UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

COLLEGE OF INFORMSTION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

(CoICT)
PRINCIPLE OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS (IS246)

NAME REG NO. COURSE

ARNOLD A MASMINI 2022-04-06484 BSc. CS
KENETH KINGU 2022-04-04249 BSc. CS
KILIMBA
LOUIS SOSTHENES 2022-04-04729 BSc. CS
KONYOKA
ROBINSON JACKSON 2022-04-01731 BSc.CS
ELIONA
DIANA MODEST DEO 2022-04-01537 BSc.CS
ARNOLD ANDREW 2022-04-06484 BSC. IN CS
MASMINI

ANIMATIONS
Animations refer to the dynamic displaying of images in a sequence so as to create the
illusion of motion.
Here, the graphical properties of an element are changed over time, this is done by
updating the frame content at certain intervals. A frame is a single still image within a
sequence of images.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ANIMATIONS
Realism: This is through incorporating realistic elements such as texture and lighting.
This would make animations to engage viewers and enhance their immersion in that
environment involving the given animation.

Expressiveness: Animation allows for the expression of emotions, movements, and

actions in a dynamic and a visually manner.The content on a given graphic tend to
convey feelings, personalities, and intentions through their movements as seen by the
viewers.

Flexibility: Animations offer flexibility in terms of visual style, storytelling

techniques, and artistic expression. Artists can experiment with different animation
styles, perspectives, and narrative structures to convey their message effectively and
creatively.

Interactivity: In interactive animations, viewers can actively engage with the content,
influencing the direction of the story or interacting with the characters and
environment. This interactivity enhances user engagement and allows for personalized
experiences.

Visual Appeal: Animation often features vibrant colors, fluid movements, and
captivating visuals that appeal to the senses and draw viewers into the story or
environment. Visual appeal plays a crucial role in attracting and retaining audience
attention.
Narrative Potential: Animation offers rich narrative potential, allowing storytellers to
convey complex ideas, themes, and emotions through visual storytelling. Whether in
film, television, video games, or other mediums, animations can communicate
powerful messages and evoke strong emotional responses.

Creativity: Animation provides a platform for artists and creators to unleash their
creativity and imagination. From fantastical worlds and imaginative characters to
innovative storytelling techniques, animation enables artists to push the boundaries of
what is possible and inspire audiences with their creativity.

Universal Appeal: Animation transcends language and cultural barriers, appealing to

audiences of all ages and backgrounds. Its visual nature allows it to communicate
ideas and emotions in a universally understandable way, making it accessible and
enjoyable for diverse audiences around the world.

DIANA MODEST DEO 2022-04-01537 BSC. IN CS

Movement Illusion:
•Definition: Movement illusion refers to creating the perception of motion or
movement where there is none or where the actual motion is different from what our
eyes perceive.
Applications in Animation:
•Ambiguous Movements: Researchers use patterns of ambiguous movements to
demonstrate motion illusions. For example, the backscroll illusion appears optimally
in dynamic grating backgrounds. These gratings periodically reverse dark-light
phases, resulting in two motion components moving in opposite directions at equal
speeds1.
•Visual Tricks: Animators employ various techniques to create the illusion of
smooth motion. These include frame interpolation, motion blur, and anticipation
(where an object slightly moves in the opposite direction before its main motion
begins).
Challenges:
•Achieving realistic movement requires understanding human
perception and psychology.
•Balancing visual fidelity with computational efficiency is crucial.

an example of illusion

Collisions:

Collision detection is the computational problem of detecting the intersection of two

or more objects. Collision detection is a classic issue of computational geometry and
has applications in various computing fields, primarily in computer graphics,
computer games, computer simulations, robotics and computational physics. Collision
detection algorithms can be divided into operating on 2D and 3D objects.

Dimensions: Algorithms operate on both 2D and 3D objects.

Collision Detection Techniques:

•Bounding Volume Hierarchies (BVH):
Idea: Represent objects using bounding volumes (e.g., bounding boxes, spheres).
Hierarchy: Build a tree structure (BVH) to organize bounding volumes.
Traversal: Efficiently traverse the hierarchy to check for potential collisions.

•Sweep and Prune (SAP):

Concept: Sort objects along a specific axis (e.g., x-axis).
Overlap Detection: Check for overlaps along that axis.
Incremental Update: Update the sorted order as objects move.

•Spatial Partitioning:
Grids and Octrees: Divide the scene into cells or octants.
Cell Lists: Store objects in each cell.
Efficiency: Only check collisions within the same cell or neighboring cells.

•Continuous Collision Detection:

Time of Impact (TOI): Estimate when two moving objects will collide.
Rollback and Interpolation: Roll back the simulation, calculate collision, and
interpolate to the exact moment of impact.

•Convex Hull Algorithms:

Convex Decomposition: Break complex objects into simpler convex parts.
GJK Algorithm: Find the closest points between convex shapes.

•Exact vs. Approximate:

Exact Methods: Precise but computationally expensive.
Approximate Methods: Sacrifice precision for real-time performance.

Applications:
•Computer Games: Ensuring realistic interactions between game elements (e.g.,
characters, projectiles, obstacles).
•Computer Simulations: Accurate physics simulations (e.g., rigid body motion,
elastic collisions).
•Robotics: Collision avoidance for robot arms, drones, and autonomous vehicles.
•Computational Physics: Modeling physical interactions.

Challenges:
Balancing precision, computational efficiency, and real-time requirements.
KENETH KINGU 2022-04-04249 BSC. IN CS
KILIMBA
Changing of shapes
1. Squash and Stretch: This is when things change shape to show how heavy or
flexible they are. Imagine a bouncing ball. When it hits the ground, it gets
squished (squash) and then stretches out (stretch) as it bounces back up.

2. Anticipation: This is when characters prepare for an action. For example,

before jumping, a character might crouch down a little, showing that they are
getting ready to jump.
3. Smear Frames: When things move very quickly, like a fast punch, animators
use blurry frames to show the speed. It's like when you wave your hand so fast
it looks like a blur.

4. Rigging and Skinning: In 3D animation, characters have skeletons inside

them. When the skeleton moves, the skin moves with it, like muscles on a
person. So, when a character raises its arm, the skin stretches and bends
around the skeleton.
5. Morphing: This is when things gradually change from one shape to another.
For example, a character's face might change from sad to happy over time,
showing a gradual morphing of emotions.

6. Deformation Gradient: This helps animators understand how things change

shape in different places. It's like knowing how much dough stretches when
you pull it. It helps make animations look more realistic by showing how
different parts of an object move.
LOUIS SOSTHENES 2022-04-04729 BSC. IN CS
KONYOKA
Frames of Animation and Mechanisms: A Fusion of Movement and Illusion
Frames and mechanisms work hand-in-hand to bring animation to life. Frames capture
the visual representation of movement, while mechanisms provide the underlying
structure and logic that govern how that movement occurs. Mastering both is essential
for creating animation that is both visually appealing and believable. In animation,
both frames and mechanisms play crucial roles in bringing static images to life, each
contributing in unique ways:

FRAMES OF ANIMATION:

A frame is essentially a single image that makes up a sequence of images. In

animation, these sequences are played in rapid succession to create the illusion of
movement. Each frame captures a moment in time and contains all of the visual
information needed to create the next frame in the sequence. This means that every
detail, from the position of each character to the background scenery, needs to be
accounted for in each individual frame. The more detailed and intricate the animation,
the more frames will be required to create a smooth and seamless sequence.

Examples of frames of motion

Figure: Each number illustrating a single frame of animation.

Definition: Individual still images captured in sequence, which, when displayed
rapidly one after another, create the illusion of continuous motion.

MECHANISMS OF ANIMATION

 Traditional Animation:

Refers to the mechanism of in which each frame is hand-drawn by hand. It

involves artists drawing each frame on a separate sheet of paper and then being
replayed back in sequence to create an illusion of motion (www.intoFilm.org,
2022). Traditionally, objects in animation are drawn on transparent celluloid
paper. Every frame must be drawn by the animator in order to produce the
animation sequence. On a larger scale, the mechanism is identical to that of a flip
book(https://penji.co/traditional-animation, 2022). Cartoons such as Snow White
and the former mickey mouse are a great example.

Figure: An example of traditional animation

 Stop Motion Animation:

Refers to the mechanism whereby real-world objects are moved slightly and
photographed one frame at a time. In other words, it is a filmmaking technique
where inanimate objects are physically manipulated in small increments between
individually photographed frames. When played back in sequence, these frames
create the illusion of movement, bringing the objects to life. Wallace and Gromit,
Chicken Run, and The Nightmare Before Christmas are all great examples of stop
motion films. (www.Adobe.CreativeCloud, 2020)
Figure: showing stop animation using real life objects

 Computer Animation

Computer animation can be 2D or 3D. 2D computer animation often involves the

digital equivalent of traditional techniques, such as tweening. 3D computer
animation, on the other hand, involves creating objects in a digital environment
and using algorithms to control their movement and appearance.

Figure: showing 3D computerized animation

 Motion Capture

Motion capture involves recording the movement of people or objects and using
that information to animate digital characters or objects. This technique allows for
very realistic movement. This involves filming actors and characters in particular
setting then capturing their movements through sensors on their bodies then the
computer records the movements. This is usually done in a specialized studio.
(www.scienceworld.ca, 2022).
 Figure: showing motion capture in action

1/16 sec(Frame per sec)

Refers to the frame rate or the frequency at which consecutive images called
frames appear on a display. It is a standard frequency of implementing
animation mechanisms in order to create an illusion of motion. It is used in
movies , television and cartoons.

ROBINSON JACKSON 2022-04-01731 BSC. IN CS

ELIONA

Different ways of Displaying animation:

The following are various methods of creating and displaying animation:
1. Classic 2D Animation
This method involves creating individual hand-drawn frames, each meticulously
crafted to contribute to a fluid and cohesive sequence that animates characters and
narratives. The classic 2D animation is also known as the traditional 2D animation. In
this animation , artists engaged in a detailed procedure that involved producing
numerous drawings. These drawings were carefully placed on transparent sheets,
referred to as celluloids, which were then painted unless the intention was to maintain
a monochromatic aesthetic. The culmination of this intricate process was the assembly
of these individual frames sequentially, crafting the illusion of seamless motion
central to the concept of animation.

2. 2D Digital Animation
2D Digital Animation is a combination of artistic technique and media design that
creates the illusion of movement in a two-dimensional environment. This innovative
form of animation allows traditionally hand-drawn and digitally created illustrations
to be compiled into individual frames, forming the backbone of animated sequences.
It involves the use of sophisticated software in which animators create hundreds of
drawings to depict specific movements which are seamlessly integrated into a digital
environment. The approach outlined is notable for its efficiency since digital tools can
successfully interpolate between frames, considerably lowering the time necessary to
create animations when compared to more conventional methods.

3. 3D Digital Animation
3D Digital animation uses computer software to create sophisticated computer-
generated models. These models are meticulously crafted and then positioned within a
digital environment, where they are manipulated along the X, Y, and Z axes to
simulate movement and create compelling narratives. Example of such sofwares for
creating 3D animation models includes the Blenda.
4. Stop Motion Animation
This is an advanced flipbook-style form of animation. It involves photographing and
then physically manipulating objects within your frame. As each frame is played in
sequence, the technique creates the effect of an object moving itself. Stop-motion
animation is particularly favored for its ability to animate a wide array of physical
materials, from everyday objects to intricately molded plasticine figures. The picture
below shows an example of how stop animation is created:
 5. Claymation
Calymation is also known as clay anaimation. Claymation is an animation technique
using movable clay characters and stop-motion recording. This distinctive style is
characterized by its use of malleable substances such as clay or plasticine, which
animators shape and mold to create diverse characters and settings limited only by the
bounds of their creativity.Like other stop-motion techniques, claymation relies on the
frame-by-frame method, where each subtle adjustment to the clay figures is captured
in a single frame. When these frames are sequenced and played in rapid succession,
they generate the illusion of smooth, continuous movement, breathing life into the
inanimate clay models.

6. Mechanical Animation
This is the process of creating realistic 3D renderings of diverse mechanical goods
and their components' configurations, assemblies, and modes of operation.
Mechanical animation serves not only as a tool for visual representation but also as an
educational medium, offering animators and viewers alike deeper insights into the
intricate workings of mechanical systems.

7. Chuckimation
This innovative style merges the tactile charm of traditional stop-motion animation
with dynamic live-action shots. Characters are “chucked” or thrown in front of the
camera to simulate motion, and although they engage in dialogues, their mouth
movements are not animated, adding a distinctive quirk to this animation style.
8. Flip Book Animation
It is a series of individual drawings on individual pages of a small book. Each drawing
will be slightly different from the next, creating the illusion of animation when the
book is flipped through. This form of animation was a staple of pre-digital
entertainment, especially popular among children who marveled at the magic of
simple drawings coming to life.

9. Zoetrope Animation
Zoetrope animation involves a captivating optical illusion created with a cylindrical
device. This device is ingeniously designed with sequential drawings or photographs
arranged around its interior. As the cylinder is set into motion, spinning rapidly, the
static images blend into a cohesive visual narrative, giving the illusion of fluid
animation.
10. Cutout Animation
Cut-out animation involves producing animations using 2-D characters, props and
scenes cut from materials, such as paper, card or fabric. Animators divide characters
into smaller segments, piece together the individual cut-out shapes and move them in
small steps, taking a picture -- with a film camera capable of taking single pictures --
at each step, to create the illusion of movement.
11. Typography Animation
Typography animation is a dynamic fusion of text and motion, where fonts and letters
are not merely static elements but integral components of the animation itself.
This style artfully combines textual content with animated effects, often used to add
narrative depth and visual interest to opening credits and other text-based sequences.
The fluid transformation and movement of text in typography animation can convey
tone, emotion, and emphasis, making it a powerful tool in visual storytelling.
12. Sand Animation
The manipulation of sand to create animations. There are two techniques for
implementing this, the first technique is characterized by live performances, where the
animator manipulates sand on a physical surface under the soft glow of a light box.
The intricate movements are captured and projected in real-time using sophisticated
camera setups. This live aspect adds an element of immediacy and intimacy to the
animation, allowing audiences to witness the creative process unfold moment by
moment. The second technique involves creating a series of rendered images, each
meticulously crafted by the artist’s hand. In this approach, the animator uses the light
box not just for illumination but as a canvas, where each animation frame is drawn in
sand, only to be erased and replaced by the next in the sequence