Eike Schling, Zongshuai Wan, Hui Wang, Pierluigi D’Acunto

Asymptotic Geodesic Hybrid Timber Gridshell

Abstract: This paper presents a strategy to design and build strained timber gridshells
from exclusively straight timber planks, which are interwoven and elastically deployed
into a doubly curved web. For this purpose, we combine asymptotic (A) and geodesic
(G) curves into hybrid AAG-webs on curved surfaces. We present a digital method to
design and geometrically optimize the timber AAG-webs to include equal intersection
angles and geodesic boundaries. This new construction system benefits from the tar-
geted use of the two differing bending axes of timber planks for flexibility and rigidity.
The flat geodesic planks are interlaced at the midpoint of the asymptotic beams to
create a tri-hex pattern, which lowers the buckling length and decisively increases the
overall stiffness. As a proof of concept, a large-scale timber gridshell covering an area
of 60 m2 was designed and built. We document the construction process of manufac-
turing, prefabrication, elastic deformation, on-site assembly, and installation of the
polycarbonate cover to verify constructive tolerances and feasibility. The structure is
tested and simulated to validate our computational results.

Keywords: asymptotic curves, geodesic curves, timber gridshells, elastic bending and
torsion, curvature analysis, timber AAG-webs, resistance through form, cradle-to-cradle

1 Introduction
The construction industry is one of the biggest contributors to environmental degra-
dation and CO2 emissions. Construction waste can be avoided by using standardized
elements that can be disassembled and reused in the future. This cradle-to-cradle
approach seems to be incompatible with the idea of freeform design, which usually
demands highly bespoke elements and complex fabrication. Our research is looking to
resolve this contradiction, by exploring the design and fabrication of doubly curved
gridshells from exclusively flat and straight, off-the-shelf timber planks with repetitive
joints. This offers substantial material savings compared to CNC-milled lattice grid-
shells. The flat packed planks can be transported easily, which in turn reduces CO2
emissions, and assembled utilizing the kinetic behaviour of lamella grids.

1.1 Geometrical background

Architectural Geometry has introduced methods to control and optimize doubly curved
surfaces (Pottmann et al. 2007). The curvature κ = |c󸀠󸀠 (s)| of a curve c(s) (with arc
length parameter s) on a surface S is decomposed into two parts i. e. normal curvature
κ n and geodesic curvature κ g , which are the two projections of the curvature vector

Open Access. © 2023 the authors, published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative
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98 | E. Schling, Z. Wan, H. Wang, P. D’Acunto

c󸀠󸀠 onto the surface normal and tangent plane at a surface point (Fig. 1a). These three
curvature elements have the relation κ2 = κ2n +κ2g . Let α be the angle between c󸀠󸀠 and the
surface normal, then κ n = κ cos(α), κ g = κ sin(α). The value of constant α throughout
the curve has two special cases (π/2 and 0), making two special kinds of curves on
the surface. When α = π/2 along the curve, it characterizes an asymptotic curve with
κ n = 0, and the curvature vectors lie on the tangent planes. If α = 0, then it is a geodesic
curve with κ g = 0, and the curvature vectors are in the planes spanned by the tangents
and surface normals. By constraining either κ n or κ g to zero, we can design gridshells
that can be built from straight asymptotic or geodesic planks (Fig. 1b,c).

Fig. 1: Curvature of curves and planks: a) Relationship of κ, κ n and κ g of a curve c(s) on a surface S.
b) Plank along geodesic curve g(s) on a surface S. c) Plank along asymptotic curve a1 (s) on a sur-
face S. Asymptotic curves a1 (s) and a2 (s) are symmetric with respect to the principal curvature lines
p1 (s) and p2 (s).

1.2 Geodesic and asymptotic structures

Geodesic and asymptotic planks have, until now, been used independently for the
design of gridshells. Geodesic structures have been studied (among others) for their
construction simplicity and structural performance (Weinand and Pirazzi 2006). Julian
Natterer developed Timber gridshells from flat geodesic planks (Natterer et al. 2000),
using a technique of layering to create bespoke ribbed shells. Research in Architectural
Geometry has investigated versatile geodesic patterns (Pottmann et al. 2010), their
self-forming behavior from flat to curved grid (Soriano 2017) as well as their potential
to reuse recycled, off-the shelf material (Haskell et al. 2021).
Asymptotic structures have been described through mathematical theory as early as
(Finsterwalder 1897). Recently, a higher attention has been paid to asymptotic networks,
their developable properties (Tang et al. 2016), and their discrete optimization as quad
meshes (Jiang et al. 2020). The first asymptotic gridshell, the INSIDE/OUT pavilion was
constructed in stainless steel including diagonal steel (Schling et al. 2018). Asymptotic
grids can be assembled on flat ground and deformed into the global design shape
without need for formwork, as their movement is restricted by the scissor joints, and
the directional bending of planks. This kinetic mechanism has been investigated in
depth by (Schikore et al. 2020) and used to design transformable structures, such as the
 Asymptotic Geodesic Hybrid Timber Gridshell | 99

Kinetic Umbrella. Because the asymptotic curves are locally symmetric to the principal
curvature directions, an isothermal asymptotic network can be covered with planar
quad panels or developable strips in the diagonal direction (Schling and Wan 2022).
The panel strips, however, are curved, i. e., do not naturally follow a geodesic path and
can thus not easily be built from straight, off-the-shelf panels.
Structural behavior. For both geodesic and asymptotic structures, the slender planks
have an effect on global and local stiffness (Schikore 2023). In geodesic gridshells, the
weak axis of a plank lies tangential to the design shape, which significantly lowers
its global stiffness and results in buckling out-of-plane of the gridshell. Usually, this
is overcome by adding additional layers of planks. Asymptotic gridshell are globally
stiffer, as their planks stand upright and can carry loads through their strong axis.
However, the slender planks may buckle locally in case of high internal compression
or bending (lateral-torsional buckling) (Wan and Schling 2022).

1.3 Contributions and Overview

We implement the design and construction of a triangulated timber gridshell by com-

bining asymptotic (A) and geodesic (G) curves into hybrid AAG webs (Schling et al.
2022). The geodesic elements triangulate the grid, halve the buckling length, and offer
simple façade solutions with standardized aluminum mullions and developable panels.
The structure is assembled from only straight off-the shelf planks, without offcuts, or
bespoke boundary elements, with the goal to design for disassembly and reuse. In
relation to previous work, this paper presents the following contributions:
– an architectural design workflow to create a variety of initialization meshes
– a custom energy term in the optimization problem to fit specific design constraints
– constructive solutions, realized in a case study, the 60 m2 Timber Vault

The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. In Sec. 2, we present the computa-
tional workflow to design and optimize AAG webs. We start with a negatively curved
rotational surface to initialize the design routine. The complex AAG web is then gener-
ated through discrete optimization using planar constraints of vertex stars. Additional
optimization goals, such as equiangular joints, planar and geodesic boundaries are
added to simplify fabrication. In Sec. 3, we present the construction development of
the AAG Timber Vault. We describe the curvature analysis and material choice, pre-
fabrication, and assembly, including the installation of a semi-discrete façade from
bent polycarbonate panels. In Sec. 4, we highlight the design impact on structural
performance. We present a digital simulation and validate it through physical load
tests. Finally, in Sec. 5, we reflect on the challenges and potentials of this technology
and highlight ongoing research in this field.
100 | E. Schling, Z. Wan, H. Wang, P. D’Acunto

2 Computational Design and Optimization

Finding a good starting mesh to optimize an AAG-web is not a trivial problem. It
highly depends on the mesh parametrization. We adopt rotational surfaces, in which
the principal curvature lines are the parallel circles and meridian curves, and the
meridian curves are naturally geodesic. We extract mesh patches from negatively curved
rotational surfaces and use them as initial meshes for our optimization approach. This
enables quick testing of alternative shapes consisting of one or more rotational surfaces
that are cropped, intersected, copied, or flipped to create meaningful shell designs
(Fig. 2). These models function as preliminary design options to develop construction
strategies, details, and material investigations to a high level (Fig. 3), without relying
on the final refined mesh geometry.

Fig. 2: Designing architectural alternatives with rotational surface (colors differentiate subsequent
steps in creation, red, blue and green). a) Flipped rotational surface creating column and roof. b)
Cropped rotational surface creating half of the symmetric roof. c) Cropped surface is rotated to
create a triple-arched gridshell. d) Three individual rotational surfaces are intersected and cropped
to create a vault with three entryways.

Fig. 3: AAG designs, that are based purely on rotational surfaces. In these cases, joints are not
equiangular, and not all boundaries are geodesic. These designs are used to develop architectural
ideas quickly without the need for optimization.
 Asymptotic Geodesic Hybrid Timber Gridshell | 101

2.1 Discrete Nets and Webs

Discrete asymptotic nets (A-nets). The curvature vectors of asymptotic curves lie on
the tangent plane of the surface. In a discrete network, three consecutive vertices of
an asymptotic polyline define a discrete osculating plane. The mesh is optimized by
enforcing that two osculating planes agree at each vertex star (Fig. 4 left). Therefore, a
discrete A-net is defined by a quad mesh with planar vertex stars, in which five vertices
v i , v ij (j = 1, . . . , 4) are coplanar (Sauer 1937, 1970).

Fig. 4: Left: Planar vertex star of A-net. Middle: Vertex star of a conventional G-net, where two
opposite angles are equal. Right: Vertex star of AAG-web, combining a planar vertex-star (AA) with a
diagonal plane through the surface normal (G).

Discrete geodesic nets (G-nets) were first introduced by (Wunderlich 1951). A discrete
G-net is defined as a quad mesh where two pairs of opposite angles at each vertex star
are equal (Fig. 4 middle). However, this angle condition cannot help to get meshes with
only one family of geodesic curves.
Discrete asymptotic geodesic nets (AAG-nets). We utilize the geometry property
that the discrete osculating plane passes through the surface normals to get the dis-
cretization of diagonal geodesics in AAG-webs. The numerical model is achieved by
optimization of A-nets with one family of diagonal polylines being geodesic. Depending
on the design surface, this logic can be rotated to enforce the asymptotic vertices to be
diagonal (see Fig. 4 right).

2.2 AAG optimization

The geometric properties of AAG-webs enable the use of planar rectangular timber strips,
which are bent orthogonally on the surface along asymptotic curves and tangentially
on the surface along geodesic curves. Numerical optimization is used to simplify the
fabrication of the gridshells. To this end, we optimize for constant net angles between
asymptotic curves to create repetitive joints. For our timber gridshell design (Fig. 5, 6),
we also constrain the bottom boundary curve to be planar and geodesic to simplify the
102 | E. Schling, Z. Wan, H. Wang, P. D’Acunto

fabrication of supports. We optimize a symmetric mesh, which is then rotated to form

a triple symmetric vault. Below, we list all the constraints as optimization energies
we used for our designed shell. Notations refer to Fig. 4. The optimization problem is
solved by regularized Gauss-Newton algorithm, where all the geometric conditions are
represented by constraints with no more than quadratic equations (Tang et al. 2016).

Fig. 5: a) A patch surface S is created from a rotational surface. b) A quad mesh M0 is rebuilt from S
and is used as the initial mesh for optimization. c) An AAG-web MM is achieved by solving the opti-
mization problem with the target function Eq. (7), where one family of mesh polylines are geodesic
curves (red), and two diagonal polylines (blue) are asymptotic.

A-net energy. The energy term of A-net is expressed with unit vertex normal n i of the
discrete surface as auxiliary variables. |V| is the number of regular vertex stars, where
vertices i are connected by 4 neighboring vertices ij:
|V| 4 |V|
2
EAnet = ∑ ∑ (n i ⋅ (v ij − v i )) + ∑ (n i ⋅ n i − 1)2 (1)
i=1 j=1 i=1

Geodesic energy. To express the geodesic condition in one of the diagonal directions,
we ask for three coplanar vectors v ia − v i , v ic − v i , n i ,
|V|
Egeo = ∑ (n i ⋅ [(v ia − v i ) × (v ic − v i )])2 (2)
i=1

Angle energy. Given constant angle θ0 between asymptotic curves, the isogonal con-
dition at each vertex star can be expressed with the help of the unit tangent vectors
v ij −v i
t i1 = |ee i1i1 −e
−e i3
i3 |
, t i2 = |ee i2i2 −e
−e i4 | by t i1 ⋅ t i2 = cos θ 0 , where e ij = |v ij −v i | (j = 1, . . . 4) are unit
i4

edge vectors emitting from the vertex v i . Norms |v ij − v i | and |e i1 − e i3 |, |e i2 − e i4 | can

be computed in each iteration. Then the angle energy term is:

2 |V| 4
|V|
e i1 − e i3 e i2 − e i4 v ij − v i 2
Eangle = ∑ ( ⋅ − cos θ0 ) + ∑ ∑ (e ij − ) (3)
i=1
|e i1 − e i3 | |e i2 − e i4 | i=1 j=1
|v ij − v i |

Bottom curve energy. The bottom curve is planar and geodesic. The curve vertices lie
on the XY-plane.
∑ (v b ⋅ [0, 0, 1])2 = 0
b∈bottom_polyline
 Asymptotic Geodesic Hybrid Timber Gridshell | 103

We apply the geodesic energy Eq. (2) to any three consecutive vertices v bl , v b , v br of
the bottom curve. However, since the valence of the boundary vertices is 3, the vertex
normal n b is not as clearly defined as any regular vertex stars in Eq. (1). We thus extend
the bottom curve with additional rows of vertices so that the original boundary vertices
are interior (Fig. 5c, red curve), and the planar vertex stars, vertex normal Eq. (2), and
geodesic curves are well defined:
∑ (n b ⋅ [(v bl − v b ) × (v br − v b )])2 = 0
b∈bottom_polyline

After suitable convergence is achieved, these artificial rows of vertices can be removed,
and the geodesic property of the assigned bottom boundary curve is preserved. This
bottom curve energy term is combined as
Ebottom = ∑ ((v b ⋅ [0, 0, 1])2 + (n b ⋅ [(v bl − v b ) × (v br − v b )])2 ) (4)
b∈bottom_polyline

Symmetry energy. The left and right areas of the AAG-web are symmetric with respect
to the central YZ-plane, so the left vertices vleft and right vertices vright form the energy
term
2
Esym = ∑ ((vleft − vright )2 × [1, 0, 0]) (5)
Fairness energy. A regularizer for any three consecutive vertices of a polyline allows for
obtaining smoother polylines. It works as a weighted fairness term
Efair = ∑ (2v i − v il − v ir )2 (6)
i∈poly

Target function. The objective function for our AAG-web is a combination of (1)-(6) as
E = EAnet + Egeo + Eangle + 10 ⋅ Ebottom + Esym + ωEfair (7)
where ω(< 1) is a smaller weight enabled during the optimization and disabled in
the final optimization steps to ensure convergence. To make sure the property of the
bottom curve is highly satisfied, we choose a high weight (i. e. 10) for this term. We use
the guided projection method (Tang et al. 2014), which is a Gauss-Newton method, to
get the solver of Eq. (7). The algorithm is implemented in Python and tested on an Intel
Xeon E5-2687W 3.0 GHz processor.
The densely optimized AAG-web (Fig. 6a) is converted into NURBS geometry
through interpolation. Alternating curves of A and G are selected (b) to generate a
tri-hex kagome pattern, which reduces density while improving constructive and
load-bearing qualities (see Sec. 3.1 and 3.2). The grid is then cropped along geodesic
boundaries (to simplify fabrication), which align with the grid on the bottom and
sides but follow a misaligned geodesic path along the ridge, to closely offset to the
symmetry plane. This NURBS geometry model is used to set up a parametric model
(c) in Rhinoceros 3D – Grasshopper, and develop construction strategies, offsets,
thicknesses, details, and materiality to a high level. The final design of the Asymptotic
Geodesic Hybrid Timber Gridshell is based on three symmetric AAG webs that form a
negatively curved vault.
104 | E. Schling, Z. Wan, H. Wang, P. D’Acunto

Fig. 6: The optimized mesh (a) is converted into a NURBS surface and curves through interpolation
(b). Specific asymptotic and geodesic curves are selected to generate a tri-hex pattern. The curves
and surface are cropped and processed, to create a detailed architectural model (c).

3 Construction Development
Finger jointed ash lamellas were chosen as the building material due to their outper-
forming properties of strength and elasticity (Kovryga et al. 2020). To avoid any waste
of resources, the thinnest cross-sections supplied by the sawmill of 25 × 100 mm were
purchased and simply split to create 2 × 12 × 100 mm planks. The choice of material
and cross-section became a decisive driver for the design geometry, as it naturally limits
the minimum radii for bending (rmin = 1.7 m) and maximum twist (βmax = 60∘ /m).

3.1 Timber Network and Joints

We create a tri-hex web in which geodesic planks connect to the midpoints of each
asymptotic beam (Fig. 7i, 8d). This has three decisive advantages for construction
and load-bearing behavior: 1) The geodesic planks can be assembled independently,
either in the flat or curved stage of the erection process. They are connected simply
with a steel screw to the coupling blocks of asymptotic beams. 2) The geodesic planks
are used as locking mechanism of the kinetic erection process. During erection, the
geodesic planks slide between the asymptotic layers and allow for a change in geometry.
Once the final design shape is reached, the geodesics are fixed and brace the structure.
3) The geodesic planks are interwoven between top and bottom asymptotic beams at
mid-points, and thus half the buckling length of both the asymptotic beams, as well as
the geodesic planks themselves.
The timber is cut to length and drilled with minimal holes to allow reuse. This low-
tech fabrication is achieved by assembling the three families of planks in three separate
layers, with asymptotic beams on top and bottom and geodesic planks in between.
Each asymptotic beam is constructed from two planks, which are individually bent and
coupled with 24 mm blocks. These coupled asymptotic beams have three advantages:
 Asymptotic Geodesic Hybrid Timber Gridshell | 105

Fig. 7: Top Row: Prefabrication. 12 × 100 mm planks (a) are marked (b), drilled (c), and coupled with
24 mm studs (d) into pre-bent (e) beams (f). This process embeds the geodesic curvature. Bottom
Row: Assembly and Erection. The asymptotic beams and geodesic planks are interlaced into flat
segments (g), and deformed into the doubly curved shape (h). The combination of asymptotic and
geodesic planks (i) creates a stiff shell, that is transported (j) and assembled (k) on site.

1) The two sibling planks are pre-drilled individually, incorporating slight differences
in the node-to-node distance. This allows us to embed the geodesic curvature during
prefabrication (Fig. 7f). 2) The planks can be deformed individually but, after they are
coupled, act as one strong beam with high lateral bending stiffness. 3) The parallel
layout of planks at 24 mm distance allows a centric connection of top and bottom
asymptotic beam using 22 cm long (24 × 24 mm) hexagonal studs (Fig. 7d).

3.2 Prefabrication and Assembly

The prefabrication is simple (Fig. 7). The ash planks (a) are first marked by hand (b) and
cut to the right length. Groups of three identical planks (for three shells) are then aligned
and tightly clamped (to overcome individual warping due to humidity and drying of
the material) and pre-drilled using templates (c). The asymptotic beams are assembled
each from two individual planks with 24 mm studs (d) in between. The planks are laid
across two stands so that they naturally bend and sag into a curved shape, until the
pre-drilled holes align. The two planks are then coupled at each stud with two steel
bolts (e). With this method, 66 pre-curved asymptotic beams were prefabricated and
stored to wait for further processing (f).
As a next step, the asymptotic beams and geodesic planks are assembled flat on the
ground (g) into the three-layered tri-hex web. The top and bottom asymptotic beams
are connected loosely (to still allow some rotation) through the long studs, while the
geodesics are simply slid in between (without connections). The flat segment is then
hoisted up (h) and elastically deformed into the design shape (i). During this process,
the geodesic planks shift through the grid, the asymptotic beams are twisted, and the
106 | E. Schling, Z. Wan, H. Wang, P. D’Acunto

Fig. 8: Completed timber gridshell. Top Row: a) Precast concrete blocks with steel supports. b,c)
Birds-eye view of the timber gridshell without cover. d) Inside the Timber Vault. Bottom Row: Polycar-
bonate panels are tailored with concave edge (e), and installed using aluminum mullions along the
geodesic directions (f), to create a smooth, transparent skin (g).

AA-joints slightly rotate into the final 60° angle. The final geometry is fixed by adding
geodesic planks at upper and lower boundaries and fixing all bolts for asymptotic
and geodesic planks. These stiff shell elements are transported to the building site (j)
and combined along the roof ridge with steel blades (k). The timber gridshell (Fig. 8)
is supported by 42 precast concrete blocks (14 for each shell) to resist wind suction
and horizontal thrust. The shell elements are fixed with vertical steel bolts (a) that
allow individual height adjustment to overcome construction tolerances. A curved
transparent cover was installed (Fig. 8 e-f) to protect the wood from weathering and
create a sheltered space. 13 strips of 10 mm thick polycarbonate multi-skin sheet are
clamped and bent along the geodesic directions to form a semi-discrete skin. Each panel
is tailored with a long concave edge (e) to accommodate the negative curvature. The
AAG Timber Vault is the first architectural application that combines asymptotic and
geodesic planks in a triangulated web. The structure consists of three shells covering
an area of 60 m2 . Each shell weighs approx. 300 kg for timber, 30 kg for steel screws
and plates, and 40 kg for façade panels and aluminum profiles. This equates to a total
of 1100 kg for 100 m2 roof area (approx. 11 kg/m2 ).

4 Structural Performance
The design of the Timber Vault was driven by structural criteria. To activate a shell
behavior, the grid was designed with a vaulted shape, linear supports, and was adjusted
to its highest possible double curvature without exceeding the minimal bending radii
 Asymptotic Geodesic Hybrid Timber Gridshell | 107

of lamellas. The tri-hex grid with constant node angles ensures a homogenous edge
length and additional bracing effect to increase the overall stiffness.

4.1 Structural Analysis

During the planning process, multiple load combinations were considered in detail,
combining self-weight, snow load (full-span/half-span), wind load from three direc-
tions, as well as the residual stresses caused by the elastic deformation process during
assembly (see Sec. 3.2). In this paper, we can only shortly highlight the full-span load
and physical test results. For this article, the structural performance of the timber
gridshell was evaluated using the Finite Element (FE) software Karamba 3D (Preisinger
2013), using a linear solver to simulate the structural behavior. All members are mod-
elled using 2-node beam elements with 6 DOFs at each node. The connections are
assumed to be all rigid, except for the geodesic connection, which allows rotation
around local z. An elastic material model is used for the ash timber with Young’s mod-
ulus of 14000 N/mm2 and bending strength of 50 N/mm2 , obtained from the literature
(DIN EN 338 2016) and confirmed by preliminary material testing. The boundary is
fixed in three directions as hinge supports at every end of the geodesic lamellas.

Fig. 9: Axial force (left) and section deformation mode (right) of the asymptotic-geodesic timber
vault under self-weight and a full-span homogenous load of 1.0 kN/m2 ; deformation is scaled by 80.

Full-span distributed load. To visualize the overall load-bearing behavior, we simulate

the gridshell under its self-weight (without residual stress) and a full span homogenous
load of 1.0 kN/m2 on the horizontal projection plane. The external surface load is
discretized and applied to the joints of the structure. The structural behavior (Fig. 9)
can be described as an “inverted dome”. The shell’s top part deforms inwards. Due to
the negative curvature, this deflection stretches the upper members in the horizontal
direction and generates tension forces in the asymptotic beams. On the contrary, the
108 | E. Schling, Z. Wan, H. Wang, P. D’Acunto

Fig. 10: Structural test under an asymmetric load of 26 kN. a) 13 barrels were filled with up to 200 l of
water. b) The scanned point cloud illustrates the vertical deflections, which were compared with the
simulation result (c).

shell’s lower part deforms outwards, shortening the asymptotic lamellas and leading
to compression. The compression in the geodesic planks decreases in the lower part,
as they resist the scissor-distortion of the asymptotic grid. This arrangement allows
the structure to transfer loads in a membrane-like force within the shell. The upright
asymptotic planks provide out-of-plane stiffness, while the flat geodesic planks provide
in-plane stiffness and reduce the buckling length.

4.2 Load Tests

To assess the loading capacity of the built structure, we conducted several physical
loading tests on the constructed prototype, including one-point loading, local region
loading, and one-shell asymmetric loading. The one-shell asymmetric loading is shown
in Fig. 10. To avoid the supports sliding on the ground, we used six belts as horizontal
ties between opposite supports. Gradually, 13 barrels were each filled with 200 liters of
water, reaching a total of 26 kN vertical load distributed on 13 loading points (Fig. 10a).
During this test, no failure, cracking or sudden movement of the structure was recorded.
The structure was scanned using both a point cloud (Fig. 10b) and individual trackers.
The deformation modes from the load test are well compatible with the results of the
FE simulation. The average vertical deflection of four joints (marked with purple in
Fig. 10c) is measured as 16 mm in the FE simulation and 31 mm in the scanning. Three
factors may account for the magnitude difference. First, the material properties used in
the FE simulation are only an estimation of the material properties of the real structure
(Sec. 4.1). Second, unlike the FE simulation, the supports were not fully fixed in the
load testing (as the horizontal belts were able to stretch). Third, the joints in the real
structure are not completely rigid due to construction tolerance.
 Asymptotic Geodesic Hybrid Timber Gridshell | 109

5 Conclusion
In this paper, we implemented the design and construction of triangulated doubly
curved AAG gridshells from standardized planks of timber, with the goal to enable a
circular use of building material. To enable an efficient computational workflow, we
first designed negatively curved rotational surfaces to then initialize the discrete opti-
mization of specific constraints that would simplify fabrication and improve structural
performance. The dependency between geometric parameters and material properties
played a decisive role in the design process, which is seeking a beneficial shape for
structure and supports, a balance of curvature and elasticity, a clean arrangement of
the 3-web to accommodate façade and boundaries, and well-resolved layering and
detailing of planks. This iterative process yielded a triple symmetric negatively curved
AAG-Vault with constant 60° nodes. The use of repetitive joints was significant to
streamline fabrication and create a homogenous network with structural and aesthetic
qualities. The construction process takes advantage of the global kinetic behavior of
asymptotic grids, and thus poses challenges due to the residual stress, which limits
the plank thickness, causes relaxation and creep, and affects the building accuracy.
Physical tests and structural simulation were compared via 3D scan, to validate the
load-bearing efficiency of this system. The accuracy of results, however, is dependent
on the precise knowledge of specific material properties, as well as the stiffness of
supports and joints. An official proof of structural stability for this structure has been
completed following Euro-Code 5. The system will further be developed with industrial
partners (Holzbau Amann and Erhard Brandl) to create economic and ecological pre-
fabricated shells for modular timber construction. The research will address questions
of relaxation and accuracy, supports and assembly on site, as well as climatic behavior
and maintenance with changing humidity. An in-depth publication on structural be-
havior and applicability to larger spans is in progress. Finally, we plan to disassemble
the gridshell after 2 years, survey the quality and creep of planks, and evaluate their
reuse in a new construction cycle.

Acknowledgements

The research has been supported by the University Grants Committee (UGC) of Hong
Kong, Early Career Scheme (RGC Ref No. 27604721), the Special Projects Fund, HKU DoA,
the Professorship of Structural Design, TUM, as well as our industry partners Holzbau
Amann and Metallbau Erhard Brandl. We thank the students of the course Structural
Research at TUM and colleagues at TUM, and HKU for their joint effort in modelling,
prefabricating and erecting the Timber prototype. We acknowledge Kayser+Böttges /
Barthel+Maus, BIGA, Máté Péntek and Jörg Rehm for their consultations in structure,
timber, wind and fire safety.
110 | E. Schling, Z. Wan, H. Wang, P. D’Acunto

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