WHAT IS A MOLECULE

CHAPTER 2: HISTORY OF ATOMS AND

MOLECULES
WHAT IS AN ATOM?
Molecules consist of one or more atoms bound together by covalent (chemical) bonds. Atoms
may be depicted by circle shapes, each of which has a nucleus at the center (containing
protons and neutrons), surrounded by one or more concentric circles representing the ‘shells’
or ‘levels’ in which the electrons surrounding the nucleus of the atom are located and
markings indicating the electron.at each level. A molecule is the smallest thing a substance
can be divided into while remaining the same substance. It is made up of two or more atoms
that are bound together by chemical bonding.

The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons or positive charges in
the nucleus. The atomic weight of an element is determined by combining the total number
of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. An electron carries a single negative charge. If an
atom of an element is to have zero charge, it must have the same number of electrons as
protons. These electrons are arranged in orbits around the nucleus of the atom like the layers
of an anion
WHAT IS A MOLECULE?
Molecules are made up of groups of atoms. Describing the structure of an atom, an atom is
also sub-divided into smaller units. Protons, electrons, and neutrons are sub-particles of an
atom. The protons and neutrons are contained inside the nucleus of the atom and electrons
revolve around the nucleus.

Protons are positively charged particles whereas electrons are negatively charged particles.
Neutrons do not carry any charge. So we can say that the nucleus is positively charged due to
the presence of protons. The nucleus is a bulk mass at the centre of an atom. Atoms are
largely vacant.

CONCEPTS AND METHODS

Each sentence will further have many words and each word will have characters. Therefore
we have divided a storybook into characters. This is exactly the same case when we take the
matter into account. The matter is made up of substances which contain molecules. The
molecules, in turn, are made up of groups of atoms.

Atoms in simple terms are defined as the smallest unit of matter. In ancient times scientists
wondered whether the matter could be further divided or not. Around 500 BC the idea of
divisibility of matter evolved in india.
 Research Paper
ATOMS AND MOLECULES

By: Saadhana.B
Grade:8A
ABSTRACT
"Atoms and Molecules" discusses various new ideas related to general questions that can
arise from chemical reasoning, including the relationship between thinking in logics and
thinking in analogy, as well as the problem of identity. The paper also explores the atomic
theory as a consequence of the quantitative approach in chemistry, specifically focusing on
how it is possible to experiment with the invisible microcosm.

 The paper proposes an unsupervised learning methodology for the structural

analysis of materials at the atomic scale using a Gaussian mixture model computed
on topological descriptors from persistent homology .
 The method automatically identifies relevant local atomic structures in a system of
interest based on atomic positions and without prior knowledge .

The proposed method enables deeper and autonomous studies of structural-dependent

phenomena occurring at the atomic scale in materials
 INTRODUCTION
- The practical implications of this paper are significant for the field of materials science
and atomic-scale analysis.

- The proposed unsupervised learning methodology allows for the automatic identification
of relevant local atomic structures in a system of interest, based solely on atomic positions
and without prior knowledge .

- This method can be applied to large-scale molecular dynamics simulations of bulk

crystals, liquids, and nucleation events, providing a deeper understanding of structural-
dependent phenomena at the atomic scale .

- By enabling autonomous studies of atomic structures, this methodology opens up new

possibilities for materials research, allowing for more efficient and comprehensive analysis
of materials at the atomic level .

- The findings from this research can contribute to the development of new materials with
improved properties and performance, as well as a better understanding of structural
changes and transformations in materials under different conditions .

topics from atomic and molecular physics, including laser spectroscopy, optical trapping,
quantum and nonlinear optics, and also testing methods of fundamental laws in these
fields.

- the fundamental constituents of matter, atoms and molecules, unraveling their intricate
structures, properties, interactions, and roles in various scientific and practical domains.
The exploration encompasses historical developments, contemporary theories,
experimental methods, and emerging applications, showcasing the pivotal role of atoms
and molecules in shaping our understanding of the natural world.
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Tables Of Contents 1

Abstract 2

introduction 3

Atomic Scale Analysis 4

Atomic Theory 5

Structural Analysis of 6
Atoms
Molecular Formations And 7&8
Bonds
Historical Developments Of 9 & 10
Molecules
References 11

Conclusion 12
 CHAPTER ONE: ATOMS AND MOLECULES
ATOMIC SCALE ANALYSIS

Atomic scale analysis refers to the examination and study of materials, structures, or
phenomena at the level of individual atoms or molecules. This type of analysis provides
detailed insights into the fundamental properties and behaviors of materials and systems,
enabling scientists and researchers to understand and manipulate them .

1. SPM techniques, such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning tunneling
microscopy (STM), allow researchers to image and manipulate individual atoms and
molecules on surfaces. These techniques provide high-resolution images and can also
measure various properties, such as surface topography, electronic structure, and
mechanical properties.

2. TEM uses a focused beam of electrons to image extremely small structures, down to the
atomic scale. It provides detailed information about the internal structure of materials,
including crystallography, defects, and nanoscale features.

3. X-ray crystallography is a powerful technique for determining the atomic and molecular
structure of crystals. It involves shining X-rays onto a crystal and analyzing the resulting
diffraction pattern to deduce the arrangement of atoms within the crystal lattice.

4. NMR is a technique that exploits the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei to study the
local environment and interactions of atoms within a molecule. It is commonly used in
chemistry and biochemistry to analyze molecular structures and dynamics.

5. While not an experimental technique, molecular dynamics simulations involve using

computer algorithms to simulate the behavior of atoms and molecules over time. These
simulations provide insights into the dynamic behavior of materials at the atomic scale.

6. DFT is a computational method used to calculate the electronic structure and properties
of materials at the atomic scale. It provides information about energy levels, charge
distributions, and other electronic properties.

7. XAS is a technique that provides information about the electronic structure and local
environment of atoms in a sample. It is particularly useful for studying the chemical state of
specific elements in materials.
 ATOMIC THEORY
The atomic theory is a cornerstone concept in both chemistry and physics, offering
profound insights into the nature and behavior of matter. Developed over centuries, this
theory proposes that matter is composed of discrete, indivisible units called atoms. Each
atom retains its unique identity and characteristics, contributing to the diversity of
elements and compounds found in the natural world.

At the heart of the atomic theory is the idea that atoms are fundamental building blocks
that combine in specific ways to create various substances. This concept was shaped by the
work of pioneering scientists such as John Dalton, who in the early 19th century proposed
the theory's fundamental principles. Dalton's observations on the proportions in which
elements combine to form compounds and his recognition of the conservation of mass in
chemical reactions laid the groundwork for understanding atomic interactions.The atomic
theory further extends to the notion of atomic masses. Each element has a distinct atomic
mass, providing a quantitative measure of the mass of its individual atoms. This insight has
led to the development of the atomic mass unit (amu) as a standard for expressing atomic
masses.

As scientific techniques advanced, the atomic theory gained deeper insights into atomic
structure. Discoveries of subatomic particles, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons,
provided a more intricate understanding of atomic composition. Models like Niels Bohr's
planetary model and the modern quantum mechanical model depict electrons'
arrangement in discrete energy levels around the nucleus.The atomic theory's profound
implications have not only explained the behavior of matter but also led to transformative
technological advancements. From chemical reactions to the understanding of nuclear
reactions and radioactivity, this theory underpins our comprehension of fundamental
processes.

In essence, the atomic theory revolutionized science by elucidating the composition,

interactions, and transformations of matter on the atomic scale. Its evolution over time has
paralleled the advancement of experimental techniques and theoretical frameworks,
deepening our knowledge of the microscopic world and serving as the bedrock upon which
modern chemistry and physics rest. These techniques involve manipulating individual
atoms or molecules using specialized tools such as scanning tunneling microscopes. Atomic
scale analysis has wide-ranging applications in various fields, including materials science,
nanotechnology, chemistry, physics, and biology. It allows to design and engineer materials
with tailored properties, understand the behavior of molecules and materials in different
environments, and develop new technologies based on a deep understanding of atomic-
level interactions.
 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF ATOMS

Structural analysis of atoms involves investigating the spatial arrangement and

interactions of atoms within molecules, crystals, and materials. This analysis offers critical
insights into the properties and behaviors of substances. Techniques such as molecular
geometry assessment, bond analysis, and crystallography are employed. Molecular
geometry defines how atoms are positioned in three dimensions, characterized by bond
lengths and angles.

Bonding analysis distinguishes chemical bonds' strength and nature, while

crystallography, notably X-ray diffraction, unveils atomic positions in crystals.
Spectroscopy provides details about atoms' types, their environments, and the bonds they
form, while computational methods like density functional theory compute electronic
structures. Vibrational analysis examines atomic motions through techniques like infrared
spectroscopy.

Electron density mapping reveals electron distribution around atoms. Coordination

numbers describe atoms' bonded neighbors. Stereochemistry examines spatial
arrangements around chiral centers. Understanding crystallographic symmetry aids in
classifying and describing crystal structures. This analysis fundamentally underpins
chemistry and materials science, informing material design and predicting substance
behaviors.
 MOLECULAR BONDS AND FORMATIONS
Molecular formations and bonds are the building blocks of matter, intricately governing the
structure, properties, and behaviors of substances at the atomic level. These concepts are
the cornerstone of chemistry, enabling us to comprehend the complexity of the world
around us.

Covalent bonds, one of the most fundamental types of bonds, occur when atoms share
electrons in an effort to attain a more stable electron configuration. This sharing leads to
the creation of molecules with a diverse range of properties, from simple diatomic gases to
complex organic compounds. Single, double, and triple covalent bonds dictate the strength
of molecular connections, influencing characteristics like bond length and energy.

In contrast, ionic bonds result from the transfer of electrons between atoms with disparate
electronegativities. This leads to the formation of positively charged cations and negatively
charged anions, which are held together by strong electrostatic forces in ionic compounds.
These compounds often exhibit high melting and boiling points due to the strength of the
ionic interactions.

Metallic bonds, prevalent in metals, arise from a "sea" of delocalized electrons shared
among a lattice of metal atoms. This communal electron cloud imparts remarkable
properties like electrical conductivity and malleability to metals, as electrons can move
freely throughout the lattice.

Hydrogen bonds, though weaker than covalent or ionic bonds, are crucial in biological
systems and contribute to phenomena like the high boiling point of water and the stability
of DNA's double helix structure. These bonds occur when a hydrogen atom bonded to a
highly electronegative atom interacts with another electronegative atom, creating a bridge
between molecules.

Van der Waals forces encompass a range of weak interactions, including London dispersion
forces, dipole-dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonding. These forces, although
individually weak, collectively influence physical properties like boiling points, and they
play a significant role in intermolecular interactions.

Furthermore, coordinate covalent bonds emerge in Lewis acid-base reactions, where one
atom donates a pair of electrons to another atom. This dynamic sharing of electron pairs
influences molecular stability and reactivity.

In essence, molecular formations and bonds are the molecular architecture that shapes the
macroscopic world. They determine how elements unite to create compounds, define their
behavior under various conditions, and underpin the interactions that sustain life and drive
the fields of chemistry, biology, and materials science. Understanding these bonds
empowers scientists to manipulate matter at its most fundamental level, paving the way for
innovations and discoveries that transform our understanding of the universe and our
ability to harness its potential for the betterment of humanity.
 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF MOLECULES

he historical development of our understanding of molecules and their formations is a

fascinating journey that spans centuries and involves the contributions of numerous
scientists. Here's a concise overview of some key milestones in the history of molecular
development:

1. Ancient and Early Modern Periods:

 Early Greek philosophers such as Democritus proposed the idea of atoms as
indivisible particles that make up matter.
 Alchemists in the Middle Ages sought to transform substances but lacked a
systematic understanding of atoms and molecules.
2. Late 18th Century:
 Antoine Lavoisier's work on the conservation of mass and the identification of
elements laid the foundation for modern chemistry.
3. Early 19th Century:
 John Dalton's atomic theory (1803) provided a more systematic understanding of
atoms as indivisible entities that combine to form compounds with fixed ratios.
4. Mid to Late 19th Century:
 Amedeo Avogadro proposed Avogadro's hypothesis (1811), which stated that equal
volumes of gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number
of molecules.
 August Kekulé's structural theory (mid-1800s) introduced the concept of atoms
being connected in specific arrangements, forming the basis for the study of
molecular structures.
5. Late 19th to Early 20th Century:
 Dmitri Mendeleev's periodic table (1869) organized elements by their properties
and atomic weights, setting the stage for predicting and understanding chemical
reactions.
 The discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson (1897) and the development of the
plum pudding model led to a deeper understanding of atomic and molecular
structures.
6. Early 20th Century:
 Gilbert Lewis introduced the concept of electron pairs and the Lewis dot structure,
providing a visual representation of covalent bonds (early 20th century).
 Linus Pauling's quantum mechanical theories (1920s and beyond) helped explain
chemical bonding using quantum mechanics, laying the foundation for modern
molecular theory.
7. Mid 20th Century:
 The advent of X-ray crystallography in the 1930s allowed scientists like Dorothy
Crowfoot Hodgkin to determine the three-dimensional structures of molecules,
revealing their arrangements in space.
  The development of the VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) theory by
Ronald Gillespie and Ronald Nyholm (1957) helped predict molecular geometries
based on electron pair repulsions.
8. Late 20th Century:
 The rise of spectroscopy techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and
infrared (IR) spectroscopy enabled scientists to study molecular structures and
interactions in detail.
 Computational chemistry emerged, allowing researchers to simulate and predict
molecular behavior using computers.
9. 21st Century:
 Advances in fields like nanotechnology and materials science rely on a deep
understanding of molecular interactions to design and engineer new materials with
specific properties.

The historical developments in the understanding of molecules have transformed

chemistry from a qualitative discipline to a highly quantitative and predictive science.
Today, researchers continue to uncover new insights into molecular formations, bonds, and
behaviors, enabling us to manipulate matter at the molecular level for a wide range of
applications.
YOU CAN LEARN MORE ABOUT THIS ON CHPTER 2
 REFERANCES
SCISPACE - SCISPACE.COM

SCIENCE DIRECT – SCIENCEDIRECT.COM

 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the journey through atoms and molecules' history showcases how our
understanding has grown over time. From ancient ideas about tiny particles to today's
knowledge about how they stick together, science has made incredible progress. This
learning, shared by many thinkers across years, has changed the way we see the basic
building blocks of everything. It's like a puzzle coming together, helping us make new
things and solve important problems. This journey of discovery reminds us of the power of
human curiosity and teamwork in making the world a better place.