) Since ABS can be remoulded
when heated, which subcategory
of plastics does this material
belong to?
c) When the saw is used, the blade
sometimes bends and then returns to
its original shape. Which constraint is this
part being subjected to and which mechanical
property allows it to return to its original shape?
d) One of the important features of the handle is that it is difficult
to deform permanently. Which mechanical property does the
handle exhibit?

B. The steel used to manufacture the

blade of the saw in question A has
been quenched. What was the
purpose of this treatment?

C. Look at the drawing opposite.

a) What type of drawing is it?
b) Make a technical diagram for the
handsaw.
c) Can the handsaw be considered
a machine tool? Explain your
answer.
d) At which stage of the
manufacturing process
is this tool mainly used?

D. Prepare your own summary of Chapter 12 by building a concept map.

HOW TO BUILD
A CONCEPT MAP

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WORKING TOWARD
SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY

L ogging is posing problems all over the

world because in many cases, the use of forest
resources actually constitutes overuse. From
clearcutting to extensive farming based on the
“slash-and-burn” method of agriculture, from
destroying unique ecosystems to replanting
mainly fast-growing varieties, the issues of for-
est management had gained sufficient impor-
tance by 1992 to capture the attention of the
world during the Rio Earth Summit, in Brazil.

CHAPTER 12
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FSC CERTIFICATION
Some of the FSC principles of
After the Earth Summit in Rio, environmental groups,
retailers, industry representatives and community responsible forest management
organizations came together to find concrete solutions 1. The legal and customary rights of Aboriginal
to forest management problems. They wanted to find peoples to own, use and manage their lands,
ways to encourage large corporations to implement territories and resources shall be recognized
sustainable logging practices that respect the ecologi- and respected.
cal, economic and social environment. They began by
founding the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) in 2. Forest management operations shall main-
1994. One of its first initiatives was to establish an tain or enhance the long-term social and
international certification standard based on 10 funda- economic well-being of forest workers
mental principles of sustainable forestry (some of these and local communities.
principles are presented in the box opposite). These 3. Forest management shall conserve biolog-
principles are broad enough to apply to tropical, tem- ical diversity and its associated values,
perate and boreal forests. Individual countries can add water resources, soils and unique and frag-
or adapt criteria specific to their climates. In Canada, ile ecosystems and landscapes.
for example, a boreal standard was created in 2004,
covering logging in 85 percent of Canadian forestland, 4. Plantations shall be planned and managed in
which is located in this type of region. accordance with the principles of sustainable
development. They should complement the
The FSC standard is generally well accepted by envi- management of natural forestland, reduce
ronmentalists primarily because it depends on the pressures on natural forests and promote forest
evaluation of outside experts. Other, less impartial restoration and conservation.
standards are based on objectives and evaluation that
a company pursues internally. For FSC certification, a
company requests an evaluation by independent
inspectors, who assess the company’s practices and
grant the certification if FSC standards are met.
Consumers who then buy the wood can be certain
that it was harvested under sustainable management.

PROMOTING THE FSC STANDARD

Since Richard Desjardins’s film L’erreur boréale (trans-
lated as Forest Alert) was released in 1999, sustainable
forestry has made progress. The population must
remain vigilant, however; many forestry operators still
need to be prompted to take sustainable development
seriously. It is equally important to convince con-
sumers to request and buy wood certified by the FSC
or approved by some other certifying organization.

Planned reforestation is a crucial step toward sustainable

forestry.

1. If you were planning to buy some wooden boards, how could you make sure that the lumber
you choose was harvested according to sustainable development practices?
2. Paper is one of the main products derived from logging. Suggest several ways in which we
could limit our paper consumption.

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