Journal of Advances in Social Science and humanities

JASSH 5 (5), 732–754 (2019) ISSN (O) 2795-9481

Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in

the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU
IGAZEUMA ADIKEMA OKOROBA,
1
Okodudu, Steve,2 Joab-Peterside, Sofiri3
1,2,3
Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Port Harcourt,
Choba, Rivers State, Nigeria

DOI: 10.15520/jassh55431

ABSTRACT
The quality of women participation in Community development governance systems is
considered to impact the outcomes of such initiatives in addressing the needs of rural women.
The objective of this investigation was to examine the extent to which gender is
mainstreamed in the governance structure of Shell Petroleum Development Company’s
(SPDC) Global Memorandum of Understanding (GMoU) in Nigeria’s Niger Delta region.
The constraints and implications of women participation in the GMoU were analysed with a
view of ascertaining not only the representation of women but their contribution to development
outcomes. Previous analysis of the GMoU fell short by depending on secondary data obtained from
SPDC’s interval evaluation system or primary data that excluded perspectives of the rural women
and men in the GMoU communities. The study adopted the purposive sampling technique
while the population was selected using criterion sampling. Key Informant Interviews were
conducted with 28 respondents selected in Seven active clusters while respondents from each
cluster was selected based on their participation and experience with the GMoU. Focused
group discussions were conducted with 37 participants drawn from communities in each
cluster which brought the sample size of the study to 68. Data was analysed using thematic
content analysis procedures using Sustainable Community Development Parameters
(SCDP) as a guide. While the women appointed to executive positions enjoyed tokenism,
the study found that gender representation in the GMoU policy was not significant to enhance
community development. Priority needs of community women were also not being met due
to the reluctance of Community Development Boards (CDB) to release funds earmarked for
women and the inadequate GMoU funding to cater for community’s priority needs. The
mainstreaming of gender in the GMoU was also hampered by the lack of an intent on the
part of SPDC to achieve gender equality and little or no enforcement by the monitoring
NGO’s. The study did not find significant evidence that showed women's participation in the
GMoU led to improved project outcomes but it was established that potentials exists for
greater contribution of women in local economic development. The study concludes that
women’s insights and values can enrich the community development decision making at the
grassroots with the mainstreaming of gender at every stage of the GMoU process.
Key words: Women Participation, Gender mainstreaming, Community development, Niger
Delta, GMoU.

Journal of Advances in Social Science and Humanities, Vol 5 Iss 5, 732-754 (2019)
Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

INTRODUCTION others the Movement for the Survival of

Ogoni People (MOSOP), Urhobo Political
The Niger Delta region contributes
Stakeholders Forum, Egi Ethnic Coalition,
significantly to Nigerian GDP and
Ijaw Elders Forum. Generally, youth
government revenue. Yet, the inhabitants of
restiveness and confrontation in the
the resource-rich Niger Delta have not
Niger Delta have been at the centre of
benefitted proportionately from these oil
communal, ethnic, civil and
revenues. In an attempt to address these
environmental rights struggle in the
challenges in the region, diverse community
region. Ethnic youth groups such as the
development models have been deployed by
Movement for the Survival of Ijaw Ethnic
MNC’s operating in the region. PIND
Nationality (MOSIEND), Ijaw Youth
(2014) many top-down strategies for socio-
Council (IYC), Niger Delta Volunteer Force
economic development implemented in the
and Egi Youth Federation (EYF), involved
region have been hampered by ongoing
in local mass action against oil companies
conflict and inconsistent support leaving
have been vociferous, militant and violent
many of community development projects
in their quest for dialogue and negotiations
incomplete or abandoned.The deepening
towards the fundamental resolution of the
socio-economic disruption, decline of local
problems.
economies and neglect of the Niger Delta
region have generated growing The place of women in the struggles with
disenchantment with the multinational oil the oil companies did not receive
companies and the state. These have significant scholarly attention until the
generated reactions in the formation of late 1980s and 1990s. Ikelegbe (2005),
groups that have been intent on a challenge Iyahere et al, (2014) and Turner T. &
to the status quo. Brownhill S., (2009) chronicle periodsthat
witnessed more gender-based protests by
The traditional governance systems in
women across many oil communities in
communities of the oil rich Niger Delta
the Delta region. Notable among such
region comprise associations of chiefs,
protests were the Ogoni women struggles
elders, age-grades and women
in the first half of the 1990s. In 1995,
groupings.Chiefs and Elders preside over
women seized the Odidi oil well owned by
decision making, while the age grades
Shell in protest against the destruction of
comprising the youth are the foot soldiers
economic crops by oil spills and in
that are involved in execution of
September 1998, a large assemblage of
development actions and security.
Egi women marched on the Obite gas
(Ikelegbe, 2005) analyse causes of
plant of Elf (Ukeje, 2004). After these
conflicts and the nature of such
incidents, there was a period of silence
agitations in the Niger Delta take
until 2002. Nigerian peasant women
cognizance of the role played by ethnic-
broke this silence as they shut down
based associations that relate to the social,
much of Nigeria’s huge oil industry
cultural, economic and political interests
exposing them to U.S. military
and aspirations of the community. Ethnic
intervention. Between July 2002 and
groups in the region include among
February 2003 women organizations

Journal of Advances in Social Science and Humanities, Vol 5 Iss 5, 732-754 (2019)
Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

occupied Chevron/Texaco’s export sector (NDRMP, 2004). Nationally,

terminal and several flow-stations.Studies women constitute a significant part of the
of Ikelegbe (2005) and Ihayere et al National Population but unfortunately this
(2014) arguedthat conditions of numerical strength has not found
marginality were the basis for women corresponding expression or representation
protests when community leadership and in the governance of community
elites failed to attract appropriate benefits development initiatives in Nigeria
to the detriment of women. (Adeleke, 2014). Although women have
been active in communities as part of
Accounts of women protests in the Niger communal and ethnic group associations,
Delta revealed that their agitations they are less prominent in community
differed from ethnic and youth protests in decision making. Uduji and Okolo-Obasi
some ways (Olaniyi, R. O. & Nnabuishe, (2018) observed that women’s limited
E. O., 2009; Adeleke J. O., 2014). access to agricultural land and
Women did not seek to be heard by participation in community development
causing disruptions or vandalising programmes through their husbands or
installations of oil companies, rather their adult sons makes them vulnerable to
approach was geared more towards a poverty.In recent times the actions of
peaceful resolution of the conflict in women in projecting the vulnerability of
question. The most extreme form of their grassroots people and representing the
protests was that of partial or complete marginalised has come to light. When
nudity which signified a complete women participate actively in public peace
exasperation at the failure of other efforts. rallies, shutdowns of plants, they aim at
Nudity, which was not a cultural norm for eliciting dialogue that ultimately leads to
women in the region was employed as a peace and development. In a study by
statement of shame and a curse to society. Etekpe (2012), the role of women in peace
Such protests brought the attention of not building and development was highlighted
only the government and MNC’s to their in the rural women revolt of May 2010 in
plight but also sparked media attention the Gbarain-Ekpetiama clans of Bayelsa
and public debate. According to Turner & State. The revolt paralyzed the NLNG
Brownhill (2004), other naked protests of plant for three weeks until the state
women multiplied around the world as government and the management of SPDC
they were inspired by the Nigerian responded to resolve the conflicts.
example to ‘bare all’.
This paper examines community
The role of women in community development participation and gender in
development in Nigeria as with many six main sections. Following this
patrilineal societies, is recognised introduction is a review of literature on
particularly in the informal sector, market SPDC GMoU as a community
associations, cooperatives and informal development model that aspires to attain
credit systems (Trager &Osinulu 1991; inclusivity through gender representation in
Tripp 1994). In the Niger Delta, women its governance structure. After that, we pay
constitute a large proportion of subsistence attention to the gender analysis and women
farmers, fisher-women and the informal participation gaps in community

Journal of Advances in Social Science and Humanities, Vol 5 Iss 5, 732-754 (2019)
Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

development literature upon which the providing little expenditure on

questions of this article and problem community assistance (Aaron, 2012).
statement is premised. The third section is Community development models were
devoted to theories on gender and the adopted based on the MNC’s need to secure
concept of gender mainstreaming as a key the Social Licence to Operate (SLO)
part of feminist theory in the rather than a genuine need to foster
contemporary era. We highlight the sustainable development which the
methodology through which primary data MNC’s laid claim to. There were cases
was obtained in the section that follows. where an approach that recorded a level of
In the fifth section, we situate the success with one MNC inspired adoption by
mainstreaming of gender in the SPDC others. As a result, corporate social
GMoU policy and discuss the empirical responsibility practices have evolved in
evidence of the constraints and strategy and approach over the years. Old
implication of women participation in the models of corporate–community
GMoU process. The paper concludes with engagements that were widely criticized
the findings and recommendations for for their failure to deliver development
further studies in the sixth section. in the region, have gradually been
replaced with new models such as the
Global Memorandum of Understanding
REVIEW OF LITERATURE (GMoU).
The case for a women participation in
The conflict and social discontent of the community development was necessitated by
era of community reactive militancy absence of success stories from development
occasioned by heightened concerns for the approaches that were gender-neutral. Hence,
environment in various Niger delta states, the significance of women’s participation in
increased international awareness of the the Nigeria was reviewed in the studies of
unsustainable environmental management Akinyoade (2015) andOlayode, K. O.,
of the region. It was during this period that (2016). Akinyoade (2015) examined women
the mention of sustainable development participation approaches of different firms but
gained momentum in the Niger delta concluded with similar findings. In an
discourse. Leveraging on the international assessment of Niger Delta Development
pressure upon MNCs in vigorous pursuit Commission (NDDC) interventions,
of ownership of their development process Akinyoade (2015) observed that like many
communities became more empowered to interventions in the Niger Delta, the
speak out, demanding greater commission failed to recognise and
environmental accountability and socio- include women group in its community
economic initiatives. In managing this engagement meetings. As more financial
problem, MNCs turned to community resources were allocated to males through
development initiatives as a means of income from wages as labourers in
responding to community grievances as well construction projects, women’s needs were
as making them benefit from resource excluded from training programmes
extraction (Egbonet al, 2018; Ite et al, 2015; thereby discouraging women participation.
Okodudu, 2008). They engaged in mere In the paper’s conclusion, the
philanthropic gestures which involved commission’s lack of institutional capacity

Journal of Advances in Social Science and Humanities, Vol 5 Iss 5, 732-754 (2019)
Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

for gender sensitivity resulted in her CSR in the Niger Delta. Following the
interventions being gender-blind. success recorded by CNL as a result of its
Institutional capacity for integrating implementation of the GMoU, SPDC adopted
gender equity is not only lacking on the the GMoU model in 2006 as a new way of
national level, but also at state and local working with communities in its operational
government levels. In an empirical study areas.
of women’s participation and gender A GMoU is an agreement between SPDC
issues in Amuwo Odofin local government and a cluster of several communities
area in Lagos state, Olayode, K. O., identified based on local government area,
(2016), noted that the absence of a gender ethnicity and historical affinities. Under the
policy at the local government level is terms of the agreement, SPDC provides
responsible for the lack of commitment to funding for five years and the communities
gender equity. To engender a decide, plan and implement community
developmental process at the local level, development projects. In addition, SPDC
implantation of the national gender policy facilitates the capacity building of the
the Local Economic Empowerment and GMoUs by providing access to development
Development Strategy (LEEDS) and the experts usually their NGO partners to
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’S) oversee project implementation. The
are necessary to strengthen women’s Community Development Board (CDB) is
rights. The study revealed that despite the core governance institution of the GMoU,
increased awareness on gender issues at and it is supposedly embedded in the
the grassroots and the increase of women participating communities via the
participation in politics stemming from the Community Trust (CT) (Egbon et al, 2018).
35% affirmative action, the Nigerian The GMoU governing structures are well
society, operating largely on patriarchal defined, with a ten (10) person CT at
sentiments deliberately marginalizes communities’ level, a CDB at the cluster
women by allocating sensitive and level and a steering committee chaired by
powerful political positions to men. the state government. The CBD functions
as the main supervisory and administrative
On the part of SPDC, institutional capacity organ, ensuring the setting out and design
may not have been an issue as the of plans/programmes as well as actual
company deploys its community implementation of projects. The GMoU
development model through a governance brings communities together with
structure and a mentoring NGO believed to representatives of state and local
be well-versed in development issues. The governments, SPDC and non-profit
MNC recorded a marked improvement in development organizations, in a decision-
women participation in her community making and implementation structure and
development approach since the adoption governance system through the CDB.
of the GMoU model (Isike’s, 2016). SPDC’s GMoU is entered into for a five-year
Chevron Nigeria Limited (CNL) pioneered term with a cluster of communities. After
the GMoU in 2005 as a better way of more than twelve years of implementation
delivering sustainable development to host with the new model, there are contested
communities against the background of views on whether the company has achieved
discontents thrown up by the old models of the inclusiveness which it aspires to

Journal of Advances in Social Science and Humanities, Vol 5 Iss 5, 732-754 (2019)
Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

attain among other goals. The SPDC detached from the GMoU process
GMoU model has been acknowledged especially in decision making. For
for integrating basic tenets of instance, evidence from the study of Uduji
community driven development and et al (2019) which investigates the role of
democracy. Ite et al (2015) assert that women in sustainable agriculture showed
the GMoU led to emergence of capable that 62% of the farmers could not access
community development institutions and interventions from the MNCs, whereas
increased local capacity for long term 38% could access very little via the
planning, project management and GMoU. Issues pertaining to land
implementation. In comparison with the ownership are critical for women who
previous approaches of the SPDC, live in the communities built over
notable the Project Advisory Committee hydrocarbon reserves. The active
(PAC), it is believed that the project involvement of women in any process to
ownership and participation have mitigate the destruction of their means of
improved under the GMoU model livelihood which is mainly fishing and
(Okodudu, 2008) if participation is farming is critical to the wellbeing of
viewed as community people playing a their families and the community at large.
part in the selection of development Regrettably, rural women are generally
projects. Similarly, the GMoU has made invisible in decision making. They are
a significant leap from less structured regarded as silent actors in the system of
community development approaches managing the natural resources of their
employed by development agencies communities. The relegation of women to
like the NDDC. Nevertheless, the the background of national development
GMoU has had its pitfalls when has been attributed to education, economic
evaluated on the premise of opportunities and the political power for
Sustainable Community Development women to actualize their innate potentials.
(SCD) outcomes. As it relates with the Examining the role of women in national
participation of women, it is the view development, Asaju, K. (2013), noted that
of Aaron K. (2012), the gains of SPDC the high rate of gender disparity in the
GMoU in its host communities in the Niger three tiers of educational institution is
Delta are more apparent than real because responsible for women not effectively
community participation fails to ensure participating and contributing to national
gender balance. Beih et al (2016) support development. The study therefore made a
this notion, arguing that the character of case for empowering women through
the GMoU relegates women to the education.
background in processes that lead to
project choice and implementation. Relying on data generated by SPDC’s
internal evaluation tool_ SPDC
The GMoU policy stipulates a gender Community Transformation and
representation in its governance structure. Development Index(SCOTDI) and
The proportion of women to men and the primary data gathered from SPDC and
nature of positions they occupy has been NGO officials, the study of Isike (2016)
observed to favourt he men. An apparent measured performances of 19 active
consequences of this is that women are GMoU clusters in the Niger Delta (Ite et

Journal of Advances in Social Science and Humanities, Vol 5 Iss 5, 732-754 (2019)
Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

al, 2015). In this case, women were included There are several theories that can be
in governance structures but as tokens which applied in the discourse of gender and
resulted in a generally low quality of output. development in the developing world.
The study concluded that the inclusion of Sociological perspectives on gender
women in governance structures in the stratification range from the functionalist
community clusters studied improved perspective of gender roles, the
governance and was thus development postmodernist theory, Conflict theory, the
based. Without prejudice to the foregoing, symbolic interactionist perspective and the
the methodology upon which the Feminist theory. Functionalists put
conclusions of the study was premised upon forward a structuralist view of the family
informs the point of departure of this and within that context, how they
research. First, data (FGD’s and interviews) understand conjugal roles in the 1940s and
used in the study of Ite et al (2015) targeted 1950s, and largely developed by Talcott
SPDC and GMoU officials as respondents, Parsons’ model of the nuclear family.
excluding community women. Similarly, Parson believed the gender division of
secondary data in the study of Isike (2016), labour was natural and desirable,
which was a follow-up on the findings of Ite suggesting that gender inequalities exist as
et al (2015), was obtained from an internal an efficient way to create a division of
SPDC source. This raises questions on the labour, or as a social system in which
reliability of the study outcome. In the particular segments are clearly responsible
search for empirical evidence on the for certain, respective acts of labour. The
quality of women’s participation to cater division of labour in variable works to
for gender-specific needs, the researcher has maximize resources and efficiency. A
so far found scanty literature necessitating structural functionalist view of gender
a study of this kind. inequality applies division of labour to
view predefined gender roles as
In the context of the above, this article complementary: women take care of the
attempts to derive empirical explanations home while men provide for the family.
to the following questions. First, to what Thus gender, like other social institutions,
extent is gender mainstreamed in the contributes to the stability of society as a
governance structure of community whole. According to structural
development model of SPDC in the Niger functionalists, gender serves to maintain
Delta? Second, what is the quality of social order by providing and ensuring the
women participation in SPDC GMoU stability of such functional prerequisites.
implementation process? Thirdly, what are While gender roles, according to the
the constraint and implications of women functionalist perspective, are beneficial in
participation in the GMoU? We begin that they contribute to stable social
with a brief treatment of the theoretical relations, it is argued that gender roles are
framework within which we pose these discriminatory and should not be upheld.
questions.

According to conflict theory, society is

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES defined by a struggle for dominance
AND THEORIES ON GENDER among social groups that compete for

Journal of Advances in Social Science and Humanities, Vol 5 Iss 5, 732-754 (2019)
Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

scarce resources. In the context of gender, clearly support their argument. Most
conflict theory argues that gender is best evidence suggests considerable inequality,
understood as men attempting to maintain especially where women are in paid
power and privilege to the detriment of employment. Feminists have also criticised
women. Therefore, men can be seen as the Parsons’ image of society that too much
dominant group and women as the emphasis is laid upon how social control
subordinate group. While certain gender within families can reduce the potential for
roles may have been appropriate in a underachievement and delinquency.
hunter-gatherer society, conflict theorists
argue that the only reason these roles Scholars of interactionism have also
persist is because the dominant group studied how individuals act within society
naturally works to maintain their power and believe that meaning is produced
and status. According to conflict theory, through interactions. According to
social problems are created when interactionists, gender stratification exists
dominant groups exploit or oppress because people act toward each other on
subordinate groups. Therefore, their the basis of the meanings they have for
approach is normative in that it prescribes each other, and that these meanings are
changes to the power structure, advocating derived from social interaction. The
a balance of power between genders. meanings attached to symbols are socially
created and fluid, instead of natural and
Ritzer G. & Stepnisky J. (2014) discuss the static. Interactionism criticise both
influence of Post-modernist theory on the functionalists and feminists because both
feminist theory, beginning with the assume that social structure determines
observation that people no longer live gender roles. Functionalists believe that
under conditions of modernity but now family meets the needs of the individual
live in post modernity’. Post Modernists and the family and Feminists believe that
argue that the world is no longer family maintains patriarchy. Interactionism
predictable and as such families are much has a more micro theory focusing on
more diverse today. Michael Young and relationships between individuals and
Peter Wilmott in their book, The outcomes rather than roles.
symmetrical family (1973) and others As the feminist movement which was on
argue that while conjugal roles are not the rise at the same time that functionalism
completely equal they have become more began to decline, it took the position that
equal as a result, home life has become functionalism neglects the suppression of
more desirable than it used to be.In today’s women within the family
society for instance, there are an increased
structure.Feminist theory as an extension
number of appliances in the home, making of feminism aims to understand the nature
more men are willing to stay at home and
of gender inequality and examines
help with household duties and childcare.
women’s social roles, experiences, and
Some women are also content with staying interests. Historically women under
at home, taking on parenting and patriarchy have been assigned to tasks of
housework duties. Critics of Young and social reproduction (child bearing, child
Willmott however suggest there is rearing, housekeeping etc.).Feminists
insufficient sociological evidence to

Journal of Advances in Social Science and Humanities, Vol 5 Iss 5, 732-754 (2019)
Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

argue that the gender division of labour is empirical evidence to support this. For
culturally created and that there is them, there remains considerable
insufficient evidence that conjugal roles inequality.A re-invented and re-branded
have become more shared. They portray key part of feminism in the contemporary
that the division of labour works to the era found expression as gender
advantage of men, leaving women in a mainstreaming. Gender mainstreaming is
position of inferiority in both power and an international phenomenon originating in
work. Feminists believe the family is development policies, and adopted by the
patriarchal because women must do UN at the 1995 conference on women in
housework without pay, which exploits Beijing, before being taken up by the
and oppresses women because they are European Union (EU) and then its Member
socialised to be dependent on men. States. According to Walby (2003) the
According to Ann Oakley’s research in the most frequently cited definition of gender
sociology of housework (1974), women mainstreaming in the European literature is
still felt that housework and childcare was that devised by Mieke Verloo as Chair of
their responsibility, even when they are in the Council of Europe Group of Experts on
paid employment they still take on the Gender Mainstreaming:
responsibility of childcare and housework,
this is known as the ‘triple shift’. Gender mainstreaming is the (re)
Women’s shared and historical organisation, improvement,
circumstance of subordination forms the development and evaluation of
basis for the feminism claim of the policy processes, so that a gender
standpoint of women giving rise to equality perspective is incorporated
theories of gender inequality and gender in all policies at all levels at all
difference. Theories of gender difference stages, by the actors normally
explain the ways in which men and women involved in policy making (Council
are or are not the same in behaviour and of Europe, 1998: 15).
experience. Gender inequality theorizes
In the 2002/2003 annual report of the
that men and women are situated in society
United Nations Fund for Women
not only differently but also unequally.
(UNIFEM) themed ‘Working for women’s
Women get less of the material resources,
empowerment and gender equality’, the
social status, power and opportunities for
Executive director of UNIFEM, Noeleen
self-actualization than men who share the
Heyzer, asserted that the process of gender
same social location_ be it a location based
mainstreaming, requires persistent effort,
on race, class, ethnicity, religion or
including regular monitoring, reporting,
education.
follow-up training, and evaluation of
Based on the above arguments and progress made and obstacles encountered,
evidence, there remains considerable as well as systems for holding the
disagreement within Sociology over the operation/organisation accountable for
dispute of conjugal roles. While achieving its goals. This requires resources
Functionalists believe that roles are and political will at all levels.’ Therefore,
progressively equal in modern society, gender equality and gender equity are two
Feminists maintain that there is very little key goals of gender mainstreaming.

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Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

the 7 clusters. Focused group discussions

RESEARCH METHOD were conducted with 37 participants drawn
The study was located in TWO Niger from communities in each cluster. The
Delta states on Nigeria namely Bayelsa sample size of the study was 68 comprising
and Rivers states. The SPDC GMoU 65 Community respondents and 3
clusters selected for the study in Bayelsa respondents from SPDC. Interview
were Gbaran/Ekpetiama, Okordia/Zarama, sessions were held with participants
Oporoma and Kolo creek while in Rivers, comprising executives of the GMoU
the clusters are Engenni, Ekpeye and governance structure, SPDC officials and
Greater Port Harcourt clusters. The NGO staff using semi-structured guides.
territory is comprised of 204 and 104 oil- FGD’s were conducted with community
producing or impacted communities in members. Data collected in this study
Rivers and Bayelsa states respectively. The was analysed using thematic content
communities arespread widely throughout analysis procedures using a simple
forest land, wetlands and barrier islands. framework developed by the researcher_
The prevalence of scattered, remote the Sustainable Community
settlements makes it difficult to provide Development Parameters (SCDP) as a
social services and promote sustainable guide.
human development in the region. To
answer thequestions posed in second FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
section, the study adopted the purposive This section presents empirical evidence
sampling technique. It is deemed and discussion on the findings on the
appropriate for the study because of the SPDC’s efforts to mainstream gender,
need to study not only the perspectives of challenges and constraints of women
men and women directly involved but also participation, implications and
cultural domain with knowledgeable recommendations for mainstreaming
experts within. The study population was gender in the GMOU.
selected using criterion sampling. Seven
active clusters in Rivers and Bayelsa 5.1 Mainstreaming Gender in the
states’ were selected while respondents GMoU
from each cluster was selected based on
their participation and experience in the Prior to the deployment of the GMoU as a
GMoU and thus were able to provide community development model, gender
information that was detailed and participation during the SPDC’s Project
generalizable. Advisory Committee (PAC) strategy was
The main sources of data collection in this seen as marginal or irrelevant. Owing to
study include in-depth interviews and the company’s aspiration to deploy a
Focus Group discussions (FGDs) with key more inclusive approach under the
informants, and this was supplemented GMoU, gender relations became
with data from field observation and significant in facilitating the
document analysis. Key Informant implementation of its community
Interviews (KII) were conducted with development efforts.For Shell,
twenty eight (28) respondents selected in participation was viewed from the lens of

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Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

representation of every socialstrata, which the Chairman and Secretary

includes sex and age in the governance positions in SPDC’s GMoU
team. This was reflected in a statement of communities. Besides the
an SPDC official of the GMoU Maturation composition of the executives,
team: the GMoU document was silent
about other gender roles in the
“We ensure that every social strata committees through which the
is carried along. In constituting the CDB operates. The committees
governance structure…30% must include the Finance and Resource
be women, representation of youth, Management Committee,
chiefs in the 70%. We also ensure Partnership Communication and
participation in the development Capacity Building Committee,
plan. We do SLA’s to ensure that Peace and Conflict Management
all persons make their input in the Committee, and Technical
development plan of their Committee.
communities. We incorporate the
vulnerable groups. The GMOU ii. The Community Trust members
15% of fund is set aside for must include at least one woman
women. It was a deliberate efforts, who will represent the interests
when we first started we found that of their specific communities at
women were not carried along. the CDB with the Treasurer
There was even no woman in the position specified for women.
governance structure. This is why Among the 10-member
we put that clause.” Community Trust, the document
is also clear that there should be
In line with the principle of mainstreaming at least 3 women appointed. In
gender, setting a representative quota for view of this, respondents of the
both sexes to participate equally or study were asked how women in
equitably, the study examined the extent to their communities were involved
which gender was mainstreamed in the at the different stages of the
governance structure of the SPDC’s GMoU. In most clusters the
GMoU. First, an analysis of the GMoU selection of CT and CDB
policy document shows an attempt to main representatives was usually done
stream gender in three areas: by nominating women already
known in the community’s women
i. Cluster Development Board forum. In a community like
(CDB) membership: the CDBis Ayama, women were selected
where crucial development randomly through a ballot system.
decisions are taken. The CDBs
are composed of Chairpersons, iii. Funding of Social Investment
Secretaries and Treasurers of the Project is a third area, where
CTs with the Treasurer position women representation was
reserved for the women. In explicitly mentioned in the
practice, a woman is yet to hold GMoU document. It was

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Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

recommended that fifteen 5.2 Challenges and Constraints of

(15%)of the fund (also known as Women Participation in the GMoU
a mandate) is to be separated for Variables which the study applied in the
women targeted projects and analysis of women participation in
programmes which will be community development governance
managed by women. It was include their role in positions of
observed that this ear-marked leadership, participation in the selection of
fund for women is well projects/programmes and supervision. The
publicized in the GMoU process access to facilitate the release of GMoU
but adoption among the Clusters funds was also a considered an indicator of
varies. women participation.

Another instance where women When respondents were asked what was
participation was observed but not stated responsible for more women not
in the policy document was in the occupying GMoU positions different that
negotiation team. A woman was were offered are discussed below. First, in
considered to join two other community examining the role of women in leadership
members (a lawyer and a community revealed that the community power
leader), ina team delegated to discuss the structure recognized the position of elders
terms of the community’s relationship and the youth based on the power and
with SPDC before this becomes an influence they wield in producing
agreement. Some respondents also alluded development outcomes. For instance, the
to employing innovative and non- elders by virtue of their duty as
traditional means to mobilize and enrol adjudicators, mediators, and peacemakers
women as a way of engaging of engaging can influence chief sin political and
women better in the GMoU process. administrative decision making.
Respondents also acknowledged that the
From the GMoU policy document it can community gets its ‘warriors’ to defend the
be seen that the scanty provisions for the community against aggression from the
women roles reinforces the arguments of youth. In some volatile Niger Delta
other scholars on the participation of communities, the youth take the
women in community development prerogative of blocking SPDC facilities
governance. SPDC attempt in the when grievances are not addressed by the
provision of limited opportunities for MNC.A respondents’ words below
women and youth participation is a captured the power of the chiefs and youth
demonstration of a will to include some in this regard:
minority groups, however, there remains
an absence of intent for gender equality. “The elders have the power to drop
The enforcement of the limited gender the chief by our constitution so
positions of the GMoUwill further be they give them to go and see what
analysed in the monitoring actions of is happening so they don’t come in
NGO’s in the subsequent section of this to judge. The youths they can block
paper. so they give them opportunity to be
part of the system so that they

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Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

don’t come and block SPDC to aspire for various roles. The present way
activities.” of participation restricts from seeking let
alone holding Chairmanship and Secretary
From the above it can be inferred that positions at the Board and CT.This clearly
women are perceived as a lesser threat to contradicts the GMoU policy and till
the peace and security of communities, date there is no CT or CDB that boasts
hence the impact of their non-participation of a woman as Chairperson or Secretary
is being overlooked. At the inception of in the GMoU.
the GMoU women were not included in
the governance until it became a demand Restricting women’s role in the
of SPDC in the policy. There exists also, governance structure raises the question of
an imbalance in leadership opportunities their status to influence decisions.
available to women in the CTs and CDB’s Evidence showed that women in the
as noted in the earlier section reviewing executive did not even share same status as
the GMoU document. In most of the their male counterparts. The poor
communities studied, executives of the CT monitoring on the part of the NGO is
were chosen based on family alliances or responsible for this disparity in gender
compounds that nominated representatives. status of GMoU officials. This could also
In Agbobiri community of Bayelsa state be an indication of the low importance the
for instance, families nominated the SPDC and her monitoring NGO’s accord
Treasurer. The Chairman, Secretary and to women contribution in the governance
the Treasurer were elected afterwards. At structure otherwise, a leader would not be
the Cluster level which is made of at liberty to apply his discretion on issues
different communities which form the of women rights. Under a democratic
Cluster development t board (CDB), one system, a Chairman’s perception or value
of three CT executives from various for women should not affect women’s
communities is entitled to vie for positions prominence or participation of women if
at the board. The rule permits only CT there is an institution to monitor and
Chairmen to vie for Chairmanship sanction non-adherence. When men are not
positions at the board. The same applies inclined to grant women equal status, it
for Secretary and Treasurer positions. becomes necessary to enforce the rule to
ensure the protection of women’s interest.
Ayamabele, is one of the few communities In this case, the body responsible for
that exceeded the mandatory three women enforcing the rule on behalf of SPDC is
in the committee with four women in the the NGO, hence they are culpable in
executive. While the designation of the allowing this trend.
Treasurer position marks an
improvement in the previous governance Despite that the terms of the GMoU policy
system which was male dominated, it applies to all Clusters, the mode of
doesn’t meet the standards of gender selecting leaders also varies in the
equality. A system that recognises that communities. Some communities select by
women’s role in community development nomination, election and some use the
is not limited to running a treasury or balloting system. This was applied
managing petty cash, gives women liberty especially when choosing women

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Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

representatives. In such cases, the women are not carried along. There are special
were selected randomly in a ballot that people that have the information.
does not take into cognizance of
experience, skills, personality or the Another factor that contributes to the
leadership capacity of the women brought present state of women participation in the
forward. The statement below from a GMoU as observed in the course of
respondent supports this position: interaction with women during the
interviews and FGD’s, is their
“We have 30% of women and 70% complacence. Women showed little or no
comprises men, youth and average keenness to take the lead on development
persons. What we do, you know in matters. They were more disposed to
our area we have compound and support their compound/family’s stand on
families. The chiefs will now call the development issues being led by a
the communities and say male member of the compound/family.
communities should bring one, Even the women representatives in the CT
compound should bring one, until and CDB’s demonstrated a kind of blind
they find the best men. For the subservience to the decisions of other
three women, the communities and members. Olayode (2016) explains this
families, they now throw papers phenomenon thus: Through socialisation,
(ballot). Then the women council women and men are allocated different and
will bring one woman, making up unequal roles in society. Women are
three women.” assigned the private sphere, taking care of
the home and family, while men are
The quality of women participation is also assigned the public sphere, running the
hindered by their dependency on affairs of society. The patriarchal structure
men.When asked about what feedback of Niger Delta communities entrenched
mechanisms that existed on GMoU over time has permeated and replicated
activities, it was observed that women itself through a variety of social
depended on community leaders to provide organizations and the GMoU is no
information on the GMoU more than they exception. As a result the study found that
demanded it. When such information was women showed reluctance to assert
not volunteered to them, no actions themselves and their needs, even though
followed. Women appointed in the they expressed their dissatisfaction with
executives failed to close the leadership the GMou status-quo. While SPDC may
communication gap with their fellow have made efforts to neutralize the impact
women even when they received updates of patriarchy in their community
during their interactions at the CT or CBD. development initiatives through the
Some responses in this regard were: A- I GMoU, the eagerness of the community
have not seen them carry women along in women to close the leadership gap with
all of these. B-In the CT formation we men is clearly lacking.
have about four women. She is not well
grounded on the issue because she is not From the results of the in-depth interviews
one of them. C-I don’t think that women conducted, it was observed that leadership
opportunities for women in the GMoU

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Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

takes the form of tokenism. Similar to the informs the projects they implement as
situation in the Nigerian political system fund is released by SPDC. Respondents
(Adeleke, 2014). It is argued that the attest that the attendance of women at such
inclusion of a small number of women in town hall meetings was not in doubt. In
the GMoU Governance is merely a some occasions, the population of women
symbolic effort that gives the appearance attendees matched the men and youth and
of gender inclusion. This practise bears no sometimes surpassed them. According to a
resemblance of gender equality. Gender respondent, women attended in such large
equality means women and men should numbers that the hall could not contain
have equal value, enjoy the same status women who showed up. This level
and conditions and should be accorded attendance however, did not reflect in the
equal treatment. It refers to the full priority projects that made it to the final
equality of men and women to enjoy the CDP. In the case of Oduawa community in
complete range of political, economic, Bayelsa state, the toilet project which was
civil, social and cultural rights, with no the preferred project of the women was
one being denied access to these rights, or substituted with a town hall. The reason
deprived of them, because of their sex. It given for this was the inadequacy of the
means they should benefit equally from the fund to cover other projects the community
results of development (CEDAW, had opted for. Such projects in most cases
1979).The selection method that uses did not address the peculiar problems of
ballots for the selection of women while a women with hygiene and sanitation.
rigorous process which considers
From the foregoing, the study shows that
experience and skills is followed for the
participation of women when examined by
nomination of men, is polarised. It
membership composition in the executive,
suggests that the quality of women
does not amount to meaningful impact.
representatives in the executive will have
This underscores the importance of the
marginal or no impact on the GMoU
quality of participation of women which
governance.
lends credence to the argument that
A second factor in examining women representation in numbers that is not
participation in the GMoU governance has capable of influencing decisions and
to do with the process of selecting projects outcomes in the community development
and programmes. Women participate with process is a waste of women’s effort and
the rest of the community to identify their resources.
developmental needs prioritizing them for
implementation within the five year As it pertains towomen’s access to the
duration of the GMoU. Such development management and sharing of the GMoU
needs are recorded in the Community fund, the study found that women
Development Plan (CDP). Gender remained at the mercy of the CDB’s
participation at this stage begins with the decision to adhere or deviate from the
town-hall meetings facilitated byan policy’s specification. A comment from a
NGO.A Sustainable Livelihoods respondent below shows that while some
Assessment (SLA) helps the community CDB’s separate the women’s assigned
adopt a list of community problems which percentage of the fund from the whole
mandate, others make deductions on the

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Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

mandate before allocating an amount for accountability and transparency. From the
women. In the end, the fund left for responses of participants to questions on
women-assigned projects becomes how women engaged, the study found that
depleted. A respondent provided a CDB’s do not feel accountable to the
summary of this situation in the following women for their proportion of the fund or
words: on any other issues. Many communities
have taken to the practise of utilizing the
“Yes, It is the GMOU framework. entire fund without separating 15% as
70/30. 30 for the women, which is stipulated in the policy for women. They
the 15% during my turn I deduct it believe that they owed their reporting and
from source. I remove 15% and I GMoU compliance to SPDC or through
share it according to your the mentoring NGO’s. This is an
community facility. But when I left indication that the decision to appropriate
because there was no strong force the women’s 15% into other projects was
again to oppose them, what they not taken with the consent of women who
did they deduct it from own it. This raises concerns about the
communities directly, which means inclusion of women in the deployment of
communities that does not have subsequent funds in the event that SPDC
more facilities, have very small does not enforce or monitor compliance.
money.” To buttress this point, a respondent from
Access to the mechanism for the release of Imiringi community averred thus:
GMoU funds is a critical empowering “We accepted before shell people
factor that excludes the women. Although, that we have not been giving
women hold position of Treasurer it was preference to women. The advice
not reported during the course of the study was let us make sure that
whether the Treasurers actually took subsequent jobs we do that. That
financial decisions or had access to the 15% if it may bring some problems
SPDC system through which funds are in your job you may skip it, we
released. SPDC did not deny knowledge of have not really done that. The
this fact and invariably tolerates such money has been built into other
diverse applications by the Cluster projects. … We have not really
executives. In most instances, it was the done much for women.”
CDB Chairman that liaised with SPDC
officials to seek approval on project There are already indications that in
proposals and sign checks when they were clusters like Ekpeye cluster of Rivers state
approved. This is indicative of the unequal where the GMoU is still at project
power relationship between SPDC and her approval phase, it is not likely that the
host communities which gives room for the communities will adhere to the 15%
undue influence of SPDC over negotiated women fund. The growing apathy towards
priorities of the communities in the GMoU the GMoU due to SPDC’s delay in
as highlighted by Egbon et al (2018). releasing their funds could impacts
community members’ trust in the CT’s and
The SPDC objective of inclusiveness CDB’s to adhere to the GMoU standards.
under the GMoU also faces the problem of

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Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

Members of the executive interviewed funds find it extremely difficult to release

from that area already expressed a lack of any amount when there is already a
interest in the 15% fund to be separated for shortfall in what is required to accomplish
women projects. In communities like one major project that served the need to
Gbundukwu, Otuasega, it was already the entire community. In Akinima for
clear that there was no intention to comply instance, it is considered that lock-up
with 15% provision for women projects. shops are a priority of the community
The comment below summarises a which the funds allocated to the
respondent’s justification for this. community can barely cover.

“Since it is community something From the foregoing, the study observes

we don’t separate men from that the principle of gender equality is
women. So far as the project is in greatly threatened by women’s lack of
the community. Maybe if some access to the GMoU occasioned by the
other thing that will come up we absence of a monitoring framework that
will look at the women, but for enforces adherence to the GMoU policy
now we are only concentrating on and the limited funding SPDC provides for
the main projects we need in the development needs in communities. In
community.” relation to the view of the WHO
(2001)that gender equity is “fairness and
Apart from the common reason given as justice in the distribution of benefits and
justification for the appropriation of responsibilities between women and men”,
women’s 15% part of the fund, which is the GMoU fails in giving to the
inadequacy of the fund to meet needs, the disadvantaged gender on the basis of
CDB Chairmen claimed the money was needs. The role of the mentoring NGO’s in
held in trust for the women. This can be taking steps to compensate for historical
likened to a parent keeping their child’s and social disadvantages that prevent
inheritance until they come of age. It is a women and men from operating on a level
practise which gives men power to playing field has been undermined in the
influence the women’s decisions on how process. Since access to the GMoU funds
to utilise the funds before it is released to and the power to decide how it is
them. Stemming from this, communities disbursed remained largely with the men,
that adhered to releasing 15% fund to the it can be concluded that women
women, now feel short-changed when they participation had no relationship with the
learn about their counterparts that have not GMoU outcomes.
adhered. If this practise goes unabated
5.3 Implications and Recommendations
,communities with lower mandate will be for Mainstreaming Gender in the
induced to disregard the 15% at the next
GMoU
opportunity to negotiate their mandate.

The inadequacy of GMoU funds in Having examined some constraints to

meeting the communities pressing women’s participation in the GMoU, the
developmental needs is also responsible paper delves into further implications of
for the difficulty to provide the women women’s participation in community
fund. Communities with relatively smaller development. The wider benefits and

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Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

impact of women’s participation in Other project ideas that cater for health
governance of the GMoU was highlighted needs, water and other individual
by a significant number of respondents. economic opportunities are also put
When asked to describe the special skills forward by women in few communities.
of women to contribute to community Markets are considered one of such
development, answers obtained include: community priorities. Women are usually
They are very effective. Women are seen as the direct beneficiaries of a market
resourceful. Women make good project even though it serves the
managers. The quote below suggests that community as a whole. Edagberi Better
cooperation was better achieved with land community in Rivers state recently
women: accepted the proposal of a cassava
processing factory for women. Whether
“Women are very wonderful, they this is going to be implemented when the
are not like men. They give good fund is finally released remains to be seen.
result. You don’t have headache In Oporoma, the women’s part of the fund
when you are working with women was utilized in constructing a two bedroom
compared to men” Doctors quarters. Although the facility
serves doctors that work for the
community, it is classified as a women
Paramount among reasons for the project because it is deemed to be more
inclusion of more women in the GMoU beneficial to women. A justification for
process was their ability to show initiative this was provided by a respondent,
and resourcefulness. Respondents’ account asserting thus:
of women contributions in the town hall
and SLA sessions showed that women “Women are always pregnant,
were ingenious in identifying projects and children are always sick. It is not
programmes that addressed the community that other community members
needs. Women generated project ideas that won’t use it but women use it more
focused on income generation. It is for antenatal, post-natal. Children
believed that projects executed by women will fall sick and all that. ”
like the self-contained apartments became
a source of income which enabled them Respondents’ believe that women are
maintain such facilities. A potential stronger than men in certain areas of
drawback of such an approach however, is community life that require self-help and
that makes women neglect their own basic indigenous coping strategies to solve a
socio-economic needs. It can be argued problem. Women’s insights and values can
that the approach is flawed if the money enhance and enrich the overall decision-
generated does not alleviate the hardship making process especially at the local level
women experience inthe communities. The where women are believed to be more
women fund is also used for funding sensitive to community issues. Owing to
celebrations and group activities of the the contribution of women in this regard,
women such as the ‘August meeting.’ the prospect of including more women
being in the executives is apparent in

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Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

communities whose value for such will write their beloved ones and
contribution was expressed thus: keep people here suffering.”

“For now we have one woman but When CDB members were asked reasons
the next CT will have about three for not including micro-finance as priority
women because men can’t manage for the women, it was revealed that the
things like market. . . . Women are board agreed that micro-finance was a
stronger than men as far as desirable form of empowerment for
management is concerned.” women. However, there was the
uncertainty about the repayment of the
Generally, the community development loan due to the mind-set that they are
plans (CDP’s) which communities submit entitlement to “Shell money”. The quote
to SPDC for approval have recorded more below from a CDB Chairman expressed
positive response for infrastructure this concern:
projects than capacity building
programmes. Whereas, from the “We wanted to give women some
interaction with women, capacity building money as empowerment let them
programmes would be their priority need. not be idle so that they can trade.
SPDC, in its press releases through We wanted to give one woman so
various media and on its website claim that when that one pays back
they are meeting building capacity another one takes it. But the NGO
through microcredit schemes targeted at said those women don’t want to
women, who account for 70% of the pay back and saying it is shell
beneficiaries. In the company’s statement, money they gave them. We decide
over 31,000 people in some 171 to abandon it.”
communities benefitted from a revolving
programme in six years with over N740 In Oroije, the micro-credit scheme which
million given out as seed fund. was designed to be a revolving fund
Respondents differed on these claims. The among the families succeeded in the first
women lamented being marginalised in year of implementation. In Rumuodara it
the GMoU because of SPDC preference failed from inception because the loans
for infrastructure. A few clusters and were not paid back.
communities have however supported Another capacity building programme the
women with grants and micro-finance but women proposed is skills acquisition for
the disbursement of such monies is vocational trades. With the exception of
marred by accusations of GMoU officials clusters like Okordia-Zarama in Bayelsa
favouring their preferred persons thereby state, skills acquisition schemes have not
disenfranchising other community received necessary consideration from
women. CDB’s. In places where skills acquisition
“They should take note, so that if have been implemented, there are
they are empowering women the complaints about the conduct of women
community should be aware and who benefit from the programme. It was
not to be done by board and they reported that women sell the starter packs
and many of them fail to practise the trade

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Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

for which they were trained. In Oroije Representatives and SLA sessions. The
community for instance, women who study however identifies a problem with
trained as hair dressers sold their starter what constitutes gender equity when it
packs and were unable to set up a hair comes to genders participation in project
dressing salon in the community. In this decision-making and implementation.
way, women jeopardise their own chances The community people who have a say
of contribution to the economic are largely men, hence the value of
development of the community. The women’s contribution has no significant
prevalence of this unsustainable practise impact on the final development actions
makes skills acquisition as wasteful taken. Women identified their priority
investment. As a result of this, investing needs in SPDC GMoU communities as
the GMoU fund in scholarships for female capacity building programmes such as
students becomes an alternative which will micro-finance, skills acquisition schemes
eventually exclude the older uneducated and opportunities for income generation.
women in the communities. However, the reluctance of CDB’s to
release 15% funds earmarked for women
CONCLUSION and inadequate GMoU funding to cater
for community development are key
The central argument of this paper has factors responsible for women’s needs not
been that women benefit not merely by being met. While the GMoU model has
gender representation but by the quality of opened up space for popular
their participation in the governance of the participation at the grassroots level, the
community development structures in oil problem of voicelessness of
producing communities of the Niger marginalized groups, such as women,
Delta.Although the SPDC was not explicit has not been adequately addressed or
in stating that its goal was gender equality, addressed at all. The study therefore
the gender inclusiveness it aspires to suggests that the rationale for promoting
achieve was examined from the lens of women’s participation in community
gender mainstreaming in the constitution development in models like the GMoU
of it governance structure, identification of should be based on equity, quality and
needs, feedback mechanism in the development. The study found that women
implementation of the GMoU. From the are appointed into GMoU positions but are
experiences of women and the accounts of constrained to hold only the office of the
respondents which included officials of the Treasurer limiting their ability to influence
GMoU at the CDB and CT’s, it was community development decisions on a
affirmed that in order to achieve gender larger scale. When this happens, the
equity there must first be gender equality. community is denied the advantage of
women’s full potential as they are made to
From the discussions presented in the
play a second fiddle to their male
sections above, the GMoU has attained
counterparts. The study concludes that
to a large extent community
leadership opportunities for women in the
participation if participation is
GMoU takes the form of tokenism
understood merely as community people
whereby the clusters feel compelled by
attending town hall meetings,
SPDC to include women in the executives,
participating in the voting of CT

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Gender Participation in Community Development Governance in the Niger Delta: A Case of the SPDC GMoU

not on the basis of women’s contribution opportunities of governance in Nigeria.

but to satisfy the GMoU policy Since equity is the means of achieving
requirement. equality, the GMoU requires a revision in
its gender inclusion strategy if it is to
achieve equality.
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