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7 - Modulation & Encoding - Part 2

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27 views

7 - Modulation & Encoding - Part 2

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mrx3925
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2.

2- ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

Two techniques, pulse code modulation and delta modulation.

A- Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).


B- Delta Modulation (DM).

A- Pulse Code Modulation (PCM):

- Most common technique (digitization) is called Pulse Code


Modulation (PCM).
- A PCM encoder has three processes:
1. Sampling: the analog signal is sampled.
2. Quantization: the sampled signal is quantized.
3. Encoding: the quantized values are encoded as streams of bits.

PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation):


Conversion of analog signal to a pulse type signal where the amplitude of
signal denotes the analog information.

Quantization:
Approximate the value of the sampled amplitude to the quantized value.

Encoding:
Each sample can be changed to n-bit code word.

A.1- Sampling:

- The analog signal is sampled every Ts s, where Ts is the sample


interval or period.
- The inverse of the sampling interval is called the sampling rate or
sampling frequency and denoted by fs, where f s = 1/Ts.
- Three sampling methods: ideal, natural, and flat-top as shown in the
following figure:

• In ideal sampling, pulses from the analog signal are sampled.


• In natural sampling, a high-speed switch is turned on for only the
small period of time when the sampling occurs. The result is a
sequence of samples that retains the shape of the analog signal.
• In flat-top sampling, a circuit is used to creates flat-top samples.
o It is the most common sampling method and called sample
and hold.

- According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate (Nyquist rate)


must be at least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the signal:
o First, we can sample a signal only if the signal is band-limited.
In other words, a signal with an infinite bandwidth cannot be
sampled.
o Secondly, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest
frequency, not the bandwidth.
- If the analog signal is low-pass, the bandwidth and the highest
frequency are the same value.
- If the analog signal is bandpass, the bandwidth value is lower than the
value of the maximum frequency.
A.2- Sampling examples:

Telephone companies digitize voice by assuming a maximum frequency


of 4000 Hz.
➔ The sampling rate therefore is 8000 samples per second.

Example:
A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the
minimum sampling rate for this signal?
Solution:
The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f, where f is the
maximum frequency in the signal. Therefore, we can sample this signal at
2 times the highest frequency (200 kHz).
➔ The sampling rate is therefore 400,000 samples per second.

Example:
A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the
minimum sampling rate for this signal?
Solution:
We cannot find the minimum sampling rate in this case because we do
not know where the bandwidth starts or ends. We do not know the
maximum frequency in the signal.
A.2 Quantization

- Instead of transmitting the exact amplitude of the sampled signal, only


certain discrete value closest to the true one is transmitted.
- Quantizing is a process by which analog samples (from a PAM signal)
are classified into a number of adjacent quantizing intervals.
- Each interval is represented by a single value called the Quantized
Value.
- This process introduces an error in the magnitude of the samples
resulting in quantizing noise.

A.3 Encoding

- The available range of signal voltages is divided into levels and each
is assigned a binary number.
- Each sample is represented by a binary number and then transmitted.
- Example: we have 8 levels, and sampled values obtained from the
sampling phase (-0.25, 3.1, 1.5, -2.4, -3.7) are quantized as follows on
the original analog signal to get corresponding code number, that is
converted to binary code:
Original Signal Recovery using PCM decoder:

- The decoder first uses circuitry to convert the code words (blocks of
binary numbers) into a pulse that holds the amplitude until the next
pulse.
- After the staircase signal is completed, it is passed through a low-pass
filter to smooth the staircase signal into an analog signal.
- Components of a PCM decoder:

B- Delta Modulation (DM)

- Another technique that has been developed to reduce the complexity of


PCM.
- DM is the simplest.
- PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for each sample;
o DM finds the change from the previous sample.
o Note that there are no code words here; bits are sent one after
another.

B.1- The process of delta modulation:


- The modulator is used at the sender site to create a stream of bits from
an analog signal:
1. Comparator: The process records the small positive or negative
changes, called delta.
o If the delta is positive, the process records a 1.
o if it is negative, the process records a 0.
2. Staircase maker: The modulator builds a second signal that
resembles a staircase.
3. Delay unit: Finding the change is then reduced to comparing the
input signal with the gradually made staircase signal.

B.2- Delta demodulation components


4. The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the staircase
maker and the delay unit, creates the analog signal.
5. The created analog signal, however, needs to pass through a low-
pass filter for smoothing.

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