STYLISTIC SYNTAX

OF ENGLISH
EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF
THE SYNTAX
 Syntax is the branch of linguistic
study that deals with the types of
relations between words, word-
combinations, sentences and
larger utterances.
 In the domain of syntax it is difficult to
distinguish between what is purely
grammatical, i.e. marked as corresponding
to the established norms, and what is
stylistic, i.e. showing some kind of
violation of these norms. The examination
of syntax provides a deeper insight into the
stylistic aspect of utterances.
 Syntactic stylistics takes as the object
of its analysis the expressive means (EM)
and stylistic devices (SD) of the language
which are based on some significant
structural points in an utterance, whether
it consists of one sentence or a string of
sentences.
 Paradigmatic Syntax is the branch of
stylistics which studies the syntactic
paradigm, i.e. a set of parallel (more or less
equivalent, interchangeable, though
formally different) syntactic structures and
their comparative stylistic significance. It
deals with the structure of the sentence, the
number and position of its constituents,
compared with other choices.
 Syntagmatic syntax is the branch
of stylistics which deals with a
chain of sentences, the sequence
of sentences constituing a text.
 Syntactic relations cannot be investigated in
isolation from semantic content on the level
of stylistic analysis.

 As for the structural elements and their

semantic meaning we should take into account
the following inferences :
- the structural element of the utterance that
predetermines the possible semantic aspect;
- the structural elements have their own
independent meaning which may be called
structural or, more widely, grammatical;
- the structural meaning may affect the
lexical one, giving contextual meaning to some
of the lexical units .
 Expressive means of the syntax include
a number of stylistically marked
syntactical constructions. They can be
divided into 3 groups:
 expressive means based on the
reduction of the given model;
 expressive means based on the expansion
(redundancy) of the given model;
 expressive means based on the violation
of the order of components of the given
model.
Stylistic devices of the syntax can be
divided into such groups:
 stylistic devices based on the interaction
of several syntactic constructions;

 stylistic devices based on the transposition

of meaning of the syntactic construction;

 stylistic devices based on the transposition

of the meaning of the ways of connection.
 Expressive Means of the Syntax
deliberate redundancy violation of the
reduction (expansion) of word-order in the
(expansion) of some elements of sentence structure
some elements the sentence
of the sentence structure
structure
ellipsis, repetition, inversion,
aposiopesis, framing, separation
nominative enumeration, (syntactical split),
sentences, polysyndeton, detachment
asyndeton syntactic tautology,
emphatic
constructions,
parenthetical
sentences
EM BASED ON THE REDUCTION
OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE
 Ellipsis is the omission from a syntactical
construction of one or more words which
might be clearly understood from context.

 Elliptical sentences are regularly employed

in conversational English.
 Being used in fiction, they result in
achieving some stylistic effect by:
1) giving, speech characteristics,
e.g. Not him, sir. Too pleased with
himself. Some gentlemen can't act...
Too stiff (A. Christie);
2) emphasizing some fact(s),
e.g. The robbery. Long Ago. Very
valuable emeralds... The lady's
made and the tweeny (A. Christie);
3) imitating spontaneity,
e.g. "Quick - in here," Poirot led the way
into the nearest room..."And you - behind
the curtain" (A. Christie).
 Aposiopesis is a break in speech,
while the thought is not completed,
which is caused by the speaker's
inability or unwillingness to finish
the utterance,

 e.g. "Are you - are you and Paul...? " she

stopped, squeezing my arm (D. Hammett);

 "It can be - you don't mean.." (A. Christie).

 Aposiopesis conveys to the reader a very
strong upsurge of emotions. The idea of
this expressive means is that the speaker
cannot proceed, his feelings depriving him
of the ability to express himself in terms
of language.
 Break is also used in the dialogue
imitating spontaneous oral speech.
 Another cause of aposiopesis is the
desire to cut short the information with
which the sentence began.
 Nominative sentences are one-member
sentences with a noun, a prepositional
noun-phrase, or an adverb.

These verbless sentences are

grammatically independent. In contrast
with elliptical sentences, they have only
one principal part, with or without
words modifying it.
 Nominative sentences may produce the
effect of:
1) increasing the dynamism of narration,
e.g. A remarkable woman - a dangerous woman.
No waiting - no preparation. This afternoon - this
very afternoon - with him here as
witness... (A.Christie);
2)acquainting the reader with the place or
background of action,
e.g. Three blocks more... Another three
blocks. (D.Hammett).
Asyndeton is a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions
used to connect sentences, clauses, or words.

 As far as its stylistic role is concerned,

asyndeton creates a certain rhythmical
arrangement, usually making the
narrative measured, energetic, and tense,
 e.g. That's all I'm to do, all I want
to do (D.Hammett);
 Tree and hall rose peaceful under the night sky
and dear full orb; pearly paleness gilded the
building; mellow brown gloom bosomed it
round; shadows of deep green brooded above
its oak-wreathed roof (Ch. Bronte).
EM BASED ON THE REDUNDANCY
OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE

 Repetition is a repetition of the same word

or phrase to lay an emphatic stress on
certain parts of the sentence.

 There are such types of repetition: ordinary

repetition, framing, catch repetition, chain
repetition.
1) ordinary repetition, i.e. a repetition of a
word in close succession (…a,…a…,a…),
e.g. She talked, in fact, and talked,
and talked (A.Berkley);

2) framing or ring repetition, i.e. a repetition in

which the opening word or phrase is
repeated at the end of the sentence or a
group of sentences (a…a),
e.g. I cooled off where Frank was concerned;
he didn't notice, but I cooled off (V. Pritchett);
 3) anadiplosis, or catch repetition, i.e. a
repetition of the last word in a sentence
or clause at the beginning of the next one
(…a, a…),
e.g. Yes, but I was afraid, afraid I'd go to
one who'd tell Paul. I didn't know who to
go to, who I could trust (D. Hammett);

 4) chain repetition, i.e. a combination of

catch repetitions (…a, a…b, b…c, c…),
e.g. A smile would come into Mr.Pickwick's
face. The smile extended into laugh; the
laugh into roar, the roar became
general (Ch.Dickens).
Another classification offers 3 types of repetition:
 Syntactical repetition is such one which is
observed in a sentence comprising two or more
homogeneous parts and where an abstract
syntactical position and not a word is repeated.
e.g. The people were running. Men,
women, children were running.
 Synonymic repetition is such one which
concerns the meanings of recurrent parts of the
sentence. e.g. "Joe was a mild, good-natured,
sweet-tempered, easy-going, foolish dear fellow."
(Ch. Dickens)
 Repetition proper is recurrence of the same
element (word or phrase) within the sentence.
e.g. Oh, the dreary, dreary moorland! (A. Tennyson)
 Enumeration is a repetition of
homogeneous parts of the
sentence, aimed at emphasizing the
whole utterance,

e.g. I found butlers,

secondmen, chauffeurs, COOKS,
maids, upstairs girs, downstairs girls,
and a raft of miscellaneous flunkies -
he had enough servants to run a hotel
(D.Hammett).
 Syntactical tautology (prolepsis) is
a superfluous repetition of
semantically identical words or
phrases to lay stress on a certain
part of the sentence

e.g. She's always one for a

change, Gladdie is... (A. Christie).
Tautology can be considered to
be the result of some reasons:
 The speaker's emotions
(excitement, scare, grief, etc.).
e.g. Darling, darling Bundle. She's dead.
 Ignorance of the speaker.
e.g. No one could do the job
more better.
 Peculiar physical condition of the
speaker (drowsiness,
unconsciousness). e.g. It was too late…
Give me something, Doc…
 Polysyndeton is a repetition of
conjunctions in close succession which
are used to connect sentences,
clauses, or words and make the
utterance more rhythmical,

e.g. She had herself a rich ruby look,

for what with eating and drinking, and
shouting and laughing and singing her
face was crimson and almost steaming
(J. Priestley).
 Polysyndeton is stylistically
heterogeneous – more frequent than
ellipsis; and more varied than repetition.
 Thus, in poetry and fiction, the repetition of
and either underlines the simultaneity of
actions, or close connection of properties
enumerated. Sometimes the excessive
use of the conjunction and often betrays
the poverty of the speaker's syntax,
showing the primitiveness of the character.
Not infrequently, polysyndeton promotes a
high-flown tonality of narrative.
Emphatic constructions may intensify or
contrast any part of the sentence, giving it
an emotive charge.

 The emphatic construction with ‘do’ is used as

a predicate intensifier.
 The construction "it is smb/smth
who/that" intensifies the subject;
 the construction ''it is then that" stresses
the adverbial modifier of time;
 "it is by/with/through smth that” makes
prominent the adverbial modifier of manner.
 "It is to that/smth there that" brings to
the foreground the object of the sentence,
 e.g. That evening it was Dave, who read
to the boys their bed-time story (D.Carter);

 It was then that Poirot received a brief

note from Sady Willard (A. Christie);

 I do know it! (D. Hammett).

 Parenthetical clauses are sentences
or phrases inserted into a syntactical
structure without being grammatically
connected with it.

 The functions of parenthesis are those of

exemplification, deliberation, or reference.
Parenthetical clauses may
produce various stylistic effects:

1) creating two layers of the narrative,

e.g. He tried to shake Wynant down by

threatening to shoot him, bomb his
house. Kidnap his children, cut his wife's
throat - I don't know what all - if he didn’t
come across (D. Hammett);
2) emphasizing this or that fact,

e.g. He laughed - not loud but in complete

delight - and stood up exclaiming: "Judith
herself!" (D. Hammett);

3) exemplifying certain points,

e.g. The dog – a shapeless monster in the

night-buried itself at the other side of the gate
and barked terrifically (D. Hammett).
EM BASED ON THE VIOLATION
OF THE WORD-ORDER
 Inversion is the violation of the fixed word
order within an English sentence.
 There are two major kinds of inversion:
1. that one which results in the change of the
grammatical meaning of a syntactic struc-
ture, i.e. grammatical inversion (exclamatory
and interrogative sentences), and
2. that one which results in adding to a sentence
an emotive and emphatic colouring,
i.e.stylistic inversion,
e.g. And the palm-trees I like them not (A. Christie).
Inversion may be of two types:

 1) complete, i.e. comprising the

principal parts of the sentence,
e.g. From behind me came
Andrew’s voice (S. Chaplin);

 2) partial, i.e. influencing the

secondary parts of the sentence,
e.g. Straight into the arms of the
police they will go (A. Christie).
 Separation, or syntactical split, is the
splitting of a noun phrase by the attribute
adjunct which is removed from the word
it modifies.

 Stylistically, syntactical split is used

to emphasize the phrase which was
separated,
e.g. He had never seen the truth
before, about anything (R. Warren).
 Detachment is an expressive means
based on singling out of a secondary
member of the sentence with the help
of punctuation (intonation).

e.g. Formidable and ponderous, counsel

for the defence arose (A. Christie).
Practically, any secondary part of
the sentence may be detached:
 Attribute: "Very small and child-like, he
never looked more than fourteen."
 Appositive: "Brave boy, he saved my life
and shall not regret it." (M. Twain)
 Adverbial modifier: "And my soul from out
that shadow that lies floating on the floor shall
be lifted nevermore!" (E. Poe)
 Direct object: "Talent, Mr. Micawber has,
capital, Mr. Micawber has not." (Ch. Dickens)
 Prepositional object: "It was indeed, to
Forsyte eyes, an odd house." (J. Galsworthy )
 Detachment is to be regarded as a special
kind of inversion, when some parts of the
sentence are syntactically separated from
its other members with which they are
grammatically and logically connected.