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Applied Electricity - Lecture notes 1-9

APPLIED ELECTRICITY (University of Mines and Technology)

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(EL, MC 151)
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SOLOMON NUNOO
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Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
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University of Mines and Technology
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August, 2010
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Applied Electricity Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE

CHAPTER 1 CIRCUIT LAWS 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Ohm’s Law 1
1.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 1
1.4 Kirchhoff’s Current Law 2
1.5 Circuit Elements in Series 2
1.6 Circuit Elements in Parallel 4
1.7 Voltage Division 5
1.8 Current Division 6
1.9 Network Reduction 7
1.10 Electrical Power and Energy 7
1.10.1 Electrical Power 7
1.10.2 Electrical Energy 8
1.11 Problems 9
1.11.1 Ohm’s Law 9
1.11.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws 10
1.11.3 Power and Energy 11

CHAPTER 2 CIRCUIT THEOREMS (ANALYSIS METHODS) 13

2.1 The Branch Current Method 13

2.2 The Mesh Current Method 13
2.3 The Node Voltage Method 15
2.4 Superposition Theorem 16
2.5 Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorems 18
2.6 ∆-Y and Y-∆ Conversions 19
2.7 Problems 23
2.7.1 Superposition Theorem 23
2.7.2 Thévenin’s Theorem 24
2.7.3 Norton’s Theorem 24

CHAPTER 3 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 25

3.1 Electrostatic Field 25

3.2 Electric field strength 26
3.3 Capacitance 26
3.4 Capacitors 27
3.5 Electric Flux Density 27
3.6 Permittivity 28
3.7 The Parallel Plate Capacitor 28
3.8 Capacitors Connected in Parallel and Series 29
3.8.1 Capacitors Connected in Parallel 29
3.8.2 Capacitors Connected in Series 30

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Applied Electricity Table of Contents

3.9 Dielectric Strength 31

3.10 Energy Stored 31
3.11 Practical Types of Capacitor 31
3.11.1 Variable Air Capacitors 31
3.11.2 Mica Capacitors 32
3.11.3 Paper Capacitors 32
3.11.4 Ceramic Capacitors 32
3.11.5 Plastic Capacitors 33
3.11.6 Titanium Oxide Capacitors 34
3.11.7 Electrolytic Capacitors 34
3.12 Discharging Capacitors 34
3.13 Problems 34
3.13.1 Charge and Capacitance 34
3.13.2 Electric Field Strength, Electric Flux Density and Permittivity 35
3.13.3 Parallel Plate Capacitor 35
3.13.4 Capacitors in Parallel and Series 36
3.13.5 Energy Stored 36

CHAPTER 4 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 38

4.1 Magnetic Fields 38

4.2 Magnetic Flux and Flux Density 39
4.3 Magnetomotive Force and Magnetic Field Strength 39
4.4 Permeability and B-H curves 40
4.5 Reluctance 41
4.6 Composite Series Magnetic Circuits 41
4.7 Comparison between Electrical and Magnetic Quantities 41
4.8 Hysteresis and Hysteresis Loss 42
4.9 Problems 42
4.9.1 Magnetic Circuit Quantities 42
4.9.2 Composite Series Magnetic Circuits 43

CHAPTER 5 ELECTROMAGNETISM 45

5.1 Magnetic Field due to an Electric Current 45

5.2 Electromagnets 47
5.2.1 Electric Bell 47
5.2.2 Relay 48
5.2.3 Lifting Magnet 48
5.2.4 Telephone Receiver 49
5.3 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor 49
5.4 Force on a Charge 51
5.5 Problems 51
5.5.1 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor 51
5.5.2 Force on a Charge 52

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Applied Electricity Table of Contents

CHAPTER 6 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 53

6.1 Introduction 53
6.2 Laws of Electromagnetic Induction 53
6.3 Inductance 55
6.4 Inductors 56
6.5 Energy Stored 57
6.6 Inductance of a Coil 58
6.7 Mutual Inductance 58
6.8 Problems 59
6.8.1 Induced emf 59
6.8.2 Inductance 59
6.8.3 Energy Stored 60
6.8.4 Inductance of a Coil 60
6.8.5 Mutual Inductance 60

CHAPTER 7 ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 62

7.1 Introduction 62
7.2 The AC Generator 62
7.3 Waveforms 63
7.4 AC Values 64
7.5 Equation of a Sinusoidal Waveform 65
7.6 Combination of Waveforms 66
7.7 Rectification 66
7.8 Problems 68
7.8.1 Frequency and Periodic Time 68
7.8.2 AC Values of Non-Sinusoidal Waveforms 68
7.8.3 AC Values of Sinusoidal Waveforms 68
7.8.4 Combination of Periodic Functions 69

CHAPTER 8 FUNDAMENTALS OF ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS 70

8.1 AC Through Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance 70

8.1.1 Purely Resistive AC Circuits 70
8.1.2 Purely Inductive AC Circuits 70
8.1.3 Purely Capacitive AC Circuits 70
8.2 Series AC Circuits 71
8.2.1 R-L Series Circuits 71
8.2.2 R-C Series Circuits 72
8.2.3 R-L Series Circuits 72
8.2.4 Series Resonance 73
8.2.5 Power in AC Circuits 73
8.2.6 Power Triangle and Power Factor 74
8.3 Parallel AC Circuit 75
8.3.1 R-L Parallel AC Circuits 75
8.3.2 R-C Parallel AC Circuits 76
8.3.3 L-C Parallel AC Circuits 76

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Applied Electricity Table of Contents

8.4 Power Factor Improvement 77

8.5 Problems 77

CHAPTER 9 SIGNAL WAVEFORMS 78

9.1 Introduction 78
9.2 Step Function 78
9.3 The Impulse 79
9.4 Ramp Function 79
9.5 Sinusoidal Function 80
9.6 Decaying Exponential 80
9.7 Time Constant 81
9.8 DC Signal 81

CHAPTER 9 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL MACHINES 82

10.1 Introduction 82
10.2 Transformers 82
10.2.1 Constructional Features 82
10.2.2 Principle of Operation 84
10.2.3 Three-phase Transformer Connections 86
10.3 DC Machines 86
10.3.1 Constructional Features 86
10.3.2 Principle of Operation of DC Generators 90
10.3.3 Emf Equation 91
10.3.4 Characteristics of DC Generators 93
10.3.5 Types of DC Generators 93
10.3.6 Principle of Operation of DC Motors 96
10.3.7 Torque Equation 98
10.3.8 Characteristics of a DC Motor 99
10.4 Induction Motors 101
10.4.1 Constructional Features of 3-phase Induction Motors 101
10.4.2 Principle of Operation 103
10.4.3 Torque Development 104
10.4.4 Single-phase Induction Motors 106
10.5 Synchronous Machines 107
10.5.1 Constructional Features 108
10.5.2 Principle of Generator Operation 109
10.5.3 EMF Equation 109
10.5.4 Load Characteristics 111
10.5.5 Principle of Motor Operation 111

REFERENCES 114

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Applied Electricity Chapter 1 – Circuit Laws

CHAPTER ONE
CIRCUIT LAWS

1.1 Introduction

An electric circuit or network consists of a number of interconnected single circuit elements.

The circuit will generally contain at least one voltage or current source. The arrangement of
elements results in a new set of constraints between the currents and voltages. These new
constraints and their corresponding equations, added to the current-voltage relationships of
the individual elements, provide the solution of the network.

The purpose of defining the individual elements, connecting them in a network, and solving
the equations is to analyze the performance of such electrical devices as motors, generators,
transformers, electrical transducers, and a host of electronic devices. The solution generally
answers necessary questions about the operation of the device under conditions applied by
a source of energy.

1.2 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law states that, “the current, I, flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the
applied voltage, V, provided the temperature remains constant. Thus,

I∝V

Therefore,
V V
I= or V = IR or R=
R I

where R is the constant of proportionality called resistance.

1.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

For any closed path in a network, Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that, “the algebraic
sum of the voltages is zero.” Some of the voltages will be sources, while others will result
from current in passive elements creating a voltage, which is sometimes referred to as a
voltage drop. The law applies equally well to circuits driven by constant sources, DC, time
variable sources, v(i) and i(t), etc. The mesh current method of circuit analysis introduced in
Section 2.2 is based on Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

EXAMPLE 1.1 Write the KVL equation for the circuit shown in Figure 1.1.

SOLUTION 1.1 Starting at the lower left corner of the circuit, for the current direction as
shown, we have

− va + v1 + vb + v2 + v3 = 0
− va + iR1 + vb + iR2 + iR3 = 0
vb − va = i(R1 + R2 + R3 )

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Applied Electricity Chapter 1 – Circuit Laws

FIGURE 1.1 Circuit for Example 1.1

1.4 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

The connection of two or more circuit elements creates a junction called a node. The
junction between two elements is called a simple node and no division of current results.
The junction of three or more elements is called a principal node, and here current division
does take place. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that, “the algebraic sum of the currents
at a node is zero.” It may be stated alternatively that, “the sum of the currents entering a
node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that node.” The node voltage method of
circuit analysis introduced in Section 2.3 is based on equations written at the principal
nodes of a network by applying Kirchhoff’s current law. The basis for the law is the
conservation of electric charge.

EXAMPLE 1.2 Write the KCL equation for the principal node shown in Figure 1.2.

FIGURE 1.2 Circuit for Example 1.2

SOLUTION 1.2

i1 − i2 + i3 − i4 − i5 = 0
i1 + i3 = i2 + i4 + i5

1.5 Circuit Elements in Series

Three passive circuit elements in series connection as shown in Figure 1.3 have the same
current, i. The voltages across the elements are v 1 , v 2 , and v 3 . The total voltage, v, is the
sum of the individual voltages; v = v 1 + v 2 + v 3 .

If the elements are resistors,

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Applied Electricity Chapter 1 – Circuit Laws

v = iR1 + iR2 + iR3

= i(R1 + R2 + R3 )
= iReq

where a single equivalent resistance R eq replaces the three series resistors. The same
relationship between i and v will pertain.

FIGURE 1.3 Three passive circuit elements connected in series

For any number of resistors in series, we have R eq = R 1 + R 2 +…

If the three passive elements are inductances,

di di di
v = L1 + L2 + L3
dt dt dt
di
= (L1 + L2 + L3 )
dt
di
= Leq
dt

Extending this to any number of inductances in series, we have, L eq = L 1 + L 2 +…

If the three circuit elements are capacitances, assuming zero initial charges so that the
constants of integration are zero,

1 1 1
v=
C1 ∫ idt +
C2 ∫ idt +
C3 ∫
idt

 1 1 1 
=  + +  ∫ idt
 1
C C 2 C3 

1
Ceq ∫
= idt

1 1 1
The equivalent capacitance of several capacitances in series is = + + ...
Ceq C1 C2

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Applied Electricity Chapter 1 – Circuit Laws

EXAMPLE 1.3 The equivalent resistance of three resistors in series is 750.0 Ω. Two of the
resistors are 40.0 and 410.0 Ω. What must be the ohmic resistance of the third resistor?

SOLUTION 1.3

Req = R1 + R2 + R3
750.0 = 40.0 + 410.0 + R3
R3 = 300.0 Ω

EXAMPLE 1.4 Two capacitors, C 1 = 2.0 μF and C 2 = 10.0 μF, are connected in series.
Find the equivalent capacitance.

SOLUTION 1.4

Ceq =
C1C2
=
(
2.0 × 10 −6 10.0 × 10 −6 )(
= 1.67 µF
)
C1 + C2 2.0 × 10 − 6 + 10.0 × 10 − 6

Note: When two capacitors in series differ by a large amount, the equivalent capacitance is
essentially equal to the value of the smaller of the two.

1.6 Circuit Elements in Parallel

For three circuit elements connected in parallel as shown in Figure 1.4, KCL states that,
“the current, i, entering the principal node is the sum of the three currents leaving the node
through the branches.”

FIGURE 1.4 Three circuit elements connected in parallel

From Figure 1.4,

i = i1 + i2 + i3

If the three passive circuit elements are resistances,

v v v  1 1 1  1
i= + + =  + + v = v
R1 R2 R3  R1 R2 R3  Req

For several resistors in parallel,

1 1 1
= + + ...
Req R1 R2

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Applied Electricity Chapter 1 – Circuit Laws

The case of two resistors in parallel occurs frequently and deserves special mention. The
equivalent resistance of two resistors in parallel is given by the product of the two resistors
divided by the sum of the two resistors.

R1 R2
Req =
R1 + R2

EXAMPLE 1.5 Obtain the equivalent resistance of (a) two 60.0-Ω resistors in parallel and
(b) three 60.0-Ω resistors in parallel.

SOLUTION 1.5

a. Req =
(60.0 )2
= 30.0Ω
120.0
1 1 1 1
b. = + + Req = 20.0Ω
Req 60.0 60.0 60.0

Note: For n identical resistors in parallel the equivalent resistance is given by R .

n

Combinations of inductances in parallel have similar expressions to those of resistors in

parallel:

1 1 1 L1 L2
= + + ... and, for two inductances, Leq =
Leq L1 L2 L1 + L2

EXAMPLE 1.6 Two inductances L 1 = 3.0 mH and L 2 = 6.0 mH are connected in

parallel. Find L eq .

SOLUTION 1.6

1 1 1
= + and L eq = 2.0 mH
Leq 3.0 6.0

With three capacitances in parallel,

dv dv dv dv dv
i = C1 + C2 + C3 = (C1 + C2 + C3 ) = Ceq
dt dt dt dt dt

For several parallel capacitors, C eq = C 1 + C 2 + …, which is of the same form as resistors

in series.

1.7 Voltage Division

A set of series-connected resistors as shown in Figure 1.5 is referred to as a voltage divider.

The concept extends beyond the set of resistors illustrated here and applies equally to
impedances in series, as will be shown in Chapter 7.

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Applied Electricity Chapter 1 – Circuit Laws

Since v1 = iR1 and v = i(R1 + R2 + R3 ) , then

 R1 
v1 = v 
 R1 + R2 + R3 

FIGURE 1.5 A set of series-connected resistors

EXAMPLE 1.7 A voltage divider circuit of two resistors is designed with a total resistance
of the two resistors equal to 50.0 Ω. If the output voltage is 10 percent of the input voltage,
obtain the values of the two resistors in the circuit.

SOLUTION 1.7

v1 R1
= 0.1 and 0.1 =
v 50.0

from which R 1 = 5.0 Ω and R 2 = 45.0 Ω.

1.8 Current Division

A parallel arrangement of resistors as shown in Figure 1.6 results in a current divider. The
ratio of the branch current i 1 to the total current i illustrates the operation of the divider.

v v v v
Since i = + + and i1 = then
R1 R2 R3 R1

1
i1 R1 R2 R3
= =
i 1 + 1 + 1 R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
R1 R2 R3

For a two-branch current divider we have

i1 R2
=
i R1 + R2

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Applied Electricity Chapter 1 – Circuit Laws

FIGURE 1.6 A parallel arrangement of resistors

This may be expressed as follows: The ratio of the current in one branch of a two-branch
parallel circuit to the total current is equal to the ratio of the resistance of the other branch
resistance to the sum of the two resistances.

EXAMPLE 1.8 A current of 30.0 mA is to be divided into two branch currents of 20.0 mA
and 10.0 mA by a network with an equivalent resistance equal to or greater than 10.0 Ω.
Obtain the branch resistances.

SOLUTION 1.8

i1 R2 20 R2 10 R1 R1 R2
Since = then = , = and ≥ 10.0
i R1 + R2 30 R1 + R2 30 R1 + R2 R1 + R2

Solving these equations yields R1 ≥ 15.0 Ω and R2 ≥ 30.0 Ω .

1.9 Network Reduction

The mesh current and node voltage methods (Sections 2.2 and 2.3) are the principal
techniques of circuit analysis. However, the equivalent resistance of series and parallel
branches (Sections 1.4 and 1.5), combined with the voltage and current division rules,
provide another method of analyzing a network. This method is tedious and usually
requires the drawing of several additional circuits. Even so, the process of reducing the
network provides a very clear picture of the overall functioning of the network in terms of
voltages, currents, and power. The reduction begins with a scan of the network to pick out
series and parallel combinations of resistors.

1.10 Electrical Power and Energy

1.10.1 Electrical Power

Power P in an electrical circuit is given by the product of potential difference V and current
I. The unit of power is the watt, W. Hence,

P = V × I watts

From Ohm’s law, V = IR

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Applied Electricity Chapter 1 – Circuit Laws

Thus,
V2
P = I2R watts or P = watts
R

There are thus three possible formulae which may be used for calculating power.

1.10.2 Electrical Energy

Electrical energy = power × time

If the power is measured in watts and the time in seconds then the unit of energy is watt-
seconds or joules. If the power is measured in kilowatts and the time in hours then the unit
of energy is kilowatt-hours, often called the “unit of electricity”. The “electricity meter” in
the home records the number of kilowatt-hours used and is thus an energy meter.

EXAMPLE 1.9 Obtain the total power supplied by the 60-V source and the power
absorbed in each resistor in the network of Figure 1.7.

SOLUTION 1.9 First solve for the equivalent resistance between nodes a-b and c-d giving

Rab = 7 + 5 = 12 Ω
12 × 6
Rcd = =4Ω
12 + 6

FIGURE 1.7 Electrical network for Example 1.9

These two equivalents are in parallel (Figure 1.8), giving

4 × 12
Ref = = 3Ω
4 + 12

FIGURE 1.8 Reduced form of Figure 1.7

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Then this 3-Ω equivalent is in series with the 7-Ω resistor (Figure 1.9), so that for the entire
circuit,

Req = 7 + 3 = 10 Ω

FIGURE 1.9 Reduced form of Figure 1.8

The total power absorbed, which equals the total power supplied by the source, can now be
calculated as

V 2 (60 )
2
PT = = = 360 W
Req 10

This power is divided between R ge and R ef as follows:

7 3
Pge = P7 Ω = (360 ) = 252 W Pef = (360) = 108 W
7+3 7+3

Power P ef is further divided between R cd and R ab as follows:

12 4
Pcd = (108 ) = 81 W Pab = (108 ) = 27 W
4 + 12 4 + 12

Finally, these powers are divided between the individual resistances as follows:

6 7
P12Ω = (81) = 27 W P7 Ω = (27 ) = 15.75 W
6 + 12 7+5

12 5
P6 Ω = (81) = 54 W P5 Ω = (27 ) = 11.25 W
6 + 12 7+5

1.11 Problems

1.11.1 Ohm’s Law

1. The current flowing through a heating element is 5 A when a pd of 35 V is applied

across it. Find the resistance of the element. [7 Ω]

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2. A 60 W electric light bulb is connected to a 240 V supply. Determine (a) the current
flowing in the bulb and (b) the resistance of the bulb. [(a) 0.25 A (b) 960 Ω]

3. Graphs of current against voltage for two resistors P and Q are shown in Figure 2.6.
Determine the value of each resistor. [2 mΩ, 5 mΩ]

FIGURE 1.10 Graph for Problem 3

4. Determine the pd. which must be applied to a 5 kΩ resistor such that a current of 6 mA
may flow. [30 V]

1.11.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws

5. Find currents I 3 , I 4 and I 6 in Figure 1.11. [13 2 A; 14 —1 A; 16 3 A]

FIGURE 1.11 Electric circuit for Problem 5

6. For the networks shown in Figure 1.12, find the values of the currents marked.
[(a) I 1 =4 A, I 2 =-1 A, I 3 =13 A; (b) I 1 =40 A, I 2 =60 A, I 3 =120 A, I 4 =100 A, I 5 =-80
A]

FIGURE 1.12 Electric circuit for Problem 6

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7. Use Kirchhoff’s laws to find the current flowing in the 6 Ω resistor of Figure 1.13 and the
power dissipated in the 4 Ω resistor. [2.162 A, 42.07 W]

FIGURE 1.13 Electric circuit for Problem 7

8. Find the current flowing in the 3 Ω resistor for the network shown in Figure 1.14. Find
also the pd. across the 10 Ω and 2 Ω resistors. [2.715 A, 7.410 V, 3.948 V]

FIGURE 1.14 Electric circuit for Problem 8

9. For the networks shown in Figure 1.15 find: (a) the current in the battery, (b) the current
in the 300 Ω resistor, (c) the current in the 90 Ω resistor, and (d) the power dissipated in
the 150 Ω resistor. [(a) 60.38 mA; (b) 15.10 mA; (c) 45.28 mA; (d) 34.20 mW]

FIGURE 1.15 Electric circuit for Problem 9

10. For the bridge network shown in Figure 1.16, find the currents I 1 to I 5 .
[I 1 = 1.26 A, I 2 = 0.74 A, I 3 = 0.16 A, I 4 = 1.42 A, I 5 = 0.59 A]

FIGURE 1.16 Electric circuit for Problem 10

1.11.3 Power and Energy

11. The hot resistance of a 250 V filament lamp is 625 Ω. Determine the current taken by
the lamp and its power rating. [0.4 A, 100 W]

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12. Determine the resistance of a coil connected to a 150 V supply when a current of (a) 75
mA (b) 300 μA flows through it. [(a) 2 kΩ (b) 0.5 MΩ]

13. Determine the resistance of an electric fire which takes a current of 12 A from a 240 V
supply. Find also the power rating of the fire and the energy used in 20 h.
[20 Ω, 2.88 kW, 57.6 kWh]

14. Determine the power dissipated when a current of 10 mA flows through an appliance
having a resistance of 8 kΩ. [0.8 W]
15. 85.5 J of energy are converted into heat in nine seconds. What power is dissipated?
[9.5 W]

16. A current of 4 A flows through a conductor and 10 W is dissipated. What pd exists

across the ends of the conductor? [2.5 V]

17. Find the power dissipated when:

(a) a current of 5 mA flows through a resistance of 20 kΩ
(b) a voltage of 400 V is applied across a 120 kΩ resistor
(c) a voltage applied to a resistor is 10 kV and the current flow is 4 mA.
[(a) 0.5 W (b) 1 W (c) 40 W]

18. A battery of emf 15 V supplies a current of 2 A for 5 minutes. How much energy is
supplied in this time? [9 kJ]

19. In a household during a particular week three 2 kW fires are used on average 25 h each
and eight 100 W light bulbs are used on average 35 hours each. Determine the cost of
electricity for the week if 1 unit of electricity costs 7 GHp. [GH¢12.46]

20. Calculate the power dissipated by the element of an electric fire of resistance 30 Ω when
a current of 10 A flows in it. If the fire is on for 30 hours in a week, determine the
energy used. Determine also the weekly cost of energy if electricity costs 7.2 GHp per
unit. [3 kW, 90 kWh, GH¢6.48]

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Applied Electricity Chapter 2 – Circuit Theorems

CHAPTER TWO
CIRCUIT THEOREMS (ANALYSIS METHODS)

2.1 The Branch Current Method

In the branch current method, a current is assigned to each branch in an active network.
Then Kirchhoff’s current law is applied at the principal nodes and the voltages between the
nodes employed to relate the currents. This produces a set of simultaneous equations,
which can be solved to obtain the currents.

EXAMPLE 2.1 Obtain the current in each branch of the network shown in Figure 2.1
using the branch current method.

FIGURE 2.1 Electrical network for Example 2.1

SOLUTION 2.1 Currents I 1 , I 2 , and I 3 are assigned to the branches as shown. Applying
KCL at node a,

I1 = I 2 + I 3

The voltage, V ab , can be written in terms of the elements in each of the branches;
Vab = 20 − I1 (5 ) = I 3 (10 ) and Vab = I 2 (2) + 8 . Then the following equations can be written

20 − I1 (5 ) = I 3 (10 )
20 − I1 (5 ) = I 2 (2) + 8

Solving the three equations simultaneously gives I 1 = 2 A, I 2 = 1 A, and I 3 = 1 A.

Other directions may be chosen for the branch currents and the answers will simply include
the appropriate sign. In a more complex network, the branch current method is difficult to
apply because it does not suggest either a starting point or a logical progression through the
network to produce the necessary equations. It also results in more independent equations
than either the mesh current or node voltage method requires.

2.2 The Mesh Current Method

In the mesh current method a current is assigned to each window of the network such that
the currents complete a closed loop. They are sometimes referred to as loop currents. Each

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element and branch therefore will have an independent current. When a branch has two of
the mesh currents, the actual current is given by their algebraic sum. The assigned mesh
currents may have either clockwise or counterclockwise directions, although at the outset it
is wise to assign to all of the mesh currents a clockwise direction. Once the currents are
assigned, Kirchhoff’s voltage law is written for each loop to obtain the necessary
simultaneous equations.

EXAMPLE 2.2 Obtain the current in each branch of the network shown in Figure 2.2
(same as Figure 2.1) using the mesh current method.

FIGURE 2.2 Electrical network for Example 2.2

SOLUTION 2.2 The currents I 1 and I 2 are chosen as shown on the circuit diagram.
Applying KVL around the left loop, starting at point α,

− 20 + 5 I1 + 10(I1 − I 2 ) = 0

and around the right loop, starting at point β,

8 + 10(I 2 − I1 ) + 2I 2 = 0

Rearranging terms,

15 I1 − 10 I 2 = 20
− 10 I1 + 12I 2 = −8

Solving the equations simultaneously results in I 1 = 2 A and I 2 = 1 A. The current in the

centre branch, shown dotted, is I 1 – I 2 = 1 A. In Example 2.1 this was branch current I 3 .

The currents do not have to be restricted to the windows in order to result in a valid set of
simultaneous equations, although that is the usual case with the mesh current method. For
example, see Problem 4.6, where each of the currents passes through the source. In that
problem, they are called loop currents. The applicable rule is that each element in the
network must have a current or a combination of currents and no two elements in different
branches can be assigned the same current or the same combination of currents.

NOTE: The n simultaneous equations of an n-mesh network can be written in matrix form.
The matrix equation arising from the mesh current method may be solved by various
techniques. One of these, the method of determinants (Cramer’s rule), will be presented

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Applied Electricity Chapter 2 – Circuit Theorems

here. It should be stated, however, that other techniques are far more efficient for large
networks.

2.3 The Node Voltage Method

The network shown in Figure 2.3(a) contains five nodes, where 4 and 5 are simple nodes
and 1, 2, and 3 are principal nodes. In the node voltage method, one of the principal nodes
is selected as the reference and equations based on KCL are written at the other principal
nodes. At each of these other principal nodes, a voltage is assigned, where it is understood
that this is a voltage with respect to the reference node. These voltages are the unknowns
and, when determined by a suitable method, result in the network solution.

FIGURE 2.3 Electrical network showing the positions of simple nodes and principal nodes

The network is redrawn in Figure 2.3(b) and node 3 selected as the reference for voltages
V 1 and V 2 . KCL requires that the total current out of node 1 be zero:

V1 − Va V1 V1 − V2
+ + =0
RA RB RC

Similarly, the total current out of node 2 must be zero:

V2 − V1 V2 V2 − Vb
+ + =0
RC RD RE

(Applying KCL in this form does not imply that the actual branch currents all are directed
out of either node. Indeed, the current in branch 1–2 is necessarily directed out of one node
and into the other.) Putting the two equations for V 1 and V 2 in matrix form,

 1 1 1  V 1

R + R + R −
  V1   a R RC
 A B C
   A

    =
 
 1 1 1 1    Vb 
 − + +  V
 RC RC RD RE   2   RE 

Note the symmetry of the coefficient matrix. The 1,1-element contains the sum of the
reciprocals of all resistances connected to node 1; the 2,2-element contains the sum of the

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Applied Electricity Chapter 2 – Circuit Theorems

reciprocals of all resistances connected to node 2. The 1,2- and 2,1-elements are each
equal to the negative of the sum of the reciprocals of the resistances of all branches joining
nodes 1 and 2. (There is just one such branch in the present circuit.)

On the right-hand side, the current matrix contains Va R A and Vb RE , the driving
currents. Both these terms are taken positive because they both drive a current into a node.

EXAMPLE 2.3 Solve the circuit of Example 2.2 (Figure 2.2) using the node voltage
method.

SOLUTION 2.3 The circuit is redrawn in Figure 2.4. With two principal nodes, only one
equation is required.

FIGURE 2.4

Assuming the currents are all directed out of the upper node and the bottom node is the
reference,

V1 − 20 V1 V1 − 8
+ + =0
5 10 2

from which V1 = 10 V . Then, I1 = (10 − 20 ) 5 = −2 A (the negative sign indicates that

current I 1 flows into node 1); I 2 = (10 − 8 ) 2 = 1 A ; I 3 = 10 10 = 1 A . Current I 3 in Example
2.2 is shown dotted (i.e. current flowing through the 10 Ω resistor).

2.4 Superposition Theorem

The theorem states that, “A linear network which contains two or more independent
sources can be analyzed to obtain the various voltages and branch currents by allowing the
sources to act one at a time, then superposing the results.”

This principle applies because of the linear relationship between current and voltage. With
dependent sources, superposition theorem can be used only when the control functions are
external to the network containing the sources, so that the controls are unchanged as the
sources act one at a time. Voltage sources to be suppressed while a single source acts are
replaced by short circuits; open circuits replace current sources. Superposition theorem
cannot be directly applied to the computation of power, because power in an element is
proportional to the square of the current or the square of the voltage, which is nonlinear.

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EXAMPLE 2.4 Compute the current in the 23-Ω resistor of Figure 2.5(a) by applying the
superposition principle.

FIGURE 2.5 Circuits for Example 2.4

SOLUTION 2.4 With the 200-V source acting alone, the 20-A current source is replaced
by an open circuit, Fig. 4-11(b).

Req = 47 +
(27 )(4 + 23) = 60.5 Ω
54
200
IT = = 3.31 A
60.5
 27 
'
I 23 Ω =  (3.31) = 1.65 A
 54 

When the 20-A source acts alone, the 200-V source is replaced by a short circuit, Figure
2.5(c). The equivalent resistance to the left of the source is

Req = 4 +
(27)(47) = 21.15 Ω
74

Then

 21.15 
Ω =  (20 ) = 9.58 A
"
I 23
 21.15 + 23 

The total current in the 23-Ω resistor is

I 23Ω = I 23
'
Ω + I 23 Ω = 11.23 A
"

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Applied Electricity Chapter 2 – Circuit Theorems

2.5 Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorems

Two-terminal networks are called terminally equivalent if the same current flows into both
networks when their terminal voltages are equal, and/or if the same voltage appears across
both pairs of terminals when identical currents are forced into both networks. Equivalent
resistances of resistors in series or parallel are simple examples of such terminal equivalent
circuits.

Thévenin and Norton expanded the concept of terminal equivalency to include circuits that
also contain sources. They showed that any two-terminal network, such as the one in
Figure 2.6a, that contains linear resistors and sources (current, voltage, independent or
dependent) has a terminal equivalent circuit of the form of either Figure 2.6b or c.

FIGURE 2.6 Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits

Thévenin’s theorem states that, “A linear, active, resistive network which contains one or
more voltage or current sources can be replaced by a single voltage source and a series
resistance.”

The voltage is called the Thévenin equivalent voltage and the resistance is called Thévenin
equivalent resistance.

Norton’s theorem states that, “A linear, active, resistive network which contains one or
more voltage or current sources can be replaced by a single current source and a parallel
resistance.”

The current the Norton equivalent current and the resistance is called the Norton equivalent
resistance. The Norton equivalent resistance is the same as the Thévenin equivalent
resistance.

When terminals ab in Figure 2.6(a) are open-circuited, a voltage will appear between them.
From Figure 2.6(b), it is evident that this must be the voltage, V ′ , of the Thévenin
equivalent circuit. If a short circuit is applied to the terminals, as suggested by the dashed
line in Figure 2.6(a), a current will result. From Figure 2.6(c) it is evident that this current
must be I ′ of the Norton equivalent circuit. Now, if the circuits in (b) and (c) are
equivalents of the same active network, they are equivalent to each other. It follows that,
I ′ = V ′ R′ . If both V ′ and I ′ have been determined from the active network, then
R′ = V ′ I ′ .

The important things to remember about Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits are:
1. The voltage source in the Thévenin equivalent circuit is the open-circuit voltage.

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2. The current source in the Norton equivalent circuit is the short-circuit current.
3. The series resistor in the Thévenin circuit is identical to the parallel resistor in the
Norton circuit. Thus, the name output resistance is equivalent to either R Th and/or
RN.
4. The open-circuit voltage, the short-circuit current, and the resistance R Th = R N are
interrelated by Ohm’s law: V Th =I N R Th

2.6 ∆-Y and Y-∆ Conversions

In many circuit applications, we encounter components connected together in one of two

ways to form a three-terminal network: the “Delta,” or ∆ (also known as the “Pi,” or π)
configuration, and the “Y” (also known as the “T”) configuration as shown in Figure 2.7.

FIGURE 2.7 Delta and Wye networks

It is possible to calculate the proper values of resistors necessary to form one kind of
network (∆ or Y) that behaves identically to the other kind, as analyzed from the terminal
connections alone. That is, if we had two separate resistor networks, one ∆ and one Y, each
with its resistors hidden from view, with nothing but the three terminals (A, B, and C)
exposed for testing, the resistors could be sized for the two networks so that there would be
no way to electrically determine one network apart from the other. In other words,
equivalent ∆ and Y networks behave identically.

There are several equations used to convert one network to the other:

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To convert a Delta (∆) to a Wye (Y) To convert a Wye (Y) to a Delta (∆)
R AB R AC R R + R A RC + RB RC
RA = R AB = A B
R AB + R AC + RBC RC

R AB RBC R A RB + R A RC + RB RC
RB = RBC =
R AB + R AC + RBC RA

R AC RBC R A RB + R A RC + RB RC
RC = R AC =
R AB + R AC + RBC RB

∆ and Y networks are seen frequently in 3-phase AC power systems, but even then they’re
usually balanced networks (all resistors equal in value) and conversion from one to the
other need not involve such complex calculations.

A prime application for ∆-Y conversion is in the solution of unbalanced bridge circuits, such
as the one below:

Solution of this circuit with Branch Current or Mesh Current analysis is fairly involved, and
the Superposition Theorem is of no help, since it has only one source of power. We could
use Thévenin’s or Norton’s Theorem, treating R 3 as our load, but what fun would that be?

If we were to treat resistors R 1 , R 2 , and R 3 as being connected in a ∆ configuration (R ab , R ac ,

and R bc , respectively) and generate an equivalent Y network to replace them, we could turn
this bridge circuit into a (simpler) series/parallel combination circuit:

Selecting Delta (∆) network to convert:

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After the ∆-Y conversion …

If we perform our calculations correctly, the voltages between points A, B, and C will be the
same in the converted circuit as in the original circuit, and we can transfer those values
back to the original bridge configuration.

RA =
(12Ω )(18Ω ) =
216
= 6Ω
(12Ω ) + (18Ω ) + (6Ω ) 36

RB =
(12Ω )(6Ω ) =
72
= 2Ω
(12Ω ) + (18Ω ) + (6Ω ) 36

RC =
(18Ω )(6Ω ) =
108
= 3Ω
(12Ω ) + (18Ω ) + (6Ω ) 36

Resistors R 4 and R 5 , of course, remain the same at 18 Ω and 12 Ω, respectively. Analyzing

the circuit now as a series/parallel combination, we arrive at the following figures:

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Applied Electricity Chapter 2 – Circuit Theorems

RA RB RC R4 R5
E/Volts 4.118 588.24m 1.176 5.294 4.706
I/Amps 686.27m 294.12m 392.16m 294.12m 392.16m
R/Ohms 6 2 3 18 12

RB + R4 RC + R5 (R B +R 4 )//(R C +R 5 ) Total
E/Volts 588.2 5.882 5.882 10
I/Amps 294.12 392.16m 686.27M 686.27m
R/Ohms 20 15 8.571 14.571

We must use the voltage drops figures from the table above to determine the voltages
between points A, B, and C, seeing how the add up (or subtract, as is the case with voltage
between points B and C):

E A − B = 4.706V

E A − C = 5.294 V

EB − C = 588.24mV

Now that we know these voltages, we can transfer them to the same points A, B, and C in
the original bridge circuit:

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Voltage drops across R 4 and R 5 , of course, are exactly the same as they were in the
converted circuit.

At this point, we could take these voltages and determine resistor currents through the
repeated use of Ohm’s Law (I=E/R):

4.706V 5.294V
I R1 = = 392.16mA IR2 = = 294.12mA
12Ω 18Ω

588.24mV 5.294V
I R3 = = 98.04mA I R4 = = 294.12mA
6Ω 18Ω

4.706V
I R5 = = 392.16mA
12Ω

2.7 Problems

2.7.1 Superposition Theorem

1. Use the superposition theorem to find currents I 1 , I 2 and I 3 of Figure 2.8(a).

[I 1 = 2 A, I 2 = 3 A, I 3 = 5 A]

2. Use the superposition theorem to find the current in the 8 Ω resistor of Figure 2.7(b).
[0.385 A]

3. Use the superposition theorem to find the current in each branch of the network shown
in Figure 2.8(c).
[10 V battery discharges at 1.429 A
4 V battery charges at 0.857 A
Current through 10 Ω resistor is 0.572 A]

4. Use the superposition theorem to determine the current in each branch of the
arrangement shown in Figure 2.8(d).
[24 V battery charges at 1.664 A
52 V battery discharges at 3.280 A
Current in 20 Ω resistor is 1.616 A]

FIGURE 2.8 Electric circuits for Problems 1 – 4

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Applied Electricity Chapter 2 – Circuit Theorems

2.7.2 Thévenin’s Theorem

5. Use Thévenin’s theorem to find the current flowing in the 14 Ω resistor of the network
shown in Figure 2.9. Find also the power dissipated in the 14 Ω resistor.
[0.434 A, 2.64 W]

FIGURE 2.9 Electric circuit for Problem 5

6. Use Thévenin’s theorem to find the current flowing in the 6 Ω resistor shown in Figure
2.10 and the power dissipated in the 4 Ω resistor. [2.162 A, 42.07 W]

FIGURE 2.10 Electric circuit for Problem 6

7. Repeat problems 1 – 4 using Thévenin’s theorem.

8. In the network shown in Figure 2.11, the battery has negligible internal resistance. Find,
using Thévenin’s theorem, the current flowing in the 4 Ω resistor. [0.918 A]

FIGURE 2.11 Electric circuit for Problem 8

9. For the bridge network shown in Figure 2.12, find the current in the 5 Ω resistor, and its
direction, by using Thévenin’s theorem. [0.153 A from B to A]

FIGURE 2.12 Electric circuit for Problem 9

2.7.3 Norton’s Theorem

10. Repeat problems 1 – 6, 8 and 9 using Norton’s theorem.

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Applied Electricity Chapter 3 – Capacitors and Capacitance

CHAPTER THREE
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

3.1 Electrostatic Field

Figure 3.1 represents two parallel metal plates, A and B, charged to different potentials. If
an electron that has a negative charge is placed between the plates, a force will act on the
electron tending to push it away from the negative plate B towards the positive plate, A.
Similarly, a positive charge would be acted on by a force tending to move it toward the
negative plate. Any region such as that shown between the plates in Figure 3.1, in which an
electric charge experiences a force, is called an electrostatic field. The direction of the field is
defined as that of the force acting on a positive charge placed in the field. In Figure 3.1, the
direction of the force is from the positive plate to the negative plate.

Figure 3.1 Electrostatic field

Such a field may be represented in magnitude and direction by lines of electric force drawn
between the charged surfaces. The closeness of the lines is an indication of the field
strength. Whenever a pd is established between two points, an electric field will always
exist. Figure 3.2(a) shows a typical field pattern for an isolated point charge, and Figure
3.2(b) shows the field pattern for adjacent charges of opposite polarity. Electric lines of
force (often called electric flux lines) are continuous and start and finish on point charges.
Also, the lines cannot cross each other. When a charged body is placed close to an
uncharged body, an induced charge of opposite sign appears on the surface of the
uncharged body. This is because lines of force from the charged body terminate on its
surface.

FIGURE 3.2 (a) Isolated point charge; (b) adjacent charges of opposite polarity

The concept of field lines or lines of force is used to illustrate the properties of an electric
field. However, it should be remembered that they are only aids to the imagination.

The force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically charged bodies is proportional
to the magnitude of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
separating them,

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Applied Electricity Chapter 3 – Capacitors and Capacitance

q1q2
i.e. force ∝ 2
or where constant k ≈ 9 × 10 9 in air
d

This is known as Coulomb’s law.

Hence the force between two charged spheres in air with their centres 16 mm apart and
each carrying a charge of +1.6 μC is given by:

)( )2
1.6 × 10 − 6
qq
(
force = k 1 2 2 ≈ 9 × 10 9 = 90 newtons
d (
16 × 10 − 3
2
)

3.2 Electric field strength

Figure 3.3 shows two parallel conducting plates separated from each other by air. They are
connected to opposite terminals of a battery of voltage V volts.

FIGURE 3.3 Circuit shows parallel conducting plates separated from each other by air

There is therefore an electric field in the space between the plates. If the plates are close
together, the electric lines of force will be straight and parallel and equally spaced, except
near the edge where fringing will occur (see Figure 3.1). Over the area in which there is
negligible fringing,

V
Electric field strength, E = volt/metre
d

where d is the distance between the plates. Electric field strength is also called potential
gradient.

3.3 Capacitance

Static electric fields arise from electric charges, electric field lines beginning and ending on
electric charges. Thus the presence of the field indicates the presence of equal positive and
negative electric charges on the two plates of Figure 3.3. Let the charge be +Q coulombs
on one plate and –Q coulombs on the other. The property of this pair of plates which
determines how much charge corresponds to a given pd between the plates is called their
capacitance:
Q
capacitance, C =
V

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Applied Electricity Chapter 3 – Capacitors and Capacitance

The unit of capacitance is the farad F (or more usually μF = 10-6 F or pF = 10-12 F), which
is defined as the capacitance when a pd of one volt appears across the plates when charged
with one coulomb.

3.4 Capacitors

Every system of electrical conductors possesses capacitance. For example, there is

capacitance between the conductors of overhead transmission lines and also between the
wires of a telephone cable. In these examples the capacitance is undesirable but has to be
accepted, minimized or compensated for. There are other situations where capacitance is a
desirable property.

Devices specially constructed to possess capacitance are called capacitors (or condensers,
as they used to be called). In its simplest form a capacitor consists of two plates which are
separated by an insulating material known as a dielectric. A capacitor has the ability to store
a quantity of static electricity.

The symbols for a fixed capacitor and a variable capacitor used in electrical circuit diagrams
are shown in Figure 3.4.

FIGURE 3.4 Symbols for capacitor

The charge, Q, stored in a capacitor is given by:

Q = I × t coulombs

where I is the current in amperes and t the time in seconds.

3.5 Electric Flux Density

Unit flux is deified as emanating from a positive charge of 1 coulomb. Thus electric flux ψ is
measured in coulombs, and for a charge of Q coulombs, the flux ψ = Q coulombs.

Electric flux density D is the amount of flux passing through a defined area A that is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux:

Q
electric flux density, D = coulombs/metre 2
A

Electric flux density is also called charge density, σ.

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Applied Electricity Chapter 3 – Capacitors and Capacitance

3.6 Permittivity

At any point in an electric field, the electric field strength E maintains the electric flux and
produces a particular value of electric flux density D at that point. For a field established in
vacuum (or for practical purposes in air), the ratio D/E is a constant so, i.e.

D
= ε0
E

where o is called the permittivity of free space or the free space constant. The value of ε 0 is
8.85 × 10 −12 F/m .

When an insulating medium, such as rnica, paper, plastic or ceramic, is introduced into the
region of an electric field the ratio of D/E is modified:

D
= ε 0ε r
E

where ε r , the relative permittivity of the insulating material, indicates its insulating power
compared with that of vacuum:

flux density in material

relative permittivity, ε r =
flux density in vacuum

ε r has no unit. Typical values of ε r include air, 1.00; polythene, 2.3; rnica, 3 – 7; glass, 5 –
10; water, 80; ceramics, 6 – 1000.

The product is called the absolute permittivity, ε , i.e.,

ε = ε 0ε r

The insulating medium separating charged surfaces is called a dielectric. Compared with
conductors, dielectric materials have very high resistivities. They are therefore used to
separate conductors at different potentials, such as capacitor plates or electric power lines.

3.7 The Parallel Plate Capacitor

For a parallel-plate capacitor, as shown in Figure 3.5(a), experiments show that capacitance
C is proportional to the area A of a plate, inversely proportional to the plate spacing d (i.e.,
the dielectric thickness) and depends on the nature of the dielectric:

ε 0ε r A
Capacitance, C = farads
d

where ε 0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 F/m (constant)

ε r = relative permittivity
A = area of one of the plates, in rn2, and

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d = thickness of dielectric in m

FIGURE 3.5 Parallel plate capacitor

Another method used to increase the capacitance is to interleave several plates as shown in
Figure 6.5(b). Ten plates are shown, forming nine capacitors with a capacitance nine times
that of one pair of plates.

If such an arrangement has n plates then capacitance C ∝ (n − 1) .

ε 0ε r A(n − 1)
Thus capacitance, C = farads
d

3.8 Capacitors Connected in Parallel and Series

3.8.1 Capacitors Connected in Parallel

Figure 3.6 shows three capacitors, C 1 , C 2 and C 3 , connected in parallel with a supply
voltage V applied across the arrangement.

FIGURE 3.6 Circuit showing capacitors connected in parallel

When the charging current I reaches point A it divides, some flowing into C 1 , some flowing
into C 2 and some into C 3 . Hence the total charge Q T (= I × t) is divided between the three
capacitors. The capacitors each store a charge and these are shown as Q 1 , Q 2 and Q 3
respectively. Hence

QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

But Q T = CV, Q 1 = C 1 V, Q 2 = C 2 V and Q 3 = C 3 V.

Therefore CV = C 1 V +C 2 V + C 3 V where C is the total equivalent circuit capacitance,

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Applied Electricity Chapter 3 – Capacitors and Capacitance

That is

C = C 1 +C 2 + C 3

It follows that for n parallel-connected capacitors,

C = C 1 +C 2 + … + C n

i.e. the equivalent capacitance of a group of parallel-connected capacitors is the sum of the
capacitances of the individual capacitors. (Note that this formula is similar to that used for
resistors connected in series).

3.8.2 Capacitors Connected in Series

Figure 3.7 shows three capacitors, C 1 , C 2 and C 3 , connected in series across a supply
voltage V. Let the pd across the individual capacitors be V 1 , V 2 and V 3 respectively as
shown.

FIGURE 3.7 Circuit showing three capacitors arranged in series

Let the charge on plate ‘a’ of capacitor Ci be +Q coulombs. This induces an equal but
opposite charge of – Q coulombs on plate ‘b’. The conductor between plates ‘b’ and ‘c’ is
electrically isolated from the rest of the circuit so that an equal but opposite charge of +Q
coulombs must appear on plate ‘c’, which, in turn, induces an equal and opposite charge of
– Q coulombs on plate ‘d’, and so on.

Hence when capacitors are connected in series the charge on each is the same.

In a series circuit: V = V1 + V2 + V3

Q Q Q Q Q
Since V = then = + +
C C C1 C2 C3

where C is the total equivalent circuit capacitance,

1 1 1 1
i.e., = + +
C C1 C2 C3

It follows that for n series-connected capacitors:

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1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... +
C C1 C2 C3 Cn

i.e. for series-connected capacitors, the reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance is equal to
the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances. (Note that this formula is similar to
that used for resistors connected in parallel)

For the special case of two capacitors in series:

1 1 1 C + C2
= + = 1
C C1 C2 C1C2

C1C2 product
Hence, C = , i.e.
C1 + C2 sum

3.9 Dielectric Strength

The maximum amount of field strength that a dielectric can withstand is called the dielectric
strength of the material.

Vm
Dielectric strength, Em =
d

3.10 Energy Stored

The energy, W, stored by a capacitor is given by

1
W= CV 2 joules
2

Energy
Note: Power =
time

3.11 Practical Types of Capacitor

Practical types of capacitor are characterized by the material used for their dielectric. The
main types include: variable air, mica, paper, ceramic, plastic, titanium oxide and
electrolytic.

3.11.1 Variable Air Capacitors

These usually consist of two sets of metal plates (such as aluminium) one fixed, the other
variable. The set of moving plates rotate on a spindle as shown by the end view of Figure
3.9.

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FIGURE 3.9 Variable air capacitor

As the moving plates are rotated through half a revolution, the meshing, and therefore the
capacitance, varies from a minimum to a maximum value. Variable air capacitors are used
in radio and electronic circuits where very low losses are required, or where a variable
capacitance is needed. The maximum value of such capacitors is between 500 pF and
1000 pF.

3.11.2 Mica Capacitors

A typical older type construction is shown in Figure 3.10.

FIGURE 3.10 Mica capacitor

Usually the whole capacitor is impregnated with wax and placed in a bakelite case. Mica is
easily obtained in thin sheets and is a good insulator. However, mica is expensive and is
not used in capacitors above about 0.2 μF. A modified form of mica capacitor is the
silvered mica type. The mica is coated on both sides with a thin layer of silver which forms
the plates. Capacitance is stable and less likely to change with age. Such capacitors have a
constant capacitance with change of temperature, a high working voltage rating and a long
service life and are used in high frequency circuits with fixed values of capacitance up to
about 1000 pF.

3.11.3 Paper Capacitors

A typical paper capacitor is shown in Figure 3.11 where the length of the roll corresponds
to the capacitance required. The whole is usually impregnated with oil or wax to exclude
moisture, and then placed in a plastic or aluminium container for protection. Paper
capacitors are made in various working voltages up to about 150 kV and are used where
loss is not very important. The maximum value of this type of capacitor is between 500 pF
and 10 μF. Disadvantages of paper capacitors include variation in capacitance with
temperature change and a shorter service life than most other types of capacitor.

3.11.4 Ceramic Capacitors

These are made in various forms, each type of construction depending on the value of
capacitance required. For high values, a tube of ceramic material is used as shown in the
cross section of Figure 3.12. For smaller values the cup construction is used as shown in
Figure 3.13, and for still smaller values the disc construction shown in Figure 3.14 is used.
Certain ceramic materials have a very high permittivity and this enables capacitors of high

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capacitance to be made which are of small physical size with a high working voltage rating.
Ceramic capacitors are available in the range 1 pF to 0.1 μF may be used in high frequency
electronic circuits subject to a wide range of temperatures.

FIGURE 3.11 Paper capacitor

FIGURE 3.12 Ceramic capacitor

FIGURE 3.13 Cup construction of ceramic capacitors

FIGURE 3.14 Disc construction of ceramic capacitors

3.11.5 Plastic Capacitors

Some plastic materials such as polystyrene and Teflon can be used as dielectrics.
Construction is similar to the paper capacitor but using a plastic film instead of paper.
Plastic capacitors operate well under conditions of high temperature, provide a precise
value of capacitance, a very long service life and high reliability.

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Applied Electricity Chapter 3 – Capacitors and Capacitance

3.11.6 Titanium Oxide Capacitors

These capacitors have a very high capacitance with a small physical size when used at a
low temperature.

3.11.7 Electrolytic Capacitors

Construction is similar to the paper capacitor with aluminium foil used for the plates and
with a thick absorbent material, such as paper, impregnated with an electrolyte (ammonium
borate), separating the plates. The finished capacitor is usually assembled in an aluminium
container and hermetically sealed. Its operation depends on the formation of a thin
aluminium oxide layer on the positive plate by electrolytic action when a suitable direct
potential is maintained between the plates. This oxide layer is very thin and forms the
dielectric. (The absorbent paper between the plates is a conductor and does not act as a
dielectric.) Such capacitors must always be used on dc and must be connected with the
correct polarity; if this is not done the capacitor will be destroyed since the oxide layer will
be destroyed. Electrolytic capacitors are manufactured with working voltage from 6 V to
600 V, although accuracy is generally not very high. These capacitors possess a much
larger capacitance than other types of capacitors of similar dimensions due to the oxide film
being only a few microns thick. The fact that they can be used only on dc supplies limit
their usefulness.

3.12 Discharging Capacitors

When a capacitor has been disconnected from the supply it may still be charged and it may
retain this charge for some considerable time. Thus precautions must be taken to ensure
that the capacitor is automatically discharged after the supply is switched off. This is done
by connecting a high value resistor across the capacitor terminals.

3.13 Problems

Where appropriate, take ε 0 as 8.85 × 10 −12 F/m .

3.13.1 Charge and Capacitance

1. Find the charge on a 10 μF capacitor when the applied voltage is 250 V. [2.5 mC]

2. Determine the voltage across a 1000 pF capacitor to charge it with 2 μC. [2 kV]

3. The charge on the plates of a capacitor is 6 mC when the potential between them is 2.4
kV. Determine the capacitance of the capacitor. [2.5 μF]

4. For how long must a charging current of 2 A be fed to a 5 μF capacitor to raise the pd
between its plates by 500 V. [1.25 ms]

5. A steady current of 10 A flows into a previously uncharged capacitor for 1.5 ms when
the pd between the plates is 2 kV. Find the capacitance of the capacitor. [7.5 μF]

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3.13.2 Electric Field Strength, Electric Flux Density and Permittivity

6. A capacitor uses a dielectric 0.04 mm thick and operates at 30 V. What is the electric
field strength across the dielectric at this voltage? [750 kV/m]

7. A two-plate capacitor has a charge of 25 C. If the effective area of each plate is 5 cm2
find the electric flux density of the electric field. [50 kC/m2]

8. A charge of 1.5 μC is carried on two parallel rectangular plates each measuring 60 mm

by 80 mm. Calculate the electric flux density. If the plates are spaced 10 mm apart and
the voltage between them is 0.5 kV determine the electric field strength.
[312.5 μC/m2, 50 kV/m]

9. The electric flux density between two plates separated by polystyrene of relative
permittivity 2.5 is 5 μC/m2. Find the voltage gradient between the plates. [226 kV/m]

10. Two parallel plates having a pd of 250 V between them are spaced 1 mm apart.
Determine the electric field strength. Find also the electric flux density when the
dielectric between the plates is (a) air and (b) mica of relative permittivity 5.
[250 kV/m (a) 2.213 μC/m2 (b) 11.063 μC/m2]

3.13.3 Parallel Plate Capacitor

11. A capacitor consists of two parallel plates each of area 0.01 m2, spaced 0.1 mm in air.
Calculate the capacitance in picofarads. [885 pF]

12. A waxed paper capacitor has two parallel plates, each of effective area 0.2 m2. If the
capacitance is 4000 pF determine the effective thickness of the paper if its relative
permittivity is 2. [0.885 mm]

13. Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having 5 plates, each 30 mm by
20 mm and separated by a dielectric 0.75 mm thick having a relative permittivity of 2.3.
[65.14 pF]

14. How many plates has a parallel plate capacitor having a capacitance of 5 nF, if each
plate is 40 mm by 40 mm and each dielectric is 0.102 mm thick with a relative
permittivity of 6. [7]

15. A parallel plate capacitor is made from 25 plates, each 70mm by 120 mm interleaved
with mica of relative permittivity 5. If the capacitance of the capacitor is 3000 pF
determine the thickness of the mica sheet. [2.97 mm]

16. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is 1000 pF. It has 19 plates, each 50 mm
by 30 mm separated by a dielectric of thickness 0.40 mm. Determine the relative
permittivity of the dielectric. [1.67]

17. A capacitor is to be constructed so that its capacitance is 4250 pF and to operate at a pd

of 100 V across its terminals. The dielectric is to be polythene ( ε r = 2.3 ) which, after
allowing a safety factor, has a dielectric strength of 20 MV/m. Find (a) the thickness of
the polythene needed, and (b) the area of a plate. [(a) 0.005 mm (b) 10.44 cm2]

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Applied Electricity Chapter 3 – Capacitors and Capacitance

3.13.4 Capacitors in Parallel and Series

18. Capacitors of 2 μF and 6 μF are connected (a) in parallel and (b) in series. Determine
the equivalent capacitance in each case. [(a) 8 iF (b) 1.5 iF]

19. Find the capacitance to be connected in series with a 10 iF capacitor for the equivalent
capacitance to be 6 F. [15 μF]

20. Two 6 μF capacitors are connected in series with one having a capacitance of 12 μF.
Find the total equivalent circuit capacitance. What capacitance must be added in series
to obtain a capacitance of 1.2 μF? [2.4 μF, 2.4 μF]

21. Determine the equivalent capacitance when the following capacitors are connected (a)
in parallel and (b) in series:
i. 2 μF, 4 μF and 8μF
ii. 0.02 μF, 0.05 μF and 0.10 μF
iii. 50 pF and 450 pF
iv. 0.01 μF and 200 pF
[(a) (i) 14 μF (ii) 0.17 μF (iii) 500 pF (iv) 0.0102 μF]
[(b) (i) 1 71 μF (ii) 0.0125 μF (iii) 45 pF (iv) 196.1 pF]

22. For the arrangement shown in Figure 3.15 find (a) the equivalent circuit capacitance
and (b) the voltage across a 4.5 μF capacitor. [(a) 1.2 μF (b) 100 V]

FIGURE 3.15 Circuit diagram for Problem 22

23. Three 12 μF capacitors are connected in series across a 750 V supply. Calculate (a) the
equivalent capacitance, (b) the charge on each capacitor and (c) the pd across each
capacitor. [(a) 4 μF (b) 3 mC (c) 250 V]

24. If two capacitors having capacitances of 3 μF and 5 μF respectively are connected in

series across a 240 V supply, determine (a) the pd across each capacitor and (b) the
charge on each capacitor. [(a) 150 V, 90 V (b) 0.45 mC on each]

25. In Figure 3.16 capacitors P, Q and R are identical and the total equivalent capacitance
of the circuit is 3 μF. Determine the values of P, Q and R. [4.2 F each]

3.13.5 Energy Stored

26. When a capacitor is connected across a 200 V supply the charge is 4 μC. Find (a) the
capacitance and (b) the energy stored. [(a) 0.02 μF (b) 0.4 mJ]

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Applied Electricity Chapter 3 – Capacitors and Capacitance

27. Find the energy stored in a 10 μF capacitor when charged to 2 kV. [20 J]

28. A 3300 pF capacitor is required to store 0.5 mJ of energy. Find the pd to which the
capacitor must be charged. [550 V]

29. A capacitor, consisting of two metal plates each of area 50 cm2 and spaced 0.2 mm
apart in air, is connected across a 120 V supply. Calculate (a) the energy stored, (b) the
electric flux density and (c) the potential gradient.
[(a) 1.593 μJ (b) 5.31 μC/m2 (c) 600 kV/m]

30. A bakelite capacitor is to be constructed to have a capacitance of 0.04 μF and to have a

steady working potential of 1 kV maximum. Allowing a safe value of field stress of 25
MV/m thud (a) the thickness of bakelite required, (b) the area of plate required if the
relative permittivity of bakelite is 5, (c) the maximum energy stored by the capacitor and
(d) the average power developed if this energy is dissipated in a time of 20 μs.
[(a) 0.04mm (b) 361.6 cm2 (c) 0.02 J (d) 1 kW]

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Applied Electricity Chapter 4 – Magnetic Circuits

CHAPTER FOUR
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

4.1 Magnetic Fields

A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic material (such as iron, nickel or cobalt)

which has properties of attracting other pieces of these materials. A permanent magnet will
position itself in a north and south direction when freely suspended. The north-seeking end
of the magnet is called the north pole, N, and the south-seeking end the south pole, S.

The area around a magnet is called the magnetic field and it is in this area that the effects of
the magnetic force produced by the magnet can be detected. A magnetic field cannot be
seen, felt, smelt or heard and therefore is difficult to represent. Michael Faraday suggested
that the magnetic field could be represented pictorially, by imagining the field to consist of
lines of magnetic flux, which enables investigation of the distribution and density of the field
to be carried out.

The distribution of a magnetic field can be investigated by using some iron filings. A bar
magnet is placed on a flat surface covered by, say, cardboard, upon which is sprinkled
some iron filings. If the cardboard is gently tapped the filings will assume a pattern similar to
that shown in Figure 4.1. If a number of magnets of different strength are used, it is found
that the stronger the field the closer are the lines of magnetic flux and vice versa. Thus a
magnetic field has the property of exerting a force, demonstrated in this case by causing the
iron filings to move into the pattern shown. The strength of the magnetic field decreases as
we move away from the magnet. It should be realized, of course, that the magnetic field is
three dimensional in its effect, and not acting in one plane as appears to be the case in this
experiment.

FIGURE 4.1 Bar magnet showing lines of magnetic flux

If a compass is placed in the magnetic field in various positions, the direction of the lines of
flux maybe determined by noting the direction of the compass pointer. The direction of a
magnetic field at any point is taken as that in which the north-seeking pole of a compass
needle points when suspended in the field. The direction of a line of flux is from the north
pole to the south pole on the outside of the magnet and is then assumed to continue
through the magnet back to the point at which it emerged at the north pole. Thus such lines
of flux always form complete closed loops or paths; they never intersect and always have a
definite direction. The laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion can be demonstrated by
using two bar magnets. In Figure 4.2(a), with unlike poles adjacent, attraction takes place.

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Applied Electricity Chapter 4 – Magnetic Circuits

Lines of flux are imagined to contract and the magnets try to pull together. The magnetic
field is strongest in between the two magnets, shown by the lines of flux being close
together. In Figure 4.2(b), with similar poles adjacent (i.e. two north poles), repulsion
occurs, i.e. the two north poles try to push each other apart, since magnetic flux lines
running side by side in the same direction repel.

FIGURE 4.2 Interactions between the poles of a magnet

4.2 Magnetic Flux and Flux Density

Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of lines of force) produced by
a magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is Φ (Greek letter ‘phi’). The unit of
magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb).

Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a defined area that is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux:

magnetic flux
Magnetic flux density =
area

The symbol for magnetic flux density is B. The unit of magnetic flux density is the tesla, T,
where 1 T = 1 Wb/m2. Hence

Φ
B= , where A (m2) is the area
A

4.3 Magnetomotive Force and Magnetic Field Strength

Magnetomotive force (mmf) is the cause of the existence of a magnetic flux in a magnetic
circuit,

mmf, Fm = NI amperes

where N is the number of conductors (or turns) and I is the current in amperes. The unit of
mmf is sometimes expressed as ‘ampere-turns’. However since ‘turns’ have no dimensions,
the SI unit of mmf is the ampere. Magnetic field strength (or magnetizing force),

NI
H= amperes per metre
l

where I is the mean length of the flux path in metres.

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Thus, mmf = NI = Hl amperes.

4.4 Permeability and B-H curves

For air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetizing
force is a constant, i.e. B/H = a constant. This constant is p the permeability of free space
(or the magnetic space constant) and is equal to 4π × 10 −7 H/m, i.e., for air, or any non-
magnetic medium, the ratio B H = µ 0 . (Although all non-magnetic materials, including air,
exhibit slight magnetic properties, these can effectively be neglected.)

For all media other than free space, B H = µ 0 µr where µ r is the relative permeability, and
is defined as

flux density in material

µr =
flux density in a vacuum

µr varies with the type of magnetic material and, since it is a ratio of flux densities, it has no
unit. From its definition, µ r for a vacuum is 1. µ 0 µr = µ , called the absolute permeability.

By plotting measured values of flux density B against magnetic field strength H, a

magnetization curve (or B-H curve) is produced. For non- magnetic materials this is a
straight line. Typical curves for four magnetic materials are shown in Figure 4.3.

FIGURE 4.3 B-H curves for four materials

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The relative permeability of a ferromagnetic material is proportional to the slope of the B-H
curve and thus varies with the magnetic field strength. The approximate range of values of
relative permeability µ r for some common magnetic materials are:

Cast iron µr = 100 – 250 Mild steel µr = 200 – 800

Silicon iron µr = 1000 – 5000 Cast steel µr = 300 – 900
Mumetal µr = 200 – 5000 Stalloy µr = 500 – 6000

4.5 Reluctance

Reluctance S (or R M ) is the ‘magnetic resistance’ of a magnetic circuit to the presence of

magnetic flux.

FM NI Hl l l
Reluctance, S = = = = =
Φ Φ BA B A µ0 µr A
H
( )
The unit of reluctance is 1/H (or H-1) or A/Wb

Ferromagnetic materials have a low reluctance and can be used as magnetic screens to
prevent magnetic fields affecting materials within the screen.

4.6 Composite Series Magnetic Circuits

For a series magnetic circuit having n parts, the total reluctance S is given by:

S = S1 + S2 + ... + Sn

(This is similar to resistors connected in series in an electrical circuit.)

4.7 Comparison between Electrical and Magnetic Quantities

Electrical Circuit Magnetic Circuit

emf E (V) mmf F m (A)
current I (A) flux Φ (Wb)
resistance R (Ω) reluctance S (H-1)
E mmf
I= Φ=
R S
ρl l
R= S=
A µ0 µr A

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4.8 Hysteresis and Hysteresis Loss

Hysteresis is the ‘lagging’ effect of flux density B whenever there are changes in the
magnetic field strength H. When an initially unmagnetised ferromagnetic material is
subjected to a varying magnetic field strength H, the flux density B produced in the material
varies as shown in Figure 4.6, the arrows indicating the direction of the cycle. Figure 5.6 is
known as a hysteresis loop.

FIGURE 4.6 Hysteresis loop

From Figure 4.6, distance OX indicates the residual flux density or remanence, OY
indicates the coercive force, and PP’ is the saturation flux density.

Hysteresis results in a dissipation of energy which appears as a heating of the magnetic

material. The energy loss associated with hysteresis is proportional to the area of the
hysteresis loop.

The area of a hysteresis loop varies with the type of material. The area, and thus the energy
loss, is much greater for hard materials than for soft materials.

For AC-excited devices the hysteresis loop is repeated every cycle of alternating current.
Thus a hysteresis loop with a large area (as with hard steel) is often unsuitable since the
energy loss would be considerable. Silicon steel has a narrow hysteresis loop, and thus
small hysteresis loss, and is suitable for transformer cores and rotating machine armatures.

4.9 Problems

4.9.1 Magnetic Circuit Quantities

1. What is the flux density in a magnetic field of cross-sectional area 20 cm2 having a flux
of 3 mWb? [1.5 T]

2. Determine the total flux emerging from a magnetic pole face having dimensions 5 cm
by 6 cm, if the flux density is 0.9 T. [2.7 mWb]

3. The maximum working flux density of a lifting electromagnet is 1.9 T and the effective
area of a pole face is circular in cross-section. If the total magnetic flux produced is 611
mWb determine the radius of the pole face. [32 cm]

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4. Find the magnetic field strength and the magnetomotive force needed to produce a flux
density of 0.33 T in an air-gap of length 15 mm. [(a) 262 600 AIm (b) 3939 A]
5. An air-gap between two pole pieces is 20 mm in length and the area of the flux path
across the gap is 5 cm2. If the flux required in the air-gap is 0.75 mWb find the mmf
necessary. [23 870 A]

6. Find the magnetic field strength applied to a magnetic circuit of mean length 50 cm
when a coil of 400 turns is applied to it carrying a current of 1.2 A. [960 A/m]

7. A solenoid 20 cm long is wound with 500 turns of wire. Find the current required to
establish a magnetizing force of 2500 A/m inside the solenoid. [1 A]

8. A magnetic field strength of 5000 A/m is applied to a circular magnetic circuit of mean
diameter 250 mm. If the coil has 500 turns find the current in the coil. [7.85 A]

9. Find the relative permeability of a piece of silicon iron if a flux density of 1.3 T is
produced by a magnetic field strength of 700 A/m. [1478]

10. Part of a magnetic circuit is made from steel of length 120 mm, cross-sectional area 15
cm2 and relative permeability 800. Calculate (a) the reluctance and (b) the absolute
permeability of the steel. [(a) 79 580 /H (b) 1 mH/m]

11. A steel ring of mean diameter 120 mm is uniformly wound with 1500 turns of wire.
When a current of 0.30 A is passed through the coil a flux density of 1.5 T is set up in
the steel. Find the relative permeability of the steel under these conditions. [1000]

12. A mild steel closed magnetic circuit has a mean length of 75 mm and a cross-sectional
area of 320.2 mm2. A current of 0.40 A flows in a coil wound uniformly around the
circuit and the flux produced is 200 μWb. If the relative permeability of the steel at this
value of current is 400 find (a) the reluctance of the material and (b) the number of
turns of the coil. [(a) 466 000/H (b) 233]

13. A uniform ring of cast steel has a cross-sectional area of 5 cm2 and a mean
circumference of 15 cm. Find the current required in a coil of 1200 turns wound on the
ring to produce a flux of 0.8 mWb. (Use the magnetization curve for cast steel shown on
page 78.) [0.60 A]

14. (a) A uniform mild steel ring has a diameter of 50 mm and a cross-sectional area of 1
cm2. Determine the mmf necessary to produce a flux of 50 μWb in the ring. (Use the B-
H curve for mild steel shown on page 78.)
(b) If a coil of 440 turns is wound uniformly around the ring in part (a) what current
would be required to produce the flux? [(a) 110 A (b) 0.25 A]

4.9.2 Composite Series Magnetic Circuits

15. A magnetic circuit of cross-sectional area 0.4 cm2 consists of one part 3 cm long, of
material having relative permeability 1200, and a second part 2 cm long of material
having relative permeability 750. With a 100 turn coil carrying 2 A, find the value of flux
existing in the circuit. [0.195 mWb]

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16. (a) A cast steel ring has a cross-sectional area of 600 mm2 and a radius of 25 mm.
Determine the mmf necessary to establish a flux of 0.8 mWb in the ring. Use the B-H
curve for cast steel shown on page 78.
(b) If a radial air gap 1.5mm wide is cut in the ring of part (a) find the mmf now
necessary to maintain the same flux in the ring. [(a) 270 A (b) 1860 A]

17. For the magnetic circuit shown in Figure 5.7 find the current I in the coil needed to
produce a flux of 0.45 mWb in the air-gap. The silicon iron magnetic circuit has a
uniform cross-sectional area of 3 cm2 and its magnetization curve is as shown on page
78. [0.83 A]

FIGURE 5.7 Magnetic circuit diagram for Problem 17

18. A ring forming a magnetic circuit is made from two materials; one part is mild steel of
mean length 25 cm and cross-sectional area 4 cm2, and the remainder is cast iron of
mean length 20 cm and cross-sectional area 7.5 cm2. Use a tabular approach to
determine the total mmf required to cause a flux of 0.30 mWb in the magnetic circuit.
Find also the total reluctance of the circuit. Use the magnetization curves shown on
page 78. [550 A, 18.3 × 105/H]
19. Figure 5.8 shows the magnetic circuit of a relay. When each of the air gaps are 1.5 mm
wide find the mmf required to produce a flux density of 0.75 T in the air gaps. Use the
B-H curves shown on page 78. [2970 A]

FIGURE 5.8 Magnetic circuit diagram for Problem 19

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Applied Electricity Chapter 5 – Electromagnetism

CHAPTER FIVE
ELECTROMAGNETISM

5.1 Magnetic Field due to an Electric Current

Magnetic fields can be set up not only by permanent magnets, as shown in Chapter 4, but
also by electric currents.

Let a piece of wire be arranged to pass vertically through a horizontal sheet of cardboard,
on which is placed some iron filings, as shown in Figure 5.1(a).

FIGURE 5.1 Formation of magnetic flux due to the flow of electric current

If a current is now passed through the wire, then the iron filings will form a definite circular
field pattern with the wire at the centre, when the cardboard is gently tapped. By placing a
compass in different positions the lines of flux are seen to have a definite direction as
shown in Figure 5.1(b). If the current direction is reversed, the direction of the lines of flux
is also reversed. The effect on both the iron filings and the compass needle disappears
when the current is switched off. The magnetic field is thus produced by the electric current.
The magnetic flux produced has the same properties as the flux produced by a permanent
magnet. If the current is increased the strength of the field increases and, as for the
permanent magnet, the field strength decreases as we move away from the current-
carrying conductor.

In Figure 5.1, the effect of only a small part of the magnetic field is shown.

If the whole length of the conductor is similarly investigated it is found that the magnetic
field around a straight conductor is in the form of concentric cylinders as shown in Figure
5.2, the field direction depending on the direction of the current flow.

FIGURE 5.2 Formation of magnetic flux around a straight conductor

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When dealing with magnetic fields formed by electric current it is usual to portray the effect
as shown in Figure 5.3. The convention adopted is:
(i) Current flowing away from the viewer, i.e. into the paper, is indicated by ⊕ . This
may be thought of as the feathered end of the shaft of an arrow. See Figure 5.3(a).
(ii) Current flowing towards the viewer, i.e. out of the paper, is indicated by ʘ. This may
be thought of as the point of an arrow. See Figure 5.3(b).

FIGURE 5.3 Conventional flow of electric current through a conductor

The direction of the magnetic lines of flux is best remembered by the screw rule. This states
that, “If a normal right-hand thread screw is screwed along the conductor in the direction of
the current, the direction of rotation of the screw is in the direction of the magnetic field.”

For example, with current flowing away from the viewer (Figure 5.3(a)) a right-hand thread
screw driven into the paper has to be rotated clockwise. Hence the direction of the
magnetic field is clockwise.

A magnetic field set up by a long coil, or solenoid, is shown in Figure 5.4(a) and is seen to
be similar to that of a bar magnet. If the solenoid is wound on an iron bar, as shown in
Figure 5.4(b), an even stronger magnetic field is produced, the iron becoming magnetized
and behaving like a permanent magnet.

FIGURE 5.4 Magnetic field formed by a coil

The direction of the magnetic field produced by the current I in the solenoid may be found
by either of two methods, i.e. the screw rule or the grip rule.

(a) The screw rule states that if a normal right-hand thread screw is placed along the
axis of the solenoid and is screwed in the direction of the current it moves in the
direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid. The direction of the magnetic field
inside the solenoid is from south to north. Thus in Figures 5.4(a) and (b) the North
Pole is to the right.

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(b) The grip rule states that if the coil is gripped with the right hand, with the fingers
pointing in the direction of the current, then the thumb, outstretched parallel to the
axis of the solenoid, points in the direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid.

Example 5.1 Figure 5.5 shows a coil of wire wound on an iron core connected to a
battery. Sketch the magnetic field pattern associated with the current carrying coil and
determine the polarity of the field.

FIGURE 5.5 Electric circuit for Example 5.1

Solution 5.1 The magnetic field associated with the solenoid in Figure 5.5 is similar to the
field associated with a bar magnet and is as shown in Figure 5.6. The polarity of the field is
determined either by the screw rule or by the grip rule. Thus the North Pole is at the bottom
and the South Pole at the top.

FIGURE 5.6 Electric field associated with a bar magnet

5.2 Electromagnets

The solenoid is very important in electromagnetic theory since the magnetic field inside the
solenoid is practically uniform for a particular current, and is also versatile, inasmuch that a
variation of the current can alter the strength of the magnetic field. An electromagnet, based
on the solenoid, provides the basis of many items of electrical equipment, examples of
which include electric bells, relays, lifting magnets and telephone receivers.

5.2.1 Electric Bell

There are various types of electric bell, including the single-stroke bell, the trembler bell, the
buzzer and a continuously ringing bell, but all depend on the attraction exerted by an
electromagnet on a soft iron armature. A typical single stroke bell circuit is shown in Figure
5.7. When the push button is operated, a current passes through the coil. Since the iron-
cored coil is energized the soft iron armature is attracted to the electromagnet. The
armature also carries a striker which hits the gong. When the circuit is broken the coil

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becomes demagnetized and the spring steel strip pulls the armature back to its original
position. The striker will only operate when the push is operated.

FIGURE 5.7 An electric bell

5.2.2 Relay
A relay is similar to an electric bell except that contacts are opened or closed by operation
instead of a gong being struck. A typical simple relay is shown in Figure 5.8, which consists
of a coil wound on a soft iron core. When the coil is energized the hinged soft iron armature
is attracted to the electromagnet and pushes against two fixed contacts so that they are
connected together, thus closing some other electrical circuit.

FIGURE 5.8 A relay

5.2.3 Lifting Magnet

Lifting magnets, incorporating large electromagnets, are used in iron and steel works for
lifting scrap metal. A typical robust lifting magnet, capable of exerting large attractive forces,
is shown in the elevation and plan view of Figure 5.9 where a coil, C, is wound round a
central core, F, of the iron casting. Over the face of the electromagnet is placed a protective
non-magnetic sheet of material, R. The load, Q, which must be of magnetic material is lifted
when the coils are energized, the magnetic flux paths, M, being shown by the broken lines.

FIGURE 5.9 A lifting magnet

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5.2.4 Telephone Receiver

Whereas a transmitter or microphone changes sound waves into corresponding electrical
signals, a telephone receiver converts the electrical waves back into sound waves. A typical
telephone receiver is shown in Figure 5.10 and consists of a permanent magnet with coils
wound on its poles. A thin, flexible diaphragm of magnetic material is held in position near
to the magnetic poles but not touching them. Variation in current from the transmitter
varies the magnetic field and the diaphragm consequently vibrates. The vibration produces
sound variations corresponding to those transmitted.

FIGURE 5.10 A telephone receiver

5.3 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

If a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field produced by permanent

magnets, then the fields due to the current-carrying conductor and the permanent magnets
interact and cause a force to be exerted on the conductor. The force on the current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field depends upon:
(a) the flux density of the field, B teslas
(b) the strength of the current, I amperes,
(c) the length of the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field, l metres, and
(d) the directions of the field and the current.

When the magnetic field, the current and the conductor are mutually at right angles then:

Force, F = BIl newtons

When the conductor and the field are at an angle θ to each other then:

Force, F = BIl sinθ newtons

Since when the magnetic field, current and conductor are mutually at right angles, F = BIl,
the magnetic flux density B may be defined by B = F/Il, i.e. the flux density is 1 T if the
force exerted on 1 m of a conductor when the conductor carries a current of 1 A is 1 N.

If the current-carrying conductor shown in Figure 5.3(a) is placed in the magnetic field
shown in Figure 5.11(a), then the two fields interact and cause a force to be exerted on the
conductor as shown in Figure 5.11(b). The field is strengthened above the conductor and
weakened below, thus tending to move the conductor downwards. This is the basic
principle of operation of the electric motor (see Chapter 9) and the moving-coil instrument.

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FIGURE 5.11 Current carrying conductor in an electric field

The direction of the force exerted on a conductor can be predetermined by using Fleming’s
left-hand rule (often called the motor rule) which states, “Let the thumb, first finger and
second finger of the left hand be extended such that they are all at right-angles to each
other, (as shown in Figure 814). If the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic
field, the second finger points in the direction of the current, then the thumb will point in
the direction of the motion of the conductor.”

FIGURE 5.12 Fleming’s left-hand rule

Summarizing:
First finger: - Field
SeCond finger: - Current
ThuMb: - Motion

Example 5.2 Determine the current required in a 400 mm length of conductor of an

electric motor, when the conductor is situated at right-angles to a magnetic field of flux
density 1.2 T, if a force of 1.92 N is to be exerted on the conductor. If the conductor is
vertical, the current flowing downwards and the direction of the magnetic field is from left to
right, what is the direction of the force?

Solution 5.2
Force, F = 1.92 N; Length, l = 400 mm = 0.4 m; and Magnetic field strength, B = 1.2 T

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F
Since F = BIl, then I =
Bl

1.92
Hence, current, I = =4A
(1.2)(0.4 )
If the current flows downwards, the direction of its magnetic field due to the current alone
will be clockwise when viewed from above. The lines of flux will reinforce (i.e. strengthen)
the main magnetic field at the back of the conductor and will be in opposition in the front
(i.e. weaken the field).

Hence the force on the conductor will be from back to front (i.e. toward the viewer). This
direction may also have been deduced using Fleming’s left-hand rule.

5.4 Force on a Charge

When a charge of Q coulombs is moving at a velocity of v m/s in a magnetic field of flux

density B teslas, the charge moving perpendicular to the field, then the magnitude of the
force F exerted on the charge is given by:

Force, F = QvB newtons

Example 5.3 An electron in a television tube has a charge of 1.6 × 10–19 coulombs and
travels at 3 × 107 m/s perpendicular to a field of flux density 18.5 μT. Determine the force
exerted on the electron in the field.

Solution 5.3 From above, force,

F = QvB newtons,
where:
Q = charge in coulombs = 1.6 × 10–19 C
v = velocity of charge = 3 × 107 m/s and
B = flux density = 18.5 × 10–6 T

Hence force on electron, F = 1.6 × 10–19 × 3 × 107 ×18.5 × 10–6

= 8.88 × 10–17 N

5.5 Problems

5.5.1 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

1. A conductor carries a current of 70 A at right-angles to a magnetic field having a flux

density of 1.5 T. If the length of the conductor in the field is 200 mm calculate the force
acting on the conductor. What is the force when the conductor and field are at an angle
of 45°? [21.0 N, 14.8 N]

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2. Calculate the current required in a 240 mm length of conductor of a dc motor when the
conductor is situated at right-angles to the magnetic field of flux density 1.25 T, if a
force of 1.20 N is to be exerted on the conductor. [4.0 A]

3. A conductor 30 cm long is situated at right-angles to a magnetic field. Calculate the

strength of the magnetic field if a current of 15 A in the conductor produces a force on it
of 3.6 N. [0.80 T]

4. A conductor 300 mm long carries a current of 13 A and is at right- angles to a magnetic

field between two circular pole faces, each of diameter 80 mm. If the total flux between
the pole faces is 0.75 mWb calculate the force exerted on the conductor. [0.582 N]

5. (a) A 400 mm length of conductor carrying a current of 25 A is situated at right-angles

to a magnetic field between two poles of an electric motor. The poles have a circular
cross-section. If the force exerted on the conductor is 80 N and the total flux between
the pole faces is 1.27 mWb, determine the diameter of a pole face.
(b) If the conductor in part (a) is vertical, the current flowing downwards and the
direction of the magnetic field is from left to right, what is the direction of the 80 N
force? [(a) 14.2 mm (b) towards the viewer]

6. A coil is wound uniformly on a former having a width of 18 mm and a length of 25 mm.

The former is pivoted about an axis passing through the middle of the two shorter sides
and is placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 0.75 T, the axis being
perpendicular to the field. If the coil carries a current of 120 mA, determine the force
exerted on each coil side, (a) for a single-turn coil, (b) for a coil wound with 400 turns.
[(a) 2.25 × 10–3 N (b) 0.9 N]

5.5.2 Force on a Charge

7. Calculate the force exerted on a charge of 2 × 10–18 C travelling at 2 × 106 m/s

perpendicular to a field of density 2 × 10–7 T. [8 × 10–19 N]

8. Determine the speed of a 10–19 C charge travelling perpendicular to a field of flux

density 10–7 T, if the force on the charge is 10–20 N. [106 m/s]

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Applied Electricity Chapter 6 – Electromagnetic Induction

CHAPTER SIX
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

6.1 Introduction

When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field so as to cut though the lines of force
(or flux), an electromotive force (emf) is produced in the conductor. If the conductor forms
part of a closed circuit then the emf produced causes an electric current to flow round the
circuit. Hence an emf (and thus current) is ‘induced’ in the conductor as a result of its
movement across the magnetic field. This effect is known as electromagnetic induction.

FIGURE 6.1 A coil of wire connected to a centre-zero galvanometer

Figure 6.1(a) shows a coil of wire connected to a centre-zero galvanometer, which is a

sensitive ammeter with the zero-current position in the centre of the scale.

(a) When the magnet is moved at constant speed towards the coil (Figure 6.1(a)), a
deflection is noted on the galvanometer showing that a current has been produced
in the coil.
(b) When the magnet is moved at the same speed as in (a) but away from the coil the
same deflection is noted but is in the opposite direction (see Figure 6.1(b))
(c) When the magnet is held stationary, even within the coil, no deflection is recorded.
(d) When the coil is moved at the same speed as in (a) and the magnet held stationary
the same galvanometer deflection is noted.
(e) When the relative speed is, say, doubled, the galvanometer deflection is doubled.
(f) When a stronger magnet is used, a greater galvanometer deflection is noted.
(g) When the number of turns of wire of the coil is increased, a greater galvanometer
deflection is noted.

Figure 6.1(c) shows the magnetic field associated with the magnet. As the magnet is moved
towards the coil, the magnetic flux of the magnet moves across, or cuts, the coil. It is the
relative movement of the magnetic flux and the coil that causes an emf and thus current, to
be induced in the coil. This effect is known as electromagnetic induction. The laws of
electromagnetic induction stated in Section 6.2 evolved from experiments such as those
described above.

6.2 Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction state:

(a) “An induced e. mf is set up whenever the magnetic field linking that circuit
changes.”
(b) “The magnitude of the induced emf in any circuit is proportional to the rate of
change of the magnetic flux linking the circuit.”

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Applied Electricity Chapter 6 – Electromagnetic Induction

Lenz’s law states:

“The direction of an induced emf is always such that it tends to set up a current
opposing the motion or the change offlux responsible for inducing that emf.”

An alternative method to Lenz’s law of determining relative directions is given by Fleming’s

Right-hand rule (often called the geneRator rule) which states:
“Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand be extended such that
they are all at right angles to each other (as shown in Figure 6.2).

If the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb points in the
direction of motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, then the second
finger will point in the direction of the induced emf.”

FIGURE 6.2 Fleming’s Right-hand rule

Summarizing:
First finger: - Field
ThuMb: - Motion
SEcond finger: - Emf

In a generator, conductors forming an electric circuit are made to move through a magnetic
field. By Faraday’s law an emf is induced in the conductors and thus a source of emf is
created. A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. (The action of a
simple ac generator is described in Chapter 9.) The induced emf E set up between the ends
of the conductor shown in Figure 6.3 is given by:

E = Blv volts

where
B = the flux density is measured in teslas,
l = the length of conductor in the magnetic field, is measured in metres, and
v = the conductor velocity, is measured in metres per second.

If the conductor moves at an angle θ ° to the magnetic field (instead of at 90° as assumed
above) then

E = Blv sin θ volts

Example 6.1 A conductor 300 mm long moves at a uniform speed of 4 m/s at right-angles
to a uniform magnetic field of flux density 1.25 T. Determine the current flowing in the

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conductor when (a) its ends are open-circuited, (b) its ends are connected to a load of 20 Ω
resistance.

FIGURE 6.3 Induced emf in a conductor placed in a magnetic field

Solution 6.1 When a conductor moves in a magnetic field it will have an emf induced in it
but this emf can only produce a current if there is a closed circuit.

 300 
Induced emf E = Blv = (1.25 ) (4 ) = 1.5 V
 1000 

(a) If the ends of the conductor are open circuited no current will flow even though 1.5
V has been induced.

E 1.5
(b) From Ohm’s law, I = = = 0.075 A = 75 mA
R 20

6.3 Inductance

Inductance is the name given to the property of a circuit whereby there is an emf induced
into the circuit by the change of flux linkages produced by a current change.

When the emf is induced in the same circuit as that in which the current is changing, the
property is called self inductance, L.

When the emf is induced in a circuit by a change of flux due to current changing in an
adjacent circuit, the property is called mutual inductance, M.

The unit of inductance is the henry, H.

“A circuit has an inductance of one henry when an emf of one volt is induced in it by a
current changing at the rate of one ampere per second.”

Induced emf in a coil of N turns,

dΦ
E = −N volts
dt

where
dΦ is the change in flux in Webers, and

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dt is the time taken for the flux to change in seconds (i.e., dΦ dt is the rate of
change of flux).

Induced e.m.f. in a coil of inductance L henrys,

dI
E = −L volts
dt

where
dI is the change in current in amperes and
dt is the time taken for the current to change in seconds (i.e., dI/dt is the rate of
change of current).

The minus sign in each of the above two equations remind us of its direction (given by
Lenz’s law).

Example 6.2 Determine the emf induced in a coil of 200 turns when there is a change of
flux of 25 mWb linking with it in 50 ms.

Solution 6.2
dΦ  25 × 10 -3 
Induced emf, E = − N = −(200 ) −3 
 = −100 volts
dt  50 × 10 

Example 6.3 Calculate the emf induced in a coil of inductance 12 H by a current

changing at the rate of 4 A/s.

Solution 6.3
dI
Induced emf, E = − L = −(12)(4 ) = −48 volts
dt

6.4 Inductors

A component called an inductor is used when the property of inductance is required in a

circuit. The basic form of an inductor is simply a coil of wire.

Factors which affect the inductance of an inductor include:

i. the number of turns of wire – the more turns the higher the inductance
ii. the cross-sectional area of the coil of wire – the greater the cross- sectional area the
higher the inductance
iii. the presence of a magnetic core – when the coil is wound on an iron core the same
current sets up a more concentrated magnetic field and the inductance is increased
iv. the way the turns are arranged – a short thick coil of wire has a higher inductance
than a long thin one.

Two examples of practical inductors are shown in Figure 6.4, and the standard electrical
circuit diagram symbols for air-cored and iron-cored inductors are shown in Figure 6.5.

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An iron-cored inductor is often called a choke since, when used in ac. circuits, it has a
choking effect, limiting the current flowing through it. Inductance is often undesirable in a
circuit. To reduce inductance to a minimum the wire may be bent back on itself, as shown
in Figure 6.6, so that the magnetizing effect of one conductor is neutralized by that of the
adjacent conductor. The wire may be coiled around an insulator, as shown, without
increasing the inductance. Standard resistors may be non-inductively wound in this
manner.

FIGURE 6.4 Practical inductors

FIGURE 6.5 Standard electrical circuit diagram symbols for air-cored (top) and iron-cored
inductors

FIGURE 6.6

6.5 Energy Stored

An inductor possesses an ability to store energy. The energy stored, W, in the magnetic field
of an inductor is given by:

W = 12 LI 2 joules

Example 6.4 An 8 H inductor has a current of 3 A flowing through it. How much energy
is stored in the magnetic field of the inductor?

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Solution 6.4
Energy stored, W = 12 LI 2 = 1
2 (8 )(3)2 = 36 joules

6.6 Inductance of a Coil

If a current changing from 0 to I amperes, produces a flux change from 0 to Φ Webers, then
dI = I and dΦ = Φ. Then, from Section 6.3, induced emf, E = NΦ t = LI t , from which

NΦ
Inductance of coil, L = henrys
I

Example 6.5 A flux of 25 mWb links with a 1500 turn coil when a current of 3 A passes
through the coil. Calculate (a) the inductance of the coil, (b) the energy stored in the
magnetic field, and (c) the average emf induced if the current falls to zero in 150 ms.

Solution 6.5

(a) Inductance, L = =
(
NΦ (1500 ) 25 × 10 −3
= 12.5 H
)
I 3
(b) Energy stored, W = 12 LI 2 = 12 (12.5 )(3) = 56.25 J
2

dI  3−0 
(c) Induced emf, E = − L = −(12.5 ) −3 
= −250 V
dt  150 × 10 

 dΦ   25 × 10 −3 
Alternatively, E = − N   = −(1500 )  = −250 V since if the current
−3 
 dt   150 × 10 
falls to zero so does the flux.

6.7 Mutual Inductance

Mutually induced emf in the second coil,

dI1
E2 = − M volts
dt

where
M is the mutual inductance between two coils, in henrys, and
dI1 dt is the rate of change of current in the first coil.

The phenomenon of mutual inductance is used in transformers (see Chapter 9, page x).

Example 6.6 The mutual inductance between two coils is 18 mH. Calculate the steady
rate of change of current in one coil to induce an emf of 0.72 V in the other.

Solution 6.6
dI1
Induced emf, E2 = M
dt

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dI1 E 0.72
Hence rate of change of current, = 2 = = 40 A/s
dt M 0.018

Example 6.7 Two coils have a mutual inductance of 0.2 H. If the current in one coil is
changed from 10 A to 4 A in 10 ms, calculate (a) the average induced emf in the second
coil, (b) the change of flux linked with the second coil if it is wound with 500 turns.

Solution 6.7
dI1  10 − 4 
(a) Induced emf, E2 = − M = −(0.2) −3 
= −120 V
dt  10 × 10 
dΦ E dt
(b) Induced emf, E2 = N , hence dΦ = 2
dt N
Thus the change of flux, dΦ =
(
120 10 × 10 −3
= 2.4 mWb
)
500

6.8 Problems

6.8.1 Induced emf

1. A conductor of length 15 cm is moved at 750 mm/s at right-angles to a uniform flux

density of 1.2 T. Determine the emf induced in the conductor. [0.135 V]

2. Find the speed that a conductor of length 120 mm must be moved at right angles to a
magnetic field of flux density 0.6 T to induce in it an emf of 1 .8 V. [25 m/s]

3. A 25 cm long conductor moves at a uniform speed of 8 m/s through a uniform

magnetic field of flux density 1.2 T. Determine the current flowing in the conductor
when (a) its ends are open-circuited, (b) its ends are connected to a load of 15 ohms
resistance. [(a) 0 (b) 0.16 A]

4. A car is travelling at 80 km/h. Assuming the back axle of the car is 1.76 m in length and
the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field is 40 μT, find the emf generated in
the axle due to motion. [1.56 mV]

5. A conductor moves with a velocity of 20 m/s at an angle of (a) 90 (b) 45 (c) 30, to a
magnetic field produced between two square- faced poles of side length 2.5 cm. If the
flux on the pole face is 60 mWb, find the magnitude of the induced emf in each case.
[(a) 48 V (b) 33.9 V (c) 24 V]

6.8.2 Inductance

6. Find the emf induced in a coil of 200 turns when there is a change of flux of 30 mWb
linking with it in 40 ms. [- 150 V]

7. An emf of 25 V is induced in a coil of 300 turns when the flux linking with it changes by
12 mWb. Find the time, in milliseconds, in which the flux makes the change. [144 ms]

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8. An ignition coil having 10000 turns has an emf of 8 kV induced in it. What rate of
change of flux is required for this to happen? [0.8 Wb/s]

9. A flux of 0.35 mWb passing through a 125-turn coil is reversed in 25 ms. Find the
magnitude of the average emf induced. [3.5 V]

6.8.3 Energy Stored

10. Calculate the value of the energy stored when a current of 30 mA is flowing in a coil of
inductance 400 mH. [0.18 mJ]

11. The energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor is 80 J when the current flowing
in the inductor is 2 A. Calculate the inductance of the coil. [40 H]

6.8.4 Inductance of a Coil

12. A flux of 30 mWb links with a 1200 turn coil when a current of 5 A is passing through
the coil. Calculate (a) the inductance of the coil, (b) the energy stored in the magnetic
field, and (c) the average emf induced if the current is reduced to zero in 0.20 s.
[(a) 7.2 H (b) 90 J (c) 180 V]

13. An emf of 2 kV is induced in a coil when a current of 5 A collapses uniformly to zero in

10 ms. Determine the inductance of the coil. [4 H]

14. An average emf of 60 V is induced in a coil of inductance 160 mH when a current of

7.5 A is reversed. Calculate the time taken for the current to reverse. [40 ms]

15. A coil of 2500 turns has a flux of 10 mWb linking with it when carrying a current of 2 A.
Calculate the coil inductance and the emf induced in the coil when the current collapses
to zero in 20 ms. [12.5 H, 1.25 kV]

16. A coil is wound with 600 turns and has a self inductance of 2.5 H. What current must
flow to set up a flux of 20 mWb? [4.8 A]

17. When a current of 2 A flows in a coil, the flux linking with the coil is 80 μWb. If the coil
inductance is 0.5 H, calculate the number of turns of the coil. [12 500]

18. A steady current of 5 A when flowing in a coil of 1000 turns produces a magnetic flux of
500 μWb. Calculate the inductance of the coil. The current of 5 A is then reversed in
12.5 ms. Calculate the emf induced in the coil. [0.1 H, 80 V]

6.8.5 Mutual Inductance

19. The mutual inductance between two coils is 150 mH. Find the magnitude of the emf
induced in one coil when the current in the other is increasing at a rate of 30 A/s.
[4.5 V]

20. Determine the mutual inductance between two coils when a current changing at 50 A/s
in one coil induces an emf of 80 mV in the other. [1.6 mH]

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21. Two coils have a mutual inductance of 0.75 H. Calculate the magnitude of the emf
induced in one coil when a current of 2.5 A in the other coil is reversed in 15 ms.
[250 V]

22. The mutual inductance between two coils is 240 mH. If the current in one coil changes
from 15 A to 6 A in 12 ms, calculate (a) the average emf induced in the other coil, (b)
the change of flux linked with the other coil if it is wound with 400 turns.
[(a) -180 V (b) 5.4 mWb]

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Applied Electricity Chapter 7 – Alternating Current Theory

CHAPTER SEVEN
ALTERNATING CURRENT THEORY

7.1 Introduction

Basically, an alternating waveform is a periodic waveform which alternates between

positive and negative values. Unlike direct waveforms, they cannot be characterised by one
magnitude as their amplitude is continuously varying from instant to instant. Thus various
forms of magnitudes are defined for such waveforms.

The advantage of the alternating waveform for electric power is that it can be stepped up or
stepped down in potential easily for transmission and utilisation. Alternating waveforms can
be of many shapes. The one that is used with electric power is the sinusoidal waveform.
This has an equation of the form

v(t ) = Vm sin(ωt + φ )

If the period of the waveform is T, then its angular frequency ω corresponds to ωT = 2π.

7.2 The AC Generator

Let a single turn coil be free to rotate at constant angular velocity symmetrically between
the poles of a magnet system as shown in Figure 7.1.

FIGURE 7.1 A magnet system with a free rotating single turn coil

An emf is generated in the coil (from Faraday’s Laws) which varies in magnitude and
reverses its direction at regular intervals. The reason for this is shown in Figure 7.2.

In positions (a), (e) and (i) the conductors of the loop are effectively moving along the
magnetic field, no flux is cut and hence no emf is induced. In position (c) maximum flux is
cut and hence maximum emf is again induced. However, using Fleming’s hence maximum
emf is induced. In position (g), maximum flux is cut right-hand rule, the induced emf is in
the opposite direction to that in position (c) and is thus shown as –E. In positions (b), (d), (f)
and (h) some flux is cut and hence some emf is induced. If all such positions of the coil are
considered, in one revolution of the coil, one cycle of alternating emf is produced as shown.
This is the principle of operation of the ac generator (i.e. the alternator).

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FIGURE 7.2 Rotating magnetic flux

7.3 Waveforms

If values of quantities which vary with time t are plotted to a base of time, the resulting
graph is called a waveform. Some typical waveforms are shown in Figure 7.3. Waveforms
(a) and (b) are unidirectional waveforms, for, although they vary considerably with time,
they flow in one direction only (i.e. they do not cross the time axis and become negative).
Waveforms (c) to (g) are called alternating waveforms since their quantities are continually
changing in direction (i.e. alternately positive and negative).

FIGURE 7.3 Types of alternating waveforms

A waveform of the type shown in Figure 7.3(g) is called a sine wave. It is the shape of the
waveform of emf produced by an alternator and thus the mains electricity supply is of
‘sinusoidal’ form.

One complete series of values is called a cycle (i.e. from 0 to P in Figure 7.3(g)).

The time taken for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called the period or the
periodic time, T, of the waveform.

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The number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency, f, of the supply and
is measured in hertz, Hz. The standard frequency of the electricity supply in Ghana is 50
Hz.

1 1
T= or f =
f T

7.4 AC Values

Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quantities at any instant of time. They
are represented by small letters, i, v, e, etc., (see Figures 7.3(f) and (g)).

The largest value reached in a half cycle is called the peak value or the maximum value or
the crest value or the amplitude of the waveform. Such values are represented by V m , I m ,
etc. (see Figures 7.3(f) and (g)). A peak-to-peak value of emf is shown in Figure 7.3(g) and
is the difference between the maximum and minimum values in a cycle.

The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity, (such as a sine wave), is
the average value measured over a half cycle, (since over a complete cycle the average
value is zero).

area under the curve

Average or mean value =
length of base

The area under the curve is found by approximate methods such as the trapezoidal rule,
the mid-ordinate rule or Simpson’s rule. Average values are represented by V AV ,, I AV , etc.

For a sine wave, average value = 0.637 × maximum value

(i.e. 2/π × maximum value)

The effective value of an alternating current is that current which will produce the same
heating effect as an equivalent direct current. The effective value is called the root mean
square (rms) value and whenever an alternating quantity is given, it is assumed to be the
rms value. For example, the domestic mains supply in Great Britain is 240 V and is
assumed to mean ‘240 V rms’. The symbols used for rms values are I, V, E, etc. For a non-
sinusoidal waveform as shown in Figure 7.4 the rms value is given by:

 i 2 + i 2 + ... + in2 
I =  1 2 
 n 

where n is the number of intervals used.

For a sine wave, rms value = 0.707 × maximum value (i.e. 1 2 × maximum value)

rms value
Form factor = For a sine wave, form factor = 1.11
average value

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maximum value
Peak factor = For a sine wave, peak factor = 1.41
rms value

The values of form and peak factors give an indication of the shape of waveforms.

FIGURE 7.4 Non-sinusoidal waveform

7.5 Equation of a Sinusoidal Waveform

In Figure 7.7, OA represents a vector that is free to rotate anticlockwise about 0 at an

angular velocity of ω rad/s. A rotating vector is known as a phasor.

FIGURE 7.7 Sinusoidal waveform

After time t seconds the vector OA has turned through an angle ωt. If the line BC is
constructed perpendicular to OA as shown, then

BC
sin ωt = i.e. BC = OB sin ωt
OB

If all such vertical components are projected on to a graph of y against angle ωt (in
radians), a sine curve results of maximum value OA. Any quantity which varies sinusoidally
can thus be represented as a phasor.

A sine curve may not always start at 0o. To show this a periodic function is represented by
y = sin(ωt ± φ ) , where φ is the phase (or angle) difference compared with y = sin ωt . In
Figure 7.8(a), y 2 = sin(ωt + φ ) starts φ radians earlier than y1 = sin ωt and is thus said to
lead y 1 by φ radians. Phasors y 1 and y 2 are shown in Figure 7.8(b) at the time when t = 0.

In Figure 7.8(c), y4 = sin(ωt − φ ) starts φ radians later than y3 = sin ωt and is thus said to
lag y 3 by φ radians. Phasors y 3 and y 4 are shown in Figure 7.8(d) at the time when t = 0.

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Given the general sinusoidal voltage, v = Vm sin(ωt ± φ ) , then

i. Amplitude or maximum value = V m
ii. Peak to peak value = 2V m
iii. Angular velocity = ω rad/s
iv. Periodic time, T = 2π/ω seconds
v. Frequency, f = ω/2π Hz (since ω=2πf)
vi. φ = angle of lag or lead (compared with v = Vm sin ωt )

FIGURE 7.8 Waveforms

7.6 Combination of Waveforms

The resultant of the addition (or subtraction) of two sinusoidal quantities may be
determined either:
(a) by plotting the periodic functions graphically, or
(b) by resolution of phasors by drawing or calculation.

7.7 Rectification

The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and voltages from alternating currents and
voltages is called rectification. Automatic switching in circuits is carried out by devices called
diodes.

Using a single diode, as shown in Figure 7.14, half-wave rectification is obtained. When P is
sufficiently positive with respect to Q, diode D is switched on and current i flows. When P is
negative with respect to Q, diode D is switched off. Transformer T isolates the equipment
from direct connection with the mains supply and enables the mains voltage to be changed.

Two diodes maybe used as shown in Figure 7.15 to obtain full wave rectification. A centre-
tapped transformer T is used. When P is sufficiently positive with respect to Q, diode D 1
conducts and current flows (shown by the broken line in Figure 7.15). When S is positive

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Applied Electricity Chapter 7 – Alternating Current Theory

with respect to Q, diode D 2 conducts and current flows (shown by the continuous line in
Figure 7.15). The current flowing in R is in the same direction for both half cycles of the
input. The output waveform is thus as shown in Figure 7.15.

Four diodes may be used in a bridge rectifier circuit, as shown in Figure 7.16 to obtain full
wave rectification. As for the rectifier shown in Figure 7.15, the current flowing in R is in the
same direction for both half cycles of the input giving the output waveform shown.

FIGURE 7.14 Half-wave rectification

FIGURE 7.15 Full wave rectification

FIGURE 7.16 Full wave bridge rectifier

To smooth the output of the rectifiers described above, capacitors having a large
capacitance may be connected across the load resistor R. The effect of this is shown on the
output in Figure 7.17.

FIGURE 7.17 Rectification

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Applied Electricity Chapter 7 – Alternating Current Theory

7.8 Problems

7.8.1 Frequency and Periodic Time

1. Determine the periodic time for the following frequencies: (a) 2.5 Hz (b) 100 Hz (c) 40
kHz. [(a) 0.4 s (b) 10 ms (c) 25 μs]

2. Calculate the frequency for the following periodic times: (a) 5ms (b)50iis (c)0.2s
[(a) 0.2 kHz (b) 20 kHz (c) 5 Hz]

3. An alternating current completes 4 cycles in 5 ms. What is its frequency? [800 Hz]

7.8.2 AC Values of Non-Sinusoidal Waveforms

4. An alternating current varies with time over half a cycle as follows:

Current (A) 0 0.7 2.0 4.2 8.4 8.2 2.5 1.0 0.4 0.2 0
Time (ms) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The negative half cycle is similar. Plot the curve and determine:
(a) the frequency,
(b) the instantaneous values at 3.4 ms and 5.8 ms,
(c) its mean value, and
(d) its rms value.
[(a) 50 Hz (b) 5.5 A, 3.4 A (c) 2.8 A (d) 4.0 A]

5. For the waveforms shown in Figure 7.18 determine for each (i) the frequency (ii) the
average value over half a cycle (iii) the rms value (iv) the form factor (v) the peak factor.
[(a) (i) 100 Hz (ii) 2.50 A (iii) 2.88 A (iv) 1.15 (v) 1.74]
[(b) (i) 250 Hz (ii) 20 V (iii) 20 V (iv) 1.0 (v) 1.0]
[(c) (i) 125 Hz (ii) 18 A (iii) 19.56 A (iv) 1.09 (v) 1.23]
[(d) (i) 250 Hz (ii) 25 V (iii) 50 V (iv) 2.0 (v) 2.0]

FIGURE 7.18 Waveforms for Problem 5

6. An alternating voltage is triangular in shape, rising at a constant rate to a maximum of

300 V in 8 ms and then falling to zero at a constant rate in 4 ms. The negative half cycle
is identical in shape to the positive half cycle. Calculate (a) the mean voltage over half a
cycle, and (b) the rms voltage [(a) 150 V (b) 170 V]

7.8.3 AC Values of Sinusoidal Waveforms

7. Calculate the rms value of a sinusoidal curve of maximum value 300 V. [212.1 V]

8. Find the peak and mean values for a 200 V mains supply. [282.9 V, 180.2 V]

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9. A sinusoidal voltage has a maximum value of 120 V. Calculate its rms and average
values. [84.8 V, 76.4 V]

10. A sinusoidal current has a mean value of 15.0 A. Determine its maximum and rms
values. [23.55 A, 16.65 A]

v = Vm sin(ωt ± φ )

11. An alternating voltage is represented by v = 20 sin 157.1t volts. Find (a) the maximum
value (b) the frequency (c) the periodic time. (d) What is the angular velocity of the
phasor representing this waveform? [(a) 20 V (b) 25 Hz (c) 0.04 s (d) 157.1 rad/s]

12. Find the peak value, the rms value, the periodic time, the frequency and the phase
angle (in degrees and minutes) of the following alternating quantities:
(a) v = 90 sin 400πt volts [90 V, 63.63 V, 5 ms, 200 Hz, 0o]
(b) i = 50 sin(100πt + 0.30 ) amperes [50 A, 35.35 A, 0.02 s, 50Hz, 17o11’ lead]
(c) e = 200 sin(628.4 t − 0.41) volts [200 V, 141.4 V, 0.01 s, 100 Hz, 23o29’ lag]

13. A sinusoidal current has a peak value of 30 A and a frequency of 60 Hz. At time t = 0,
the current is zero. Express the instantaneous current i in the form i = I m sin ωt .
[ i = 30 sin 120πt ]

14. An alternating voltage v has a periodic time of 20 ms and a maximum value of 200 V.
When time t = 0, v = – 75 volts. Deduce a sinusoidal expression for v and sketch one
cycle of the voltage showing important points. [ v = 200 sin(100πt − 0.384 ) ]

15. The instantaneous value of voltage in an ac circuit at any time seconds is given by
v = 100 sin(50πt − 0.523) V. Find:
(a) the peak-to-peak voltage, the periodic time, the frequency and the phase angle
(b) the voltage when t = 0
(c) the voltage when t = 8 ms
(d) the times in the first cycle when the voltage is 60 V
(e) the times in the first cycle when the voltage is – 40 V, and
(f) the first time when the voltage is a maximum.

Sketch the curve for one cycle showing relevant points.

[(a) 200 V, 0.04 s, 25 Hz, 2958’ lagging; (b) – 49.95 V; (c) 66.96 V; (d) 7.426 ms, 19.23
ms; (e) 25.95 ms, 40.71 ms; (f) 13.33 ms]

7.8.4 Combination of Periodic Functions

16. The instantaneous values of two alternating voltages are given by v1 = 5 sin ωt and
v2 = 8 sin(ωt − π 6 ) . By plotting v 1 and v 2 on the same axes, using the same scale, over
one cycle, obtain expressions for (a) v 1 + v 2 and (b) v 1 – v 2
[(a) v1 + v2 = 12.58 sin(ωt − 0.325 ) V (b)
v1 − v2 = 4.44 sin(ωt + 2.02) V ]

17. Repeat Problem 16 by resolution of phasors.

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Applied Electricity Chapter 7 – Alternating Current Theory

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Applied Electricity Chapter 8 – Fundamentals of Alternating Current Circuits

CHAPTER EIGHT
FUNDAMENTALS OF ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

8.1 AC Through Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance

Consider the phase angle between an alternating voltage and current when the circuit
contains resistance only, inductance only and capacitance only. In each case, assume that
the alternating voltage, e = E m sinωt.

8.1.1 Purely Resistive AC Circuit

In a purely resistive ac circuit, the current I R and applied voltage V R are in phase as shown
in Figure 8.1a.

a. b. c.
Figure 8.1 AC through resistance, inductance and capacitance

8.1.2 Purely Inductive AC Circuit

In a purely inductive ac circuit, the current I lags the applied voltage V L by 90° (i.e. ω/2
rads) as shown in Figure 8.1b. In a purely inductive circuit, the opposition to the flow of
alternating current is called the inductive reactance, X L is given as

VL
XL = = 2πfL Ω
IL

where f is the frequency, in hertz (Hz), and L is the inductance, in henry (H).

8.1.3 Purely Capacitive AC Circuit

In a purely capacitive ac circuit, the current I leads the applied voltage by 90° (i.e. ω/2 rads)
as shown in Figure 8.1c. In a purely capacitive circuit, the opposition to the flow of
alternating current is called the capacitive reactance, X C is given as

VC 1
XC = = Ω
IC 2πfC

where C is the capacitance, in farads (F). Since

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Example 7.1 (a) Calculate the reactance of a coil of inductance 0.32 H when it is
connected to a 50 Hz supply. (b) A coil has a reactance of 124 Ω in a circuit with a supply
of frequency 5 kHz. Determine the inductance of the coil.

Solution 7.1
(a) Inductive reactance, X L = 2πfL = 2π × 50 × 0.32 = 100.5 Ω

XL 124
(b) Since X L = 2πfL, inductance L = = = 3.95 mH
2πf 2π (5000 )

Example 7.2 (a) Determine the capacitive reactance of a capacitor of 10 µF when

connected to a circuit of frequency 50 Hz. (b) Again, determine the capacitance given that
the capacitive reactance is 40 Ω.

Solution 7.2
1 1
(a) Capacitance reactance X C = = = 318.8 Ω
2πfC 2π (50 ) 10 × 10 − 6 ( )
1 1 1
(b) Since X C = , capacitance C = = = 79.58 µF
2πfC 2πfXC 2π (50 )(40 )

8.2 Series AC Circuit

In the case of single elements R, L and C, the angle difference between the voltage and the
current is either zero, or ±90°. This situation changes when there are two or more
components in a circuit.

8.2.1 R-L Series Circuits

In an ac circuit containing inductance L and resistance R, the applied voltage V is the
phasor sum of V R and V (as shown in Figure 8.2), and thus the current I lags the applied
voltage V by an angle lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the values of V R and V L ),
shown as angle ϕ. In any ac series circuit the current is common to each component and is
thus taken as the reference phasor.

Figure 8.2 Series ac circuit containing resistance and inductance

From the phasor diagram of Figure 8.2, the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived.

VL
For the R-L circuit: V = VR2 + VL2 and tan φ =
VR
applied voltage, V
In an ac circuit, the ratio is called the impedance, Z.
current, I

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If each side of the voltage triangle in Figure 8.2 is divided by current I then the ‘impedance
triangle’ is derived.

XL X R
For the R-L circuit: Z = R 2 + X L2 , tan φ = , sin φ = L and cos φ =
R Z Z

8.2.2 R-C Series Circuit

In an ac series circuit containing capacitance C and resistance R, the applied voltage V is
the phasor sum of V R and V C (as shown in Figure 8.3) and thus the current I leads the
applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the values of V R and
V C ), shown as angle α.

Figure 8.3 Series ac circuit containing resistance and capacitance

From the phasor diagram of Figure 8.3, the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived.

VC
For the R-C circuit: V = VR2 + VC2 and tan α =
VR

applied voltage, V
As stated in Section 8.3.1, the ratio is called the impedance, Z.
current, I

If each side of the voltage triangle in Figure 8.3 is divided by current I then the ‘impedance
triangle’ is derived.

XC X R
For the R-C circuit: Z = R 2 + X C2 , tan α = , sin α = C and cos α =
R Z Z

8.2.3 R-L-C Series Circuit

In an ac series circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C, the applied
voltage V is the phasor sum of V R , V L and V C (as shown in Figure 8.4). V L and V C are anti-
phase, i.e. displaced by 180°, and there are three phasor diagrams possible each depending
on the relative values of V L and V C .

When X L > X C (Figure 8.4(b)): Z = R 2 + ( X L − XC ) and tan φ =

2 ( X L − XC )
R

When X C > X L (Figure 8.4(c)): Z = R 2 + ( X C − X L ) and tan α =

2 ( XC − X L )
R

When X L = X C (Figure 8.4(d)), the applied voltage V and the current I are in phase. This
effect is called series resonance (see Section 8.3.4).

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Figure 8.4 Series ac circuit containing resistance, inductance and capacitance

8.2.4 Series Resonance

For an R-L-C series circuit, when X L = X C , the applied voltage V and the current I are in
phase. This effect is called series resonance. At resonance:
i. V L = V C
ii. Z = R (i.e. the minimum circuit impedance possible in an L-C-R circuit)
V
iii. I = (i.e. the maximum current possible in an L-C-R circuit)
R
1 1 1
iv. Since X L = X C , then 2πfr L = from which, fr = and, fr =
2
,
2πfr C (2π ) LC
2
2π LC
where f r is the resonant frequency, in hertz (Hz).
v. The series resonant circuit is often described as an acceptor circuit since it has its
minimum impedance, and thus maximum current, at the resonant frequency.
vi. Typical graphs of current I and impedance Z against frequency are shown in Figure
8.5.

8.2.5 Power in AC Circuit

In Figures 8.6(a)-(c), the value of power at any instant is given by the product of the voltage
and current at that instant, i.e. the instantaneous power, p = vi, as shown by the broken
lines.

a. For a purely resistive ac circuit, the average power dissipated, P, is given by:

V2
P = VI = I 2 R = watt (V and I being rms values)
R

b. For a purely inductive ac circuit, the average power is zero. See Figure 7.22(b).

c. For a purely capacitive ac circuit, the average power is zero. See Figure 7.22(c).

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Figure 8.5 Typical graphs of current I and impedance Z against frequency

Figure 8.6 Power in ac circuit

Figure 8.7 shows current and voltage waveforms for an R-L circuit where the current lags
the voltage by angle ϕ. The waveform for power (where p = vi) is shown by the broken
line, and its shape, and hence average power, depends on the value of angle ϕ.

Figure 8.7 Current and voltage waveform for R-L circuit

For an R-L, R-C or R-L-C series ac circuit, the average power P is given by:

P = VI cos φ watt or P = I 2 R watt (V and I being rms values)

8.2.6 Power Triangle and Power Factor

Figure 8.8(a) shows a phasor diagram in which the current I lags the applied voltage V by
angle ϕ. The horizontal component of V is V cos ϕ and the vertical component of V is
V sin ϕ. If each of the voltage phasors is multiplied by I, Figure 8.8(b) is obtained and is
known as the ‘power triangle’.

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Figure 8.8 Power triangle and power factor

Apparent power, S = VI voltamaperes (VA)

True or active power, P = VI cos ϕ watt (W)
Reactive power, Q = VI sin ϕ reactive voltamperes (var)

True power P
Power factor (PF ) =
Apparent power S

P VI cos φ R
For sinusoidal voltages and currents, power factor = = , i.e. PF = cos φ =
S VI Z

8.3 Parallel AC Circuit

In parallel circuits, the voltage is common to each branch of the network and is thus taken
as the reference phasor when drawing phasor diagrams. For any parallel ac circuit:

Apparent power, S = VI voltamaperes (VA)

True or active power, P = VI cos ϕ watt (W) or I R 2R watt (W)
Reactive power, Q = VI sin ϕ reactive voltamperes (var)

True power P
Power factor (PF ) = = = cos φ
Apparent power S

These formulae are the same as for series ac circuits.

8.3.1 R-L Parallel AC Circuit

In the two branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and inductance L shown in Figure
8.9, the current flowing in the resistance, I R , is in-phase with the supply voltage V and the
current flowing in the inductance, I L , lags the supply voltage by 90°. The supply current I is
the phasor sum of I R and I L and thus the current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle
lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the values of I R and I L ), shown as angle in the
phasor diagram.

Figure 8.9 Parallel ac circuit containing resistance and inductance

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V V I
From the phasor diagram: I = I R2 + I L2 , where I R = and I L = . Also tan φ = L ,
R XL IR
I I V
sin φ = L and cos φ = R and the circuit impedance, Z = .
I I I

8.3.2 R-C Parallel AC Circuit

In the two branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and capacitance C shown in
Figure 8.10, I R is in-phase with the supply voltage V and the current flowing in the
capacitor, I C , leads V by 90°. The supply current I is the phasor sum of I R and I C and thus
the current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0° and 90° (depending
on the values of I R and I C ) shown as angle α in the phasor diagram.

Figure 8.10 Parallel ac circuit containing resistance and capacitance

V V I
From the phasor diagram: I = I R2 + I C2 , where I R =and I C = . Also tan α = C ,
R XC IR
I I V
sin α = C and cos α = R and the circuit impedance, Z = .
I I I

8.3.3 L-C Parallel AC Circuit

In the two branch parallel circuit containing inductance L and capacitance C shown in
Figure 8.11, I lags V by 90° and I leads V by 90°. Theoretically there are three phasor
diagrams possible – each depending on the relative values of I L and I C :
i. I L > I C (giving a supply current, I = I L – I C lagging V by 90°),
ii. I C > I L (giving a supply current, I = I C – I L leading V by 90°), and
iii. I L = I C (giving a supply current, I = 0).

Figure 8.11 Parallel ac circuit containing capacitance and inductance

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Applied Electricity Chapter 8 – Fundamentals of Alternating Current Circuits

The latter condition is not possible in practice due to circuit resistance inevitably being
V V
present. For the L-C parallel circuit, I L = , IC = , where I = phasor difference
XL XC
V
between I L and I C , and Z = .
I

8.4 Power Factor Improvement

For a particular power supplied, a high power factor reduces the current flowing in a supply
system and therefore reduces the cost of cables, switch-gear, transformers and generators.
Supply authorities use tariffs which encourage electricity consumers to operate at a
reasonably high power factor. Industrial loads such as ac motors are essentially inductive
(R-L) and may have a low power factor. One method of improving (or correcting) the
power factor of an inductive load is to connect a static capacitor C in parallel with the load
(see Figure 8.12(a)). The supply current is reduced from I LR to I, the phasor sum of I LR and
I C , and the circuit power factor improves from cos ϕ 1 to cos ϕ 2 (see Figure 8.12(b)).

Figure 8.12 Improvement of power factor

8.5 Problems

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Applied Electricity Chapter 9 – Signal Waveforms

CHAPTER NINE
SIGNAL WAVEFORMS

9.1 Introduction

Most of the voltages and currents in the circuits we have studied so far have not varied with
time. Such circuits, called dc circuits, are easy to analyse. But, if we do allow the
magnitudes of the source(s) in the circuits to change with time, this opens up vast new
possible uses for these circuits. Transmission of information requires the use of quantities
that vary in time. Although not every time-varying voltage or current is used for signalling
the transmission of information from one point to another, it has become generally
acceptable to use the word signal to describe any voltage or current, or any other quantity
for that matter, that varies with time.

The important signals for circuits include the step, impulse, ramp, sinusoid, and dc signals.
These signals are widely used and are described here in the time domain.

9.2 Step Function

The unit-step function, u(t),is a mathematical function that is equal to +1 (unity) for
positive values of its argument and zero for its negative values of its argument. It is defined
mathematically by

1, t≥0
u(t ) = 
0, t<0

Here unit step means that the amplitude of u(t) is equal to 1 for t ≥ 0. Note that we are
following the convention that u(0) = 1. From a strict mathematical standpoint, u(t) is not
defined at t = 0. Nevertheless, we usually take u(0) = 1. If A is an arbitrary nonzero
number, Au(t) is the step function with amplitude A for t ≥ 0. The unit step function is
plotted in Figure 9.1.

FIGURE 9.1 Unit-step function

Any voltage or current that is switched on or off at some instant of time, t o , is easily
described mathematically by using the unit step function. So all we have to do when
dealing with the unit-step function is to be very careful to determine for what values of t the
argument is greater than zero. For only those values of t the unit-step function equals +1.

We can also use the step function to describe variables that turn off at some instant of time.

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Applied Electricity Chapter 9 – Signal Waveforms

9.3 The Impulse

The unit-impulse function, δ(t), also called the delta function or the Dirac distribution, is
defined by

δ (t ) = 0, t≠0
ε
∫ ε δ (λ )d(λ ) = 1,
−
for any real number ε > 0

The first condition states that δ(t) is zero for all nonzero values of t, while the second
condition states that the area under the impulse is 1, so δ(t) has unit area. It is important to
point out that the value δ(0) of δ(t) at t = 0 is not defined; in particular, δ(0) is not equal to
infinity. For any real number K, Kδ(t) is the impulse with area K. It is defined by

Kδ (t ) = 0, t≠0
ε
∫ ε K (λ )d(λ ) = K,
−
for any real number ε > 0
The graphical representation of Kδ(t) is shown in Figure 9.2. The notation K in the figure
refers to the area of the impulse Kδ(t).

FIGURE 9.2 Graphical representation of the impulse

The unit-step function u(t) is equal to the integral of the unit impulse, δ(t); more precisely,
we have

u(t ) = ∫ δ (λ )dλ,
t
all t except t = 0
−∞

Conversely, the first derivative of u(t), with respect to t, is equal to δ(t), except at t = 0,
where the derivative of u(t) is not defined.

9.4 Ramp Function

The unit-ramp function, r(t), is defined mathematically by

t , t≥0
r (t ) = 
0, t<0

Note that for t ≥ 0, the slope of r(t) is 1. Thus, r(t) has unit slope, which is the reason r(t) is
called the unit-ramp function. If K is an arbitrary nonzero scalar (real number), the ramp
function Kr(t) has slope K for t ≥ 0. The unit-ramp function is plotted in Figure 9.3.

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Applied Electricity Chapter 9 – Signal Waveforms

FIGURE 9.3 Unit-ramp function

The unit-ramp function r(t) is equal to the integral of the unit-step function u(t); that is,

r (t ) = ∫ u(λ )dλ
t

−∞

Conversely, the first derivative of r(t) with respect to t is equal to u(t), except at t = 0, where
the derivative of r(t) is not defined.

9.5 Sinusoidal Function

The sinusoid is a continuous-time signal: A cos(wt + q).

Here A is the amplitude, w is the frequency in radians per second (rad/s), and q is the
phase in radians. The frequency f in cycles per second, or hertz (Hz), is f = ω/2π. The
sinusoid is a periodic signal with period 2π/ω. The sinusoid is plotted in Figure 9.4.

FIGURE 9.4 The sinusoid A cos(ωt + θ) with –π/2 < θ < 0

9.6 Decaying Exponential

In general, an exponentially decaying quantity (Figure 9.5) can be expressed as

−t
a = Ae τ

where
a = instantaneous value
A = amplitude or maximum value
e = base of natural logarithms = 2.718 …
τ = time constant in seconds

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Applied Electricity Chapter 9 – Signal Waveforms

t = time in seconds

The current of a discharging capacitor can be approximated by a decaying exponential

function of time.

FIGURE 9.5 The decaying exponential.

9.7 Time Constant

Since the exponential factor only approaches zero as t increases without limit, such
functions theoretically last forever. In the same sense, all radioactive disintegrations last
forever. In the case of an exponentially decaying current, it is convenient to use the value of
time that makes the exponent –1. When t = τ = the time constant, the value of the
exponential factor is

−t 1 1
e τ
= e −1 = = = 0.368
e 2.718

In other words, after a time equal to the time constant, the exponential factor is reduced to
approximately 37 % of its initial value.

9.8 DC Signal

The direct current signal (dc signal) can be defined mathematically by

i(t ) = K − ∞ < t < +∞

Here, K is any nonzero number. The dc signal remains a constant value of K for any
–∞<t<∞. The dc signal is plotted in Figure 9.6.

FIGURE 9.6 The dc signal with amplitude K

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Applied Electricity Chapter 10 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

CHAPTER TEN
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL MACHINES

10.1 Introduction

Generation, transmission and distribution of electricity via the National Grid system are
accomplished by three-phase alternating currents.

The voltage induced by a single coil when rotated in a uniform magnetic field is known as a
single-phase voltage. Most consumers are fed by means of a single-phase ac supply. Two
wires are used; one called the live conductor (usually coloured red) and the other is called
the neutral conductor (usually coloured black). The neutral is usually connected via
protective gear to earth, the earth wire being coloured green (or green and yellow). The
standard voltage for a single-phase ac supply is 240 V. The majority of single-phase
supplies are obtained by connection to a three-phase supply.

10.2 Transformers

The Transformer transforms electrical energy from one level of voltage and current to
another level of voltage and current. The energy transformation takes place via the
magnetic field.

As both the input and output energy are only electrical energy the Transformer has no
moving parts and associated mechanical loss is absent. Hence, its full-load efficiency is
higher than any other rotating energy converting machines, say around 108 %.

10.2.1 Constructional Features

A single-phase Transformer consists of a magnetic core and two windings. By construction,
the two windings are called Low-voltage (LV) winding and High-voltage (HV) winding.

The Transformer core is made up of silicon content steel laminations. Steel offers low
reluctance path for the magnetic flux to pass through. As the type of flux present is
alternating flux, the flux reversals cause the magnetic losses, hysteresis and eddy current
losses in the core. To reduce Hysteresis loss, silicon is added with steel to manufacture core
stamping.

Stacking the core by thin insulated stamping reduces Eddy current loss. The LV and HV
windings are wound with copper wires being good conductor of electric current. There are
two basic types of Transformer constructions:
i. Core type Transformer and
ii. Shell type Transformer

Core type Transformer

In this type, the core is stacked by “V” section and “I” section laminations as shown in
Figure 10.1(a).

Single-phase core type Transformer has two limbs, the vertical columns, around which
windings are housed, two yokes, the horizontal sections and one window, the space

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Applied Electricity Chapter 10 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

enclosed by the core. All sections of the core carries the same flux as there is a single flux
path.

FIGURE 10.1 Core type Transformer

Initially V section laminations are stacked. After placing sufficient insulation around the
limbs, prewound LV windings are inserted immediately around the limb. Each LV winding
has half the required number of turns. The two half LV windings are connected in series
and the resultant two terminals are taken out for external connections. After providing
sufficient insulation around the LV winding, each half HV coils are placed over the LV
windings as shown in Figure 10.1(b). The two half HV coils are then connected in series
and resultant two terminals are taken out for external connection.

Shell type Transformer

E and I section laminations shown in Figure 10.2(a) are used for stacking the shell type
Transformer core.

FIGURE 10.2 Shell type Transformer

The shell type Transformer has two outer limbs, one middle limb, two yokes and two
windows. There are two flux paths. Full flux φ pass through the middle limb and in the
remaining parts of the core the flux is φ/2. Hence, the middle limb width is twice as that of
outer limbs.

Initially E section laminations are stacked. Immediately around the middle limb the full LV
winding is placed and over this HV winding is placed, of course with suitable insulation
between limb and LV winding and between LV and HV windings. Finally, the magnetic
circuit is closed with I section lamination.

Transformers of smaller capacity may be provided with a simple enclosure with a provision
for natural air circulation. Large capacity Transformers are put up inside a leak proof tank
and filled up with insulation oil.

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10.2.2 Principle of Operation

Let us consider an ideal Transformer with which an explanation of the principle of
operation is simpler.

An ideal Transformer is one which has:

i. No losses in the core,
ii. No losses in the two windings, i.e., the windings are considered purely inductive and
iii. No leakage in flux.

Although in actual core type Transformers, half of the two windings are housed around
each limb, in the ideal transformer considered, only one winding is shown around each
limb as shown in Figure 10.3.

FIGURE 10.3 Ideal Transformer on no-load

Ideal Transformer on no-load

From the operating point of view, the two windings are called primary and secondary. The
winding connected to the supply, which is the prime source of energy, is called the primary
winding. Let T 1 be its number of turns.

The second winding which gives out electrical energy to the load is called the secondary
winding. Let T 2 , be its number of turns.

When a supply voltage V, with frequency f is given to the primary winding, the purely
inductive winding draws a magnetising current, I m , lagging the supply voltage V, by 100° as
shown in the phasor diagram in Figure 10.4.

If
v1 = V1m cos ωt 10.1

then
i1 = I mm sin ωt 10.2

The sinusoidal magnetising current passing through the primary winding causes an
alternating flux φ to be set up in the core and is in phase with I m .

φ = φm sin ωt 10.3

The alternating flux φ linked by the primary winding causes an emf of E 1 induced in it.

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FIGURE 10.4 Phasor diagram of ideal Transformer on no-load

dφ
e1 = −T1
dt
d (φm sin ωt )
= −T1 = −T1φmω cos ωt
dt
e1 = − E1m cos ωt 10.4

Comparing equations 10.1 and 10.4, the induced emf in the primary e 1 is in the opposite
direction as that of supply voltage v 1 . The rms value of emf E 1 is given as

E1m T1φmω T1φm (2πf )

E1 = = =
2 2 2

E1 = 4.44φm fT1 V 10.5

Further, the same alternating flux φ is linked by the secondary winding also. Repeating the
above steps now for secondary

dφ
e 2 = −T2
dt
d (φm sin ωt )
= −T2 = −T2φmω cos ωt
dt
= − E2m cos ωt
= 4.44φm fT2 V 10.6

From equations 10.5 and 10.6, one can easily understand that the emf induced per turn E t
remain the same for both primary and secondary.

E1 E 2
Et = = = 4.44φm f V 10.7
T1 T2

Rearranging equation 10.7,

E2 T2
= =K 10.8
E1 T1

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where K is called as the transformation ratio, ratio of secondary to primary number of turns,
a constant for a given Transformer according to construction.

Although equation 10.8 is derived for ideal Transformer, it is applicable to actual

Transformer also.

E 1 = V 1 and E 2 = V 2

Hence in an ideal Transformer

E2 T2 V
= =K= 2
E1 T1 V1

In case if T 2 > T 1 or K > 1, the secondary voltage level V 2 will be greater than the supply
voltage V 1 and the Transformer is called a step-up Transformer.

If T 2 < T 1 or K < 1, the secondary voltage level V 2 will be less than the supply voltage V 1
and Transformer is called a step-down Transformer.

The same Transformer if operated with its LV winding as primary act as a step-up
Transformer and on another time operated with its HV winding as primary can act as a
step-down Transformer.

10.2.3 Three-phase Transformer Connections

Three-phase core type Transformer has 3 limbs, 2 yokes and 2 windows. Around each
limb, the LV and HV windings belonging to one phase are housed.

Three-phase operation can be carried out either by a single three-phase Transformer or

alternatively using three identical single-phase transformers. Let A 1 A 2 , B 1 B 2 and C 1 C 2 be
the terminals of the three primary windings and a 1 a 2 , b 1 b 2 and c 1 c 2 be the terminals of the
three secondary windings. The four commonly used connections are shown in Figure 10.5.

10.3 DC Machines

Depending on the mode of operation, a DC machine is either called as DC generator or DC

motor. When the machine converts mechanical energy into electrical energy which is DC in
nature it is called as a DC generator. DC motor converts electrical energy which is DC in
nature to mechanical energy.

10.3.1 Constructional Features

For emf to be induced in the generator operation of the machine, according to Faraday’s
First law of electromagnetic induction, the following arrangements are required to be
provided in construction:
(i) Magnetic field system
(ii) System of conductors and
(iii) Relative movement between (i) and (ii)

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FIGURE 10.5 Three phase transformer connections

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Condition (iii) can be satisfied in two different ways. The magnetic field system can be
arranged in the stationary part of the machine called stator and the system of conductor in
the rotating part of the machine, called rotor. Alternatively, the system of conductor can be
placed in the stator and field system in the rotor.

In all electrical machines, the emf induced in the coil is always alternating in nature. This
necessitates the system of conductors which is otherwise called as armature to place in the
rotor, along with the commutator assembly which does the job of converting AC emf
induced into DC emf to the external circuit. Figure 10.6 shows the main parts of a 4 pole
DC machine.

FIGURE 10.6 Main parts of 4-pole DC machine

The various parts of DC machines can be grouped into two categories depending upon
their placement.

Parts in Stator Parts in Rotor

S1 Frame/Yoke R1 Armature core
S2 Main poles R2 Armature winding
S3 Main field winding R3 Commutator
S4 Interpoles/Commutating poles R4 Brushes
S5 Interpole windings R5 Shaft

Frame/Yoke (S1)
This part of the machine gets two names as it serves two functions. It gives mechanical
support for the entire machine and is therefore called as a frame. It also forms the path for
the lines of magnetic field and hence called as a Yoke.

In small machines, the frame is often made of cast iron in a single piece. In large sized
machines, it is always made of fabricated steel either in one or more pieces.

Main poles (S2)

DC machines can be constructed with any even number of main poles 2, 4, 6, 8 etc. In all
modem machines the main poles are fabricated by sheet steel laminations, which are
individually punched to the correct shape, then stacked together to the required length and
riveted. The portion of the poles facing the air-gap is wider than the pole body to form the

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pole shoe which will spread out the magnetic flux coming out of the pole and also give
support for the field winding.

Main field windings (S3)

The main poles and their associated field windings are formed similar to an electromagnet.
Prewound field coils are inserted around the main poles before they are fastened with the
frame. Each pole may be provided with either shunt field coil or series field coil or both.
Shunt field coils are wound with thin enamelled copper wire capable of carrying less current
and have large number of turns. Series field coils are wound with thick enamelled copper
wire capable of carrying large current equal to armature current and have small turns.
Shunt field coils around all the poles are connected together in series and two field winding
terminals Z and ZZ are provided on the terminal box. Similarly connected series field coils
form series field winding with terminal markings Y and YY. Passing a DC current through
the field winding will produce a magnetic field of North and South pole polarity in alternate
poles.

Interpoles (S4)
These poles are comparatively smaller in size than the main poles. As they are fitted in
between adjacent main poles they are called as Interpoles. The flux provided by these poles
gives sparklers commutation and hence they are also otherwise called as commutating
poles.

Interpole winding (S5)

All the exciting coils around Interpoles are connected in series and the interpole terminals
are marked as K and KK This winding is normally connected in series with the armature
circuit and carries the entire armature current, I.

Air gap
Radial spacing between main pole faces and surface of the armature is called air-gap. The
length of air-gap may be set between 1 mm and 5 mm.

Armature core (R1)

When the armature is rotated or rotating under the main poles of alternate North and South
pole magnetic field, the flux reversal causes magnetic losses to incur in it. To reduce
Hysteresis loss, the armature core is made up of low hysteresis steel containing few percent
silicon. To reduce eddy current loss, the core is assembled by stacking sheet steel
laminations to the required length. The laminations are also known as stampings, as they
are stamped out from steel plates. The outer periphery of stampings is cut in with slots to
accommodate armature coils. The assembled core is keyed on to the shaft.

Armature winding (R2)

After insulating the armature slots, prewound diamond shaped, enamelled copper coils are
placed in them in two layers. If one side of a coil is placed in a slot lying under the North
pole, then the other side of the same coil is placed in a slot lying under the next South pole
and said to be 180 electrical degrees apart. A number of similar coils placed in the slots are
then interconnected either in a lap connected manner or wave connected manner. Further,
interconnecting ends of the consecutive coils are connected to the commutator segments.
The total interconnected armature coils are then called as armature winding. A lap
connected armature winding offers a number of parallel paths, A, equal to number of main
poles in the machine. A wave connected winding offers only two parallel paths.

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A = P for Lap winding 10.9

A = 2 for Wave winding 10.10

Commutator (R3)
This is cylindrical in shape, fitted with the shaft on one side of the armature, namely the
front side. The entire assembly is made of wedge shaped segments of hard-drawn or drop-
forged copper. The number of segments is equal to the number of coils in the armature
winding. The segments are insulated from one another by a thin layer of mica sheet. The
segments are held together by clamping flanges. The functions of a commutator are (i)
forming current collecting path between armature and brushes and (ii) converting AC emf
and current from armature coils to DC emf and current to the external circuit and vice
versa.

Brushes (R4)
They are usually made of carbon. They may also be made of either copper gauze or copper
– carbon compounds or graphite. Brushes accommodated in brush holders are made in
contact with commutator segments by spring force. Brush holders are fastened to a brush
spindle which is attached to the front side end cover. The number of brush holders is equal
to the number of poles. Alternate P/2 positive brushes are connected together to form the
armature terminal A and the remaining negative brushes connected together to form the
other armature terminal AA.

Shaft (R5)
The steel shaft gives mechanical support to the armature and commutator. The rotor
assembly is supported and allowed to rotate freely by two bearings fitted between the two
end-covers and the shaft.

10.3.2 Principle of Operation of DC Generators

Consider a single coil supported by the shaft and situated in between a pair of poles as
shown in Figure 10.7(a).

Assume that the coil is rotated by a prime-mover, say, in the anticlockwise direction. When
the coil side ‘a’ move under the N-pole and coil side ‘b’ under the S-pole, the emf available
to the external circuit across the brushes pq is say in +ve direction. After half rotation, coil
side ‘a’ moves under the S-pole and side ‘b’ under the N-pole. Hence, emf collected from
the coil, through the two slip rings and available across the brushes now is in -ve direction.
Hence the use of slip rings causes an alternating emf available to the external circuit which
is induced in the coil as shown in Figure 10.7(b).

In Figure 10.8(a) the two slip rings are replaced by a split-ring, spited into two halves
insulated from one another. This split ring is similar to the commutator assembly available
in DC machines.

Coil side ‘a’ is connected to one half of the split ring and side ‘b’ to the other half. Brushes
p, q are in stationary position. As seen from the diagram, the brush ‘p’ is always in contact
with the coil side moving under the N-pole and brush ‘q’ is always in contact with the coil
side moving under the S-pole. Hence, emf available to the external circuit across brushes
pq is always unidirectional as shown in Figure 10.8(b).

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FIGURE 10.7 Emf induced in a coil

FIGURE 10.8 AC to DC conversion

Thus, in a DC generator, the stationary magnetic field is provided by the main poles by
passing a DC current to the field winding. Then, if the armature is rotated by a prime-
mover, giving mechanical energy to the generator, an alternating emf is induced in the
armature coil (Faraday’s Law). By means of commutator action, emf made available across
armature terminals become unidirectional. When the generator is loaded by delivering the
armature current, I a , each conductor in the armature winding carries a current, I, expressed
as

Ia
I= 10.11
A

Current carrying armature conductors produce an extra magnetic field which gives an
opposing force to the movement (Lenz’s Law). Hence, corresponding to the increase in
electrical power output, the generator should be provided with more mechanical power.

10.3.3 Emf Equation

Amount of emf induced is accounted by the second law of Faraday.
Let:
P - Total number of main poles
Z - Total number of armature conductors
A - Number of parallel paths
φ - Useful flux per pole in Wb
N - Speed of the armature in rpm

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dφ
e=
dt

In one revolution of armature, dφ = Pφ

1 60
Time taken for one revolution, dt = min = s
N N

Pφ PφN
Average emf induced per conductor, Eav cond = =
60 60
N

Total emf, in volts, induced by all conductors in one parallel path,

Z
E = ( Eav cond ) ×
A
 PφN  Z
E= ×
 60  A
 φZN  P
E= × 10.12
 60  A

Example 10.1 A 4 pole lap connected DC machine armature has 40 slots with 8
conductors per slot. The useful flux per pole is 60 m Wb. Find the emf available on the
terminals when the armature is rotated at 1500 rpm.

Solution 10.1
Data:
P = 4, Lap connection, i.e., A = P = 4
S = 40
ZS = 8
φ = 60 mWb = 60 × 10-3 Wb
N = 1500 rpm

Solution:
Z = Z S × S = 8 × 40 = 320

E=
φZN
×
P
=
(
60 × 10 − 3 × 320 × 1500 4
×
)
60 A 60 4

E = 480 V

Example 10.2 A 6-pole, wave wound armature has 410 slots with 8 conductors per slot.
Its useful flux per pole is 20 mWb. At what speed should the armature be rotated in order to
obtain an emf of 500 V?

Solution 10.2
Data:
P = 6, Wave wound, i.e., A = 2

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S = 410
ZS = 8
φ = 20 mWb = 20 × 10-3 Wb
E = 500 V

Solution:
Z = Z S × S = 8 × 49 = 392

60 E A 60 × 500 2
N= × = ×
φZ P (
−3
20 × 10 × 384 6 )
N = 1275.5 rpm

10.3.4 Characteristics of DC Generators

The various characteristics of DC generators are:
(i) Magnetisation characteristic : E vs I f , when I a = 0
(ii) No-load/open circuit characteristic : V o vs I f , when I L = 0
(iii) Load characteristic : V vs I L

10.3.5 Types of DC Generators

Figure 10.9 shows the classification of DC generators.

DC Machine

Separately excited Self excited

Shunt Series Compound

Long shunt (either

Cumulative or Differential)

Short shunt (either

Cumulative or Differential)

FIGURE 10.9 Types of DC generators

Separately Excited Generator

In this type of generator, the exciting current is supplied from a separate source. Figure
10.10(a) shows the connection diagram. As seen from the connection diagram, the
armature current, I a , is same as load current, I a = I L .

Hence, magnetisation characteristic itself represents the No-load characteristic.

Magnetisation characteristic is obtained by changing the exciting or field current supplied

from a separate source and observing the change in inducted emf. When I f = 0, a small
emf may be available due to a residual flux. Increase in I f initially increases E almost in a
linear manner. For higher value of I f , variation of E becomes non-linear and finally it
remains constant when the generator becomes fully saturated as shown in Figure 10.10(b).

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The characteristic is with reference to a constant speed of operation. The magnetisation

characteristic represents the B-H relation of the magnetic material used in the generator.

FIGURE 10.10 Separately excited generator

Load characteristic is shown in Figure 10.10(c). This characteristic is also with reference to
a constant speed of operation. Prior to loading, when I L = 0, desired no load voltage V o
can be set by providing suitable excitation and then retaining it constant (I f = const). When
the load current, I L , is increased, the generator terminal voltage, V, keeps on decreasing, of
course only to a small extent. The fall in the terminal voltage is due to (i) voltage drop in the
armature winding resistance and (ii) decrease in flux to armature reaction.

Shunt Generator
Here, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and the current to the
field winding is provided by the generator itself and hence it comes under the category of
self-excited generator. Figure 10.11(a) shows the connection diagram.

No-load characteristic can be obtained only if the generator initially has an emf due to
residual flux, E r . At constant speed with this E r to start with, a decrease in resistance of the
field circuit will cause I f to increase which in turn increases the emf induced and hence the
no-load voltage. The no-load characteristic is almost similar to the magnetisation
characteristic as shown in Figure 10.11(b).

The load characteristic of DC shunt generator shown in Figure 10.11(c) exhibits a larger fall
in voltage than the separately excited generator for the same increase in load current. The
three reasons for fall in terminal voltage are:
(i) voltage drop in armature winding resistance
(ii) decrease in flux due to armature reaction
(iii) decrease in field current due to decrease in terminal voltage .

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FIGURE 10.11 Shunt generator

Series Generator
The series generator is a self excited generator with armature, field winding and load, all
connected in series. Figure 10.12(a) shows the connection diagram.

FIGURE 10.12 Series generator

When the generator is on no-load, a small emf, E r , is induced owing to the residual flux.
When the external load resistance is decreased, the increase in load current causes the
terminal voltage to increase as shown in Figure 10.12(b). For the same current through the
field winding, voltage obtained during load condition is always less than that obtained in
magnetisation characteristic. The difference is due to (i) voltage drop in armature and field
winding resistances and (ii) decrease in flux due to armature reaction.

Compound Generator
The net flux set up in compound generators is combination of flux set up by shunt field
winding on no-load and the flux set up by series field winding during load condition. Figure

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10.13(a) shows the connection diagram of a short shunt compound generator, which is
preferable to long shunt connection.

If the generator is to be connected for long shunt, the shunt field circuit is to be connected
across the load terminals. Short and long shunt classification does not have any appreciable
change in characteristic.

FIGURE 10.13 Compound generator

Depending upon the series field winding connection, the generator is classified as either
cumulative compound or differential compound generator.

On no-load, I L = 0, the entire flux and hence emf is set up by only the shunt field winding.
In a cumulative compound generator, the additional flux set up by the series field winding
due to the load current is in the same direction as that of the shunt field flux. There is a
cumulative effect. The terminal voltage on load condition therefore is more than that given
by a shunt generator. Hence, the load characteristic of a cumulative compound generator
lies above the shunt generator characteristic as shown in Figure 10.13(b).

If more turns are present in the series field winding, the terminal voltage on full load current
will be more than the no-load value, V o . The generator is now called as an over-
compounded generator. Sufficient series field turns may cause the full load terminal voltage
equal to no-load level. Now the generator is called level compounded. When the load
voltage is less than no-load voltage, the generator is called under-compounded.

On the other hand, in the differential compound generator, the connection of series field
winding is such that the additional flux set up by it, during load condition, is in the opposite
direction as that of shunt field winding. Hence, the net flux, which is the difference of shunt
field flux and series field flux, on load condition is less than no-load condition. Load
characteristic of differential compound generator therefore falls down quickly as shown in
Figure 10.13(b).

10.3.6 Principle of Operation of DC Motors

The electrical energy, as the input to the motor, is supplied by a source voltage, V, with a
current, I, as shown in Figure 10.14(a).

The current, I f , flowing through the field winding causes a stationary magnetic field setup by
the main poles with the alternate North and South poles. The current, I a , entering into the

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armature winding via brushes and commutator get distributed such that all the conductors
under the N-pole carry current in one particular direction, say outward as marked in Figure
10.14(b) and the conductors under S-pole carry current in opposite direction, here as
inward direction.

FIGURE 10.14 DC Motor

Each current carrying conductor within the magnetic field develops a force given by the
equation

F = BIl N

The force developed by the conductor acting in the shaft causes net torque, T d , to develop.
The direction of force and torque, as obtained by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, for the shown
direction of the magnetic field and direction of current is clockwise. If the torque developed
is more than the load torque on the shaft and frictional torque on bearings, the armature
start rotating in the same direction as that of the force, say clockwise in this case.

Therefore, if the direction of rotation of the motor is to be changed, either the direction of
the current through the field winding or the direction of the current through the armature is
to be changed.

As the armature starts rotating, the flux linking the armature conductors changes. Hence,
according to Faraday’s First Law, the armature conductors get emf induced. Now the emf is
called back emf, E b , given by

φZN A
Eb = × V
60 P

The equation for the speed of the DC motor is obtained by rearranging to obtain

60 Eb A Eb
N= × rpm or N = Cn rpm
φZ P φ

where
60 A
Cn = ×
Z P

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The network equation for the motor armature is

Eb = Va − I a Ra

Hence

60(Va − I a Ra ) A
N= ×
φZ P

Thus, the motor develops mechanical energy with torque, T d , and speed, N.

10.3.7 Torque Equation

In a simple way, the equation for the torque developed by a DC motor can be obtained by
equating mechanical power developed by the armature with electrical power input to the
armature.

Pm = Pe

2πNTd
= Eb I a
60

2πNTd  φZN P 
= ×  × Ia
60  60 A 

1 P
Td = φZI a × Nm
2π A

Thus on operating factor, T d depends on

Td ∝ φI a or Td = CTφI a

where
1 P
CT = Z×
2π A

Example 10.3 A 4 pole, wave wound armature has 37 slots with 10 conductors per slot.
Its useful flux per pole is 30 mWb. Find the torque developed when the armature current is
50 A.

Solution 10.3
Data:
P=4
Wave wound, i.e., A = 2
S = 37
Z s = 10
φ = 30 mWb = 30 × 10-3

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I a = 50 A

Solution:
1 P
Td = φZI a ×
2π A

Z = Z s × S = 10 × 37 = 370

Td =
1
2π
( )
× 30 × 10 − 3 × 370 × 50 ×
4
2

Td = 176.66 Nm

10.3.8 Characteristics of a DC Motor

The various characteristics of DC motors are
(i) Electrical characteristics
(a) N vs I a
(b) T d vs I a
(ii) Mechanical characteristic
(a) N vs T d

Shunt Motor
In DC shunt motors, the field winding is connected across the armature as shown in Figure
10.15(a).

FIGURE 10.15 DC shunt motor

Under normal operating conditions the field current and hence the flux produced by the
main poles, φ, remain constant. Desired no-load speed, N, can be set by the required field
current. The N vs I a characteristic then shows a slight fall in value with increase in I a due to
a slight decrease in E b . The T d vs I a characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin
as now T d is proportional to I a only. The two electrical characteristics are shown in Figure
10.15(b).

The mechanical characteristic is the combination of the two electrical characteristics. As the
torque increases, the speed of the motor slightly falls down as shown in Figure 10.15(c).

Series Motor

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Here the field winding is connected in series with the armature circuit as shown in Figure
10.16(a).

FIGURE 10.16 DC series motor

As the field current, I se , is either equal to or proportional to the armature current, I a , the flux
setup by the field current, φ, φ ∝ I a when the motor is unsaturated and φ-const when the
motor is fully saturated. On light load with less armature current, the flux setup is small,
leading to very high speed as speed is inversely proportional to the flux. Hence, series
motors should always be started with sufficient load on the shaft. An increase in load
accompanied by increase in I a causes the flux to increase and the speed to decrease to a
large extent compared with a shunt motor. The torque developed increases in square
proportion with the current when the machine is unsaturated i.e. for low values of I a . Then,
the T d , characteristics became a straight line as shown in Figure 10.16(b). The shape of the
mechanical characteristics similar to N vs I a is shown in Figure 10.16(c).

Compound Motor
Figure 10.17(a) shows the connection diagram of a long shunt compound motor.

The shape of mechanical characteristics of compound motors can be obtained with

reference to the mechanical characteristic of shunt motor and series motor as shown in
Figure 10.17(b).

On no-load, as the armature current and hence the series field current is small, most of the
flux is setup by the shunt field winding only. Hence the compound motor starts on no-load
as a shunt motor and a desired no-load speed N o can be set by suitable current I f through
the shunt field winding.

Classification of long and short shunt compound motor does not change the shape of the
characteristic much.

In a cumulative compound motor, where the flux setup by the series field winding aids with
shunt field flux, the net flux on load condition becomes more than the no-load level.
Hence, a cumulative compound motor exhibits a larger fall in speed than a shunt motor
and its characteristic lies between shunt and series motor characteristics.

As the net flux in a differential compound motor is the difference in flux produced by shunt
field winding and series field winding, the flux on load condition becomes less than the no-

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load flux. This causes the speed to increase with increase in torque. The rising N-T
characteristic leads to unstable operation and hence not used.

FIGURE 10.17 Compound motor

10.4 Induction Motors

The Induction motor is the most commonly used type of AC motor. Out of the total energy
conversion from electrical to mechanical, around 80 % of the energy conversion is being
carried out by the Induction motors. The motor is cheap, simple, rugged in construction,
and has good operating characteristics. It requires less maintenance.

10.4.1 Constructional Features of 3-phase Induction Motors

Three-phase Induction motors are classified according to its rotor construction as two types:
(i) Squirrel-cage Induction motor
(ii) Wound rotor or slip ring Induction motor

Both types have similar stator construction and work on the same principle. Figure 10.18
shows the stator part of a three-phase Induction motor.

The outermost part of the motor is called Frame. It gives the entire support to the motor
assembly. In small motors, the frame is made in a single piece of cast iron. In large sized
motors, the frame is fabricated by sections of steel and then joined together to get the
cylindrical shape.

Stator core is pre-assembled outside by stacking silicon content steel stampings to the
required length, in order to reduce magnetic losses. The inner periphery of the core has
slots cut in, to accommodate 3-phase stator winding wound for specific even number of
poles, P = 2, 4, 6, etc. Number of stator slots S s , is integer multiples of 3P. For example, if
P = 4, S s = 12, 24, 36, etc. Stator core assembly is pressed, welded with ribs and then
inserted into the frame.

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FIGURE 10.18 Three-phase Induction motor – stator

Squirrel Cage Rotor

Rotor core is assembled outside by stacking laminated rotor stampings to the required
length. Near the outer periphery of the core, closed slots are provided. For motors of large
capacity, thick copper conductors are inserted through them. The ends of the rods on the
two sides are then soldered together by end rings. If one visualises the shape of the rotor
conductors alone, leaving the core, it looks like a cage to keep squirrels inside. Hence the
rotor gets its name. For small motors, the cage winding is formed by die-cast aluminium.
Then, the shaft is inserted through the centre hole. This rotor assembly is then put inside
the stator core and supported by bearings attached to the front and back end-covers. So, in
this construction rotor winding is a closed one.

FIGURE 10.19 Squirrel cage rotor

Wound Rotor or Slip Ring Rotor

In this type the rotor has open slots. As the name implies, the rotor is wound with 3-phase
winding similar to stator winding. One end of the three windings are connected together to

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form the star-point. The remaining three ends are connected to three slip-rings mounted on
the rotor shaft. Three brushes, accommodated in brush holders fitted with the end cover,
are made to contact the slip-rings by a spring force at the time of starting. Hence, the rotor
circuit is accessible for external connection. Under normal operation, slip-rings are short-
circuited and brushes are lifted above slip-rings.

10.4.2 Principle of Operation

When the three-phase stator winding of the motor is connected to a three-phase supply,
three-phase current flow in the winding, current carrying stator conductors produce a
rotating magnetic field.

Rotating Magnetic Field

Consider a stator wound with a three-phase winding, wound for, say, 2-poles. Let the stator
has 12 slots accommodated with 2 coils per phase, as shown in Figure 10.20(a). All the
coils belonging to each phase are connected in series and two terminals for each phase
A 1 A 2 , B 1 B 2 and C 1 C 2 are available for external connections.

Figure 10.20(b) shows the waveform of three-phase current passing through the three-
phase stator winding. The different instances, (1) to (6) are marked off at 600 intervals. By
assuming that a positive current enters into the winding through the first terminal and a
negative current comes out of the winding from the first terminal the current directions are
marked in the stator conductors in Figure 10.20(c). For example, at instant (1) current
through winding A and C are positive. Hence, inward directions are marked in the
conductors of these phases near the first terminal and the other side conductors are marked
with outward direction. A negative current in winding B at instant (1) causes the conductors
near to the first terminal marked outward and the other side conductors with inward
direction.

At all instances, current carrying conductors produces a 2-pole magnetic field, since the
winding is wound for two poles. In successive instances, the axis of the magnetic field gets
rotated by 60°. In the two-pole winding shown here, the magnetic field makes one complete
revolution in one cycle of current waveform. A four pole winding will require two cycles of
current wave for one revolution. Thus, in general, the field makes one revolution in P/2
cycles.

P P
i.e. cycles = × revolution or cycles/sec = × revolution per sec
2 2

P Ns
fs = ×
2 60

120 fs
Ns = rpm
P

where N s is the speed of the rotating magnetic field. Since this speed is synchronous with
the supply frequency f s , the speed of the rotating magnetic field is also called as
synchronous speed.

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FIGURE 10.20 Rotating magnetic field

If any two of the three-phase supply lines to the stator winding in Figure 10.20(a) are
reversed, thereby reversing the supply phase sequence, a similar analysis will show the
rotation of the magnetic field in the reverse direction.

10.4.3 Torque Development

In Figure 10.21, a section of the Induction motor stator and rotor are shown. The N-pole of
the rotating magnetic field is shown rotating in the clockwise direction. The field comes out
from stator and flows down to the rotor. With respect to the magnetic field, the conductor is
considered to be moving from right to left.

FIGURE 10.21 Torque development

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As the flux linking the rotor conductors changes, an emf is induced in the rotor conductors,
which causes them to carry the current. As the current through the rotor conductor is set up
by electromagnetic induction, the motor gets the name Induction motor. The current
carrying conductors within the magnetic field develop forces which in turn act on the shaft
causing a torque to be developed in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic
field. The equation for the torque developed is given as

Td = CTφI r cos φr

where
φ = rotating stator-flux per pole
I r = rotor current
cos φr = rotor circuit power factor
C T = a constant

When the T d is more than load and friction torque on the motor, the rotor starts rotating in
the same direction of the rotating magnetic field. For all motor operations, the rotor speed
N r is less than the synchronous speed in order to have emf induced in the rotor due to
relative or slip speed.

Slip speed =(N s – N r ) rpm

The term “slip” is defined as the ratio between slip speed and synchronous speed

N s − Nr
S=
Ns

Percentage slip

 N − Nr 
%S =  s 100
 Ns 

The alternating emf and the current in rotor circuit is with slip frequency.

fr = S × fs

where
f r = rotor circuit frequency
f s = supply frequency the stator winding

Further

SE2
Ir =
R2 + (SX 2 )
2 2

and

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R2
cos φr =
R2 + (SX 2 )
2 2

where
E 2 = standstill emf in the rotor per phase
R 2 = rotor circuit resistance per phase
X 2 = rotor circuit standstill reactance per phase

From the last three equations deduced, the equation for torque developed in a three-phase
Induction motor is

φSE2 R2
Td = CT
R2 + (SX 2 )
2 2

Three-phase Induction machines when driven by a prime-mover at speeds more than the
synchronous act as Induction generators converting mechanical energy into electrical
energy.

Characteristics of 3-phase Induction Motors

The important characteristic of 3-phase Induction motors is the Torque-slip characteristic
shown in Figure 10.22. From the torque equation,
(i) When S = 0, T d = 0
(ii) For very low values of slip (during normal operating condition) S2X2 << R 2 2 and
hence
S
Td ∝
R2
(i) When S = S cr = R2/X2
E
Td = Tmax = CT 2
2X 2
(ii) For high values of S
R 2 2 << S 2 X 2 2 and hence
R
Td ∝ 2
S
(iii) At starting conditions S = 1, the starting torque
φE R
Ts = CT 2 2 2 2
R2 + X 2

Curve (1) in Figure 10.22 is the only T–S characteristic of the squirrel-cage Induction motor
as the cage rotor circuit is a permanently closed circuit. In the slip-ring Induction motor,
addition of external resistances R e1 , R e2 , etc. in series with the rotor circuit enables the
motor to develop a high starting torque. As an increase in rotor resistance is likely to cause
more power loss, external resistances are added only at the time of starting.

10.4.4 Single-phase Induction Motors

The most common type of single-phase AC motor which finds wide domestic, commercial
and industrial applications is single-phase Induction motors. They are manufactured
generally in the fractional kilo-watt ranges.

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FIGURE 10.22 T–S characteristics

Principle of Operation
A plain single-phase Induction motor consists of a single-phase winding accommodated in
the stator and a cage winding in the rotor. When a single-phase AC supply is given to the
single-phase winding, a pulsating magnetic field is produced. The closed conductors in the
cage rotor experiences a pulsating force while it is stationary and hence cannot start by
itself.

However, a single pulsating field can be resolved into two rotating magnetic fields, rotating
in opposite directions. The rotor, if it is provided with a starting torque by some means in a
particular direction, will continue to rotate in the same direction, under the influence of one
of the rotating magnetic fields.

In other words, plain single-phase Induction motors do not have starting torque but once
started, it can continue to rotate and deliver mechanical energy. Therefore, additional
means are adopted to provide starting torque.

Types of Single-phase Induction Motors

Based on the auxiliary means provided to start the motors, single-phase Induction motors
are classified into the following types:
(i) Split-phase motor
(ii) Capacitor start motor
(iii) Capacitor start and run motor
(iv) Shaded pole motor

10.5 Synchronous Machines

Depending on the mode of operation, a Synchronous machine is either called as

Synchronous generator or Synchronous motor. When the machine converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy which is AC in nature, it is called as an AC generator or

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Alternator. Further, when the alternator operates along with other Alternators or with other
AC supply, it is called as a Synchronous generator. A Synchronous motor converts electrical
energy which is AC in nature to mechanical energy.

10.5.1 Constructional Features

Synchronous machines can be constructed with either system of conductors, in the form of
3-phase winding called armature, in the stator and field system in rotor or field system in
stator and armature in rotor. Machines of less kVA and voltage rating can be constructed in
both ways. Machines of large kVA and voltage ratings are invariably constructed with
stationary armature.

The advantages of stationary armature are:

(i) It is easier to insulate armature coils for high voltages, usually generated (6600 V or
11000 V)
(ii) It is easier to collect large current from the stationary armature by-a direct solid
connection.
(iii) Only two slip-rings are required to supply DC current to the field system in the rotor.

Stator
Stationary armature construction is very much similar to the stator of a 3-phase Induction
motor discussed in section 10.4.1 and shown in Fig. 10.18.

Rotor
There are two types of rotor constructions, namely
(i) Salient pole type and
(ii) Cylindrical type or non-salient pole type.

Salient Pole Type: Figure 10.23 shows the construction of a salient pole rotor for a 6 pole
machine. Salient pole rotor is suitable for slow speed machines such as Synchronous
generators driven by water turbines. Hence, they are constructed with number of poles-6 or
more. Laminated pole assembly with their field coils are mounted on the rim of the steel
spider, which is then keyed to the shaft. Synchronous machines having this type of rotor are
characterised by their large diameter and short axial length. This construction provides a
good ventilating arrangement.

FIGURE 10.23 Salient pole rotor

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Cylindrical Type: Figure 10.24 shows a 2-pole cylindrical type rotor. This is suitable for
high-speed Synchronous generators driven by a steam turbine. Number of poles is usually
two (sometimes four). The rotor diameter is usually small but it is of large axial length. The
cylindrical type construction is essential for high speed machines since they offer less
windage loss.

FIGURE 10.24 Cylindrical rotor

The rotor may be of solid steel forging or stacked by laminations. Slots are provided on the
outer surface, leaving pole face space, to accommodate the field winding. Slots are closed
by manganese-bronze steel wedges after inserting the field coils. The overhang portions of
the field coils on either side are securely held by retaining rings of nonmagnetic steel.

The two ends of the field winding are connected to the slip-rings mounted on the shaft.
Two set of brushes accommodated in brush holders fitted with the end cover are made in
contact with the slip rings by spring force. Passing a DC current via brushes and slip-rings to
the field winding causes alternate North and South pole magnetic fields to be set up in the
rotor.

10.5.2 Principle of Generator Operation

For a generator operation to take place, the rotor is driven by a primemover at its rated
speed. Provision of DC current to the rotor field system setup alternate North and South
pole magnetic fields. As the rotor is rotated, the flux linking stator coils changes and hence
emf is induced in them according to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction. The emf
induced in the coils are alternating emf with frequency f given as

PN
f = Hz
120

where
P = number of poles in the rotor
N = speed of rotor in rpm

As three set of coils are placed in the stator core physically 120 electrical degrees apart from
one another, three-phase alternating voltage with a 120° phase angle displacement will be
available on the terminals of AC generator.

10.5.3 Emf Equation

Let
φ = useful flux per pole in Wb

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Z = total number of conductor connected in series per phase

T = total number of turns connected in series per phase
Z = 2T, as two conductors form one turn

Average emf induced per conductor

dφ
Eav Cond =
dt

In one revolution of rotor, a conductor experiences change of magnetic flux

dφ = Pφ

Time taken for one revolution

1
dt = min
N

60
= s
N

Pφ PφN
Eav Cond = = = 2 fφ
60 N 60

Total average emf induced/phase

Eav = ( Eav Cond ) × Z

= 2 fφ × Z

Eav = 4 fφT

Rms value of emf induced per phase

E = Eav × K f = 4 K f fφT

where
K f is the form factor and
K f = 1.11 for sinusoidal emf.

The above equation has been derived with the assumption that all the conductors
belonging to each phase are in similar positions. But, in practice, the coils belonging to each
phase are distributed within m slots in each pole region due to the winding arrangement.

m = slots/pole/phase, an integer 1,2,3, etc.

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Hence, the actual emf available across the terminals is less than that given by the equation
by a factor called winding factor, K w . Hence, the emf equation becomes

E = 4 K f Kw fφT V
where
Kw = Kp × Kd
α
K p = pitch factor = cos
2
α is the angle by which the coil is in short of full pitch coil.

sin mβ 
 2
Kd =
m sin β 
 2

β = angle between adjacent slot

180
β =
SP

10.5.4 Load Characteristics

When the AC generator is loaded by its local load, the terminal voltage is subjected to
change. As shown in Figure 10.25, the change in terminal voltage depends on the load
current as well as the power factor of the load.

FIGURE 10.25 Load characteristics of AC generators

When the AC generator is made to operate in parallel with other AC generators or AC

supply, its terminal voltage and frequency are synchronous with the system voltage and
frequency. Hence, the AC generators under these operating conditions are called
Synchronous generators. The real and reactive power supplied by the Synchronous
generator depends on its prime-mover input and excitation condition respectively.

10.5.5 Principle of Motor Operation

Consider a two-pole salient pole Synchronous motor. To start with at standstill condition
provision of DC current to the field winding causes a N and S pole magnetic field available
in the rotor. Now, if the 3-phase supply is given to the stator windings, a rotating 2 pole
magnetic field N and S, is created, rotating at a specific direction say clockwise decided by

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the phase sequence of the supply voltage. With 50 Hz supply the stator field makes 3000
revolutions per minute or 50 revolutions per second. At a certain instant N may come
nearer to N and S. come nearer to S as shown in Figure 10.26(a). This causes the rotor to
experience force of repulsion. Before the rotor responds to this force due to its inertia, in the
very next instant S comes nearer to N and N comes nearer to S. Now the rotor experiences
force of attraction. Thus, the rotor experience alternate forces of repulsion and attraction
and unable to start by itself.

FIGURE 10.26 Synchronous motor – principle

The Synchronous motor may be started with the help of a small auxiliary three-phase
Induction motor mounted on the main motor shaft. Alternatively provision of damper
windings, which is nothing but a partial squirrel-cage winding, on the pole phase of the
motor can cause it to start as Induction motor. When the rotor speed approaches around
95 percent of synchronous speed, giving DC excitation to the rotor field winding can cause
a firm force of attraction to take place between the rotor field and stator rotating magnetic
field. Thereafter, the rotor continues to rotate along with the rotating magnetic field by
magnetic force of attraction. Thus, the speed of the rotor is same as the speed of rotating
magnetic field namely synchronous speed, N s , given as

120 fs
Ns = rpm
P

On no-load, the rotor field axes coincide with the stator field axis. As the load increases, the
rotor axis fall back the stator field axis by some angle, δ, called as load or torque angle. As
long as g is less than 100 electrical degree, the rotor continues to rotate along with the
stator field by the established magnetic bond. The Synchronous motor is capable of
operating at any desired power-factor by changing its excitation condition.

Example 10.4 A 3-phase, 4-pole, Alternator has a star connected winding with 60 slots
and 8 conductors per slot. It is driven at 1500 rpm and the flux per pole is 0.04 Wb,
sinusoidally distributed. Find the phase and line voltages.

Solution 10.4
Data:
3-phase;
P=4
Connection: Star
S = 60
Zs = 8

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N = 1500 rpm

Solution:
E = 4 K f KwφfT

Kw = K p × K d

Assuming full pitch coil, Kp = 1

sin mβ 
 2
Kd =
m sin β 
 2

s 60
m= = =5
3P 3 × 4

180 180
β = = = 12°
S P 60 4

 12 
sin 5 × 
Kd =  2
= 0.9567
 
12
5 sin 
 2

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Applied Electricity References

REFERENCES

Bird J. (2003), Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology, Second Edition,
Newnes, Great Britain, 382 pp.

Kumar, K. M. and Jagannathan, V. (2001), Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering,

First Edition, Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, India, 411 pp.

Nahvi, M. and Edminister, J. A. (2003), Theory and Problems of Electric Circuits, Fourth
Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., USA, 469 pp.

Scott, D. E. (1987), An Introduction to Circuit Analysis, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New

York, USA, 730 pp.

Theraja, B. L. and Theraja, A. K. (2005), A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Twenty-

Fourth Revised Edition, S. Chand & Company, New Delhi, 2750 pp.

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