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UNIT-1
D.C Transient Analysis
Transient response of R-L, R-C, R-L-C circuits (Series and parallel
combinations) for D.C. excitations
Initial conditions
Solution using differential equation and Laplace transform
method.
© Summary of Important formulae and Equations
© Illustrative examples
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) Introduction:
In this chapter we shall study transient response of the RL, RC series and RLC circuits with
external DC excitations. Transients are generated in Electrical circuits due to abrupt changes in
‘the operating conditions when energy storage elements like Inductors or capacitors are
present. Transient response is the dynamic response during the initial phase before the steady
state response is achieved when such abrupt changes are applied. To obtain the transient
response of such circuits we have to solve the differential equations which are the governing
equations representing the electrical behavior of the circuit. A circuit having a single energy
storage element i.e. either a capacitor or an Inductor is called a Single order circuit and it’s
governing equation is called a First order Differential Equation. A circuit having both Inductor
and a Capacitor is called a Second order Circuit and it’s governing equation is called a Second
order Differential Equation. The variables in these Differential Equations are currents and
voltages in the circuit as a function of time.
A solution is said to be obtained to these equations when we have found an expression for the
dependent variable that satisfies both the differential equation and the prescribed initial
conditions. The solution of the differential equation represents the Response of the circuit.
Now we will find out the response of the basic RL and RC circuits with DC Excitation
RL CIRCUIT with external DC excitation:
Let us take a simple RL network subjected to external DC excitation as shown in the figure. The
circuit consists of a battery whose voltage is V in series with a switch, a resistor R, and an
inductor L. The switch is closed at t= 0.
‘When the switch is closed current tries to change in the inductor and hence a voltage Vi{t) is
induced across the terminals of the Inductor in opposition to the applied voltage. The rate of
change of current decreases with time which allows current to build up to it’s maximum value.
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) It is evident that the current i{t) is zero before t = 0.and we have to find out current i(t) for time
>0. We will find i(t}for time t >0 by writing the appropriate circuit equation and then solving it
by separation of the variables and integration.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the above circuit we get:
V = valt}+ v(t)
i (t) =0 fort 0
One direct method of solving such a differential equation consists of writing the equation in
such a way that the variables are separated, and then integrating each side of the equation. The
variables in the above equation are | and t. This equation is multiplied by dt and arranged with
the variables separated as shown below:
ie Udi/(V-Ri) = dt
Next each side is integrated directly to get
= (UR) In(v-
st+k
Where k is the integration constant. In order to evaluate k, an initial condition must be invoked.
Prior to t = 0, i (t) is zero, and thus i (0-) = 0. Since the current in an inductor cannot change by
a finite amount in zero time without being associated with an infinite voltage, we have i (0+) =
0. Setting i= 0 at t = 0, in the above equation we obtain
= (L/R) In(v)
k
and, hence,
~ YR[In(V- Ri) - In V};
Rearranging we get
Inf (V- Ri) /V] = (R/U
Taking antilogarithm on both sides we get
(v-Ri)/V=
rat
From which we can see that
ift) = (V/R-{V/R}e™" for t >0
Thus, an expression for the response valid for all time t would be
v/R[1-e*"]
This is normally written as:
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) =V/R[1-e“"]
where ‘Y’ is called the time constant of the circuit and it’s uni
is seconds.
The voltage across the resistance and the Inductor for t >Ocan be written as
valt) =i(t}.R =V[1-e**]
wilt) = V-valt) = V-v[1-e**] =v(e™)
Aplot of the current i(t) and the voltages va(t) & wi(t) is shown in the figure below.
i,
Fig 1.2: Transient current and voltages in the Series RL circ
‘At t= ‘v’ the voltage across the inductor will be
vt) = v(e*") = V/e = 0.36788V
and the voltage across the Resistor willbe va(t) = V{[1-e‘!"] = 0.63212V
The plots of current i(t) and the voltage across the Resistor va(t) are called exponential growth
curves and the voltage across the inductor wi(t)is called exponential decay curve.
RCCIRCUIT with external DC excitation:
A series RC circuit with external DC excitation V volts connected through a switch is shown in
the figure below. If the capacitor is not charged initially i.e. it’s voltage is zero ,then after the
switch S is closed at time t=0, the capacitor voltage builds up gradually and reaches it’s steady
state value of V volts after a finite time. The charging current will be maximum initially (since
initially capacitor voltage is zero and voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously)
and then it will gradually comedown as the capacitor voltage starts building up. The current and
the voltage during such charging periods are called Transient Current and Transient Voltage.
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) Pl i, RQ
| * v(t)
Fig 1.
C Circuit with external DC excitation
Applying KVL around the loop in the above circuit we can write
V = walt) + velt)
Using the standard relationships of voltage and current for an Ideal Capacitor we get
velt) = (1/C)f (ede or ift) = C.[dvelt)/dt]
and using this relation, va(t) can be written asva(t) = Rift) =R. C.[dvc(t)/dt]
Using the above two expressions for va(t) and vc(t)the above expression for V can be rewritten
as:
V=R. C.[dve(t)/dt] + velt)
Or finally dve(t)/dt + (1/RC). velt)
v/RC
The inverse coefficient of ve{t) is known as the time constant of the circuit t and is given by t=
RC and it’s units are seconds.
The above equation is a first order differential equation and can be solved by using the same
method of separation of variables as we adopted for the LC circuit.
Multiplying the above equation dvc(t)/dt + (1/RC). ve(t) = V/RC
both sides by ‘dt’ and rearranging the terms so as to separate the variables vc(t) and t we get:
dvclt)+ (1/RC). velt). dt = (V/RC).dt
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) vet) = [{V/RC}-(1/RC). veft)]. dt
duct) / [(V/RC)-(1/RC). ve(t)] = dt
R.C. dvc(t) / [(V-ve(t)] = dt
Now integrating both sides w.r-t their variables i.e. ‘ve(t)’ on the LHS and ‘t’ on the RHS we get
-RCIn [V- ve(t)] = t+ k
where ‘k’ is the constant of integration. In order to evaluate k, an initial condition must be
invoked. Prior to t = 0, ve(t)is zero, and thus ve(t)(0-) = 0. Since the voltage across a capacitor
cannot change by a finite amount in zero time, we have ve{t)(0+) = 0. Setting ve(t)= 0 at t = 0, in
the above equation we obtain:
-RCIn [V] =k
and substituting this value of k= -RC In [V] in the above simplified equation-RC In [V~ ve(t)]
=t+k we get:
RC In [V ~ ve(t}] = t-RC In [V]
ie. -RCIn [V- ve(t}] +RC In [V]
RC [In {V — velt)} In (V)
ie. [In {V~ vc(t}}] - In [V]}= -t/RC
ie. In [{V - velt)}/(V)] = -t/RC
Taking anti logarithm we get [{V- ve(t}}/(V)] = e “*°
ie vet) = v(1- e“*°)
which is the voltage across the capacitor as a function of time .
The voltage across the Resistor is given by :va(t) = V-vc(t) = V-V(1- e ©) =v.e VRE
And the current through the circuit is given by: it) = C.[dvc(t)/dt] = (CV/CR Je “/**=(v/R Je
anc
Or the other way: ift)
lt) /R = (V.e“*) /R = (V/R)e
In terms of the time constant rthe expressions for ve(t), va(t)and i(t) are given by
vet) = v(1- e“/®)
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) va(t) = vie
) = (V/RJe
The plots of current
the figure below.
) and the voltages across the resistor va(t)and capacitor ve(tJare shown in
Fig 1.4: Transient current and voltages in RC circuit with DC excitation.
At t= ‘¥’ the voltage across the capacitor will be:
vet) = V[1-e*"] = 0.63212 V
the voltage across the Resistor will be:
vat) = V(e*") = V/e = 0.36788V
and the current through the circuit will be:
it) = (V/R)(e**) = V/R.e = 0.36788 (V/R)
Thus it can be seen that after one time constant the charging current has decayed to
approximately 36.8% of it’s value at t=0 . At t= 5 t charging current will be
i(St) = (V/R) (e*") = v/re®
0.0067(V/R)
This value is very small compared to the maximum value of (V/R) at t=0 .Thus it can be assumed
that the capacitor is fully charged after 5 time constants.
The following similarities may be noted between the equations for the transients in the LC and
RC circuits:
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) ‘© The transient voltage across the Inducto
RC circuit have the same form k.(e*“")
‘© The transient current in a LC circuit and the transient voltage across the capacitor in
the RC circuit have the same form k,(1-e"*/*)
a LC circuit and the transient current in the
But the main difference between the RC and RL circuits is the effect of resistance on the
duration of the transients.
‘* Ina RL circuit a large resistance shortens the transient since the time constant t =L/R
becomes small
‘© Where as in a RC circuit a large resistance prolongs the transient since the time constant
t= RC becomes large.
Discharge transients: Consider the circuit shown in the figure below where the switch allows
both charging and discharging the capacitor. When the switch is position 1 the capacitor gets
charged to the applied voltage V. When the switch is brought to position 2, the current
discharges from the positive terminal of the capacitor to the negative terminal through the
resistor R as shown in the figure (b). The circuit in position 2 is also called source free circuit
since there is no any applied voltage.
ase 1,
Fe :
5 Tat aa
Cy), | Anca ie TS chao
he | ) Ze ) z
| pyre es
@ ©
°C circuit (a) During Charging (b) During Discharging
The current ii flow is in opposite direction as compared to the flow of the original charging
current i. This process is called the discharging of the capacitor. The decaying voltage and the
current are called the discharge transients. The resistor, during the discharge will oppose the
flow of current with the polarity of voltage as shown. Since there is no any external voltage
source, the algebraic sum of the voltages across the Resistance and the capacitor will be zero
(applying KVL) .The resulting loop equation during the discharge can be written as
valt}+velt) = 0 or velt) =~ velt)
We know that va(t) = R.i(t) = R. C.dvc(t) /dt. Substituting this in the first loop equation we
get R. Cdve(t}/dt + velt) = 0
The solution for this equation is given by vc(t) = Ke-““ where K is a constant decided by the
initial conditions and t =RC is the time constant of the RC circuit
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) The value of K is found out by invoking the initial condition ve(t) = V @t=0
Then we get K=V and hence ve(t)= Ve"; va(t)= -Ve“ and i(t) = va(t)/R = (-V/R)e“*
The plots of the voltages across the Resistor and the Capacitor are shown in the figure below.
fo yt)
Fig 1.6: Plot of Discharge transients in RC circuit
Decay transients: Consider the circuit shown in the figure below where the switch allows both
growing and decaying of current through the Inductance. When the switch is position 1 the
current through the Inductance builds up to the steady state value of V/R. When the switch is
brought to position 2, the current decays gradually from V/R to zero. The circuit in position 2 is
also called a source free circuit since there is no any applied voltage.
—t+Ro
“
Fig 1.7: Decay Transient in RL circuit
The current flow during decay is in the same direction as compared to the flow of the original
growing /build up current. The decaying voltage across the Resistor and the current are called
the decay transients.. Since there is no any external voltage source, the algebraic sum of the
voltages across the Resistance and the Inductor will be zero (applying KVL) .The resulting loop
equation during the discharge can be written as
valt}+vilt) = Rilt) + Ldi(t)/dt=0 and valt) =-vilt)
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) The solution for this equation is given by i(t) = Ke-"" where K is a constant decided by the initial
conditions and t =L/R is the time constant of the RL circuit,
The value of the constant K is found out by invoking the initial condition i(t) = V/R @t = 0 Then
we get K=V/R and hence i{t)= (V/R).e“* ; va(t) (t}= Ve" and vit) = - Ve The
plots of the voltages across the Resistor and the Inductor and the decaying current through the
circuit are shown in the figure below.
Fig 1.8: Plot of Decay transients in RL circuit
The Concept of Natural Response and forced response:
‘The RL and RC circuits we have studied are with external DC excitation. These circuits without
the external DC excitation are called source free circuits and their Response obtained by
solving the corresponding differential equations is known by many names. Since this response
depends on the general nature of the circuit (type of elements, their size, their interconnection
method etc.,) it is often called a Natural response. However any real circuit we construct
cannot store energy forever. The resistances intrinsically associated with Inductances and
Capacitors will eventually dissipate the stored energy into heat. The response eventually dies
down,. Hence it is also called Transient response. As per the mathematician’s nomenclature the
solution of such a homogeneous linear differential equation is called Complementary function.
‘When we consider independent sources acting on a circuit, part of the response will resemble
the nature of the particular source. (Or forcing function) This part of the response is called
particular solution. , the steady state response or forced response. This will be complemented
by the complementary function produced in the source free circuit. The complete response of
the circuit is given by the sum of the complementary function and the particular solution. In
other words:
The Complete response = Natural response + Forced response
There is also an excellent mathematical reason for considering the complete response to be
composed of two parts—the forced response and the natural response. The reason is based on
the fact that the solution of any linear differential equation may be expressed as the sum of
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) ‘two parts: the complementary solution (natural response) and the particular solution(forced
response).
Determination of the Complete Response:
Let us use the same RL series circuit with external DC excitation to illustrate how to determine
the complete response by the addition of the natural and forced responses. The circuit shown
in the figure
Fig 1.9:
L circuit with external DC excitation
was analyzed earlier, but by a different method. The desired response is the current i (t), and
now we first express this current as the sum of the natural and the forced current,
inti
The functional form of the natural response must be the same as that obtained without any
sources. We therefore replace the step-voltage source by a short circuit and call it the RL
source free series loop. And i, can be shown to be
n= Ae
where the amplitude Ais yet to be determined; since the initial condition applies to the
complete response, we cannot simply assume A = / (0).We next consider the forced response
In this particular problem the forced response is constant, because the source is a constant V
for all positive values of time. After the natural response has died out, there can be no voltage
across the inductor; hence the all y the applied voltage V appears across R, and the forced
response is simply
i= VR
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) Note that the forced response is determined completely. There is no unknown amplitude. We
next combine the two responses to obtain :
Ae 44 V/R
‘And now we have to apply the initial condition to evaluate A. The current is zero prior to
,and it cannot change value instantaneously since it is the current flowing through an inductor.
Thus, the current is zero immediately after t = 0, and
AtV/R=0
So that
Az -V/R
And i= (V/R\1-e™)
Note carefully that A is not the initial value of i, since A = -V/R, while i (0) = 0.
But In source-free circuits, A would be the initial value of the response given by i,= le" (
where Ip =A is the current at time ). When forcing functions are present, however, we must
first find the initial value of the complete response and then substitute this in the equation for
the complete response to find A. Then this value of A is substituted in the expression for the
total response i
Amore general solution approach:
‘The method of solving the differential equation by separating the variables or by evaluating the
complete response as explained above may not be possible always. In such cases we will rely on
a very powerful method, the success of which will depend upon our intuition or experience. We
simply guess or assume a form for the solution and then test our assumptions, first by
substitution in the differential equation, and then by applying the given initial conditions. Since
we cannot be expected to guess the exact numerical expression for the solution, we will
assume a solution containing several unknown constants and select the values for these
constants in order to satisfy the differential equation and the initial conditions.
Many of the differential equations encountered in circuit analysis have a solution which may be
represented by the exponential function or by the sum of several exponential functions. Hence
Let us assume a solution for the following equation corresponding to a source free RL circuit
[di/dt+ (Ri /L)]
in exponential form as
i(t)=A.e"*
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) where A ands] are constants to be determined. Now substituting this assumed solution in the
original governing equation we have:
A.si. e+ Ae. R/L=0
or
(s1+R/L). A.e™"'=0
In order to satisfy this equation for all values of time, it is necessary that A= 0, or s1 = -%, or s1
R/L. But if A = 0 or s1 = -%, then every response is zero; neither can be a solution to our
problem. Therefore, we must choose
s1=-R/L
‘And our assumed solution takes on the form:
i(t)= Ae"
The remaining constant must be evaluated by applying the initial condition i (0) = lo. Thus, A=
lo, and the final form of the assumed solution is(again):
In fact, there is a more direct route that we can take. To obtain the solution for the first order
DE we
solvedst + R/L= 0 which is known as the characteristic equation and then substituting this
value of s1=-R/Lin the assumed solution i (t) = A.e“*which is same in this direct method also.
We can obtain the characteristic equation directly from the differential equation, without the
need for substitution of our trial solution. Consider the general first-order differential equation:
ald f/dt) + bf=0
where a and b are constants. We substitute s for the differentiation operator d/dt in the
original differential equation resulting in
ald f/dt) + bf =(as +b) f=0
From this we may directly obtain the characteristic equation: as + b = 0
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) which has the single root s
by
b/a. Hence the solution to our differential equation is then given
fener
This basic procedure can be easily extended to second-order differential equations which we
will encounter for RLC circuits and we will find it useful since adopting the variable separation
method is quite complex for solving second order differential equations.
RLC CIRCUITS:
Earlier, we studied circuits which contained only one energy storage element, combined with a
passive network which partly determined how long it took either the capacitor or the inductor
to charge/discharge. The differential equations which resulted from analysis were always first-
order. In this chapter, we consider more complex circuits which contain both an inductor and a
capacitor. The result is a second-order differential equation for any voltage or current of
interest. What we learned earlier is easily extended to the study of these so-called RLC circuits,
although now we need two initial conditions to solve each differential equation. There are two
types of RLC circuits: Parallel RLC circuits and Series circuits .Such circuits occur routinely in a
wide variety of applications and are very important and hence we will study both these circuits.
Parallel RLC circuit:
Let us first consider the simple parallel RLC circuit with DC excitation as shown in the figure
below.
* RQ
+ or
0
Ya f +
VAD ASC 13 v()
iD) i,
Fig 1.10:
arallel RLC circuit with DC excitation.
For the sake of simplifying the process of finding the response we shall also assume that the
initial current in the inductor and the voltage across the capacitor are zero. Then applying the
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCU( i +iy to the common node we get the following
integrodifferential equation
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) (V-vI/R = 1/Lf,, val’ + C.dv/dt
V/R=v/R+1/Lf., vdt’ + C.dv/dt
Where v= ve(t) = vi(t) is the variable whose value is to be obtained .
When we differentiate both sides of the above equation once with respect to time we get the
standard
Linear second-order homogeneous differential equation
Cd?v/at?}+ (1/R).(dv/dt)+ (1/L).v=0
(d?v/dt?}+ (1/RC).(dv/dt)+ (1/LC).v = 0
whose solution v(t) is the desired response.
This can be written in the form:
[s? + (1/RC}s + (1/LC)] vit) = 0
where ‘s’ is an operator equivalent to (d/dt) and the corresponding characteristic equation(as
explained earlier as a direct route to obtain the solution) is then given by
[s+ (a/RC}s + (1/L¢)] =0
This equation is usually called the auxiliary equation or the characteristic equation, as we
discussed earlier .{f it can be satisfied, then our assumed solution is correct. This is a quadratic
equation and the roots s1 and spare given as :
s1=— 1/2RC+y[(1/2RC}*- 1/LC]
sq - 1/2RC-V[ (1/2RC}"- 1/LC ]
‘And we have the general form of the response as
vit) = Ase™™+ Aze™
where s; and sz are given by the above equations and A; and A, are two arbitrary constants
which are to be selected to satisfy the two specified initial conditions.
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) Definition of Frequency Terms:
The form of the natural response as given above gives very little insight into the nature of the
curve we might obtain if v(t}were plotted as a function of time. The relative amplitudes of A1
and A2, for example, will certainly be important in determining the shape of the response
curve. Further the constants s1 and s2 can be real numbers or conjugate complex numbers,
depending upon the values of R, L, and Cin the given network. These two cases will produce
fundamentally different response forms. Therefore, it will be helpful to make some simplifying
substitutions in the equations for s1 and s2.Since the exponents sitand s2t must be
dimensionless, s1 and s2 must have the unit of some dimensionless quantity “per second.”
Hence in the equations for s1 and s2 we see that the units of 1/2RC and 1/VLC must also be
s"'(i.e., seconds”). Units of this type are called frequencies.
Now two new terms are defined as belo
0 = 1/vLC
which is termed as resonant frequency and
a= 1/2RC
which is termed as the exponential damping coefficient
@ the exponential damping coefficient is a measure of how rapidly the natural response decays
or damps out to its steady, final value(usually zero). And s, si, and sz, are called complex
frequencies.
We should note that s1, $2, a, and we are merely symbols used to simplify the discussion of RLC
circuits. They are not mysterious new parameters of any kind. It is easier, for example, to say
“alpha” than it is to say “the reciprocal of 2RC.”
Now we can summarize these results.
The response of the parallel RLC circuit is given by :
v(t) = Are™+ Ape.
where
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) a=1/2RC ta)
and
w0 = 1/ VLC.
[5]
A; and Azmust be found by applying the given initial conditions.
We note three basic scenarios possible with the equations for s1 and s2 depending on the
relative values of a and w (which are in turn dictated by the values of R, L, and C).
Case A:
> w0,i.e when (1/2RC)’>1/LCs; and s2 will both be negative real numbers, leading to what is
referred to as an over damped response given by
vit) = Are" Aze™
Sinces; and s,are both negative real numbersthis is the (algebraic) sumof two decreasing
exponential terms. Sinces2 is a larger negative number it decays faster and then the response is
dictated by the first term Ae".
Case B:
@ = Wo, jie when (1/2RC)*=1/LC , si and sare equal which leads to what is called a critically
damped response given by :
v(t) = e(Axt + Az)
Case C:
4 < w0,,e when (1/2RC)*<1/LC both s; and s2 will have nonzero imaginary components, leading
‘to what is known as an under damped response given by :
v(t) =e (A; coswa t + Az sinwa t)
where wyis called natural resonant frequency and is given by:
wg = Vino” a?
We should also note that the general response given by the above equations [1] through [5]
describe not only the voltage but all three branch currents in the parallel RLC circuit; the
constants A; and A, will be different for each, of course.
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) Transient response of a series RLC circuit:
i
RQ
Aa
Ov
+ +1 \-
v(t) v¢ft) +
+
Fig 1.11: Series RLC circuit with external DC Exci
Applying KVL to the series RLC circuit shown in the figure above at t= 0 gives the following basic
relation
V= valt) + velt) + vit)
Representing the above voltages in terms of the current iin the circuit we get the following
integrodifferential equation:
Ri+1/Cf ide +L. (di/dt)=
To convert it into a differential equation it is differentiated on both sides with respect to time
and we get
L(d?i/dt?)+ R(di/dt)+ (1/C)i = 0
This can be written in the form
IS? + (R/L)s + (1/LC)].1 = 0 where ‘s’ is an operator equivalent to (d/dt)
‘And the corresponding characteristic equation is then given by
[s?+(R/U)s + (2/LC)] =0
This is in the standard quadratic equation form and the rootss,ands,are given by
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) R/2L¢V[(R/2L)- (1/LC)]= -@ +V(a?- wo")
SyS2 =
Where ais known as the same exponential damping coefficient and wois known as the same
Resonant frequency as explained in the case of Parallel RLC circuit and are given by :
@=R/2L and wo=1/ VLC
and A; and Azmust be found by applying the given initial conditions.
Here also we note three basic scenarios with the equations for s1 and s2 depending on the
relative sizes of a and wo (dictated by the values of R, L, and C).
Case A:
@.> w0,i.e when (R/2L)°>4/LC , s and s2 will both be negative real numbers, leading to what is
referred to as an over damped response given by
i(t) = Ae™+ Aze™*
Sinces: and s,are both be negative real numbers this is the (algebraic) sum of two decreasing
exponential terms. Sinc s2 is a larger negative number it decays faster and then the response is,
dictated by the first term Aye.
Case B:
@ = Wo, ,.e when (R/2L)*=1/LCs, and s,are equal which leads to what is called a critically
damped response given by :
i (t) =e (Art + Ap)
Case C:
@ < w0,i.e when (R/2L)*<1/LC both s; and s2 will have nonzero imaginary components, leading
to what is known as an under damped response given by
i()=
where wgis called natural resonant frequency and is given b
(Ay cosug t + Az sinus, t)
wg = Vioo- 0
Here the constants A; and A, have to be calculated out based on the initial conditions case by
case.
‘Summary of the Solution Process:
In summary, then, whenever we wish to determine the transient behavior of a simple three-
element RLC circuit, we must first decide whether it is a series or a parallel circuit, so that we
may use the correct relationship for a. The two equations are
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) a=1/2RC (parallel RLC)
a= R/2L (seri
Ric)
Our second decision is made after comparing a with wo, which is given for either circuit by
wo= 1 VLC
‘© fer> WO, the circuit is over damped, and the natural response has the form
2 age
falt) = Are’
where
$1.25 -a $V (a"9")
© Ifa2= Wo, then the circuit is critically damped and
fa(t) = e (Alt + A2)
‘© And finally, ifa < w0, then we are faced with the underdamped response,
falt) = e*(A; cosug t + Ar sinwa t)
where
wa=V(we?- a)
Solution using Laplace transformation method:
In this topic we will study Laplace transformation method of finding solution for the differential
equations that govern the circuit behavior. This method involves three steps:
‘© First the given Differential equation is converted into “s” domain by taking it’s Laplace
transform and an algebraic expression is obtained for the desired variable
‘+ The transformed equation is split into separate terms by using the method of Partial
fraction expansion
‘© Inverse Laplace transform is taken for all the individual terms using the standard inverse
transforms.
‘The expression we get for the variable in time domain is the required solution.
For the ease of reference a table of important transform pairs we use frequently is given below.
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) Table of Important Transform pi
1) (Function)
(1) (unit step)
(0) (unit impulse)
sin ot
cos wt
“sin ae
© cos or
ii
a)
a
Jhoa
Fis) (Laplace Transform)
Vs
1
L
(+a)
+o)
+0")
(stay +07
(s+)
(s+ ay +07
Us?
SF)
Foys
je
This method is relatively simpler compared to Solving the Differential equations especially for
higher order differential equations since we need to handle only algebraic equations in ‘s’
domain.
This method is illustrated below for the series RL, RC and RLC circuits.
Series RL circuit with DC excitation:
Let us take the series RL circuit with external DC excitation shown in the figure below.
Fig 1.12: RL
RQ
\W\——9
THO |
r 0
uit with external DC excitation
‘The governing equation is same as what we obtained earlier.
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) V = Ri+Ldifdt for t >0
‘Taking Laplace transform of the above equation using the standard transform functions we get
vs
Rul(s}+ L{st(s) -i(0)]
It may be noted here that i(O)is the initial value of the current at t=O and since in our case at t=0
just when the switch is closed it is zero , the above equation becomes:
V/s = Rulls)+ Lsi(s)] = I(s)[R+ Ls]
Fglbepressing in the form of Partial fractions)
= V/R and B (R/L) = —V/R
Now substituting these values of A and Bin the expression for Ils) =* +—“zwe get
el
WR _ ve
Us) Re
Taking inverse transform of the above expression for I(s)using the standard transform pairs we
get the solution for i(t) as
itt) = (V/A) — (V/A). = (v/Ry(a—e™")
Which is the same as what we got earlier by solving the governing differential equation directly.
RC Circuit with external DC excitation:
Let us now take the series RC circuit with external DC excitation shown in the figure below.
Fig 1.13: RC Circuit with external DC excitation
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) ‘The governing equation is same as what we obtained earlier and is worked out again for easy
understanding
Applying KVL around the loop in the above circuit we can write:
V = valt) + velt)
Using the standard relationships of voltage and current for an Ideal Capacitor we get
velt) =(1/C)f E(t)dt orift) = C.ldve(t)/at]
(Assuming that the initial voltage across the capacitor v.(0) = 0)
and using this relation, va(t) can be written asva(t) = Rit) =R.C.[d vc(t)/dt]
Using the above two expressions for va(t) and vc(t)the above expression for V can be rewritten
as:
V = R.Cld velt)/dt] + velt)
Now we will take Laplace transform of the above equation using the standard Transform pairs
and rules:
V/s = R.Cs.ve(s) + vels)
V/s = ves)(R.Cs.+1)
vels) = (V/s)/(R.Cs+1)
vels) = (V/RC)/ [s. (5 + 1/RC)]
Now expanding this equation into partial fractions we get
vels) = (V/RC)/ Is. (s+ 1/RC)] = A/s+B/(s + 1/RC) —-(1)
Where A =(V/RC)/(1/RC)] =V andB
(v/Rc )/ -(1/RC)]
Substituting these values of A and B into the above equation (1) forve(s}we get
vels) = (V/s) IV /(s + 1/RC)] = VI(1/s) 41 /(s + 1/RC)}
‘And now taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation we get
velt) = vir- eW/*)
which is the voltage across the capacitor as a function of time and is the same as what we
obtained earlier by directly solving the differential equation.
‘And the voltage across the Resistor is given by va(t) = V-ve(t) = V-v(1- e“*°) = vie VR
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) And the current through the circuit is given by i(t) = C.[dvc(t)/dt] = (Cv/RC Je “*° =(v/R Je
ouRC
Series RLC circuit with DC excitation:
i
RQ
A I(
alle
va) vt) 4
.
yy vO3L
Fig 1.14: Series RLC circuit with DC excitation
‘The current through the circuit in the Laplace domain is given by :
= — ws)
"S) = Gytssa7e5
[since L [V ] = V/sand the Laplace equivalent of the series circuit is given by Z(s) = (R+ Ls +
4/cs) ]
(w/t
= W/ (Rs+ls?+4/C) = (V/L)/[s?+(R/L)s+ I/LC] Bae
Where the roots ‘a’ and ‘b’ are given by
R/2L +V (R/2L)-1/LC and
b
R/2L —V (R/2L)-1/LC
It may be noted that there are three possible solutions for for I(s) and we will consider them
Case A: Both aand b are real and not equal i.e. (R/2L) > 1/v LC
Wh, KL
Then ls) can be expressed as Ms). = SO au tep
why
Vem]
why
WhereK1.
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) wry
Gra)
Where K2
Is:
Substituting these values of K1 and K2 in the expression for I(s) we get :
why), WA) ew)
"8) = Fae eb) Geoyend
(R/2t) = a/v Lc
Case B: Both a and b are real and equal
Ms) =(V/L)/ (s+c)’when a and
i(t) = (v/t).te*
Case C: Both a and b are complex conjugates i.e.a=b* when (R/2L) < 1/V LC
Adopting our standard definitions of a= R/2L wo=1/vLCand w g= V(uy"- a")
The roots a and b are given by a= atjazand b = a-jug
wa) Kae
Then I(s) can be expressed as _I(s) a) tat jud) waxed
way
Herek3 = Tei
Therefore: 3 =) ang kat =
rt Zjod
Way a vay at
Zjad Grejed) Jad Grarjod)
‘And now taking inverse transform of I{s)_ we get
itty = SA eet | (elle 4t)/25]
wy
‘od
i(t) =
Sin wet
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) Summary of important formulae and equations:
RL circuit with external DC excitation ( Charging Transient ) :
© i(t) =v/R[1-e™*)
© wt) =v(e™)
© valt) =i(t).R =V[1-e%]
Source free RL circuit (Decay Transients) :
© ift)= (V/R).e°* 5 valt)=R.i(t)= Ve and v(t) = - ve
RC circuit with external DC excitation ( Discharge Transients ):
© vet) = v(1- eS)
© valt) = vee MRE
© it) = (W/R)e
Source free RC circuit ( Discharge transients) :
© velt)= Ve“; va(t) = -Ve“ and i(t) = ve(t)/R = (-V/R)e“™
Series RLC circuit: For this circuit
three solutions are possible :
1. a> w0, i.e when (R/2L)*>1/ LC , s: and s2 will both be negative real numbers, leading to
what is referred to as an over damped response given by
i (t) = Aye Age
2. @ = wp,, i.e when (R/2L}*=1/ LC s; and s2 are equal which leads to what is called a
critically damped response given by :
i (t) =e (Ast + A)
3. a@
¢ Hee) >
Example 5: In the circuit shown below the switch is kept in position 1 upto 250 secs and then
moved to position 2. Find
(a) The current and voltage across the resistor at t = 100 secs
(b) The current and voltage across the resistor at t = 350 secs
Solution : The time constant t of the circuit is given by t= L/R = 200mH/8KQ_ = 25 yisec and is
same in both the switch positions.
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) (a)The current in the circuit upto 250 psec (till switch is in position 1 ) is given by :
I(t) growing = V/R (1 —e*/*) = (16/8)X10 (1 — @ */ 258 ) = ax(1 —e 8/2514) mya,
‘© The current in the circuit @100psec is given by
I(t) @r00 psec = 2x (1-297) MA = 2x(1-e-*) MA = 1.9633 MA
i(t) 100 ysee = 1.9633 m
‘* The Voltage across the resistoris given by Vre100 sec = R X ilt) er00 usec
Vaai00 see = 8 KO x1.9633 mA = 15.707 V
Vres00ysee= 15.707 V
(b)
‘© The current in the circuit @350 psec is the decaying current and is given by:
ift)oecaying= (0). */* where 1(0) is the initial current and in this case it is the growing current
@250psec. ( Since the switch is changed @25Oysec ) The time tis to be reckoned from this time
of 250 yisec. Hence t = (350-250) = 100psec. So we have to calculate first i(t)growingia2s0
seg Which is given by:
itt) gronngt@rs0 see) = V/R (1 -€*
=2x(1—e *°) mA = 1.999 mA
H
)
(16/8)x10°? (1 - e/5 #0)
2x(t e229) my
i(t)growing(@250 useej= 1.999 MA = |(0)
Hence i{t)e350 psec! TF 5 1.99x @~ 10 meC/25 HEA = 1.99xe~*mA = 0.03663 MA
(0).e
iltlessoysec = 0.03663 MA
‘© The voltage across the resistor va @350 sec = Rxi(t@350 psec) = 8KMx0.03663 mA
‘Va @350ysec= 0.293V
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) Example 6: In the circuit shown below the switch is kept in position 1 up to 100 secs and then
itis moved to position 2 . Supply voltage is SV DC . Find
a) The current and voltage across the capacitor at t= 40 u secs
b) The current and voltage across the resistor at t= 150 p secs
1 — + ana
90M
| 2 *y()
| ) 200 pF
| CO A
@ ()
Solution:The time constant + of the circuit is same in both conditions and is given by t= RC =
40x10°x200x10x"? = 8 psec
a) The time t = 40 usec corresponds to the switch in position 1 and in that condition the
current i(t) is given by the standard expression for charging current
ift) = (V/R) fe]
I(t) eaousee = 5v/40KO [e“”*] Amps =0.125x[ e*] mA = 0.84224 HA
i) epee = 0.84224 WA
The voltage across the capacitor during the charging period is given by V [1- e**].
velt) ezoysec = S[1~-e%*] = 5[1—-e%] = 4.9663 Volts
Velt) @soysee = 4.9663 Volts
b) The time t = 150 usec corresponds to the switch in position 2 and the current i(t) is
given by the discharge voltage expression _i(t) = [Vc(t)o/R]. e**
Where veft)o is the initial capacitor voltage when the switch was changed to position 2
and it is the voltage that has built up by 100 psec during the charging time (switch in
position 1) and hence is given by
veltleroouee = 5{1-e%*} volts = 5x[1-e%*] Volts = 4.999 Volts
‘And now t=150 usec from beginning is equal to t = (150-100) = 50 usec from the time
switch is changed to position 2.
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) Therefore the current through the resistor at 150 sec from the beginning = i(t):soysec=
(4.999/40KQ). e“*
ilthisousee = 0.1249 xe = 0.241 WA
ifthisowsee = 0.241 pA
‘And the voltage across the resistor = R x i(t) = 40KN x 0.241 WA= 0.00964v
Example 7: In the circuit shown below find out the expressions for the current izand iz when
the switch is closed at time t= 0
x 202
» "5m 2) OSH
Solution: It is to be noted that in this circuit there are two current loops 1 and 2 . Current iy
alone flows through the resistor 15 Q and the current izalone flows through the inductance0.5
H where as both currents i: and iy flow through the resistor 20 0. Applying KVL to the two
loops taking care of this point we get
20(ir+ig)#15iy = 100 ie 35i)+20i, = 100 ~
(a)
and 20(ir + iz) + 0.5 diz/dt
100 ; 20 is+ 20 in +0.5 dip/dt
100 (2)
Substituting the value of i; = [100/35 — (20/35) iz] = 2.86 — 0.57 iz obtained from the above
equation (1) into equation (2) we get :
20 [2.86 ~ 0.57 i,] +20i; + 0.5 (dip/at) = 100
57.14 ~ 11.4 ip +20i2 + 0.5 (dio/dt) = 100
(din/at) iy 427.14 i, = 85.72
The solution for this equation is given by ip(t) = K. e ~*”""" + 85.72/17.14 and the constant K
can be evaluated by invoking the initial condition. The initial current through the inductor = 0
at time t=0
Hence K = ~- 85.72/17.14 =
Therefore i,(t)= 5(1-e777") Amps.
And current i;(t) = 2.86 -0.57 ip = 2.86-0.57 [5(1-e 7") ] = 0.01+2.85¢e Amps.
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) ‘And current in(t) = 0.01+2.85 e~""* Amps
Example 8 : In the circuit shown below find an expression for the current i(t) when the switch is
changed from position 1 to 2 at time t= 0.
40Q 1 602
Ep
Solution: The following points are to be noted with reference to this circuit:
‘+ When the switch is changed to position 2 the circuit is equivalent to a normal source
free circuit but with a current dependent voltage source given as 10i.
‘* The initial current in position 2 is same as the current when the switch was in position 1
(for along time ) and is given by Ip = 500/(40+60) = 5 Amps
The loop equation in position 2 is given by : 601+ 0.4 di/dt = 101 i.e ( 50/0.4 ji+ di/dt =0
‘Writing the equation in the ‘s’notation where ‘s’ is the operator equivalent to (d/dt) we get
(st 125 )i =O and the characteristic equation will be (s+ 125) = 0
Hence the solution i(t) is given by i(t) = K. e”**. The constant K can be evaluated by invoking
the initial condition that i(t) @ t-0 s equal to Ip = 5 amps .Then the above equation becomes:
5=K.e7° je K=5 and hence the current in the circuit when the switch is changed to
position 2 becomes: it) = 5. e775 Amps.
Example 9 : In the circuit shown below find an expression for the current i(t) when the switch is
opened at time t= 0
102 "
[ i ta
100 V “oe fe
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) Solution: The following points may be noted with reference to this circuit:
‘© When the switch is opened the circuit is equivalent to a normal source free circuit but
with a current dependent voltage source given as Si.
‘©The initial current Io when the switch is opened is same as the current when the switch
was closed for a long time and is given by Io = 100/(10+10) = 5 Amps
The loop equation when the switch is opened is given by
(1/4x10~*)fidt + 101 = Si
(1/4x10~°)fidt +51 =O
Differentiating the above equation we get :
5.(di/dt) + (1/4x10~§Ji =O i.e. = (di/dt) + (1/20 10-*)i =0
Writing the above equation in the ‘s’notation where ‘s’ is the operator equivalent to (d/dt) we
get
(s+ 1/20 x 10~®) i = 0 and the characteristic equation will be (s+ 1/20x107*)=0
The solution i(t) is given by i(t) = K . e“?°*?°-®. The constant K can be evaluated by invoking
the initial condition that i(t) @ t-ois equal to Ip = 5 amps .Then the above equation becomes:
kK. 9 W2Ox10-8
5 ie K=5 and hence the current in the circuit when the switch is opened
becomes: i(t) = 5. e*7°"2°-6 amps
Example 10: A series RLC circuit as shown in the figure below has R = 50,L= 2H and ¢ =
O.SF.The supply voltage is 10 V DC . Find
a) The current in the circuit when there is no initial charge on the capacitor.
b) The current in the circuit when the capacitor has initial voltage of SV
¢) Repeat question (a) when the resistance is changed to 4.
d) Repeat question (a) when the resistance is changed to 10
At i
10 vd) 4
y 3b
Solution: The basic governing equation of this series circuit is given by
Ri+1/Cf idt +L. (di/dt}=V
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET ) On differentiation we get the same equation in the standard differential equation form
Ud?i/dt?}+ R(di/dt)+ (1/C)i
By dividing the equation by L and using the operator ‘s’ for d/dt we get the equation in the
form of characteristic equation as :
[s? + (R/Us + (1/LC)]
Whose roots are given by:
Sus2
R/2LE-V[(R/2L)*- (1/LC)]= -a +V(a?- wo")
and three types of solutions are possible.
1, @ > w0, i.e when LC > (2L/R)’ s; and s2 will both be negative real numbers, leading to
what is referred to as an over damped response given by
i (t) = Are"™+ Aze™
2. @ = Wo, , ie when LC = (2L/R)’ s; and s2 are equal which leads to what is called a
critically damped response given by :
i (t) =e (Art + Az)
3. a
