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6 - Modulation & Encoding - Part 1

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12 views

6 - Modulation & Encoding - Part 1

Uploaded by

mrx3925
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© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1- Modulation:

Modulation is the process of encoding source data onto a carrier signal


with frequency fc.

All modulation techniques involve operation on one or more of the three


fundamental frequency-domain parameters:

- Amplitude
- Frequency
- Phase

The input signal m(t) may be analog or digital and is called the
modulating signal, or baseband signal.

The result of modulating the carrier signal is called the modulated signal
s(t).

In analog communication, a carrier wave is sent at a specified frequency


F, with constant amplitude A.

Information is included by modulating the carrier wave:

- Amplitude modulation.
- Frequency modulation.
- Phase modulation.
2- Encoding Techniques:

2.1- DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

We can represent digital data by using digital signals.

The conversion involves three techniques:

A- Line coding.
B- Block coding.
C- Scrambling.

Line coding is always needed, while block coding and scrambling may be
or not be needed.

A- Line coding:

To minimize the probability that a symbol is misread, codes can be used


to make symbols more distinguishable:

Example:

➔ to send information bit 0, encode this as 000.


➔ to send information bit 1, encode as 111.

Receiver reads three bits, and may read any of 000, 001, 010, 100, 101,
110, or 111.

At least two of the bits will be the same: choose that value as the detected
information bit:
Interpreted as 0: Interpreted as 1:

000 111

001 110

010 101

100 110

If the probability of misreading any 0 or 1 sent through the channel is p,


then for this encoding method, two of those must be misread to have an
error in the information passed through the channel.

Error probabilities:

Suppose that the probability of an error in bit detection is p = 0.1 (i.e.


10%) and that we send information bit 0 through the channel.
Reducing the overall error probability:

If we sent the original bits “as it is”, the probability of an error in the
information transfered for each information symbol would be 0.1, and the
probability of correct information transfer would be 0.9.

Using this encoding, the probability of correct information transfer is:


0.729 + 0.081 + 0.081 + 0.081 = 0.972

The probability of incorrect information transfer is:


0.009 + 0.009 + 0.009 + 0.001 = 0.028

Sum of probabilities:

0.972 + 0.028 = 1

Result: the effective error rate for the channel will be 2.8% instead of
10%.

A.1- Line coding schemes:

Signal Encoding:

To send digital signals – a set of 0 and 1 values, we need a coding scheme


to represent each value.

Unipolar:
➔ Non-return to zero (NRZ-L):
Use low (negative) voltage to represent a 1 and high (positive) voltage to
represent a 0.

Example: Data = 10100110:

➔ Non-return to zero inverted (NRZ-I):

A 1 is represented by a change in voltage; a 0 is represented by no


change.

Example: Data = 10100110:

➔ Polar RZ scheme:

In this scheme, signal goes to 0 in the middle of each bit.

- For bit 0, half of the signal is represented by -V and half by zero


voltage.
- For bit 1, half of the signal is represented by +V and half by zero
voltage.

Example: Data = 01001:


Polar:
➔ Manchester Encoding:

Bits are indicated by changes in voltage at the centre of the bit period.

- 0: change from high to low.


- 1: change from low to high.

Example: Data = 10100110:

Advantages:

• It is easier to detect a change in voltage than measure a voltage


(especially in the presence of noise).
• The bit stream is self-synchronizing: there is always a voltage change
at the centre of the bit period.
➔ Differential Manchester Encoding:

Like Manchester encoding, there is always a voltage change at the centre


of the interval.

Bits are encoded by whether or not there is a voltage change at the start of
the interval:
- 0: change voltage.
- 1: keep previous voltage.

Example: Data = 10100110:

Multilevel:
➔ 2B/ 1Q scheme:

- Two binary (2B), one quaternary (1Q).


- Transition table (2 bits with 4 levels):

Example: Data = 0011011001:


B- Block coding:

- We need redundancy to ensure synchronization and to provide some


kind of inherent error detecting.
- Block coding can give us this redundancy and improve the
performance of line coding.
- In general, block coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n
bits, where n is larger than m.
- Block coding is normally referred to as an mB/nB encoding
technique; it replaces each m-bit group with an n-bit group.
- Block coding normally involves three steps: division, substitution,
and combination.
1- Division step: a sequence of bits is divided into groups of m bits. For
example, in 4B/5B encoding, the original bit sequence is divided into
4-bit groups.
2- Substitution step: we substitute an m-bit group for an n-bit group. For
example, in 4B/5B encoding, we substitute a 4-bit code for a 5-bit
group.
3- Combination step: the n-bit groups are combined together to form a
stream. The new stream has more bits than the original bits.

• Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme:

➔ 4B/5B mapping codes:


➔ Substitution in 4B/5B block coding:

We are looking for a technique that does not increase the number of bits
and provide synchronization. We are looking for a solution that
substitutes long zero-level pulses with a combination of other levels to
provide synchronization.

One solution is called scrambling. Two common scrambling techniques


are B8ZS and HDB3.

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL, DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG, and ANALOG-TO-


AALOG CONVERSIONs will be discussed next sections…

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