bio question

1. write down the all the cell organelles invovled in eukoraytic cell??
2. detail note on DNA and RNA ?
3.(i) what is cemotheropy and write its four methods?
(ii) discus half life period of drugs molecule
4. classifies the organism based on carbon and energy utilazation?
5. write salinet feauture of kingdom protista and fungi?

ANSWER:-
1. Plasma Membrane: Also known as the Cell Membrane or Cytoplasmic Membrane, it is
a selectively permeable membrane composed of a lipid bilayer and proteins1.

Cytoplasm: A semi-solid medium that keeps the organelles suspended and nutrients
dissolved within the internal cellular environment2.

Nucleus: The control center of the cell, it stores the cell’s DNA3.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Involved in protein maturation and transport. There are
two types: Rough ER (has ribosomes bound to its surface and stores proteins) and
Smooth ER (lacks ribosomes and synthesizes lipids, steroids, and phospholipids)12.

Mitochondria: The powerhouse of the cell, where ATP (energy) is made3.

Ribosomes: Involved in protein synthesis12.

Golgi Apparatus: Involved in protein storage12.

Vesicles: Involved in content expulsion2.

Vacuoles: Storage compartments that sequester waste and help maintain water
balance3.

Cytoskeleton: Provides shape and support to the cell, consisting of microtubules,

microfilaments, intermediate filaments, cilia, and flagella12.

Centrosome and Centrioles: Involved in cell division1.

2. here are detailed notes on DNA and RNA:

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):

DNA is a group of molecules that is responsible for carrying and transmitting the
hereditary materials or the genetic instructions from parents to offsprings1.
DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides3.
The structure of DNA is dynamic along its length, being capable of coiling into
tight loops and other shapes3.
In all species, it is composed of two helical chains, bound to each other by
hydrogen bonds3.
DNA is found in all prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells1.
There are three different DNA types: A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA1.
DNA was first recognized and identified by the Swiss biologist Johannes Friedrich
Miescher in 18691.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid):

RNA is a ribonucleic acid that helps in the synthesis of proteins in our body6.
This nucleic acid is responsible for the production of new cells in the human
body6.
RNA is a complex compound of high molecular weight that functions in cellular
protein synthesis and replaces DNA as a carrier of genetic codes in some viruses7.
RNA consists of ribose nucleotides (nitrogenous bases appended to a ribose sugar)
attached by phosphodiester bonds, forming strands of varying lengths7.
The nitrogenous bases in RNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil6.
There are various types of RNA, out which most well-known and most commonly studied
in the human body are: tRNA – Transfer RNA and rRNA-Ribosomal RNA.
3.

Chemotherapy is an aggressive form of chemical drug therapy meant to destroy

rapidly growing cells in the body. It’s usually used to treat cancer, as cancer
cells grow and divide faster than other cells12. Chemotherapy is often used in
combination with other therapies, such as surgery, radiation, or hormone therapy1.
It’s considered a systemic treatment, which means it affects the entire body1.

There are many different types of chemotherapy drugs that are used to treat cancer.
Often, patients receive more than one type of chemotherapy drug3. Here are four
methods of chemotherapy:

Oral: Some chemotherapy drugs are taken by mouth in the form of liquids, pills, or
capsules34.
Intravenous (IV): Chemotherapy drugs can be administered directly into the
bloodstream via a vein using an IV34.
Injection: Chemotherapy drugs can be given by a shot in a muscle in your arm,
thigh, or hip, or right under the skin in the fatty part of your arm, leg, or
belly34.
Intrathecal: Chemotherapy drugs are injected into the space between the layers of
tissue that cover the brain and spinal cord.

(ii)
The half-life of a drug is a pharmacokinetic parameter that is defined as the time
it takes for the concentration of the drug in the plasma or the total amount in the
body to be reduced by exactly one-half (50%). The symbol for half-life is t½123.

Here’s an example: If 100mg of a drug with a half-life of 60 minutes is taken, the

following is estimated1:

60 minutes after administration, 50mg remains

120 minutes after administration, 25mg remains
180 minutes after administration, 12.5mg remains
240 minutes after administration, 6.25mg remains
300 minutes after administration, 3.125mg remains

4.
Autotrophs: These organisms obtain carbon from carbon dioxide (CO2) and use light
energy or inorganic chemical compounds to produce complex organic compounds12.
Autotrophs are further classified into:

Photoautotrophs: Use light as an energy source and CO2 as a carbon source12.

Chemoautotrophs: Use inorganic sources to synthesize organic compounds in the
absence of light2.
Heterotrophs: These organisms cannot make their own food but instead obtain
nutrition from other organic sources that may be living or dead2. Heterotrophs can
be divided into:

Photoheterotrophs: Use light as their source of energy but cannot use CO2 as the
carbon source. Instead, they obtain nutrition from organic compounds found in the
environment2.
Chemoheterotrophs: Derive their energy as well as their carbon source from organic
compounds such as carbohydrates and lipids2.
Lithotrophs: Some organisms can use reduced inorganic compounds as electron
donors1. They can be Chemolithotrophs and Photolithotrophs1.

Organotrophs: Some organisms can use organic compounds as electron donors1. Some
can be Chemoorganotrophs and Photoorganotrophs1.

Please note that these classifications are not mutually exclusive. For example,
some bacteria can live either as chemo-lithotrophs or chemo-organotrophs

5. the salient features of the Kingdom Protista and Kingdom Fungi:

Kingdom Protista:

Protists are simple eukaryotic organisms that are neither plants nor animals or
fungi.
They are usually aquatic, present in the soil or in areas with moisture.
Most protist species are unicellular organisms, however, there are a few
multicellular protists such as kelp.
Just like any other eukaryote, the cells of these species have a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.
They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in nature.
Protists exhibit locomotion through cilia and flagella.
Protista reproduces by asexual means. The sexual method of reproduction is
extremely rare and occurs only during times of stress.
Kingdom Fungi:

Fungi are eukaryotic, non-vascular, non-motile and heterotrophic organisms.

They may be unicellular or filamentous.
They reproduce by means of spores.
Fungi lack chlorophyll and hence cannot perform photosynthesis.
Fungi store their food in the form of starch.
The nuclei of the fungi are very small6.
The fungi have no embryonic stage. They develop from the spores6.
The mode of reproduction is sexual or asexual6.
Some fungi are parasitic and can infect the host6.