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Q) Why have disks?

Ans:
1. Augmenting Limited Memory Capacity: They provide
extra storage space when memory is insufficient,
like in swap space.
2. Memory Management: Disks help manage memory by
storing less frequently accessed data, such as code
pages.
3. Non-Volatile Storage: Unlike memory, disks retain
data even when the system is powered off, making
them suitable for long-term storage.
4. File Storage: With capacities ranging from gigabytes
to terabytes, disks are ideal for storing files,
applications, and operating systems.
Q) What are the different types of disks?
Ans:
There are several types of disks commonly used in
computing:
Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA):
• Standard interface for connecting storage devices
like hard drives and CD-ROM drives.
• Also known as IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics),
ATAPI, and UDMA.
• Generally inexpensive.
• Cable lengths typically range from 18 to 36 inches.
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI):
• Requires controllers both on the computer and the
disk.
• Offers sophisticated controller commands.
• Allows reordering.
USB Connections to ATA Disks:
• Utilizes USB technology for connecting ATA disks.
• Allows for easy connectivity and portability of ATA
disks.
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• Provides flexibility in connecting external storage

devices to computers.
Microdrive:
• Features impressively small motors.
• Often used in compact storage solutions, such as
portable devices and cameras.
Bandwidth ratings:
• Often unachievable
• 50 MB/s is maximum off platters.
• Peak rate refers to transfer from the disk device's
memory cache.
SATA II (Serial ATA):
• Offers speeds up to 3 Gb/s (though still limited
to 50 MB/s off platter).
• Features smaller and longer cables compared to
PATA.
SCSI:
• Offers speeds up to 320 MB/s, enabling multiple
drives on the same bus.
Q) What is a Disk Structure?
Ans:
• Disk drives are addressed as large 1-dimensional
arrays of logical blocks, where the logical block
is the smallest unit of transfer.
• The 1-dimensional array of logical blocks is mapped
into the sectors of the disk sequentially. Sector 0
is the first sector of the first track on the
outermost cylinder.
• Mapping proceeds in order through that track, then
the rest of the tracks in that cylinder and then
through the rest of the cylinders from outermost to
innermost.
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Q) What are the various tasks associated with disk

management technique?
Ans:
In Disk Management, users can perform various tasks
related to managing disk drives. Some common actions
include:
• Partition a Drive: Splitting a single physical drive
into multiple logical partitions, each appearing as
a separate drive in the operating system.
• Format a Drive: Preparing a partition or entire
drive for use by the operating system, which
involves setting up the file system structure
necessary for storing data.
• Change a Drive's Letter: Modifying the assigned
letter or label for a specific drive, which can be
useful for organization or to avoid conflicts with
other drives.
• Shrink a Partition: Resizing an existing partition
to allocate some of its unused space back to the
disk, allowing for the creation of new partitions
or for more efficient disk space management.
• Delete a Partition: Removing an existing partition
from the disk, which effectively erases all data
stored on that partition.
• Change a Drive's File System: Converting the file
system format of a partition, such as from FAT32 to
NTFS, which can affect compatibility, security, and
other aspects of data storage and access.
Q) What is Disk Access Time? What are its components?
Ans:
Disk access time refers to the total time it takes for
a computer's disk storage device to respond to a
request for data access.
Disk access time consists of two major components:
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• Seek Time: This is the time required for the

disk's read/write heads to move to the specific
cylinder that contains the desired sector.
Typically, seek times range from 5 to 10
milliseconds.
• Rotational Latency: After the heads have reached
the correct cylinder, there is an additional wait
time for the desired sector to rotate under the
heads. This is known as rotational latency and
typically takes between 2 to 4 milliseconds.
Additionally, there is one minor component:
• Read/Write Time or Transfer Time: This refers to the
actual time it takes to transfer data between the
disk and the computer's memory. It is typically less
than a millisecond and is considered a minor
component compared to seek time and rotational
latency.
Q) What do you mean by disk Scheduling?
Ans:
• The primary objective is to ensure fast access time
and optimal disk bandwidth utilization.
• Fast access entails minimizing the total seek time
of a group of requests.
• While requests for different cylinders incur average
rotation latency, the primary focus is on reducing
the total seek distance for a group of requests.
However, some scheduling optimizations are possible
when multiple requests target the same cylinder.
• Seek time ≈ Seek distance
• An auxiliary goal is to maintain fairness in waiting
times for the requests.
Disk bandwidth: It is the total number of bytes
transferred, divided by the total time between the first
request for service and the completion of the last
transfer.
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Various Disk Scheduling Algorithms

1. FCFS:
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3. SCAN:
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4. C-SCAN:
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5. LOOK:
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6. C-LOOK:
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Z7fZXohZUMAAsG&index=31

RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) is a

method used to enhance the performance, reliability,
and capacity of data storage systems.
Instead of relying on a single expensive drive, RAID
combines multiple smaller and cheaper disk drives
into an array, functioning as a single logical unit.
RAID distributes data across multiple disks to
improve performance and reliability by storing data
redundantly on different disks.
Different RAID schemes (e.g., RAID 0, RAID 1) offer
varying balances between enhancing data reliability
and capacity and improving input/output
performance.
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Stripping:
o Merges multiple drives into a single logical
storage unit.
o Divides each drive's storage space into
stripes, ranging from a sector (512 bytes) to
several megabytes.
o Enhances data access speed by preventing the
processor from idly waiting during data
accesses.
o Used not only in RAID storage but also in
network interfaces in Grid-oriented Storage and
in some systems' RAM to optimize data access
throughput.
Mirroring:
o Involves duplicating data 100% on another drive
for fault tolerance.
o Ensures excellent fault tolerance; if one disk
fails, no data is lost as it's backed up on
another disk.
o Considered the easiest way to achieve both high
availability and high performance in a storage
system.
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