Chapter four

Geomagnetism

Origin of Earth’s magnetic field

Basic concepts of magnetic fields

Forces Associated with Magnetic Monopoles

The fundamental magnetic element appears to consist of two magnetic monopoles, one positive
and one negative, separated by some distance. This fundamental magnetic element consisting of
two monopoles is called a magnetic dipole. The mathematical expression for the magnetic force
between two magnetic monopoles is given by:

Where μ is a constant of proportionality known as the magnetic permeability, p1 and p2 are the
strengths of the two magnetic monopoles, and r is the distance between the two poles. Magnetic
permeability is a property of the material in which the two monopoles, p1 and p2, are located. If
they are in a vacuum, μ is called magnetic permeability of free space. The p1 and p2 can be
either positive or negative in sign. If p1 and p2 have the same sign, the force between the two
monopoles is repulsive. If p1 and p2 have opposite signs, the force between the two monopoles
is attractive.
Field Lines for a Magnetic Dipole
Another way to visualize the magnetic force field associated with a magnetic dipole is to plot the
field lines for the force. Field lines are nothing more than a set of lines drawn such that they are
everywhere parallel to the direction of the force you are trying to describe, in this case the
magnetic force. Shown below is the spatial variation of the magnetic force (green arrows)*
associated with a magnetic dipole and a set of field lines (red lines) describing the force.

Figure 4.1 Field lines for magnetic dipoles.

Any magnetic substance (bar magnet ) consists of two poles, N-pole and S-pole or positive pole
(+P) and negative pole (-P). Existence of these poles determines existence a magnet.
- Positive pole (+P) and negative pole (+P) are physical entities that prove the existence of a
magnet. Magnetic poles always exist in pairs (i.e., each positive pole must be paired with a
corresponding negative pole) to form a dipole.
- It is not possible to separate or extract either of these poles. To break a magnet is to
immediately create two new magnets. For this reason, we commonly use the word dipole to
describe a magnet.
- Free magnetic pole cannot exist in nature. However, when one pole is sufficiently far removed
from the other so that it no longer affects it, the single pole is referred to as a monopole.
Lines of-force can be traced by following the directions assumed by a small compass needle
when placed at various points around the bar mag¬net.
- Lines of force due to the bar magnet spread out from the north pole (N) of the magnet and
converge to the south pole (S).
- If lodestone (a bar magnet) is heated to temperatures greater than about 57O°C, it becomes
nonmagnetic (looses its magnetism). This critical temperature, known as the Curie point
◦
temperature (Tcu ≥ 570 C), is a property of all magnetic materials (i.e., all magnetic materials
loose their permanent magnetism and become neutral when they are heated above 570*C). Thus,
both molten rock and extremely hot rock have no mag-netism. Rocks at temperatures below the
Curie point temperature are magnetic, but they are extremely weak magnets.
Magnetic field strength (H)

The magnetic field strength (H) is defined as the force per unit pole strength exerted by a
magnetic monopole, p1. H is nothing more than Coulomb's expression divided by p2. The
magnetic field strength H is the magnetic analog to the gravitational acceleration, g.

Given the units associated with force, N, and magnetic monopoles, Amp - m, the units associated
with magnetic field strength are Newton per Ampere-meter, N / (Amp - m). N / (Amp - m) is
referred to as a tesla (T), named after the renowned inventor Nikola Tesla. When describing the
magnetic field strength of the earth, it is more common to use units of nanotesla (nT). The
average strength of the Earth's magnetic field is about 50,000nT. A nanotesla is also commonly
referred to as a gamma.
Origin of Magnets and Magnetic Fields
In electrostatics, a charge at rest is surrounded by an electrostatic field that can exert a force on
another charge placed in the field existing around the charge. The electric field due to the charge
at rest is defined as the electrostatic force it exerts on a unit charge. This electrostatic field is the
only force field that exists around a charge at rest. However, as soon as the charge begins to
move, another kind of force field that can also exert forces on magnetic substances is
immediately introduced. This force field which is introduced by the charge in motion known as a
magnetic field.
We now have reasonable cause to believe that all magnetic fields and magnetic phenomena are
caused by electric charges in motion. As an illustration, consider a glass disk is mounted so as to
rotate about a horizontal axis aa (Fig. 4-5). Positive charges, are placed on strips of aluminium
foil cemented to the disk. As long as the charge remains static, no magnetic effects are
observable.

Fig. 4.5: Rotation of isolated positive or negative charges produces a magnetic effect. When free
to rotate about a vertical axis AA the axis of rotation aa sets itself in a north-south direction as
indicated.
But when the disk is given a clockwise angular velocity Ꞷ about the axis aa, a magnetic field is
introduced immediately. This field may be detected by bringing a small compass near the disk,
or by suspending the disk so as to permit it to rotate about a vertical axis AA. When so
suspended, the axis aa comes to a position where it is parallel with the compass needle, the end
marked N pointing in a northward direction. The same end of the axis aa points north if negative
charges replace the positive charges and the direction of rota¬tion is changed to counter
clockwise, as in (b). If the direction of  is reversed in either case (a) or (b), rotation of 180°
about the vertical axis AA occurs. Thus, we see not only that the motion of charges pro¬duces a
magnetic effect, but also that the kind of charge and its direc¬tion of motion determines the
orientation of the magnetic field produced. The conclusion here is that motion of positive or
negative charges that constitutes an electric current produces a magnetic field or is associated
with a magnetic field. Therefore, magnetic fields and magnets originate from electric charges in
motion or electric current. A bar magnet set into motion also generates an electric field. The
subject dealing with interaction of magnetic fields and electric fields is known as
electromagnetic theory.
Earth's Magnetic Field or Geomagnetic Field (Dipole field)
Like gravity, Earth's magnetic field depends on Earth's internal properties and so has provided a
wealth of information on the interior of the planet.
The earth itself is a great magnet, causing a compass needle to assume its various directions in
different localities. The first proposal that the Earth’s magnetic field is similar to that of a
magnetized sphere came from William Gilbert about (1544 - 1603).

Fig. 4-6: (a) A magnetic dipole at the centre of the Earth has a magnetic field that is a good first
approximation to the
Earth's magnetic field. (b) The difference between the Earth's geographic, geomagnetic and
magnetic poles and equators
The Earth's magnetic field ( -field) can be represented by a magnetic dipole (imagine a huge
bar magnet at the centre of the Earth) situated at the centre of the Earth (Fig. 4-6). The -field is
a vector quantity that is far from being constant either in magnitude or in direction and varies
spatially over the surface of the Earth as well as in time. Today, the best-fitting dipole is aligned
at about 11.50 to the Earth's geographic north-south axis (Fig. 4-7). The geomagnetic poles are
the two points where the axis of this best-fitting dipole intersects the Earth's surface. Now at
790N, 710W and 790S, 1090E, they are called the geomagnetic north and geomagnetic south
poles, respectively. The geomagnetic equator is the equator of the best-fitting dipole axis. The
two points on the Earth's surface at which the magnetic field is vertical (has no horizontal
component) are called the magnetic poles, dip poles.

The present north magnetic pole is at 76 0N, 1010W, and the south magnetic pole is at 66 0S,
1410E. The magnetic equator is the line along which the magnetic field is horizontal and has no
vertical component. If the field were exactly a dipole field, these magnetic poles and magnetic
equator would be coincident with the geomagnetic poles and equator.
What is the Origin of the Geomagnetic field?
It is mentioned that the earth’s magnetic field closely resembles the field that would be produced
by a giant bar magnet located near the earth’s center. Since the core is molten (T ≥ 3700 0C), no
such magnet can actually exist there because all magnets loose their magnetism at temperatures
above the Curie temperature (T c=550°C). The geomagnetic field cannot originate in the mantle
because the mantle material is a non-conductor no electric currents can exist there. Because the
mantle is too hot (T > 5400C) a ferromagnetic substance such as iron does not retain its
magnetism. This fact implied that the giant bar magnet proposed by Gilbert does not exist at the
centre of the earth.
Instead, the geomagnetic field is believed to arise from coupled fluid motions and electric
currents in the liquid iron of the earth’s core (Fig. 4.8). A current in the form of a loop is
surrounded by a magnetic field of the same form as that of a bar magnet (Fig. 4.8).
 Fig. 4.8: A diagram illustrating generation of the geomagnetic field by current loops in the
outer core

Measurements of the magnetization of crustal rocks indicate that over geological history the
geomagnetic field has intermittently reversed its polarity thus, there have been times in the
geologic past when the north magnetic pole has been located close to the south geographic pole
and the south magnetic pole has been located close to the north geographic pole: then the field is
said to he reversed. Such reversals seem to be consistent with the hypothesis that the
geomagnetic field is due to electric currents in the outer core. The energy source is heat from the
inner core that causes convection (fluid motion) in the outer core to give the flow patterns
involved in the production of the geomagnetic fields. The polarity reversals may well occur in
the patterns of flow in the liquid iron there (outer core) from time to time (geologic time) in
the geologic past.

Components of the earth's total magnetic field ( ) and their origin

The earth’s total magnetic field ( ) consists of an external component ( ) and an

internal component ( ) and may be expressed by:

(4.9)

The external component ( ) originate from magnetic field induced by the flow of ionised
particles (ions) emitted by the sun within the ionosphere towards the magnetic poles.
The internal component ( ) originates from the dipole field ( ) generated by the fluid core

and magnetised crustal rocks known as rock magnetism ( ). Hence is given as:

(4.10)

The contributions are: ; and is variable and the weakest of &

.
The Earth's Magnetic Elements
The magnetic field of the Earth is a vector, that is, it has both magnitude and direction. The
Earth’s magnetic field is much weaker; its maximum intensity is reached near to the magnetic
poles, where it amounts to about 6x105 Tesla. The magnetic vector can be expressed as Cartesian
components parallel to any three orthogonal axes. The geomagnetic elements are taken to be
components parallel to the geographic north and east directions and the vertically downward
direction (Fig.4.9). Alternatively, the geomagnetic elements can be expressed in spherical polar
coordinates. The magnitude of the magnetic vector is given by the field strength B; its direction
is specified by two angles known as declination D and inclination I. The declination D is the
angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian; the inclination I is the angle
at which the magnetic vector dips below the horizontal (Fig. 4.9).

Fig. 4.9: Definition of the geomagnetic elements. The geomagnetic field can be described by
north X, east Y, vertically downward Z and the horizontal H in the magnetic north direction
Cartesian components, or by the angles of declination D and inclination I together with the total
field intensity B.
The Cartesian (X, Y, Z) and spherical polar (B, D, I) sets of geomagnetic elements are related as:

(4.12)
The geomagnetic elements H, Z and D (Fig. 4.9) are recorded at magnetic observatories. Ideally
magnetic observatories should be distributed uniformly over the Earth’s surface but in fact they
are predominantly in the northern hemisphere. Any combination of the three magnetic elements
(H, Z, D) is sufficient to completely describe the earth's magnetic field vector B at an observation
site. Several different kinds of instruments have been invented to measure one or another of these
basic magnetic elements.
The potential of a magnetic pole (monopole potential)
In gravity the concept of a field is used to describe the region around a mass (M) in which its
attraction could be felt by another test mass (m 0) located at a distance r. The gravitational
potential (V) at distance r from the attracting mass (M) is defined by the work that would have to
be expended against the gravity field mass (M) to move the test mass (m 0) from r to infinity

which is calculated by .
Similarly, the potential (U) of a magnetic pole ( ) at a distance r from a test pole (p0) is defined

in exactly the same way as the gravity potential and is calculated by . For example,

the monopole potential due to – at a distance from P0 (Fig. 4.10) is given by:

(4.12)

Figure 4.10: The magnetic potential due to –P and +P at distances and from a test pole P0.

Similarly, the monopole potential due to +P at a distance from P0 (Fig. 4.10) is given by:

(4.12)
Observe that the monopole potential generally varies as a function of .

The dipole Field and the Dipole Potential

The concept of a magnetic dipole is basic for an understanding of the magnetic behaviour of
matter ranging in dimensions from small magnetic particles to the entire earth. Mathematically
we consider a dipole to consist of two magnetic poles of strength +P and –P, whose separation is
infinitely small. Thus, a dipole represents an idealized elementary magnet. The line joining the –
P and +P defines the dipole axis that is directed from – to + (Fig. 4.11).
The magnetic field generated by the existence the two opposite poles has rotational symmetry
about this axis. We shall now derive an expression for the magnetic field due to dipole (an
elementary magnet) at a point, P(r, ) separated by a distance r from the centre of the magnet
(Fig. 4.11). This simple calculation helps to quantitatively understand the magnetic effects
produced by magnetic bodies. At the point P(r, ), the distances from – and + to the point

P(r, ) are and respectively. The distance r from the mid-point of the pair of poles to the
point P(r, ) makes an angle  to the dipole axis.

Fig. 4.11: Geometry for the calculation of the potential of a pair of magnetic poles ( dipole
potential).
By analogy with the gravitational potential due to a point mass, the dipole potential W at P(r, )
a distance r from the mid-point of the poles is the sum of contributions of the monopole
potentials of – and + given by:

(4.14)
Using cosine law a relationship among r1, r2, r, and  can be obtained as:
 (4.15)
The pair of poles (- and + ) form a dipole when their separation ( ) becomes

infinitesimally small compared to the distance r (i.e., d « r). In this case, the expressions for

and can be Binomially expanded to determine the approximate relations:

and

Substituting these expressions for and in Eq. 4.14, we finally get:

(4.16)
Since is an infinitesimal distance and is correspondingly large, the product remains to
be a finite number known as magnetic moment or dipole moment ( ) of the magnet.
Dipole moment ( ) is a vector quantity aligned along the dipole axis and its definition derives
from observations on bar magnets. The torque exerted by a magnetic field to turn the magnet
parallel to the field direction is proportional to . This applies even when the separation of the

poles becomes very small, as in the case of the dipole. Substituting in Eq. 4.16, dipole
potential in terms of the dipole moment becomes:

(4.17)

Observe that the dipole potential generally varies as a function of ,

Relationship of the Earth’s B-field and magnetic Potential ( )

By analogy with the gravity field ( ), the earth’s magnetic field (B) which is a vector quantity is
a conservative field. Hence, the earth’s magnetic field (B-field) at any position P(r, , ) can be
derived by taking the negative gradient of the earth’s magnetic potential W as:

(4.18)
That is, the negative derivative of the earth’s magnetic potential W yields the components of the
earth’s magnet field in the corresponding directions of the coordinate system considered. In
applying Eq. 4.18 to the earth, it is most convenient to work in spherical polar coordinates (r, ,
), where r is the radius,  the colatitude measured from the north pole to the equator and  the
longitude or azimuth on the sphere (Fig. 4.12).

Fig. 4.12: Components of the B-field along the spherical coordinates (r, , ). The
arrows around the circle represent the variation of the inclination of the B-field with latitude.
The magnetic field B of a dipole is symmetrical about the axis AA’ of the dipole. At any point P
at distance r from the center of a dipole with magnetic moment M on a radius that makes an

angle  to the dipole axis the field of the dipole has a radial component and a tangential

component which can be obtained by differentiating the potential with respect to r and 

respectively. Accordingly, the radial component in the direction of r at any point P(r, , ) is
given by:

(4.19)

Similarly, the tangential component of the B-field in the direction  at any point
P(r, , ) on the surface of the earth is derived as:

(4.20)

The longitudinal component of the B-field in the direction  at point P(r, , )

(the longitudinal variation of the B-field) on the surface of the earth is derived as:

(4.21)
Taken together, the three dipole components , , describe a geocentric dipole inclined at
about 11.20 to the Earth’s rotation axis. The dipole axis cuts the surface at the north and south
geomagnetic poles.

Along the north-polar axis or northern polar areas ( = 0), and are determined as:

Similarly along the south - polar axis or southern polar areas ( = 180), and are
determined as:

The above results indicate that the radial component of the B-field is dominant along the polar

axes (both the north-polar axis and the south polar axis) while the tangential component is
negligible.

On equatorial areas ( = 90), and are determined as:

This result indicates that the tangential component of the B-field is dominant in equatorial

areas while the radial component is negligible.

The total magnetic field strength B also denoted by at any point P(r, , ) is given by:

Along the polar axes B is determined as follows:

- North-polar axis  = 0:

- South polar axis  = 180:

On equatorial areas ( = 90), is determined as follows:

The above results indicate that the earth’s total magnetic field is a maximum ( ) at

areas of higher latitude and a minimum ( ) at equatorial areas. The intensity is

especially low over the South Atlantic, where it is about 20 μT weaker than expected. The cause
of this “South Atlantic magnetic anomaly” is not understood. Because the geomagnetic field
shields the earth from cosmic radiation and charged particles of the solar wind, where this
protection is less effective over the South Atlantic. Orbiting satellites note increased impacts of
extra-terrestrial particles over this region. The feature poses hazards for astronauts in low-
orbiting spacecraft and also for pilots and passengers in high-altitude aircraft that pass through
the region. The enhanced particle flux can interfere with their on-board computers,
communications and guidance systems.

Magnetization of rocks

When a magnetic material, like iron, is placed within a magnetic field, B, the magnetic material
will produce its own magnetization. This phenomenon is called induced magnetization. Ability
of materials to become magnetized is called magnetic susceptibility. Rocks may retain that
magnetization to the present which is called remanent magnetization. The strength of the
magnetic field induced by the magnetic material due to the inducing field is called the intensity
of magnetization, Ji.

Permanent or Remnant Magnetization

So far our discussion has centred upon a magnetization that is induced by an applied field B
where the induced intensity of magnetization is denoted by J i. In many cases, in the absence of
an applied field B, there is still a measurable intensity of magnetization which is sustained by the
internal field strength due to permanently magnetized particles. The intensity of this
magnetization is known as permanent or remnant magnetization which is denoted by Jr.
Rocks containing magnetic minerals may possess both induced and remanent magnetizations.
The relative intensities of induced Ji and remnant Jr magnetizations are expressed in terms of the
Königsberger ratio which is normally expressed by:
(4.28)
Induced Ji and remnant Jr magnetizations may significantly differ both in directions and
magnitude.

Fig. 4.15 Vector diagram illustrating the relationship between induced Ji, remanent Jr and
total J magnetization components.
The magnetic effects of such a rock arise from the resultant J of the two magnetization vectors Jr
and Ji shown in Fig. 4.15 and given by:
(4.29)
The magnitude of J controls the amplitude of a magnetic anomaly and the direction ofJ
influences the shape a magnetic anomaly. Consequently, interpretation of magnetic data is
complicated by these magnetic parameters and physical properties compared with gravity, which
is dependent upon only rock density.

The nature of magnetization material is in general complex, governed by atomic properties.

Source of magnetism in rocks are magnetic atoms. All magnetic materials may be grouped into
five magnetic classes. These are:
 Diamagnetic
 Paramagnetic
 Ferromagnetic
 Antiferromagnetic
 Ferrimagnetic

There is no magnetic order at any temperature in diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials,

whereas there is a magnetic order at low temperatures in ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic and
ferrimagnetic materials.
Diamagnetic: - Discovered by Michael Faraday in 1846. This form of magnetism is a
fundamental property of all materials and is caused by the alignment of magnetic moments
associated with orbital electrons in the presence of an external magnetic field. For those
elements with no unpaired electrons in their outer electron shells, this is the only form of
magnetism observed. These substances have atoms or ions with complete shells, and their
diamagnetic behavior is due to the fact that a magnetic field acts to distort the orbital motion.
The susceptibilities of diamagnetic materials are relatively small and negative ranges from -10 -6
to -10-5. Negative magnetic susceptibility means that the diamagnetic materials acquire the
magnetization, which is pointed opposite to the applied magnetic field. In diamagnetic materials,
the susceptibility nearly has a constant value independent of temperature. Noble metals, Quartz
and salt are two common diamagnetic earth materials. Finally, diamagnetic materials acquire a
very weak magnetization opposite an external applied magnetic field, and lose their alignment
when the field is removed.

Paramagnetic: - This is a form of magnetism associated with elements that have an odd number
of electrons in their outer electron shells. Paramagnetism is associated with the alignment of
electron spin directions in the presence of an external magnetic field. It can only be observed at
relatively low temperatures. The temperature above which Paramagnetism is no longer observed
is called Curie temperature. The susceptibilities of paramagnetic substances are small and
positive varies from10-4 to 10-5. Positive magnetic susceptibility means the paramagnetic
materials acquire magnetization, which is in the same direction to the applied field. The best-
known examples of paramagnetic materials are the ions of transition and rare-earth ions.
Paramagnetic materials acquire a weak magnetization aligned with an external applied magnetic
field, and also lose their magnetization when the field is removed.

Ferromagnetic: This has dipoles which can align with an external magnetic field to produce a
much stronger magnetization, and also they retain the magnetization after the field is removed.
This is a special case of Paramagnetism in which there is an almost perfect alignment of electron
spin directions within large portions of the material referred to as domains. Like Paramagnetism,
ferromagnetism is observed only at temperatures below the Curie temperature. The
susceptibilities of ferromagnetic materials are typically of order +10 3 or 104 or even greater.
Among the elements, only cobalt, iron and nickel are strongly ferromagnetic, their Curie
temperatures being about 1400, 1040 and 630 K respectively.

Ferrimagnetic: have non-zero magnetization below the Curie temperature which is similar to
ferromagnetic materials. However, significant departures occur over a range of temperatures.
Another difference between ferrimagnets and ferromagnets is that in ferrimagnetic materials the
saturation magnetizations against temperature behave in a more complicated way. For example,
for some ferrimagnets the magnetization can increase with increasing temperature and then drops
down.

Antiferromagnetic: have small positive susceptibilities at high temperatures. Hematite is an

antiferromagnetic material. The directions of electron alignment within adjacent domains are
opposite and the relative abundance of domains with each spin direction is approximately equal.
The observed magnetic intensity for the material is almost zero.

Composition of the Earth's Total Magnetic field ( )

We can separate the earth's total magnetic field into the following three parts.

The Main field or Dipole field , which is produced in the fluid outer core of the earth and
accounts for the very large regional variations in the total field intensity and direction.
The external magnetic field , which is produced by electric currents in the earth's ionosphere
consisting of particles ionized by solar radiation and put into motion by the solar tidal force.
The anomalous magnetic field or rock magnetism , which is produced by ferromagnetic
minerals and rocks in the earth's crust. The earth’s total magnetic field is thus given as:
 (4.30) n
Where ; . Rock magnetism is variable and the weakest of
and .
Modes of Acquiring Magnetic Observations
Magnetic observations are routinely collected using any one of three different field operational
strategies.
Airborne - Both fluxgate and proton precession magnetometers can be mounted within or towed
behind aircraft, including helicopters. These so-called aeromagnetic surveys are rapid and cost
effective. When relatively large areas are involved, the cost of acquiring 1 km of data from an
aeromagnetic survey is about 40% less than the cost of acquiring the same data on the ground. In
addition, data can be obtained from areas that are otherwise inaccessible. Among the most
difficult problems associated with aeromagnetic surveys is fixing the position of the aircraft at
any time. With the development of realtime, differential GPS systems, however, this difficulty is
rapidly disappearing.
Shipborne - Magnetic surveys can also be completed over water by towing a magnetometer
behind a ship. Obviously, marine magnetic surveying is slower than airborne surveying. When
other geophysical methods are being conducted by ship, however, it may make sense to acquire
magnetic data simultaneously.
Ground Based - Like gravity surveys, magnetic surveys are also commonly conducted on foot or
with a vehicle. Ground-based surveys may be necessary when the target of interest requires more
closely-spaced readings than are possible to acquire from the air. In the next discussion we will
concentrate on ground-based surveys. All of this discussion for ground-based surveys however,
could be applied to airborne and shipborne surveys also. Because magnetic surveying is
generally far cheaper than other geophysical methods, magnetic observations are commonly used
for reconnaissance. These surveys can cover large areas and are used to identify the locations of
targets for more detailed investigations.
Measuring the Earth's Magnetic Field
Instruments for measuring aspects of the Earth's magnetic field are among some of the oldest
scientific instruments in existence. In exploration magnetic surveys the Earth's magnetic field is
measured by using instruments called magnetometers. Magnetometers are instruments that are
capable of measuring the total strength, or a component (H and Z-component) strength of the
earth’s magnetic field. The first advances in designing magnetometers were made during WWII
when Fluxgate Magnetometers (old generation magnetometers) were developed for use as a
submarine detection device for low-flying aircraft (Fig. 4.17). Today they are used for
conducting magnetic surveys from aircraft and for making borehole measurements.
Since WWII, several other magnetometer designs which include the Proton Precession
magnetometer (new generation magnetometers) have been developed. is shown (Fig. 4.17). For
land-based magnetic surveys, the most commonly used magnetometer is the proton precession
magnetometer.

Fig. 4.17: Schematic diagram and description of the proton precession magnetometer
The advantages of proton precession magnetometers are that they show no appreciable
instrument drift with time, they are fairly lightweight (easy to use) yet rugged (reliable) and
inexpensive ($5,000 - $10,000).
The disadvantages of proton precession magnetometers are that they can’t record continuously,
they can’t measure direction of the magnetic field (i.e., can only measure the total scalar
magnitude of the B-field).

The proton precession magnetometer only measures the total magnitude of the Earth's magnetic
field. These types of measurements are usually referred to as total field measurements. The
Measurement accuracy of proton precession magnetometers is 0.1 to 1 with sampling time of
0.5 to 2s.
Temporal Variations of the Earth's Magnetic Field
Like the gravitational field, the earth’s magnetic field varies with time. Temporal variations of
the earth’s magnetic field are classified into three types depending on their rate of occurrence
and source, that is: Diurnal Variations - These are variations in the magnetic field that occur
over the course of a day and are related to variations in the Earth's external magnetic field. This
variation can be on the order of 20 - 30  per day and should be accounted for when conducting
exploration magnetic surveys.
Magnetic Storms - Occasionally, magnetic activity in the ionosphere will abruptly increase. The
occurrence of such storms correlates with enhanced sunspot activity. The magnetic field
observed during such times is highly irregular and unpredictable, having amplitudes as large as
1000 . Exploration magnetic surveys should not be conducted during times of magnetic storms.
This is simply because it is difficult to correct for magnetic storms in the acquired data.
Secular Variations - These are long-term (changes in the field that occur over years) variations
in the main magnetic field that are presumably caused by fluid motion in the Earth's Outer Core.
Since these variations occur slowly with respect to the time of completion of a typical
exploration magnetic survey, secular variations will not complicate data reduction efforts of the
acquired field data.
International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) Maps

Regional features of the main magnetic field are best illustrated on contour maps. Such maps

include theintensity of the main field , inclination I, declination D for different epochs. These
maps are compiled by government agencies of several nations. Because the field changes slowly
with time, updated maps are issued every 10 or 5 years (Epochs). As a typical example, the total

intensity map of the main field for the year 1975 is shown in Fig. 4.18. Furthermore,
geomagnetic maps are made using measurements from the word wide network of geomagnetic
observatories (150) and repeat stations that have been adopted by an international commission
representing the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF). Values used for contouring

are first corrected for effects of rock magnetism (anomalous field) and external field and
then adjusted to a common time (epoch). The IGRF map in Fig. 4.18 shows that the main field
on the earth's surface is strongest in the polar regions where the maximum intensity reaches
70,000  and diminishes to an average value of 30,000  near the equator.
Fig. 4.18: Total Intensity of the Earth's Magnetic Field for Epoch 1975.0. Main magnetic field
intensity (solid contours) and annual secular change (dashed contours) on the surface of the earth
expressed in gammas.
Paleomagnetism and plate motions

The study of rock magnetism developed during the 1950s with the perfection of new, highly
sensitive magnetometers. When igneous rocks containing magnetic minerals crystallize, the
magnetic minerals align themselves with the Earth's magnetic field when rocks solidify. Certain
rocks, such as basalt, are fairly rich in iron and become magnetized by Earth’s magnetic field as
they cool. Similarly, the iron-oxide grains in some red sandstone become oriented in Earth’s
magnetic field as the sediment is deposited, so some sedimentary rocks also can show the
orientation of the paleomagnetic fields. These rocks therefore retain an imprint of Earth’s
magnetic field at the time of their formation. Paleomagnetism is the remanent magnetism in
ancient rocks that recording the direction and intensity of Earth’s magnetic field at the time of
the rock’s formation. In a sense, the mineral grains in the rock become “fossil” magnets that
show the orientation of Earth’s magnetic field at the time when the minerals crystallized and
cooled; they thus preserve a record of paleomagnetism.

This magnetic alignment is “frozen” and retained if rock is not subsequently reheated.
Paleomagnetism of ancient rocks are used determine direction and polarity of Earth’s magnetic
field, paleolatitude from inclination (dip) and apparent position of N and S magnetic poles.
Earth's magnetic field periodically reverses polarity – the north magnetic pole becomes the south
magnetic pole, and vice versa.

Geologists started to sample across the Mid Atlantic and other oceanic ridges, they made an
amazing discovery. Based on the analysis of rock samples from mid Atlantic and other oceanic
ridges, the paleomagnetic signatures recorded in the rocks shows that the polarity of Earth’s
magnetic field was reversed many times over its history as shown in Figure 4.4. The magnetic
field is said to have normal polarity when the magnetic North Pole and the geographic North
Pole are adjacent. The magnetic field exhibits reverse polarity when the magnetic "North Pole"
lies adjacent to the south geographic pole.
 Figure 4.4. Reversals of lines of force in Earth’s magnetic field are documented by
paleomagnetic studies of numerous rock samples from throughout the world. This shows the
patterns of changing polarity with time.

The present period of normal polarity began about 780,000 years ago. It was preceded by a major
period of reversed polarity, which began about 2.5 million years ago. The major intervals of
alternating polarity (about 1 million years apart) are termed polarity chrons.

The pattern of alternating polarities has been clearly defined, and evidence of the occurrence of
polarity reversals has been found in widely separated places. From the sequence of magnetic
anomalies and their radiometric ages, a reliable chronology of magnetic reversals has been
established for the last 4 million years as shown figure 4.4.
In 1963 Fred Vine and D. H. Matthews saw a way to use paleomagnetism to test the idea of
seafloor spreading put forth by Hess. If seafloor spreading has occurred, they suggested, it
should be recorded in the magnetism of the basalts in the oceanic crust. (The same idea was
developed independently by L.W. Morley.) If Earth’s magnetic field reversed intermittently, new
basalt forming at the crest of the oceanic ridge would be magnetized according to the polarity at
the time it cooled. As the ocean floor spreads, a symmetrical series of magnetic stripes, with
alternating normal and reversed polarities, would be preserved in the crust along either side of
the oceanic ridge. Subsequent investigations have conclusively proved this theory.

Figure 4.5. As magma cools and solidifies along the ridge, it becomes magnetized in the
direction of the magnetic field existing at that time (normal polarity). As seafloor spreading
continues, the magnetized crust formed during earlier periods separates into two blocks. Each
block is transported laterally away from the ridge, as though on a conveyor belt. New crust,
formed at the ridge, becomes magnetized in the opposite direction.
Figue 4.6. Patterns of magnetic reversals in a vertical sequence of basalts on the continents. Note
that the pattern of magnetic reversals away from the ridge is the same as the pattern found in this
sequence of basalt flows. The youngest (upper) continental rocks correlate with the youngest
oceanic crust (at the center of the oceanic ridge)
As the seafloor spread, this zone of crust split and migrated away from the ridge but remained
parallel to it. About 2.5 million years ago, Earth’s magnetic polarity reversed. New crust
generated at the oceanic ridge was then magnetized in this new direction, producing a zone of
crust with reverse polarity. When the polarity changed to normal again, the newest crustal
material was magnetized in the normal direction. In this way, the sequence of polarity reversals
became imprinted like a bar code on the oceanic crust. Note that the patterns of magnetic stripes
on the ocean floor, on either side of the ridge, match the patterns found in a sequence of recent
basalts on the continents that is, the crest of the ridge shows normal polarity and is flanked by a
broad stripe of rocks with reversed polarity (formed during a reversed chron) and containing two
narrow bands of rocks with normal polarity (formed during normal chrons). Then, follows a
stripe with normal polarity, containing one narrow band with reversed polarity and so on. In
brief, the patterns of magnetic reversals away from the ridge crest are the same as those found in
a vertical sequence of rocks on the continents, from youngest to oldest. These data provide
compelling evidence that the seafloor is spreading and that continents drift.

Magnetic anomalies
The goal of magnetic exploration methods is to determine subsurface structures based on
observed spatial variations of the magnetic field. The origin of magnetic anomalies is from
contrasts in subsurface magnetization. In order to isolate the signal produced by buried bodies,
we need first to remove the magnetic field from other sources: the main field produced by the
geodynamo and the external variations from its interaction with the solar wind. Magnetic
anomalies is simply the difference between the measured data (contains all magnetic source) and
estimated of the core and external fields.