List two or more electrical telecommunications

systems that provide (a) bidi rectional and

(b) unidirectional service.
(a) Bidirectional electrical telecommunications systems:

1. Telephone: This classic example allows for two-way communication, where both parties can
send and receive voice calls.

(b) Unidirectional electrical telecommunications systems:

1.

Cable TV: Traditional cable television delivers channels to viewers without

the ability for viewers to send information back through the cable line. It's a
one-way flow of information.

2.
3.

Radio Broadcasting: AM/FM radio stations transmit radio signals that can be
picked up by receivers, but listeners cannot transmit back to the station using
the same broadcast infrastructure.

4.

v> What are the most important advantages of

global telecommunications standards?
Global telecommunication standards offer a bunch of advantages that make our
connected world function smoothly. Here are two of the most important ones:

1.

Interoperability: Imagine a world where your phone wouldn't work because

it wasn't compatible with the local cellular network. Standards ensure that
devices and networks from different manufacturers can communicate with
each other. This allows you to make calls, send texts, and use data seamlessly
no matter where you are in the world (as long as you have coverage).

2.
3.
 Economies of Scale: With everyone using the same basic language for
communication, manufacturers can produce devices and equipment en masse.
This drives down costs for both producers and consumers. You benefit from
cheaper phones and service plans, while companies can innovate and invest in
new technologies more readily.

4.

v> Explain how the telephone attenuates the

speaker’s voice from the micro phone to the
earphone. (Hint: Draw the current coming from
the micro phone in Figure 2.7 and imagine what
happens to the magnetic field in the iron core
of the transformer.)
I'd be glad to explain how a telephone attenuates the speaker's voice from the
microphone to the earpiece:

Attenuation in Telephone Transmission

When you speak into a telephone, the sound waves vibrate a thin diaphragm in the
microphone. This vibration creates a tiny electrical current proportional to the sound
pressure variations. However, this current is very weak and needs to be amplified
before being transmitted over long distances. Here's how attenuation is introduced:

1.

Microphone Impedance Mismatch: The microphone itself has a certain

impedance (resistance to current flow). This impedance might not be perfectly
matched to the input impedance of the telephone circuit, leading to some loss
of signal strength.

2.
3.

Transmission Line Resistance: The wires used to carry the electrical signal
from the microphone to the transmission system (and ultimately to the
receiver's earpiece) have some inherent resistance. This resistance causes a
voltage drop along the line, further attenuating the signal.

4.
5.
 Transformer Coupling: Telephones often employ transformers to isolate the
microphone circuit from the rest of the telephone network. While transformers
are essential for safety and signal balancing, they can introduce some signal
loss due to:

6.

1. Imperfect Coupling: The transformer's coils might not be perfectly coupled,

meaning some of the magnetic field generated by the microphone current doesn't
induce a current in the earpiece coil, leading to attenuation.
2. Core Losses: The iron core used in transformers can experience energy losses due to
eddy currents and hysteresis. These losses contribute to a decrease in the signal
strength.

Visualizing Attenuation (Addressing the Hint):

Imagine the following scenario based on Figure 2.7 (which might not be provided in
your specific textbook):

 The microphone current flows through the primary coil of the transformer, creating a
magnetic field around it.
 Ideally, all of this magnetic field would pass through the iron core and induce a current in the
secondary coil connected to the earpiece.
 However, due to imperfect coupling and core losses, some of the magnetic field doesn't
effectively induce current in the secondary coil. This results in a weaker replica of the original
microphone signal being sent to the earpiece, representing attenuation.

Minimizing Attenuation:

Telephone engineers employ various techniques to minimize attenuation and ensure

clear voice transmission:

 Impedance Matching: Circuits are designed to have well-matched impedances to reduce

signal loss at connection points.
 High-Quality Transmission Lines: Wires with low resistance are used to minimize voltage
drops.
 Transformer Design: Transformers are carefully designed to maximize magnetic coupling
efficiency and minimize core losses.
 Signal Boosting (Amplification): Amplifiers are strategically placed in the telephone network
to strengthen the signal before it travels long distances.

By addressing these factors, telephone systems can effectively transmit voice signals
over long distances while maintaining acceptable call quality.

v> A network has N subscribers. Each

subscriber is connected directly to all other
subscribers. (a) What is the total number of
lines L in the network? (b) What is the value
of L for N = 2, 10, 100, and 1,000? (c) How
many lines must be built to each subscriber?
(d) Is this kind of network structure suitable
for a public telecommunications network?
Explain.
Certainly, here's the breakdown of the network connections and its suitability for a
public telecommunications network:

(a) Total Number of Lines (L):

In this fully connected network, each subscriber has a direct line to every other
subscriber. To calculate the total number of lines (L), we can use the following
formula:

L = N * (N - 1) / 2

This formula accounts for the fact that a connection between two subscribers is
counted only once, not twice.

(b) Value of L for Different N:

 N = 2: L = 2 * (2 - 1) / 2 = 1 line
 N = 10: L = 10 * (10 - 1) / 2 = 45 lines
 N = 100: L = 100 * (100 - 1) / 2 = 4950 lines
 N = 1,000: L = 1,000 * (1,000 - 1) / 2 = 499,500 lines

As you can see, the number of lines increases rapidly as the number of subscribers (N)
grows.

(c) Lines Built to Each Subscriber:

Each subscriber connects to every other subscriber. So, the number of lines built to
each subscriber is simply N - 1.

(d) Suitability for Public Telecommunications Network:

This type of fully connected network (where each subscriber is connected to all
others) is not suitable for a large-scale public telecommunications network. Here's
why:

 Unscalability: As the number of subscribers (N) increases, the number of lines (L) grows
quadratically (N^2). This becomes impractical and expensive to manage for a large public
network.
  Underutilization of Lines: Most phone calls only involve two subscribers. In this network,
most lines would be idle most of the time, leading to wasted resources.
 Complexity and Cost: Setting up and maintaining a physical connection between every
subscriber is extremely complex and expensive.

Alternative Network Structures:

Public telecommunication networks typically employ more efficient structures like:

 Star Networks: Subscribers connect to a central hub (like a switching office), which routes
calls between them. This reduces the number of lines needed and simplifies management.
 Packet-Switched Networks: Data is broken into packets and routed through a network of
interconnected nodes, providing more efficient use of resources and scalability.

v> A PBX/PABX has seven telephone channels to

a public exchange. During the busy hour, on
average, 3.4 lines are occupied. (a) What is
the traffic intensity during the busy hour?
(b) Estimate, with the help of the Table 2.1,
the GoS (blocking probability).
Certainly, based on the information provided and Table 2.1, we can analyze the traffic
intensity and estimate the Grade of Service (GoS) for the PBX/PABX system.

(a) Traffic Intensity during Busy Hour:

Traffic intensity is the average number of busy channels during a specific period,
typically the busy hour. In this case, we are given that 3.4 lines are occupied on
average during the busy hour. Therefore, the traffic intensity (A) is:

A = 3.4 Erlangs (traffic units)

(b) Estimating GoS (Blocking Probability) from Table 2.1:

Unfortunately, I don't have direct access to images, but I can guide you through how
to use Table 2.1 to estimate the GoS (blocking probability) based on the information
you provided.

1.

Identify Relevant Columns: Look for the columns in Table 2.1 that represent
the number of channels (7 channels in this case) and the traffic intensity (3.4
Erlangs).
 2.
3.

Locate Intersection: Find the row that corresponds to 7 channels and the
column that corresponds to 3.4 Erlangs (or the closest value in the table).

4.
5.

Read Blocking Probability: The value at the intersection of the identified

row and column will represent the estimated GoS (blocking probability) for
your scenario.

6.

Example (assuming Table 2.1 has similar data):

Let's say Table 2.1 shows blocking probabilities for different numbers of channels and
traffic intensities. If the intersection of the row for 7 channels and the column for 3.4
Erlangs (or the nearest value) shows a value of 0.12, then the estimated GoS (blocking
probability) would be 12%.

Important Note:

The accuracy of the GoS estimation depends on how closely Table 2.1 matches the
real-world scenario and the specific blocking probability calculation method used in
the table. It's likely a simplification or approximation of a more complex formula.

In conclusion, the traffic intensity during the busy hour is 3.4 Erlangs, and you can
estimate the GoS (blocking probability) using Table 2.1 by following the steps
mentioned above.

v> A subscriber makes one 6-minute call in one

day between 10:00 and 10:06. What is the
average traffic intensity of her subscriber
line during (a) 10:00–10:06, (b) 10:00–
10:15, (c) 10:00–11:00, and (d) 00:00–24:00
of that day?
Absolutely, we can calculate the average traffic intensity for the subscriber line in
each scenario. Here's the breakdown:
Traffic Intensity Unit:

Traffic intensity is measured in Erlangs (E), which represent the average number of
busy channels during a specific period.

Call Details:

 Call duration = 6 minutes

 We'll convert minutes to hours for consistency with Erlangs:

o Call duration (hours) = 6 minutes / 60 minutes/hour = 0.1 hours

Calculations:

(a) 10:00-10:06 (0.1 hours):

Traffic intensity = Call duration / Time interval Traffic intensity = 0.1 hours / 0.1
hours = 1.0 Erlangs

(b) 10:00-10:15 (0.25 hours):

Traffic intensity = Call duration / Time interval Traffic intensity = 0.1 hours / 0.25
hours = 0.4 Erlangs

(c) 10:00-11:00 (1.0 hour):

Traffic intensity = Call duration / Time interval Traffic intensity = 0.1 hours / 1.0 hour
= 0.1 Erlangs

(d) 00:00-24:00 (24.0 hours):

In this case, we consider the entire day. Since the subscriber only makes a single 6-
minute call, the line is occupied for a negligible portion of the entire day (compared to
24 hours). Therefore, the average traffic intensity for the whole day is very low.

Traffic intensity = Call duration / Time interval Traffic intensity = 0.1 hours / 24.0
hours ≈ 0.004 Erlangs (approximately)

Interpretation:

 The traffic intensity is highest during the 6-minute call window (a) as expected.
 As the time window considered increases (b) and (c), the average traffic intensity decreases
because the call duration is spread over a longer period.
 For the entire day (d), the traffic intensity is very low because the call occupies a tiny fraction
of the total time.
v> Use the Poisson (or “Molina lost calls
held”) trunking formula to calculate the
blocking probability (GoS) when the total
offered traffic is 2 Erl and the number of
available transmission channels in the network
is 5.
Certainly, we can use the Poisson (or Molina's) formula to calculate the blocking
probability (GoS) in this scenario. Here's the process:

Formula:

The Poisson formula for calculating blocking probability (B) in a trunking system is:

B = (A^n / n!) * e^(-A)

Where:

 B = Blocking probability (GoS)

 A = Offered traffic (Erlangs)
 n = Number of available channels
 e = Base of the natural logarithm (approximately 2.71828)

Given Values:

 A = 2 Erlangs
 n = 5 channels

Calculation:

1. Calculate the intermediate term:

(A^n / n!) = (2^5) / 5! = 32 / 120 = 8 / 30

1. Calculate the blocking probability (B):

B = (8 / 30) * e^(-2) ≈ 0.2667 * 0.1353 ≈ 0.036 (approximately)

Interpretation:

The blocking probability (GoS) in this case is approximately 0.036 or 3.6%. This
means that on average, about 3.6% of calls will be blocked due to all channels being
busy when the offered traffic is 2 Erlangs and there are 5 available channels.
v> What is meant by telecommunication network?
A telecommunication network is a complex system that allows for the exchange of
information between different devices and users. It's essentially an infrastructure that
enables communication over long distances. Here's a breakdown of its key aspects:

Components:

 Nodes: These are the endpoints or connection points within the network. They can be
devices like phones, computers, routers, or servers.
 Links: These are the communication channels that connect the nodes. They can be physical
cables, wireless signals, or even satellites.
 Control Mechanisms: These are the rules and protocols that govern how data travels
through the network, ensuring efficient and reliable communication.

Functionality:

Telecommunication networks facilitate various forms of communication, including:

 Voice Calls: Traditional phone calls where two parties can converse in real-time.
 Data Transmission: Sending and receiving digital information like emails, files, and internet
browsing data.
 Video Conferencing: Enabling real-time visual communication between multiple participants.

Types of Networks:

There are various types of telecommunication networks based on their structure and
purpose, such as:

 Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): The traditional landline phone network.
 Mobile Network: Cellular networks that allow mobile phones to connect and communicate.
 Packet-Switched Networks: Networks like the internet that break data into packets for
efficient transmission.
 Private Networks: Networks designed for specific organizations or purposes.

Importance:

Telecommunication networks play a crucial role in our modern world by:

 Connecting people across vast distances for personal and professional communication.
 Facilitating business operations and global trade.
 Supporting the growth of the internet and digital technologies.
 Enabling access to information and resources.

In conclusion, a telecommunication network is the backbone of modern

communication, allowing us to share information, connect with others, and participate
in a globalized world.
v> What is the range of voice frequencies ?
The range of voice frequencies we can perceive can be broken down into two parts:

1.

Fundamental Frequency (F0): This is the base pitch of the voice, determined
by the vibration rate of the vocal cords. It's responsible for the perception of
how high or low someone's voice sounds.

2.

o Typical Ranges:

 Males: 80 Hz to 180 Hz (approximately one octave)

 Females: 165 Hz to 255 Hz (approximately one octave higher than males)
 Children: Around 300 Hz (higher-pitched than adults)

3.

Harmonics: These are multiples of the fundamental frequency created by the

vocal tract resonance. They add richness and timbre to the voice, influencing
the overall sound quality.

4.

o Frequency Range: Harmonics typically extend well above the fundamental

frequency, reaching up to 5000 Hz or even higher depending on the speaker's voice
characteristics.

Key Points:

 The fundamental frequency is generally lower than the range of human hearing (20 Hz to
20,000 Hz). However, our brains perceive the missing fundamental based on the presence of
harmonics.
 The range of both the fundamental frequency and harmonics can vary depending on factors
like age, gender, and vocal effort (speaking loudly or softly).

In summary:

 Fundamental Frequency: 80 Hz to 300 Hz (depending on speaker)

 Harmonics: Up to 5000 Hz or higher (depending on speaker)
 Perceived Speech Frequency Range: 300 Hz to 3000 Hz (covers most speech information)

v> Define bandwidth.

Bandwidth refers to the capacity of a transmission medium, such as a cable or a
wireless signal, to carry information. It essentially tells you how much data can be
transferred through that medium in a given amount of time. Here's a breakdown of the
concept:

Analogy:

Imagine a highway with multiple lanes. Bandwidth is like the total width of those
lanes. The wider the highway (more lanes), the more traffic (data) it can handle at
once.

Units:

Bandwidth is typically measured in bits per second (bps) or bytes per second (Bps).
Here are some common units and their conversions:

 bps (bits per second): This is the most fundamental unit.

 Kbps (kilobits per second): 1 Kbps = 1,000 bps
 Mbps (megabits per second): 1 Mbps = 1,000 Kbps
 Gbps (gigabits per second): 1 Gbps = 1,000 Mbps
 Tbps (terabits per second): 1 Tbps = 1,000 Gbps

Applications:

Bandwidth plays a crucial role in various communication technologies:

 Internet Connection Speed: Your internet service provider (ISP) advertises bandwidth (e.g.,
50 Mbps) to indicate how much data you can download or upload per second.
 Telephone Calls: Traditional phone lines have a limited bandwidth, which restricts the quality
of voice calls.
 Video Streaming: Streaming high-definition videos requires a higher bandwidth than
streaming lower-resolution videos.

In essence, bandwidth determines how much information you can send or

receive in a given time frame.

v> Tabulate bandwidth and bit rate of various

applications
Bandwidth and Bit Rate of Various Applications
Here's a table summarizing the typical bandwidth and bit rate requirements for
various applications:

Application Description Bandwidth Range Bit Rate Range

 (Mbps) (Mbps)
Web Browsing Text-based websites 1-5 0.1-1
Scrolling through
Social Media feeds, light 2-10 1-5
image/video loading
Streaming Music Standard quality audio 1-2 0.125-1
Streaming Video Standard definition
3-5 2-5
(SD) video (e.g., 480p)
Streaming Video High definition video
5-10 5-10
(HD) (e.g., 720p)
Streaming Video Ultra high definition
25-50 25-50
(UHD) video (e.g., 4K)
Varies depending on
Online Gaming 2-20 1-20
game and complexity
Video
Standard video calls 2-5 1-5
Conferencing
Video
High definition video
Conferencing 5-10 5-10
calls
(HD)
Depends on Depends on
File Downloading large
connection connection
Downloading files
speed speed

Notes:

 These are general ranges and can vary depending on specific factors like the content being
accessed, streaming service quality settings, and network congestion.
 Bandwidth refers to the total capacity of the connection, while bit rate refers to the amount
of data used by a specific application at a given time.
 Real-time applications like video conferencing and online gaming tend to have more
consistent bit rate requirements to ensure smooth performance.

Additional Applications:

 Voice Calls (VoIP): Typically require around 64 kbps to 128 kbps.

 Video Calls (Low Quality): Can be achieved with as low as 256 kbps to 512 kbps.
 Online Backup: Can vary depending on the amount of data being uploaded, but may require
sustained bandwidth for efficient transfer.

I hope this table provides a helpful overview of bandwidth and bit rate requirements
for various applications!

v> Plot the speech spectrum.

Sure, here is the graph:
Speech SpectrumSpeech Spectrum1,0002,0003,000024681012Frequency
(Hz)Power (dB)
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
300 0
303.103 0.01
306.206 0.02
309.309 0.03
312.412 0.04
315.516 0.05
318.619 0.06
321.722 0.07
324.825 0.08
327.928 0.09
331.031 0.1
334.134 0.11
337.237 0.12
340.34 0.13
343.443 0.14
346.547 0.15
349.65 0.16
352.753 0.17
355.856 0.18
358.959 0.19
362.062 0.2
365.165 0.21
368.268 0.22
371.371 0.23
374.474 0.24
377.578 0.25
380.681 0.26
383.784 0.27
386.887 0.28
389.99 0.29
393.093 0.3
396.196 0.31
399.299 0.32
402.402 0.33
405.506 0.34
408.609 0.35
411.712 0.36
414.815 0.37
417.918 0.38
421.021 0.39
424.124 0.4
427.227 0.41
430.33 0.42
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
433.433 0.43
436.537 0.44
439.64 0.45
442.743 0.46
445.846 0.47
448.949 0.48
452.052 0.49
455.155 0.501
458.258 0.511
461.361 0.521
464.464 0.531
467.568 0.541
470.671 0.551
473.774 0.561
476.877 0.571
479.98 0.581
483.083 0.591
486.186 0.601
489.289 0.611
492.392 0.621
495.495 0.631
498.599 0.641
501.702 0.651
504.805 0.661
507.908 0.671
511.011 0.681
514.114 0.691
517.217 0.701
520.32 0.711
523.423 0.721
526.527 0.731
529.63 0.741
532.733 0.751
535.836 0.761
538.939 0.771
542.042 0.781
545.145 0.791
548.248 0.801
551.351 0.811
554.454 0.821
557.558 0.831
560.661 0.841
563.764 0.851
566.867 0.861
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
569.97 0.871
573.073 0.881
576.176 0.891
579.279 0.901
582.382 0.911
585.485 0.921
588.589 0.931
591.692 0.941
594.795 0.951
597.898 0.961
601.001 0.971
604.104 0.981
607.207 0.991
610.31 1.001
613.413 1.011
616.517 1.021
619.62 1.031
622.723 1.041
625.826 1.051
628.929 1.061
632.032 1.071
635.135 1.081
638.238 1.091
641.341 1.101
644.444 1.111
647.548 1.121
650.651 1.131
653.754 1.141
656.857 1.151
659.96 1.161
663.063 1.171
666.166 1.181
669.269 1.191
672.372 1.201
675.475 1.211
678.579 1.221
681.682 1.231
684.785 1.241
687.888 1.251
690.991 1.261
694.094 1.271
697.197 1.281
700.3 1.291
703.403 1.301
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
706.507 1.311
709.61 1.321
712.713 1.331
715.816 1.341
718.919 1.351
722.022 1.361
725.125 1.371
728.228 1.381
731.331 1.391
734.434 1.401
737.538 1.411
740.641 1.421
743.744 1.431
746.847 1.441
749.95 1.451
753.053 1.461
756.156 1.471
759.259 1.481
762.362 1.491
765.465 1.502
768.569 1.512
771.672 1.522
774.775 1.532
777.878 1.542
780.981 1.552
784.084 1.562
787.187 1.572
790.29 1.582
793.393 1.592
796.496 1.602
799.6 1.612
802.703 1.622
805.806 1.632
808.909 1.642
812.012 1.652
815.115 1.662
818.218 1.672
821.321 1.682
824.424 1.692
827.528 1.702
830.631 1.712
833.734 1.722
836.837 1.732
839.94 1.742
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
843.043 1.752
846.146 1.762
849.249 1.772
852.352 1.782
855.455 1.792
858.559 1.802
861.662 1.812
864.765 1.822
867.868 1.832
870.971 1.842
874.074 1.852
877.177 1.862
880.28 1.872
883.383 1.882
886.486 1.892
889.59 1.902
892.693 1.912
895.796 1.922
898.899 1.932
902.002 1.942
905.105 1.952
908.208 1.962
911.311 1.972
914.414 1.982
917.518 1.992
920.621 2.002
923.724 2.012
926.827 2.022
929.93 2.032
933.033 2.042
936.136 2.052
939.239 2.062
942.342 2.072
945.445 2.082
948.549 2.092
951.652 2.102
954.755 2.112
957.858 2.122
960.961 2.132
964.064 2.142
967.167 2.152
970.27 2.162
973.373 2.172
976.476 2.182
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
979.58 2.192
982.683 2.202
985.786 2.212
988.889 2.222
991.992 2.232
995.095 2.242
998.198 2.252
1,001.301 2.262
1,004.404 2.272
1,007.508 2.282
1,010.611 2.292
1,013.714 2.302
1,016.817 2.312
1,019.92 2.322
1,023.023 2.332
1,026.126 2.342
1,029.229 2.352
1,032.332 2.362
1,035.435 2.372
1,038.539 2.382
1,041.642 2.392
1,044.745 2.402
1,047.848 2.412
1,050.951 2.422
1,054.054 2.432
1,057.157 2.442
1,060.26 2.452
1,063.363 2.462
1,066.466 2.472
1,069.57 2.482
1,072.673 2.492
1,075.776 2.503
1,078.879 2.513
1,081.982 2.523
1,085.085 2.533
1,088.188 2.543
1,091.291 2.553
1,094.394 2.563
1,097.497 2.573
1,100.601 2.583
1,103.704 2.593
1,106.807 2.603
1,109.91 2.613
1,113.013 2.623
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
1,116.116 2.633
1,119.219 2.643
1,122.322 2.653
1,125.425 2.663
1,128.529 2.673
1,131.632 2.683
1,134.735 2.693
1,137.838 2.703
1,140.941 2.713
1,144.044 2.723
1,147.147 2.733
1,150.25 2.743
1,153.353 2.753
1,156.456 2.763
1,159.56 2.773
1,162.663 2.783
1,165.766 2.793
1,168.869 2.803
1,171.972 2.813
1,175.075 2.823
1,178.178 2.833
1,181.281 2.843
1,184.384 2.853
1,187.487 2.863
1,190.591 2.873
1,193.694 2.883
1,196.797 2.893
1,199.9 2.903
1,203.003 2.913
1,206.106 2.923
1,209.209 2.933
1,212.312 2.943
1,215.415 2.953
1,218.519 2.963
1,221.622 2.973
1,224.725 2.983
1,227.828 2.993
1,230.931 3.003
1,234.034 3.013
1,237.137 3.023
1,240.24 3.033
1,243.343 3.043
1,246.446 3.053
1,249.55 3.063
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
1,252.653 3.073
1,255.756 3.083
1,258.859 3.093
1,261.962 3.103
1,265.065 3.113
1,268.168 3.123
1,271.271 3.133
1,274.374 3.143
1,277.477 3.153
1,280.581 3.163
1,283.684 3.173
1,286.787 3.183
1,289.89 3.193
1,292.993 3.203
1,296.096 3.213
1,299.199 3.223
1,302.302 3.233
1,305.405 3.243
1,308.509 3.253
1,311.612 3.263
1,314.715 3.273
1,317.818 3.283
1,320.921 3.293
1,324.024 3.303
1,327.127 3.313
1,330.23 3.323
1,333.333 3.333
1,336.436 3.343
1,339.54 3.353
1,342.643 3.363
1,345.746 3.373
1,348.849 3.383
1,351.952 3.393
1,355.055 3.403
1,358.158 3.413
1,361.261 3.423
1,364.364 3.433
1,367.467 3.443
1,370.571 3.453
1,373.674 3.463
1,376.777 3.473
1,379.88 3.483
1,382.983 3.493
1,386.086 3.504
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
1,389.189 3.514
1,392.292 3.524
1,395.395 3.534
1,398.498 3.544
1,401.602 3.554
1,404.705 3.564
1,407.808 3.574
1,410.911 3.584
1,414.014 3.594
1,417.117 3.604
1,420.22 3.614
1,423.323 3.624
1,426.426 3.634
1,429.53 3.644
1,432.633 3.654
1,435.736 3.664
1,438.839 3.674
1,441.942 3.684
1,445.045 3.694
1,448.148 3.704
1,451.251 3.714
1,454.354 3.724
1,457.457 3.734
1,460.561 3.744
1,463.664 3.754
1,466.767 3.764
1,469.87 3.774
1,472.973 3.784
1,476.076 3.794
1,479.179 3.804
1,482.282 3.814
1,485.385 3.824
1,488.488 3.834
1,491.592 3.844
1,494.695 3.854
1,497.798 3.864
1,500.901 3.874
1,504.004 3.884
1,507.107 3.894
1,510.21 3.904
1,513.313 3.914
1,516.416 3.924
1,519.52 3.934
1,522.623 3.944
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
1,525.726 3.954
1,528.829 3.964
1,531.932 3.974
1,535.035 3.984
1,538.138 3.994
1,541.241 4.004
1,544.344 4.014
1,547.447 4.024
1,550.551 4.034
1,553.654 4.044
1,556.757 4.054
1,559.86 4.064
1,562.963 4.074
1,566.066 4.084
1,569.169 4.094
1,572.272 4.104
1,575.375 4.114
1,578.478 4.124
1,581.582 4.134
1,584.685 4.144
1,587.788 4.154
1,590.891 4.164
1,593.994 4.174
1,597.097 4.184
1,600.2 4.194
1,603.303 4.204
1,606.406 4.214
1,609.51 4.224
1,612.613 4.234
1,615.716 4.244
1,618.819 4.254
1,621.922 4.264
1,625.025 4.274
1,628.128 4.284
1,631.231 4.294
1,634.334 4.304
1,637.437 4.314
1,640.541 4.324
1,643.644 4.334
1,646.747 4.344
1,649.85 4.354
1,652.953 4.364
1,656.056 4.374
1,659.159 4.384
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
1,662.262 4.394
1,665.365 4.404
1,668.468 4.414
1,671.572 4.424
1,674.675 4.434
1,677.778 4.444
1,680.881 4.454
1,683.984 4.464
1,687.087 4.474
1,690.19 4.484
1,693.293 4.494
1,696.396 4.505
1,699.499 4.515
1,702.603 4.525
1,705.706 4.535
1,708.809 4.545
1,711.912 4.555
1,715.015 4.565
1,718.118 4.575
1,721.221 4.585
1,724.324 4.595
1,727.427 4.605
1,730.531 4.615
1,733.634 4.625
1,736.737 4.635
1,739.84 4.645
1,742.943 4.655
1,746.046 4.665
1,749.149 4.675
1,752.252 4.685
1,755.355 4.695
1,758.458 4.705
1,761.562 4.715
1,764.665 4.725
1,767.768 4.735
1,770.871 4.745
1,773.974 4.755
1,777.077 4.765
1,780.18 4.775
1,783.283 4.785
1,786.386 4.795
1,789.489 4.805
1,792.593 4.815
1,795.696 4.825
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
1,798.799 4.835
1,801.902 4.845
1,805.005 4.855
1,808.108 4.865
1,811.211 4.875
1,814.314 4.885
1,817.417 4.895
1,820.521 4.905
1,823.624 4.915
1,826.727 4.925
1,829.83 4.935
1,832.933 4.945
1,836.036 4.955
1,839.139 4.965
1,842.242 4.975
1,845.345 4.985
1,848.448 4.995
1,851.552 5.005
1,854.655 5.015
1,857.758 5.025
1,860.861 5.035
1,863.964 5.045
1,867.067 5.055
1,870.17 5.065
1,873.273 5.075
1,876.376 5.085
1,879.479 5.095
1,882.583 5.105
1,885.686 5.115
1,888.789 5.125
1,891.892 5.135
1,894.995 5.145
1,898.098 5.155
1,901.201 5.165
1,904.304 5.175
1,907.407 5.185
1,910.511 5.195
1,913.614 5.205
1,916.717 5.215
1,919.82 5.225
1,922.923 5.235
1,926.026 5.245
1,929.129 5.255
1,932.232 5.265
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
1,935.335 5.275
1,938.438 5.285
1,941.542 5.295
1,944.645 5.305
1,947.748 5.315
1,950.851 5.325
1,953.954 5.335
1,957.057 5.345
1,960.16 5.355
1,963.263 5.365
1,966.366 5.375
1,969.469 5.385
1,972.573 5.395
1,975.676 5.405
1,978.779 5.415
1,981.882 5.425
1,984.985 5.435
1,988.088 5.445
1,991.191 5.455
1,994.294 5.465
1,997.397 5.475
2,000.501 5.485
2,003.604 5.495
2,006.707 5.506
2,009.81 5.516
2,012.913 5.526
2,016.016 5.536
2,019.119 5.546
2,022.222 5.556
2,025.325 5.566
2,028.428 5.576
2,031.532 5.586
2,034.635 5.596
2,037.738 5.606
2,040.841 5.616
2,043.944 5.626
2,047.047 5.636
2,050.15 5.646
2,053.253 5.656
2,056.356 5.666
2,059.459 5.676
2,062.563 5.686
2,065.666 5.696
2,068.769 5.706
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
2,071.872 5.716
2,074.975 5.726
2,078.078 5.736
2,081.181 5.746
2,084.284 5.756
2,087.387 5.766
2,090.49 5.776
2,093.594 5.786
2,096.697 5.796
2,099.8 5.806
2,102.903 5.816
2,106.006 5.826
2,109.109 5.836
2,112.212 5.846
2,115.315 5.856
2,118.418 5.866
2,121.522 5.876
2,124.625 5.886
2,127.728 5.896
2,130.831 5.906
2,133.934 5.916
2,137.037 5.926
2,140.14 5.936
2,143.243 5.946
2,146.346 5.956
2,149.449 5.966
2,152.553 5.976
2,155.656 5.986
2,158.759 5.996
2,161.862 6.006
2,164.965 6.016
2,168.068 6.026
2,171.171 6.036
2,174.274 6.046
2,177.377 6.056
2,180.48 6.066
2,183.584 6.076
2,186.687 6.086
2,189.79 6.096
2,192.893 6.106
2,195.996 6.116
2,199.099 6.126
2,202.202 6.136
2,205.305 6.146
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
2,208.408 6.156
2,211.512 6.166
2,214.615 6.176
2,217.718 6.186
2,220.821 6.196
2,223.924 6.206
2,227.027 6.216
2,230.13 6.226
2,233.233 6.236
2,236.336 6.246
2,239.439 6.256
2,242.543 6.266
2,245.646 6.276
2,248.749 6.286
2,251.852 6.296
2,254.955 6.306
2,258.058 6.316
2,261.161 6.326
2,264.264 6.336
2,267.367 6.346
2,270.47 6.356
2,273.574 6.366
2,276.677 6.376
2,279.78 6.386
2,282.883 6.396
2,285.986 6.406
2,289.089 6.416
2,292.192 6.426
2,295.295 6.436
2,298.398 6.446
2,301.502 6.456
2,304.605 6.466
2,307.708 6.476
2,310.811 6.486
2,313.914 6.496
2,317.017 6.507
2,320.12 6.517
2,323.223 6.527
2,326.326 6.537
2,329.429 6.547
2,332.533 6.557
2,335.636 6.567
2,338.739 6.577
2,341.842 6.587
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
2,344.945 6.597
2,348.048 6.607
2,351.151 6.617
2,354.254 6.627
2,357.357 6.637
2,360.46 6.647
2,363.564 6.657
2,366.667 6.667
2,369.77 6.677
2,372.873 6.687
2,375.976 6.697
2,379.079 6.707
2,382.182 6.717
2,385.285 6.727
2,388.388 6.737
2,391.491 6.747
2,394.595 6.757
2,397.698 6.767
2,400.801 6.777
2,403.904 6.787
2,407.007 6.797
2,410.11 6.807
2,413.213 6.817
2,416.316 6.827
2,419.419 6.837
2,422.523 6.847
2,425.626 6.857
2,428.729 6.867
2,431.832 6.877
2,434.935 6.887
2,438.038 6.897
2,441.141 6.907
2,444.244 6.917
2,447.347 6.927
2,450.45 6.937
2,453.554 6.947
2,456.657 6.957
2,459.76 6.967
2,462.863 6.977
2,465.966 6.987
2,469.069 6.997
2,472.172 7.007
2,475.275 7.017
2,478.378 7.027
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
2,481.481 7.037
2,484.585 7.047
2,487.688 7.057
2,490.791 7.067
2,493.894 7.077
2,496.997 7.087
2,500.1 7.097
2,503.203 7.107
2,506.306 7.117
2,509.409 7.127
2,512.513 7.137
2,515.616 7.147
2,518.719 7.157
2,521.822 7.167
2,524.925 7.177
2,528.028 7.187
2,531.131 7.197
2,534.234 7.207
2,537.337 7.217
2,540.44 7.227
2,543.544 7.237
2,546.647 7.247
2,549.75 7.257
2,552.853 7.267
2,555.956 7.277
2,559.059 7.287
2,562.162 7.297
2,565.265 7.307
2,568.368 7.317
2,571.471 7.327
2,574.575 7.337
2,577.678 7.347
2,580.781 7.357
2,583.884 7.367
2,586.987 7.377
2,590.09 7.387
2,593.193 7.397
2,596.296 7.407
2,599.399 7.417
2,602.503 7.427
2,605.606 7.437
2,608.709 7.447
2,611.812 7.457
2,614.915 7.467
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
2,618.018 7.477
2,621.121 7.487
2,624.224 7.497
2,627.327 7.508
2,630.43 7.518
2,633.534 7.528
2,636.637 7.538
2,639.74 7.548
2,642.843 7.558
2,645.946 7.568
2,649.049 7.578
2,652.152 7.588
2,655.255 7.598
2,658.358 7.608
2,661.461 7.618
2,664.565 7.628
2,667.668 7.638
2,670.771 7.648
2,673.874 7.658
2,676.977 7.668
2,680.08 7.678
2,683.183 7.688
2,686.286 7.698
2,689.389 7.708
2,692.492 7.718
2,695.596 7.728
2,698.699 7.738
2,701.802 7.748
2,704.905 7.758
2,708.008 7.768
2,711.111 7.778
2,714.214 7.788
2,717.317 7.798
2,720.42 7.808
2,723.524 7.818
2,726.627 7.828
2,729.73 7.838
2,732.833 7.848
2,735.936 7.858
2,739.039 7.868
2,742.142 7.878
2,745.245 7.888
2,748.348 7.898
2,751.451 7.908
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
2,754.555 7.918
2,757.658 7.928
2,760.761 7.938
2,763.864 7.948
2,766.967 7.958
2,770.07 7.968
2,773.173 7.978
2,776.276 7.988
2,779.379 7.998
2,782.482 8.008
2,785.586 8.018
2,788.689 8.028
2,791.792 8.038
2,794.895 8.048
2,797.998 8.058
2,801.101 8.068
2,804.204 8.078
2,807.307 8.088
2,810.41 8.098
2,813.514 8.108
2,816.617 8.118
2,819.72 8.128
2,822.823 8.138
2,825.926 8.148
2,829.029 8.158
2,832.132 8.168
2,835.235 8.178
2,838.338 8.188
2,841.441 8.198
2,844.545 8.208
2,847.648 8.218
2,850.751 8.228
2,853.854 8.238
2,856.957 8.248
2,860.06 8.258
2,863.163 8.268
2,866.266 8.278
2,869.369 8.288
2,872.472 8.298
2,875.576 8.308
2,878.679 8.318
2,881.782 8.328
2,884.885 8.338
2,887.988 8.348
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
2,891.091 8.358
2,894.194 8.368
2,897.297 8.378
2,900.4 8.388
2,903.504 8.398
2,906.607 8.408
2,909.71 8.418
2,912.813 8.428
2,915.916 8.438
2,919.019 8.448
2,922.122 8.458
2,925.225 8.468
2,928.328 8.478
2,931.431 8.488
2,934.535 8.498
2,937.638 8.509
2,940.741 8.519
2,943.844 8.529
2,946.947 8.539
2,950.05 8.549
2,953.153 8.559
2,956.256 8.569
2,959.359 8.579
2,962.462 8.589
2,965.566 8.599
2,968.669 8.609
2,971.772 8.619
2,974.875 8.629
2,977.978 8.639
2,981.081 8.649
2,984.184 8.659
2,987.287 8.669
2,990.39 8.679
2,993.493 8.689
2,996.597 8.699
2,999.7 8.709
3,002.803 8.719
3,005.906 8.729
3,009.009 8.739
3,012.112 8.749
3,015.215 8.759
3,018.318 8.769
3,021.421 8.779
3,024.525 8.789
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
3,027.628 8.799
3,030.731 8.809
3,033.834 8.819
3,036.937 8.829
3,040.04 8.839
3,043.143 8.849
3,046.246 8.859
3,049.349 8.869
3,052.452 8.879
3,055.556 8.889
3,058.659 8.899
3,061.762 8.909
3,064.865 8.919
3,067.968 8.929
3,071.071 8.939
3,074.174 8.949
3,077.277 8.959
3,080.38 8.969
3,083.483 8.979
3,086.587 8.989
3,089.69 8.999
3,092.793 9.009
3,095.896 9.019
3,098.999 9.029
3,102.102 9.039
3,105.205 9.049
3,108.308 9.059
3,111.411 9.069
3,114.515 9.079
3,117.618 9.089
3,120.721 9.099
3,123.824 9.109
3,126.927 9.119
3,130.03 9.129
3,133.133 9.139
3,136.236 9.149
3,139.339 9.159
3,142.442 9.169
3,145.546 9.179
3,148.649 9.189
3,151.752 9.199
3,154.855 9.209
3,157.958 9.219
3,161.061 9.229
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
3,164.164 9.239
3,167.267 9.249
3,170.37 9.259
3,173.473 9.269
3,176.577 9.279
3,179.68 9.289
3,182.783 9.299
3,185.886 9.309
3,188.989 9.319
3,192.092 9.329
3,195.195 9.339
3,198.298 9.349
3,201.401 9.359
3,204.505 9.369
3,207.608 9.379
3,210.711 9.389
3,213.814 9.399
3,216.917 9.409
3,220.02 9.419
3,223.123 9.429
3,226.226 9.439
3,229.329 9.449
3,232.432 9.459
3,235.536 9.469
3,238.639 9.479
3,241.742 9.489
3,244.845 9.499
3,247.948 9.51
3,251.051 9.52
3,254.154 9.53
3,257.257 9.54
3,260.36 9.55
3,263.463 9.56
3,266.567 9.57
3,269.67 9.58
3,272.773 9.59
3,275.876 9.6
3,278.979 9.61
3,282.082 9.62
3,285.185 9.63
3,288.288 9.64
3,291.391 9.65
3,294.494 9.66
3,297.598 9.67
Frequency (Hz) Speech Spectrum
3,300.701 9.68
3,303.804 9.69
3,306.907 9.7
3,310.01 9.71
3,313.113 9.72
3,316.216 9.73
3,319.319 9.74
3,322.422 9.75
3,325.526 9.76
3,328.629 9.77
3,331.732 9.78
3,334.835 9.79
3,337.938 9.8
3,341.041 9.81
3,344.144 9.82
3,347.247 9.83
3,350.35 9.84
3,353.453 9.85
3,356.557 9.86
3,359.66 9.87
3,362.763 9.88
3,365.866 9.89
3,368.969 9.9
3,372.072 9.91
3,375.175 9.92
3,378.278 9.93
3,381.381 9.94
3,384.484 9.95
3,387.588 9.96
3,390.691 9.97
3,393.794 9.98
3,396.897 9.99
3,400 10
Show the code behind this result

v> Define decibel.

A decibel (dB) is a unit used to express the relative intensity of sound or another type
of signal. It's a logarithmic unit, meaning it represents ratios of power or intensity
rather than absolute values. Here's a breakdown of the concept:

Why Decibels?
Our ears don't perceive sound intensity linearly. A small increase in sound power can
result in a much larger perceived change in loudness. Decibels account for this by
using a logarithmic scale that reflects how our ears respond to sound pressure
variations.

Reference Point:

The decibel scale has a reference point of 0 dB, which is typically defined as the
weakest sound a human with normal hearing can perceive. This doesn't necessarily
mean there's no sound at 0 dB, but it's the quietest sound we can typically detect.

Relative Changes:

Decibels express changes in sound intensity relative to this reference point. For
example, an increase of 10 dB represents a tenfold increase in sound power, but it
might not sound twice as loud because of the logarithmic nature of the scale.

Applications:

Decibels are widely used in various fields to measure and express sound intensity:

 Audio Engineering: Mixing sound for music, movies, and video games often involves
manipulating decibel levels to achieve the desired balance and avoid distortion.
 Noise Control: Regulations and guidelines use decibel limits to control noise pollution and
protect hearing health.
 Acoustics: Studying sound behavior in different environments involves measuring and
analyzing sound pressure levels in decibels.

Beyond Sound:

While commonly used for sound, decibels can also be used to express relative
changes in other quantities like electrical signals, voltage levels, or even light
intensity.

In essence, decibels provide a convenient and meaningful way to express how

intense a sound or signal is relative to a reference point.

v> What are the elements of telecommunication

systems?
Telecommunication systems rely on several key elements working together to
facilitate information exchange over long distances. Here are the fundamental
components:

1.
Transmitter: This is the element that originates the signal you want to
communicate. It takes information, like your voice in a phone call or digital
data from a computer, and converts it into a form suitable for transmission
over a communication channel. Examples include microphones for voice,
modems for digital data, and video cameras for visual information.

2.
3.

Transmission Medium: This is the physical pathway through which the

converted signal travels from the transmitter to the receiver. Some common
transmission media include:

4.

o Wired Media: Copper cables (coaxial cables, twisted-pair cables) and fiber optic
cables.
o Wireless Media: Radio waves, microwaves, and satellites.

5.

Receiver: This is the element that receives the transmitted signal and converts
it back into its original form for interpretation by the user. Examples include
speakers for audio, network cards for digital data, and display screens for
video information.

6.
7.

Protocols: These are sets of rules and specifications that govern how data is
formatted, transmitted, and received. Protocols ensure that different devices
within the network can communicate with each other efficiently and avoid
data corruption. Common protocols include TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) for internet communication and various wireless
communication protocols like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

8.
9.

Signal Processing (Optional): In some telecommunication systems,

additional processing might be involved between the transmitter and receiver.
This could involve:

10.

o Amplification: Boosting the signal strength to overcome transmission losses over

long distances.
o Filtering: Removing unwanted noise or interference from the signal.
o Data Compression: Reducing the amount of data to be transmitted for more
efficient communication.
Additional Considerations:

 Repeaters: In long-distance wired communication, signal strength can degrade over distance.
Repeaters are devices that receive a weakened signal, amplify it, and retransmit it to
maintain signal integrity.
 Switches and Routers: In complex networks, these devices direct data packets along the
most efficient routes to their intended destinations.

By working together, these elements enable the reliable transmission of information

across vast distances, forming the foundation of our modern communication
infrastructure.

9. What is meant by GOS ?

In telecommunication systems, GOS stands for Grade of Service. It refers to the
quality of service experienced by users of the network. Here's a breakdown of the
concept:

Metrics for GOS:

GOS can be measured using various metrics depending on the specific network and
application. Some common metrics include:

 Blocking Probability: The likelihood of a call or data transmission attempt being blocked due
to all channels being busy. This reflects network congestion and how often users might
encounter delays or failed connections.
 Call Completion Rate: The percentage of calls successfully completed without being dropped
or interrupted.
 Average Call Setup Time: The average time it takes to establish a connection between two
parties.
 Packet Loss Rate: The percentage of data packets that don't reach their destination due to
transmission errors or network congestion.
 End-to-End Delay: The time it takes for data to travel from the sender to the receiver,
including processing delays and transmission time.

Importance of GOS:

A good GOS is essential for user satisfaction. Users expect reliable and timely
communication, and poor GOS can lead to frustration, inefficiency, and lost
productivity.

Network Design and Management:

Network designers and managers strive to optimize GOS by:

 Provisioning adequate capacity: Ensuring enough channels or bandwidth are available to

handle the expected traffic volume.
  Implementing traffic shaping and prioritization: Managing data flow to prioritize critical
applications and avoid congestion.
 Monitoring and troubleshooting: Continuously monitoring network performance and taking
corrective actions to address any issues that might degrade GOS.

Understanding GOS helps us evaluate the effectiveness of a telecommunication

system in meeting user needs and delivering a high-quality communication
experience.

9. How the GOS can be expressed ?

The Grade of Service (GOS) in a telecommunication system can be expressed in
several ways, depending on the specific network and the aspect of service quality
being measured. Here are some common methods:

1. Probability:

Blocking Probability: This is a common way to express GOS, particularly for

voice calls. It represents the likelihood of a call attempt being blocked because
all channels are busy. It's typically expressed as a percentage (e.g., 1%
blocking probability means 1 out of 100 calls might be blocked).




Packet Loss Rate: In data networks, this metric indicates the percentage of
data packets that don't reach their destination due to errors or congestion. It's
also expressed as a percentage.

2. Ratio:

 Call Completion Rate: This metric, expressed as a percentage, indicates the proportion of
calls that are successfully completed without being dropped or interrupted. A higher call
completion rate signifies better GOS.

3. Time:

Average Call Setup Time: This metric represents the average time it takes to
establish a connection between two parties in a call. A faster setup time
indicates a more responsive network and contributes to a better GOS.
 


End-to-End Delay: This metric measures the total time it takes for data to
travel from the sender to the receiver, including processing delays and
transmission time. Lower end-to-end delay translates to faster and more
responsive communication, improving GOS.

4. Additional Metrics:

 Jitter: In voice and video calls, jitter refers to the variation in the delay between packets.
Excessive jitter can cause choppy audio or video, impacting the perceived quality of service.
 Mean Opinion Score (MOS): This subjective metric uses human testers to rate the quality of
voice calls on a scale (e.g., 1-5). It provides a more qualitative measure of user experience.

Choosing the Right Expression:

The most appropriate way to express GOS depends on the specific context and what
aspect of service quality is most important. For instance, blocking probability is a key
metric for call centers, while packet loss rate is crucial for data transfer reliability.

In summary, GOS can be expressed as probabilities, ratios, times, or even

subjective ratings depending on the specific network and the aspect of service
quality being measured.

9. Explain briefly with neat diagrams, the

centralized switching and distributed
switching.
Centralized Switching vs. Distributed
Switching
Centralized and distributed switching are two architectures for managing data flow
within a network. Here's a breakdown with diagrams:

Centralized Switching:

In centralized switching, all switching decisions are made by a single central switch or
controller. This switch receives data from all connected devices and determines the
most efficient route for it to reach its destination.

Diagram:
 Device A Device B Device C
| | |
+------+ +------+ +------+
| | | | | |
| Switch| | Switch| | Switch|
| | | | | |
+------+ +------+ +------+
| |
Centralized Network Core
Switch
|
+-------+
| Router |
+-------+
|
Internet

Pros:

 Simpler to set up and manage.

 Easier to troubleshoot issues.

Cons:

 Single point of failure: If the central switch fails, the entire network can be disrupted.
 Bottleneck: All traffic flows through the central switch, which can become overloaded as the
network grows.
 Limited scalability: Adding more devices can strain the central switch's capacity.

Distributed Switching:

In distributed switching, the switching decisions are spread across multiple switching
units distributed throughout the network. Each switch has some intelligence and
makes forwarding decisions based on routing tables or learning algorithms.

Diagram:

Device A Device B Device C

| | |
+------+ +------+ +------+
| | | | | |
| Switch|-------+ Switch|-------+ Switch|
| | | | | |
+------+ +------+ +------+
| | |
Distributed Network Core
Switches (optional)
| |
+-------+ +-------+
| Router | | Router |
+-------+ +-------+
| |
Internet

Pros:
  More scalable: Can handle a larger number of devices without overloading a single switch.
 More fault-tolerant: If one switch fails, other switches can still route traffic.
 Improves performance: Reduces traffic congestion by distributing load across multiple
switches.

Cons:

 More complex to set up and manage.

 Troubleshooting issues can be more challenging.

In essence, centralized switching is simpler but less scalable, while distributed

switching offers better scalability and fault tolerance but is more complex. The
choice between the two depends on the specific needs of the network.

Compare with neat sketch. the AT T and CCITT

hierarchical structure and explain
Sure, here are the slides comparing the AT&T and CCITT hierarchical structures with
neat sketches and explanations:

Slide 1
AT&T and CCITT Hierarchical Structures

Speaker Notes In this presentation, we will compare and contrast the hierarchical
structures of two major telecommunication organizations: AT&T (American
Telephone and Telegraph) and CCITT (International Telegraph and Telephone
Consultative Committee). Both played a significant role in shaping the development
of telecommunication standards and infrastructure during the 20th century.

Slide 2
AT&T Hierarchical Structure

 Top Level: Long Distance

 Second Level: Toll Centers
 Third Level: Class 5 Offices
 Fourth Level: Customer Premises

Speaker Notes AT&T employed a centralized hierarchical structure. Here's a

breakdown of the levels:

 Long Distance: This top level managed long-distance communication between geographically
separated regions.
  Toll Centers: These centers handled toll calls (calls with charges) and routed them to the
appropriate destinations within the network.
 Class 5 Offices: These local offices provided connections between customer telephone lines
and the toll network.
 Customer Premises: This bottom level represents individual subscribers and their telephone
equipment.

Slide 3
CCITT Hierarchical Structure

 Top Level: Countries

 Middle Level: Administrations
 Bottom Level: Users

Speaker Notes The CCITT adopted a more decentralized hierarchical structure:

 Countries: Individual member countries of the CCITT were responsible for their
telecommunication infrastructure and regulations.
 Administrations: Within each country, telecommunication administrations (often national
PTTs - Postal, Telegraph, and Telephone companies) managed and operated the network.
 Users: This bottom level represents individual subscribers and their telecommunication
equipment.

Slide 4
Comparison: Centralization vs. Decentralization

 AT&T (Centralized)

o Simple Management
o Single Point of Failure
o Limited Scalability

 CCITT (Decentralized)

o Flexible and Adaptable

o More Complex Management
o Improved Scalability

Speaker Notes The key difference lies in the degree of centralization:

 AT&T: The centralized structure offered simpler management but was less adaptable to
diverse regional needs and had a single point of failure if the central component
malfunctioned.
 CCITT: The decentralized structure provided more flexibility for individual countries but came
with increased management complexity. However, it offered better scalability to
accommodate growth and diverse network requirements.

Slide 5
Conclusion

 Both AT&T and CCITT structures played a crucial role

 Standards facilitated interconnectivity
 Evolution towards more distributed models

Speaker Notes In conclusion, both AT&T's centralized and CCITT's decentralized

structures played a vital role in the development of telecommunication networks. The
adoption of standards by these organizations facilitated interconnectivity between
different networks and regions. As technology advanced, telecommunication
structures have generally evolved towards more distributed models to accommodate
the ever-increasing complexity and global reach of communication networks.

List the national level standards bodies in

telecommunications(Zimbabwe)
Unfortunately, there isn't a single definitive resource to identify the national level
standards body for telecommunications in Zimbabwe. However, I can provide you
with some pointers to help you in your search:

Government Ministries:

o Look for ministries related to Information Communication Technology (ICT) or

Telecommunications within the Zimbabwean government. These ministries might
be responsible for setting or overseeing telecommunication standards. You can
explore the websites of relevant ministries to see if they maintain a list of standards
bodies.

Regulatory Bodies:

o Zimbabwe likely has a regulatory body overseeing the telecommunication industry.

These bodies often work with or reference standards set by national standards
organizations. Try searching for telecommunication regulatory bodies in Zimbabwe.
Their websites might mention the relevant standards body.

International Affiliations:
 

o Zimbabwe might be a member of international organizations like the International

Telecommunication Union (ITU). These organizations often collaborate with national
standards bodies. You can search the ITU website for member countries in Africa
and explore their telecommunication landscape.

Industry Associations:

o Look for telecommunication industry associations in Zimbabwe. These associations

might have information on relevant standards bodies or might even set their own
industry-specific standards.

Here are some resources to get you started:

 Government of Zimbabwe website: https://zim.gov.zw/

 International Telecommunication Union (ITU): https://www.itu.int/

By exploring these resources, you should be able to identify the national level
standards body for telecommunications in Zimbabwe, if one exists.

what about POTRAZ

Show drafts

You're absolutely right about POTRAZ! Based on the information we previously

discussed, here's why POTRAZ is likely the relevant national level standards body for
telecommunications in Zimbabwe:

 Acronym and Focus: POTRAZ stands for Postal and Telecommunications Regulatory
Authority of Zimbabwe. Its focus on both postal and telecommunications suggests it might
oversee both sectors, potentially including setting or overseeing telecommunication
standards.
 Government Authority: As a government regulatory authority, POTRAZ is likely responsible
for regulating the telecommunication industry in Zimbabwe. This often includes setting or
referencing standards to ensure quality and compatibility within the network.

Here's how you can confirm this:

 POTRAZ Website: Visit the official POTRAZ website (https://www.potraz.gov.zw/). Look for
sections related to "standards," "regulations," or "technical specifications." These sections
might explicitly mention POTRAZ's role in setting or overseeing telecommunication
standards.
  Legal Documents: Look for official documents published by POTRAZ related to
telecommunications regulations or standards. These documents might explicitly state
POTRAZ's authority in this area.

By exploring these resources, you should be able to confirm whether POTRAZ is

indeed the national level standards body for telecommunications in Zimbabwe.