GSC101 Handouts 1 29 31 45

Summary of lecture # 1
Introduction to G. Science & System of Measurement
What is it that allows us to term Biology, Chemistry and Physics as sciences whereas
literature, languages, history and art are not termed as sciences? The answer to this
question is the reproducibility of the results is the basic difference between science and
humanity. Science is something which deals with experimentation, has certain methods
and procedures. We can better understand about reproducibility as whatever a person is
saying another scientist or researcher in another laboratory can reproduce those
results…for example we take a small piece of equipment, measure its length and reported
that its length is 10 cm. Another person who has the same equipment can do this and
confirm the result. In other words, we can say that under similar condition and
circumstances will lead to the similar results.
Science is basically means to look, observe and discover something.
Scientific method is a method of procedure consisting in systematic observation,
measurement, and experiment and the formulation, testing and modification of
hypothesis. It is a just roadmap for the study of science itself. It is through this process of
experimentation and refinement by which new scientific knowledge is generated. It is a
process through which we explore, observe and experiment. Scientists use this to search
the cause and effect relationship in nature as something is happen by something which is
causing it. Hypothesis is nothing just a statement conveying that we observe something.
Then we test that statement through experiment and get a set of results. Here we can
reach at three conclusions:
i. Hypothesis is correct and reported.
ii. Hypothesis is partially correct and reported
iii. Hypothesis is incorrect
If we reach at result 2 or 3 then we again observe the facts, consult with actual results and
keep testing until reach the actual result.
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All sciences obey two philosophical principals: 1. Principal of logic and 2. Search fort he
truth.
Physics is known as fundamental science as other sciences use the laws and principals of
Physics.
Physics deals with the study of properties of matter, energy and mutual relationship
between them.
The System International Units is system of units which is used for measurement of
different thing internationally.
Measurement system develops over centuries. The first measurement which is recorded is
cubit. It is a measurement of length. It comes from ancient Egypt. It is the length of the
tip of the finger to the bottom of the arm of a Firon.
In SI Units, there are seven base units:
Base Quantity Unit
Length Meter
Mass Kilogram
Time Second
Current Ampere
Temperature Kelvin
Quantity of a substance Mole
Luminosity Candela
Besides the base unit we have two supplementary units:
Plane angle radian
Solid Angle Steradian
Whenever two same units are added or subtracted, the final unit remains the same. But
when two or more same units or different units are multiplied or divided, we have a new
unit which is known as derived unit. For example
area = length x breadth
m2 = m x m
Or
Speed = distance travelled / time taken
2
ms-1 = m/s
Scientific notation is a method to write very small and very large umbers in powers of
ten, e.g. 100,000,000 = 1 x 108 or 0.00002315 = 2.315 x 10-5.
All the quantities in Physics need three things to be defined and four if we add the
direction:
a) A number telling us how much
b) A unit telling us what the quantity is
c) A prefix if the required quantity is very large or very small like megawatt or
nanometer
d) Direction
Commom Prefixes
1. nano = 1x10-9
2. micro = 1x10-6
3. milli = 1x10-3
4. centi = 1x10-2
5. Kilo = 1x103
6. Mega= 1x106
7. Giga = 1x1012
Physics is divided into two main branches: Classical Physics and Modern Physics
Classical Physics deals with mechanics, waves and light, heat and electricity and
magnetism.
Modern Physics deals with Quantum Mechanics and Atomic and Nuclear Physics.
Mceanics is a branch of science which deals with the study of motion of objects.
Mechanics is divided into two:
Kinematics: It is a branch of Physics which deals with the study of motion of bodies
without the influence of force.
Dynamics: It is a branch of Physics which deals with the study of motion of bodies under
the action of force.
State of rest: A body is said to be in state of rest if it does not change its position with
respect to its surroundings. e.g. a book on the table is at rest.
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State of Motion: A body is in motion if it changes its position with respect to its
surroundings over time.
Motion is of three types:
1. Translatory Motion: Such type of motion in which every particle of a body has
exactly the same motion. Translatory motion is further divided into three types of
motion:
a) Linear Motion: Motion in straight line is called linear motion for
example the motion of freely falling body
b) Circular Motion: Motion in circle is called circular motion for example a
stone attached at one end of a thread, when whirled, it will move along a
circular Path.
c) Ando Motion: If a body moves in an irregular manner is called Random
Motion for example Motion of Football player on the ground, flight of a
butterfly, motion of gas molecules
2. Rotatoryy Motion: The motion of an object around its axis or when each point of
a body moves around a fixed point or axis e.g. motion of a fan, the wheel of
moving vehicle, the hands of a clock.
3. Vibratory Motion: To and fro motion of an object is called vibratory motion. e.g.
motion of pendulum, A Swinging Cradle, Opening and Closing the door of a
refrigerator
Are motion and rest absolute or relative? No these terms rest and motion are relative.
For example, a person inside a car, carrying a ball in his hand will see the ball is at rest.
While for another person, outside the car will see the ball is also moving.
How can a state of motion of a body depend upon the observer? Consider two
observers – one in train and the other on plate form. The person in the train has a book at
his side, for the passenger the book is at rest with respect to him. For the observer on the
platform the book would move at a high-speed as the train hurtles past. Thus the position
of the observer would determine the state of motion of a body.
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LECTURE # 02
Kinematics- I
1. Physical Quantities: A Physical Quantity is that which can be described or

measured in terms of fundamental, derived or supplementary units. Mass or length
or temperature of any quantity can be measured, that quantity is known as physical
quantity. The measurements remain the same (within the accuracy of the measuring
system) irrespective of who makes those measurements Some examples of Physical
Quantities are length, area, volume, time, frequency, speed, volume, mass, force,
electric and magnetic parameters, strength of materials etc.
2. Non-Physical Quantities: Quantities which do not have the same value for all
observers, but are dependant upon who is making the measurement i.e. are
subjective, are non physical quantities. Examples are emotive or ecstatic
measurements like love, hate, beauty, happiness etc.
3. Physical Quantities can be sub-divided into two different components:
a) Vector: the quantity which requires a direction along with magnitude and
unit for its representation. Examples velocity, displacement, acceleration,
force, momentum
b) Scalar: the quantity which requires only magnitude and direction for its
description. Examples distance, speed, mass, time, work, pressure etc.
4. Adding scalar quantities: We add them just like everyday arithmetic i.e. 5 litres of
milk and 7 litres of milk added give 12 litres of milk.
5. Head to tail Rule: This rule is use for addition and subtraction of vectors.
Y Y
B C
2km
Z
X
X Z
1km 1km
1
A D
Resultant = 2km
Vectors are not added with simple arithmetic rules. Join the head of first vector with
the tail of second vector. To get the resultant vector join the tail of first vector with
the head of second vector. This is known as head to tail rule. If we have only two
vectors then we add them by two different ways but the resultant is same in every
case. A+ B = C = B + A. if we have three vector, add them in 6 different ways but
the resultant is same. XYZ, YZX, ZXY, XZY, YXZ and ZYX.
Y
Y
Z
X Resultant = AD
Z D
X
Y
A
Y
X Z X
Z
6. Scalars are physical quantities which do not need a direction to be defined like a
mass of 4 kg or 11 litres of milk etc. While vectors are physical quantities which are
incomplete unless direction is specified, like a force of 200N acting upwards. It is
pertinent to mention that Physical quantities already defined as vectors (weight,
acceleration, velocity etc.) normally do not require mention of direction in a
problem unless it changes during the course of the solution.
7. Distance: Moving between two points (from point A to point B), covers distance.
Displacement: Distance between two points in particular direction is called
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displacement. The SI unit of both distance and displacement is meter. Meter is the
base unit. Some units are smaller than meter and some are lager.
Smaller units (smaller than a meter)

Centimetre (cm) 1/100 of a meter
Millimetre (mm) 1/1000 of a meter
Micrometre (µm) 1/1000 000 of a meter
Larger units (larger than a meter)
kilometre (km) 1,000 meters
Mega-metre (Mm) 1,000,000 meter (rarely used)
Astronomical unit (AU) 150,000,000,000 meters or 1.5x1011m
Light Year (LY) 9,400,000,000,000,000 m or 9.4x1021m
8. Differences between distance and displacement:
¾ Distance is scalar quantity while displacement is a vector quantity

¾ Displacement needs direction while distance not.
¾ Distance is the length of the actual path traversed by an object during
motion in a given interval of time while displacement is the shortest distance
between the two positions of the object in a particular direction during a
given interval of time.
¾ The value of distance can never be negative or zero while the value of
displacement can be negative or zero (if final and initial position coincide).
¾ The actual distance traveled by an object in a given interval of time can be
equal to or greater than the magnitude of Displacement while the
Displacement of an object between two points tells about the shortest
distance between two points. It can be less than the distance.
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Difference between distance and displacement
9. Speed: the distance covered in specific period of time. It is a scalar quantity. Its unit
distance moved
is ms-1. Its formula is speed (v) =
time taken
Velocity: the displacement covered in specific period of time. It is a vector
JJG displacement
quantity. Its unit is ms-1. Its formula is velocity (v) = .
time taken
(We do not normally indicate direction with speed or velocity, but their names
differentiate between vector and scalar quantities – velocity being a vector and
speed a scalar quantity – direction is only mentioned if it changes/or required in the
solution of the problem)
10. For solution of problems, we have divided velocities in different types. Initial
Velocity is the velocity which is at the start of the problem. Its symbol is Vi. Final
Velocity which is asking at the end of the problem. Its symbol is Vf. Average
Velocity: total displacement covered in total interval of time. Instantaneous
velocity, Constant velocity and Variable velocity all have the same symbolic
representation which is V. All velocities have the same units i.e. m/s or ms-1. the
formulas for finding the average and instantaneous velocities:
displacement s
vav = =
time t
∆s
or vinst = lim
∆t →0 ∆t
v f + vi
vav =
2
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11. Relative Velocity: Relative velocity is always a velocity when there are two or more
bodies moving with respect to each other. Relative velocity has two relationships:
a) Bodies moving in the same direction. V relative = V 2 - V 1
b) Bodies moving in opposite directions V relative = V 2 + V 1
12. Acceleration: the time rate of change of velocity. SI unit of acceleration is m/s2 or
ms-2 meters per second squared. It is a vector quantity.
change in velocity
acceleration =
time taken
change in velocity = v f - vi
13. Acceleration and deceleration: both have similarities and differences. Similarities
K v - v
= f have
are: both are vector quantitiesa and i
same unit. Difference is: acceleration is
t
increase in velocity over the time interval. Deceleration is the decrease I velocity
over the time interval.
14. A runner on a race track runs 400m in 42.8 seconds. What is his average speed?
Data:
Distance covered s = 400 m
Time taken t = 42.8 s
Information required: Average Speed?
Relationship (formula)
distance s
speed= =
time t
400m m
speed av = =9.35 or ms -1
42.8s s
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Summary of Lecture # 3
Kinematics- II
GRAPHS
1. Graph: A graph is a mathematical tool or technique to show visually the
relationship between two or more quantities. The quantities are always express
along Horizontal Axis or X-Axis and Vertical axis or Y-Axis. Theses two
relationships show how X-axis changes Y-axis is the visual representation which
tell us the information which is conveyed. In Physics we look at trends therefore
graphs are the best fit curve (or line) of the data points and therefore a continuous
curve. In Biology on the other hand we are looking at living specimens therefore the
line is plotted data point to data point.
2. Shapes of Graphs:
• A proportional quantity increasing with respect to (w.r.t.) another will give a

straight line e.g. a body moving with constant speed time w.r.t. time.
Distance/m
Y-axis
• A quantity constant with time will also give a straight line, but one which is
parallel to the x-axis e.g. position of a book at rest w.r.t. time
Distance/m
Y-axis
time/s X-axis
• A quantity which increase with time but not at a constant rate will give a
curve e.g. distance covered by a falling object w.r.t. time
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Distance/m
Y-axis
time/s X-axis
• A quantity which decreases with time at a constant rate will give a straight
line e.g. speed of a motorcycle once brakes are applied w.r.t. time
speed/ms-1
Y-axis
time/s X-axis
3. Steps required to plot a graph:
i. Choice of variables along x-axis and y-axis means which quantity is to be

represented along x-axis and y-axis alongwith its unit.
ii. Selection of suitable scale: scale means a certain distance along the graph.
Scale should be chosen so that the extreme data points occupy 2/3rd of the
graph area. This allows us to extrapolate what the relationship would be
beyond the data points, i.e. predict what if.
Acceptable scales divisions are magnitudes of 1, 2, 4, and 5 per box. Not
acceptable scale divisions are magnitudes of 3, 6, 7, 8, and 9 per box as
these are difficult to plot or read
iii. Plot the points: Points are plotted to represent the data available. Join the
points to indicate trend by making a best fit curve or straight line.
4. Presentation of the Graph
• Give a suitable title means what is plotting against what i.e. Distance –
Time Graph or a Velocity – Time Graph
• Mention the scale: e.g. 1small box along y-axis represents 1 cm and
1small box along x-axis represents 2 s
• Physical Quantity and units: Mention the physical quantity and scale along
each axis e.g. distance/m.
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• Plot the points to get a curve or a straight line.
5. Relation or proportion
• Direct or increasing proportion means that an object starts from rest when
its distance and time is zero and after some time its velocity is increasing
with the increase in distance and time then there would be a straight line
which shows a Direct or increasing proportion.
• Inverse or decreasing proportion means that an object is moving with
constant velocity and suddenly breaks are applied then the velocity is
decreasing as the distance and time increasing which shows a Inverse or
decreasing proportion
speed/
Distance/ ms
-1
m
time/s time/s
Sometimes acceleration might have not constant with time, so we have curves upward is
increasing proportion or curve downward showing decreasing proportion.
speed/
Distance/ ms-1
m
time/s time/
6. Distance – Time Graph: if distance is increasing with respect to time then we have a
straight line as shown below
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Distance/m
time/s
If the object is moving with constant speed then we have the graph show below
Distance/m
time/s
7. Rate of change, or slope of a graph:
Finding the Rate of change or slope of a graph. Here we define the slop: change in
the value of Y-axis with respect to X-axis.
y2 − y1
Slope =
x2 − x1
Formula:
y2
Distance/m
y1
x1 x2 time/s
Finding the Rate of change or slope of a graph at a point P of a curve at that point.
y 2 − y1
Formula: Slope =
x 2 − x1
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Curve passing point P
Normal to curve at point P

y2
Tangent at point P
Distance/m
P
y1
x1 x2 time/s
Graphs allows us to derive empirical relationships between the quantities represented on

the axis
y2
y2 − y1
Slope =
x2 − x1
Distance/
y1
x1 x2 time/s
y2 − y1 Distance (y 2 -y1 ) Distance

Slope = = =
x2 − x1 time (x2 − x1 ) time
As we know that distance divided by time is speed so slope of a distance time graph is
speed.
y2
Velocity/ms-1
y2 − y1
Slope =
y1 x2 − x1
x1 x2 time/s
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y2 − y1 velocity (y 2 -y1 ) change in velocity
Slope = = =
x2 − x1 time (x2 − x1 ) time
As we know that change in velocity divided by time is acceleration so slope of a distance

time graph is acceleration.
8. Questions
What states of a body’s motion are shown by the following figures?
(a) (b)
Distance/m velocity/ms-1
time/s time/s
(a) The distance is not changing with time – the object is in a state of rest
(b) The figure depicts the state of motion of a body starting from a particular point.
Its velocity is not changing with time i.e. it is moving at a constant velocity
The figure depicts the state of motion of a body starting from rest. Discuss its
acceleration in the sections. Discuss its acceleration in the sections
(a) A to B,
(b) B to C and
(c) C to D
B C
Velocity (ms-1)
A D
Time(s)
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(a) part A to B: Velocity goes from zero to a certain value – velocity is increasing
with time – body is acceleratin
(b) part B to C: Velocity is not changing w.r.t. time so the body is in a state of motion
at a constant speed in a fixed direction i.e. velocity is constant. Acceleration is
zero
(c) part C to D: Velocity in goes from a certain value to zero – velocity is decreasing
with time – body is decelerating.
9. What is meant by negative acceleration and negative velocity. Represent these

changes graphically.
Negative velocity indicates that the displacement is decreasing with time (body is
coming closer). Because acceleration is a vector a negative acceleration shall have a
direction always opposite to the direction of the positive initial velocity. Negative
acceleration normally means that the velocity is decreasing thus the slope of a
velocity time graph should be negative. It is also called retardation. Because
acceleration is a vector a negative acceleration shall have a direction always
opposite to the direction of the positive initial velocity.
Displacement /m
Negative velocity Negative

acceleration
velocity/
ms-1
time/s time/s
10. What is indicated if the straight line (or curve) of the graph does not pass through
the origin.
When a straight line or curve does not pass through the origin it indicates that there is a
residual value at that point. In a distance time graph it would indicate that there is a small
displacement (distance) when the timer was started. Example: a handicap of five meters
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given to a weaker runner in a race i.e. when the race started he already have 5 meters
covered.
y2
Distance (m)
y1
x1 x2 Time(s)
11.
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SUMMARY OF LECTURE # 04
Kinematic Equations
1. The equation of motions tells us that how a body behaves when it is moving or
accelerating. There are three equations of motion also known as fundamental
equations of motion.
2. Symbols Used:
Vi = initial velocity
Vf = final velocity
a = acceleration
t = time
S = displacement
By taking any four of these quantities, we can find one or the other quantity.
3. There are certain conditions when we do equations of motion:
• Motion will always be taken along a straight line

• Acceleration will be constant
• Only the magnitude of velocity and acceleration will be considered
• Initial velocity vi will be positive; any quantity in the direction of vi will be
positive
• any quantity in the opposite direction will be taken as negative
4. Relationship between velocity and time
• A constant velocity means that the speed or the velocity is changing at a

constant rate or Constant acceleration implies a uniform rate of change of
velocity
• The longer the acceleration, the greater the change in velocity
• When a = constant, v ∝ t
5. First Equation of Motion: Derivation
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Suppose that a car is moving with initial velocity vi. After time t, the velocity
becomes vf. The acceleration a is the average acceleration because the car is
moving with uniform acceleration.
change in velocity ∆ velocity ∆v

a= = =
change in time ∆ time ∆t
∆v = ∆ velocity = v f − vi
∆t = t (starting from zero time)
Where ∆ is change
∆v
a=
t
v f − vi
a=
t
Rearranging we get
v f = vi + at
Where Vi = initial velocity, Vf = final velocity, a = acceleration, t = time
6. Suppose that a ball is travelling at 10 ms-1 in a direction that we decide to call

positive and that 6 s later, it is moving in the opposite direction at 20 ms-1. What is
the average acceleration of the ball?
Data available
vi = 10 ms-1 (+)
vf = 20 ms-1 (-) = - 20 ms-1 (+)
t=6s
a=?
Relationship/formula
2
Vf = Vi + at
Substitution
vf = vi + at
- 20 = 10 +a*(6)
- 20 - 10 = 6 a
- 30 = 6 a
a = - 5 ms-2
Minus sign indicates acceleration is directed opposite to direction of initial velocity.
7. A ball is thrown into the air with an initial upward velocity of 19.6 ms-1. What is the
velocity of the ball after 2s? What is the velocity of the ball at 4s.
Data available
vi = 19.6 ms-1 (upwards)
t=2s
a = 9.8 ms-2 (downwards)
vf = ?
Vf = Vi + at
Substitution at t = 2 s
vf = vi + at
vf = 19.6 +(-9.8)(2)
vf = 19.6 – 19.6
vf = 0 ms-1
At rest i.e. at max height
vf = vi + at
vf = 19.6 +(-9.8)(4)
vf = 19.6 – 39.2
vf = -19.6 ms-1
Same as vi but in opposite direction.
8. Second Equation of Motion
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A body is moving with initial velocity vi, After time t, its velocity becomes vf. We
find the total distance, s, covered in time t by the formula
Distance = Time x Average Velocity

s = v avt Æ1.1
Average Velocity is given by

vi + v
v av =
f
2 Æ1.2
(vi + v f )
Substituting eq.1 in eq.2s = t
2
Æ1.3
First Equation of Motion:
vf =vi +at
Substituting the first equation of motion in 1.3
(vi +vi +at) 2vi at
s= t = t+ t
2 2 2
Æ1. 4
Second Equation of Motion: 1

s =vti + at2
2
9. Relationship between Displacement and Time
s = vit +½at2
Displacement of a moving object is proportional to its average velocity and time as
s = vav x t (directly if v is constant; a=0)
Generally s ∝ t2 (accelerated motion)
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Velocity is proportional to time as well
v = a x t (directly if a is constant)
10. Constant Acceleration Motion:
The first graph is indicating that how the position is changing with time. On the
right hand side, second equation of motion is given with the first part missing shows
that the object starts its motion from rest. It is sloping upward indicating that how
distance or displacement is changing with time. In the second graph, we have a
straight line which shows constant acceleration motion because on the right hand
side we have first equation of motion with zero initial velocity. In the third graph,
acceleration is constant with respect to time.
11. A brick is dropped from a height of 78.4 m. How long will it take the brick to reach
the ground? What will its velocity be before touching the ground? Aacceleration
due to gravity is 9.8 ms-2 downwards.
Data available
a =g= 9.8 ms-1 (downwards)
vi = 0 ms-1 (rest)
s = 78.4 m
t = (?); vf = (?)
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s = vit + ½ at2
vf = vi+ at
Substitution for t=?
s = vit + ½ at2
78.4 = 0 x (t) + ½ x 9.8 x t2
78.4 = 4.9 t2
16 = t2
t = 4.0 s
vf = vi+ at
vf = 0 + 9.8 x (4)
vf = 39.2 ms-1
12. Third Equation of Motion: Derivation
From first equation of motion

v f − vi
v f = vi + at ⇒ t =
a
We define velocity as rate of change of displacement.
s
vav = ⇒ s = vav × t
t
Where
v + vi
v av = f
Using value of average velocity and time in equation

v f + vi v f − vi v f 2 − vi 2
s = v av × t = × =
2 a 2a
2as = vf2 – vi2
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This equation shows the relationship between initial velocity, final velocity,
acceleration and distance and is the required the equation of motion.
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Newton’s laws of motion
1. As we studied earlier that mechanics is divided into two branches, kinematic and
dynamics. Now we discussed dynamics here. Dynamics is the branch of Physics which
deals with motion under the influence of force.
2. Aristotle first gives the concept of force as something that caused motion. He stated that
when force acting is stopped, motion ceased.
3. 2000 years later Galileo, who was reputed to challenge Aristotle's teachings, regarded
Aristotle explanation as incomplete because it did not explain why a tossed ball flew in
air after the force on it (our hand) had ceased to act.
4. Sir Isaac Newton was the person who explained this phenomenon in terms we now
consider to be correct. Something that can cause, or try to cause a change in the physical
state of a body.
5. Force can do a lot of things:
a) A force can cause a body to move or cause a moving body to speed up/stop or
change direction
b) A force can compress or stretch a body without causing motion
6. Force: The agent or agency that changes of tends to change the state of a body is called
force. In simple words we can say that an agency causing a pull or a push is a force. The
standard international unit of force magnitude is the Newton (N), which is the equivalent
of a kilogram-meter per second squared (kg m s-2).
7. Types of force: a). Contact Forces b) Non-contact or Action at a distance Forces.
Elastic push–pull force and Frictional or drag force are contact forces while gravitational
force (between two masses like Earth and Moon) and magnetic force (force between two
pieces of magnet) are non-contact forces.
8. Newton's First law: Everybody continues in a state of rest or of uniform motion, in a
straight line, unless an external unbalanced force acts upon it. This is also known as the
Law of Inertia. If an object is at rest, it will remain at rest unless some external force is
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acting on it to change its states and if an object is moving with uniform speed, it will
continue its motion unless some external force is acting on it.
9. Basic Trigonometry: Cartesian coordinate system contains three mutually perpendicular
directions x, y and z and is a three dimensional system also known as the real life system
of coordinates.
Why we use coordinate system? The coordinate system combines with the trigonometry
gives us important relationship for the solving the problems. In physics, we are dealing
with two dimensional space.
Trigonometric ratios
y
Sinθ =
r
x
Cosθ =
r
Sinθ y
Tanθ = =
Cosθ x 2
x + y = r2
2 2
10. Force: Free body diagrams: A free body diagram represents all forces on a body, so we
can understand what action is performed by what force.
Example: a car on the road, four forces act on the car. Size of the arrows would be
indicative of magnitude of the Forces on the car.
11. Mass: quantity of matter in an object or the ability of matter to resist against the action of
force. The SI unit of mass is a kilogram (kg) and as we have already studied it is a scalar
quantity (i.e. has magnitude but no direction)
12. Newton’s second law of motion: Acceleration produced in a body is directly proportional
to the applied force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body
a∝F
1
a∝
m
Combining we get,
F
a∝
m
3
F = constant × ma
In the SI measurement system the unit of force is a Newton [N] and is defined such that a
1 N force causes an acceleration of 1 ms-2 in a mass of 1 kg
N = kg m s-2
1 N = constant × 1 kg × 1 ms-2
1 = constant
Therefore in the SI measurement system F = ma
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LINEAR MOMENTUM & TENSION IN A STRING

1. Mass: The quantity of matter in a body is called mass. It is a scalar quantity and
its unit is the kilogram [kg].
Matter: Anything that can occupy space and has mass is called matter. Examples: table,
television, water, cold drink, gas, air etc.
Non-matter: Things that do not occupy space or do not has mass are called non-matter
e.g. data stored in hard disk of computer, feelings, thoughts, vacuum etc.
2. States of Matter: matter exits in four different states.
a) Solid Solids
b) Liquid
c) Gas Fluids
d) Plasma
3. Mass and weight in relation to force: F= ma Mass is the characteristic of a body
which determines the magnitude of acceleration when a force is applied to it. W =
mg weight is the force with which the Earth attracts a body towards its centre and
we call it as the gravitational field strength or acceleration due to gravity. Weight
is a force so a vector quantity. W = mg
W FE
g= =
m m
4. Difference between mass and weight:
Mass Weight
Mass is the characteristic of a body Weight is force with which he earth attracts
which determines the magnitude of a mass towards its centre
acceleration when a force is applied
to it
Mass is a scalar quantity Weight is a vector quantity directed
towards the centre of the earth
Mass remains same everywhere Weight varies as g varies
Mass of a body cannot be equal to The weight of the body can be equal to
1
zero zero (at the centre or beyond the
gravitational pull of earth)
The unit of mass is kilogram The unit of weight is newton
Mass can be measured by physical Weight can be measured by spring balance
or electronic balance
Mass is a base or fundamental Weight is a derived quantity
quantity
Mass is independent of the position Weight depends on the position of the body
of the body from the centre of the earth
Mass can be calculated by the The value of weight can be calculated by
formula the formula W = mg
F = ma,
5. Question: The mass of an astronaut is 65 kg.

(i) What will be his weight on the surface of the earth?
(ii) What will be his weight on the surface of moon where value of
g = 1.6 ms-2?
Data :
Mass of astronaut = m = 65 kg
Value of g, on earth surface = g = 9.8 m s-2
Weight of astronaut on earth = W = ?
Formula used
W = mg
W = 65 kg x 9.8 m s-2
W = 637 kg m m s-2
Weight = 637 N
Mass of astronaut on the surface of moon
Data :
mass of astronaut m = 65 kg
Value of g, on moon surface g = 1.6 m s-2
Weight of astronaut on moon W =?
2
Formula used
W = mg
W = 65 kg x 1.6 m s-2
W = 637 kg m m s-2
Weight = 104 N
6. Newton’s third law of motion: For every action there is an equal but opposite
reaction. However, action and reaction are on different bodies. Examples Weight
of a book is downwards while push of table is upwards. A bullet leaving a gun
moves forward while the gun recoils backwards.
7. Newton (or third law) pair of forces are always
• Equal in magnitude
• Opposite in direction
• On different bodies
• Acting on same line of action
8. Tension in a string due to gravity:
Tension: The Force exerted along a string due to load on one or both of the ends of the string.
As tension is a force so its SI unit Newton
Case I a: Bodies at rest, under tension vertically under gravity
T and W are third law pair of forces therefore
T = W = mg (magnitude)
Directions are opposite
T
W = mg
W = mg
Case I b: Bodies in motion, under tension vertically under gravity
(T − W1 ) = − F1 = −m1a
m1 g − T = m1a
T = m1 g − m1a
(T − W2 ) = F2 = m2 a
T − m2 g = m2 a
T = m2 a + m2 g 3
T = m1 g − m1a
T = m2 a + m2 g
m1 g − m1a = m2 a + m2 g
m1 g − m2 g = m2 a + m1a
( m1 − m2 ) g = ( m2 + m1 ) a
( m2 + m1 ) a = ( m1 − m2 ) g T T
a= 1
( m − m2 ) g
( m2 + m1 )
Here, a is the acceleration of the F1 = - m1a

system as well as the individual
F2 = m2a
m1
bodies (which because they are
connected behave as a system) m2
T = m2 a + m2 g W1 = m1g
a=
( m1 − m2 ) g
( m2 + m1 ) W2 = m2g
T = m2 1
( m − m2 ) g + m g
( m2 + m1 ) 2
⎡ ( m − m2 ) ⎤
T =⎢ 1 + 1⎥ m2 g
⎢⎣ ( m2 + m1 ) ⎥⎦
⎡ ( m − m2 ) + ( m2 + m1 ) ⎤
T =⎢ 1 ⎥ m2 g
⎢⎣ ( m2 + m1 ) ⎥⎦
⎡ 2m1 ⎤ 2m1m2
T =⎢ ⎥ m2 g = g
⎢⎣ ( m2 + m1 ) ⎥⎦ ( m2 + m1 )
9. Problem: Two bodies of masses 1 kg and 2 kg respectively are tied to a string
which moves over a frictionless pulley. Find the acceleration of the bodies and the
tension in the string
Data :
mass m1= 1.0 kg, mass m2 = 2.0 kg, g = 9.8 m s-2
Solution
( m1 − m2 ) g T=
2m1m2
g
a=
( m2 + m1 ) ( m2 + m1 )
2 × 2 ×1
( 2 − 1) × 9.8 T= × 9.8
a= ( 2 + 1)
( 2 + 1) 4
4
1 T = × 9.8 = 13.07 N
a = × 9.8 = 3.27ms −2 3
3
10. Case II(a): string under tension, held stationary horizontally and the body
hanging vertically under force of gravity,
R T
T
T = W = m1g (magnitude)
T and W are third law pair of forces
R =T are also third law pair of forces
Directions are opposite W = m1g
T −W = 0 m1
T = W = m1 g
T =R W = m1g
Case II(b): Bodies under tension during motion, one body moving vertically
under force of gravity, the other moving horizontally under the force of
tension:
R
F = m2a T2
m2
T1
W = m2g
W = m1g
Direction of motion is negative
because it is downwards
m1
W = m1g
5
T = T1 = T2
T = W = m1g
R =m2g
T = F = m2a
−T = −m2 a
T = m2 a
(T − W ) = −m1a
T = m1 g − m1a
m1 g − m1a = m2 a
m1 g − m1a = m2 a
m1 g = m2 a + m1a
m1 g = ( m2 + m1 ) a
m1
a= g
( m2 + m1 )
T = m2 a
m1
T = m2 g
( m2 + m1 )
m1m2
T= g
( m2 + m1 )
11. Problem: A block of mass 6 kg is placed on a smooth horizontal surface. It is
connected to another mass of 4 kg by means of a string passing over a smooth
frictionless pulley, assuming no friction between the surface and the block find
the tension in the string and the acceleration of the system of blocks.
Data :
mass m1 = 4.0 kg mass m2 = 6.0 kg g = 9.8 m s-2
Solution:
a=
( m1 ) g T=
m1m2
g
( m2 + m1 ) ( m2 + m1 )
a=
( 6 ) × 9.8 T=
4×6
× 9.8
( 4 + 6) ( 4 + 6)
24
a=
6
× 9.8 = 5.88ms −2 T= × 9.8 = 23.52 N
10 10
6
12. Momentum: The product of mass and velocity is called Momentum. It is a vector
quantity. Unit of Momentum = (mass x velocity) i.e. [kg ms-1] or N s
Momentum = mass x velocity
M = mv
The rate of change of momentum is equal to the force and takes place in the
direction of the applied force.
m∆v ∆M
F = ma = =
t t
This is another statement of Newton’s Second Law.
13. Law of conservation of momentum: When two (or more) bodies collide there is
no net change in momentum, provided no external force acts. Thus if there is no
change then the momentum of bodies before collision has to be equal to the
momentum of the same bodies after collision.
Momentum of bodies before collision = m 1u 1 + m 2 u 2
Momentum of the same bodies after collision = m 1 v1 + m 2 v 2
OR
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2 v2
Explanation: When we fire a gun the bullet goes forward and the gun recoils
Momentum of gun and Momentum of gun and
bullet before firing bullet after firing
m1u1 + m2u2 = 0 m1v1 + m2v2

Both at rest
0 = m1v1 + m2v2
0 = m1v1 + m2v2
m1v1 = −m2v2
m1v1 = −m2v2
m1
m v2 = − v1
v1 = − 2 v2 m2
m1
14. How does a car stop? Why is it easier to drive on a dry road? The answer to these
question lies in the inherent property of matter i.e. friction. It is a force acting in
opposite direction to movement. Whenever two surfaces slide over each other the
force which does not allow the motion to take place is known as friction. When
7
two surfaces meet, there are some contact points between them. These are
microscopic contact points.
15. Advantages of Friction

• Vehicles can move
• Vehicles can stop (apply brakes)
• Machines can work
• We can walk
• We can do work
• A pencil can be held
• A nail can be fixed in the wall
16. Disadvantages of Friction
• Energy is lost (wasted)
• Wear and tear of machines, instruments
• More fuel is consumed
• Parts and machinery need replacement
• Lubrication is required
• Etc.
17. Types of Friction:
• Static Friction: when body is at rest the force of friction is known as static
friction.
• Kinetic friction: whenever two objects moving, there is a frictional force
known as Kinetic friction. Kinetic friction is less than static friction.
• Rolling Friction: when an object rolling down the ground, the friction is
rolling friction. As the contact points between the object and ground are very
very small, so rolling friction is minimal. Rolling friction has a vide
application in Ball Barings.
8
• Sliding Friction: sling friction is present when an object is sliding with other
object.
• Limiting Friction: when force is applied to overcome the friction, a slight
more increase in force is going to cause motion is known as limiting friction.
limiting friction is very essential in solving problems
18. How to calculate friction: friction depends upon the weight. The larger the weight
of the object, the larger the friction would be. Friction is directly proportional to
weight. Weight and the reaction of the surfaces are identical so friction is directly
proportional to reaction: W = mg
f∝R R = W = mg
f=µR fk = µ k R
µ is known as coefficient of friction fs = µ sR
19. Methods to reduce Friction

• Polish surfaces
• Apply lubricant
• Use rolling objects wherever possible
(ball bearings)
• Streamline the objects (ships aeroplanes etc)
9
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER- I
1. When we say an object does work, what does this means? For example an object
is lying on table. Is it doing any work? No, it is not doing any work because it is
lying on the table. In physics work is defined as the work which is useful. The
work is defined as the product of force and displacement.
Work = Force x Displacement
G x Distance (covered in the direction of force)

= Force
G
W =F s
The force should acting on a body should be a net unbalanced force and the body
should cover some distance under the action of this force
Work is a scalar quantity and its units are N m or Joule (J)
2. What about action reaction forces?
A R = mg B R = mg
F F
Displacement
W=mg W=mg
From the figure, weight of the object acts in downward direction and reaction of
the surface is in upward direction, so equal and opposite cancel out each others
effect and does not allowing the object to move in the vertical direction. So the
object is moved from point A to point B and covers displacement X in the
direction of force. This is the force F which is causing the work.
3. conditions for the work to be done:
(a) Force (F) must be acting on the body
(b) The body should cover distance (s) in direction of force
1
Case 1 F= 0 Case 2 s = 0
F =0 F ≠0
s≠0 s=0
G G
W = Fs = 0 W = Fs = 0
4. Work against gravity:

F = mg
s=x
W = mgx F = W = mg
Work done in falling and rising has to be same

Displacement x
therefore we say that work against gravity has
also to be equal to mgx
F = W = mg
5. Sometimes force is applied at an angle. Then we use trigonometric relations to

find out the work. The factors upon which work done depend:
G
a) Force acting (F) W = Fs
b) Distance covered in direction of force (s) W = F C o sθ s
c) Angle at which the force acts. W = F s C o sθ
Angle at which the force acts.
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
θ = 0o θ = 90o θ = 180o
W = Fs[Cos 0] W = Fs[Cos90] W = Fs[Cos180]
W = Fs[1] W = Fs[0] W = Fs[−1]
W = Fs W =0 W = − Fs
For all other angles the net work will always be less than Fs
6. Unit of Work:
Unit of work done = Unit of force x Unit of Displacement
2
Work is a scalar quantity and its units are N m or Joule (J)
Joule: Work done will be one joule when a 1 Newton force acts on a body and it
covers a distance on 1 meter in the direction of force.
Larger Unit: kJ = 1,000 J = 10³ J
MJ = 1,000,000 J = 106 J
7. Problem: A Labourer pusher a heavy crate through a distance of 20m, if the force
of the labourer is 250 N, what is quantity of the work done.
Data :
Force applied = F = 250N
Distance moved = s = 20 m
Work done = W =?
Solution:
GG
W =F s
W = 250 × 20
W = 5, 000 J
8. Power: Rate of doing work is power i.e. Work done per unit time is power
W Work done
P= =
t Time taken
Power is a scalar quantity and its unit is the Watt. If 1 Joule of work is done in
one second then the power is 1 W
Larger Unit: kW = 1,000 W = 10³ W
MW = 1,000,000 W = 106 W
9. Problem: A motor pumps 2,000 kg of water in one hour from a well to an
overhead tank through a distance of 50 m. Find the power of the motor.
Data :
Mass = m = 2,000 kg
Force applied = F = 19,600 N
Distance moved = s = 50 m
Time taken = t = 3,600s
Power P=?
F = mg = 2000 × 9.8
F = 19, 600 N
W = mgx = 2000 × 9.8 × 20
W = 392, 000 J
3
W 392, 000
P= = = 108.88W
t 3, 600
10. Energy: “It is the ability of a body to do work.” Energy is needed to do any type
of work. Energy is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is that of Work i.e. Joule
1J=1Nx1m
MJ = 1,000,000 J = 106 J
4
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER- II

1. Energy: “It is the ability of a body to do work.” Energy is needed to do any type
of work. Energy is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is that of Work i.e. Joule
1J=1Nx1m
MJ = 1,000,000 J = 106 J
2. Types of Energy:
• Kinetic Energy
• Potential Energy (a) Gravitational (b) Elastic PE
• Chemical
• Heat Energy,
• Nuclear Energy,
• Solar Energy etc.
• Light Energy
• Sound Energy
• Electrical Energy
3. Conversion of Energy: Energy can be converted from one form to another for of
energy
4. Conservation of Energy: from the law of conservation of energy, Energy can
neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be converted from one form to the
other.
5. Mechanical Energy: Kinetic energy and potential energy collectively called
mechanical energy.
a) Kinetic Energy: Energy (or ability to do work) a body possesses due to its
state of motion
1 2
Kinetic Energy (KE) = mass of body x (velocity) 2 = KE =
mv
2
b) Potential Energy: Energy (or ability to do work) a body possesses due to
its position or state. PE is further divided into two:
i. Gravitational potential Energy is due to height of the object which it
is possesses
ii. Elastic Potential Energy: the energy stored in a spring is EPE.
6. Kinetic Energy (derivation): Assuming a body starts from rest and attains a final
velocity v,
1
v f 2 − vi 2 = 2as
F
a=
m
⎛F⎞
v f 2 − vi 2 = 2 ⎜ ⎟ s
⎝m⎠
1
(
F × s = m v f 2 − vi 2
2
)
1 1
KE = mv f 2 − mvi 2
2 2
Substituting values of vi = 0 and vf = v
1 1
KE = m(v) 2 − m(0) 2
2 2
1
KE = m(v) 2
2
7. Problem: A fast bowler bowls a cricket ball of mass 0.25 kg at 20 ms-1. What is
the kinetic energy of the ball?
If a slow bowler bowls at half this speed what is the work done by the slow
bowler.
Data :
m = 0.25 kg
v = 20 ms-1
v = 10 ms-1
KE (fast) = ?
KE (slow) = ?
Solution:
1 1
KE ( fast ) = m(v ) 2 KE ( slow) = m(v ) 2
2 2
1 1
KE ( fast ) = × 0.25 × (20) 2 KE ( slow) = × 0.25 × (10) 2
2 2
KE = 50 J KE = 12.5 J
8. G. Potential Energy (derivation): Assuming a body moves a distance h under
gravity
W = Fs
W = mg s
W = mgh
9. Other Energies:
• Chemical Energy: It is the energy produced as a result of Chemical
Reaction. E.g: Energy in Cell Battery, burning of wood coal etc.
2
• Elastic P.E: Energy produced in compressed or stretched elastic object.
E.g: Energy in a compressed spring.
• Gravitational P.E: Energy due to the position of a body above the earth
surface. For a body of Mass “m” at height “h” above the earth’s surface.
Gravitational P.E = Wt x h=mg h
• Internal Energy: It is the energy possessed by the constituent molecules of
a substance. i.e. due to the temperature of the body
• Electric Energy: It is the energy produced by the coils of a generator when
run by a turbine or a turning mechanical force in a magnetic field
• Sound Energy: It is the energy produced by a vibrating body.
• Magnetic Energy: Energy due to forces of attraction/repulsion between
two magnets
• Electric Potential Energy: Energy due to forces of attraction/repulsion
between two charges
• Solar Energy: It is the energy produced by the Sun.
• Tidal: Energy due to forces rising and falling of ocean tides
• Geothermal: Energy present inside the earth (hot molten core)
10. Question: Show that the unit for work and energy are the same –
KE =
1 2
mv
PE = mgh W = Fs = mas
2 ⎛m⎞ ⎛m⎞
2 PE = [kg ] ⎜ 2 ⎟ [m] W = kg ⎜ 2 ⎟ [m]
⎛m⎞ ⎝s ⎠
KE = [×][kg ] ⎜ ⎟
⎝s⎠ ⎝s ⎠
KE = kgm 2 s −2
KE = kgm 2 s −2 W = kgm 2 s −2
kg m s-2 is same as J (joule) – so units of KE, PE and Work are same
11. Is any work done when we lift a load from the surface of the earth to a height h?
As there is a difference of Energy (PE) therefore Work has to be done to raise the
mass from surface to height h. PE = mg (h)
12. Difference between transfer modes – heating and working: Both heating and
working transfers energy from one form to another – one uses a temperature
difference the other uses a force. eg of use of a temperature difference (heating) a
kettle and use of a force (working); a pendulum
3
13. Reversible and Irreversible conversions: Reversible conversions are interchanges
of Energy that can be inter-converted or recovered, whereas in the case of an
irreversible conversion the energy transformation is not recoverable or that it
cannot be used again e.g. Reversible: Mechanical (spring stretching/compression)
Electric energy in rechargeable batteries and Irreversible: Loss due to friction,
Burning of fuel, e.g. - Energy from coal
14. Matter is also a form of energy. Or Matter can be converted into energy.
E = mc²,
c = speed of light, m = mass, E = energy
15. Renewable and non-renewable sources of energies: Renewable sources are those
which are refilled over a finite period of time and can be used again e.g. Solar,
Hydal, Tidal, Waves, Rechargeable batteries etc. sources which become depleted
when used e.g. oil, gas, coal and wood etc.
16. Inter-conversion of mechanical energy: Assuming a body of mass m falls a
distance h under gravity from points A to C through B
At point A
1 2
KE = mv = 0
2
PE = mgh
W = mgh
TE = PE + KE
1
TE = mgh + mv 2
2
TE = mgh
At point B
1
KE = mv 2
2
v f − vi 2 = 2 gx
2
v f 2 = 2 gx
1
KE = m ( 2 gx )
2
KE = mgx
PE = mg (h − x)
PE = mgh − mgx
TE = PE + KE 4
TE = ( mgh − mgx ) + mgx
TE = mgh
At point C
1 2
KE = mv
2
v f 2 − vi 2 = 2 gh
v f 2 = 2 gh
1
KE = m ( 2 gh )
2
KE = mgh
PE = mg (h)
PE = 0
TE = PE + KE
TE = 0 + ( mgh )
TE = mgh
Total Energy remains constant

TEA = TEB = TEC = TE
However, PE at A is converted to KE at C.
17. Biological system also have energy converting systems:
• You stand up your seat causes an increase in your gravitational P.E.
• As PE has increased then as per the law of conservation of energy, energy
must be converted from some other type of energy so that you increase
your gravitational P.E. (the obvious answer is the chemical energy in what
you eat i.e food. The internal energy of food is converted into Chemical
Energy that is stored in muscles. Muscles contract and relax and convert
this energy into kinetic or gravitational P.E. For example: 100g of ice
cream give us 1.05 MJ or 1.05 x 106 J of energy.
18. Questions: What type of energy is stored in.
a) Compressed spring: Elastic potential energy
b) Moving body: Kinetic Energy
c) Falling water in a hydroelectric reservoir or Dam: Gravitational P. E.
d) Hot cup of coffee: Thermal or heat Energy
5
e) Tides of ocean: Tidal Energy (can be kinetic, potential or both)
f) Air moving west: Wind Energy
g) Current carrying wire: Electrical Energy
Q: 2. Can we create or destroy energy? Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed it can only be converted into another form of energy
Q: 3. Is there any work done during conversion of energy? If the energy
conversion involves Force then work is done, if it is a thermal exchange without
change of volume then work is not done as no force is involved.
19. Energy and power: power can be defined as rate of change of energy.
Energy transfered E
Power = =
time taken t
work done Fs s
Power = = = F = Fv
time taken t t
Power = Fv = Force applied × velocity
Unit of Power is Joules per second or Watt
1 Watt = 1 J s-1
20. Efficiency: useful energy output to the input is called efficiency. Or Fraction of
energy of a system, performing useful work, is the efficiency of that system.
E( useful ) out
efficiency % = ×100
Ein
If we multiply and divide the above relation with time then we can define
efficiency as the useful power output to the input.
E( useful ) out
efficiency =
Ein
E( useful ) out
efficiency = time
Ein
time
Power( useful ) out
efficiency =
Powerin
6
Power(useful ) out
Powerin
ENERGY Power & HEAT
1. Efficiency: useful energy output to the input is called efficiency. Or Fraction of energy of
a system, performing useful work, is the efficiency of that system.
E( useful ) out
Ein
If we multiply and divide the above relation with time then we can define efficiency as
the useful power output to the input.
E( useful ) out
efficiency =
Ein
E( useful ) out
efficiency = time
Ein
time
Power( useful ) out
efficiency =
Powerin
Power(useful ) out
Powerin
2. Problem: A central heating system provides 250 kJ of energy in shape of hot water
circulating in the system. If the amount of gas consumed releases 400 kJ of energy,
calculate the efficiency of the system.
Data: E( useful ) out
efficiency =
E (in) = 400 kJ Ein
E useful (out) = 250 kJ 250, 000
efficiency = × 100
E( useful ) out 400, 000
efficiency = ×100 % efficiency = 62.5%
Ein
1
What is the power of a boiler which provides 288 kJ of energy in four minutes? The
boiler is run on an electric power input of 2000 Watts - what is its efficiency.
Data: E 288, 000
P= = = 1200W
P (in) = 2000 W t 240
E useful (out) = 280,000 J p( useful ) out
efficiency =
pin
Time t = 240 s
1200
efficiency = ×100
2000
efficiency = 60.0%
3. In a car fuel is burnt and a lot of energy is waste in the surroundings in the form of
exhaust heat and friction to the ground. A small potion is given to the KE in which we are
interesting. Normally a car uses only 35% of its fuel energy to attain the KE whereas
65% is lost as heat to the surroundings – clearly an inefficient use.
Heat lost 65%
Input 100%
KE 35%
Car is a useful vehicle because it takes people and luggage’s from one place to another
place, therefore, we accept this usages. We accept this wastage because as a consequence
we move from one point to another point very effectively.
4. Why do we need to increase efficiency? From the figure car A uses only 35% of its
energy as KE and 65 % as wastage while ca B uses 45% energy as KE and 55% as
Wastage so it has a higher speed. Sometimes we have to speed up the car, we require the
efficiency. However it does compromise on other things for example racing cars are
highly efficient because they have to compete with each other and weight and fuel of the
car is limited. The more efficient is the car, the faster it will travel. A small fraction of the
energy efficiency will result an increase in the speed.
2
Heat lost 65%
Input 100%
KE 35%
Heat lost 55%
Input 100%
KE 45%
5. Heat: Heat is a form of energy that transfers (flows) from one body (at a higher temp) to
the other body (at a lower temp). A body consists of particles in different state of
motion and bonding – because of which the body can possesses all types of energies,
translational, rotational, vibrational or random energies. Sum of these energies is manifest
as ‘Internal energy’ or HEAT of that body.
Unit of Heat: As heat is a form of energy therefore, its unit is also same as that of energy
i.e. In the S.I system the unit of Heat is “Joule” or ‘Newton meter.
6. Difference: Temperature of a body refers to its degree of hotness or coldness and Heat of
a body refers to the amount of thermal energy that flows from that body.
7. We determine if an object is hot or cold from the amount of heat that it gives out (or
draws away), however, as hotness is a relative term we need to define a system which
tells us which object is hotter.
8. Law of Heat Exchange: Two body at different temperatures interact with each other in
such a way that one body loses and other gains heat. Heat like any energy flows from a
higher (hotter) to a lower (colder) levels. Net heat exchange, in a system, is zero as is
required by the law of conservation of energy. Two bodies which are in thermal
equilibrium cannot have a net heat exchange between them.
9. When heat is added to a system it, what happens to the system:
a) Gains energy.
3
b) Increases its internal energy (Rotational, translational, vibration and random
energies)
c) Appears as work done on system
d) Usually result in expansion of matter.
10. When heat is taken out of a system it, what happens to the system:
a) Loses energy.
b) Decreases its internal energy (Rotational, translational, vibration and random
energies)
c) Appears as work done by the system.
d) Usually result in contraction of matter.
11. Thermometry: The branch of Physics which deals with the measurement of temperature.
Thermometer: A device used for the measurement of temperature. SI Unit of
Temperature is “Kelvin”. It is a fundamental or base quantity and the symbol is K.
12. Principle: Most practical thermometers (e.g. laboratory, clinical) are based on the
physical property of most solids/liquids that they expand (e.g. metals, alcohol, mercury)
on heating. A Thermometer is used for the measurement of temperature of objects it is in
thermal equilibrium with. Thermal equilibrium means, it is the state when two bodies, in
contact, attain the same temperature.
A contact type thermometer can only measure the temperature of an object it is in thermal
equilibrium with.
13. A thermometer is a device which uses a physical property that changes linearly with
temperature, to determine the temperature of a body. There are different physical
properties which can be used to create a thermometer. It does not necessarily to have be
linear but it has to be unique. In other words one temperature should give one value of
that particular property.
Physical property that changes with
Thermometer Type
temperature
Volume of a fixed mass of liquid Liquid–in-glass
4
Pressure of a fixed mass of gas Constant volume gas
Resistance of a metal Resistance
Voltage (e.m.f) Thermocouple
Length of a metal Spiral metallic gauge
Wavelength of Light Pyrometer
14. Temperature Scales: in order to thermometer work, what required is:

a) a substance which has a physical property that changes continuously with
temperature
b) two fixed points and a scale between them.
Reference scales which agree at certain fixed points or positions are used to measure
temperature. There are three temperature scales: the Celsius or centigrade scale, the
Fahrenheit scale, the Kelvin scale. Reference or Fixed points are physical states, the
temperature of which is fixed by definition
i. steam point i.e. boiling point of water at standard pressure
ii. ice point i.e. freezing point of water at standard pressure
Thermometers which are calibrated to known fixed points

(e.g. 0 and 100°C) will be accurate (i.e. will give a true
reading) at those points.
The precision or resolution of a thermometer is simply to what

fraction of a degree it is possible to make a reading.
For high temperature work it may only be possible to measure

to the nearest 10°C or more.
Laboratory liquid-in-glass, clinical thermometers and many

electronic thermometers are usually readable to 0.1°C.
Special instruments can give readings to one thousandth of a

degree. However, this precision does not mean the reading is
true or accurate.
15. For many purposes reproducibility is important. That is, does the same thermometer give
the same reading for the same temperature (or do replacements or multiple thermometers
give the same reading)? Reproducible temperature measurement means that comparisons
are valid in scientific experiments and industrial processes are consistent
5
16. Working of Liquid in Glass thermometer: mercury is filled in a bulb of a very thin glass
tube. Glass is an insulator and therefore heat has to be passed through the glass bulb into
the mercury which is going to then expand. Here is a small thin construction which
restricts the mercury from flowing into the capillary unless it expands or it is forced to
going back. Capillary is enclosed in a thick glass tube because we do not want that the
liquid loses heat and give us false reading.
Mercury in a Constriction
thin bulb
Graduations
Thin capillary
Thick Glass Tube
Expanding liquid
Celsiu Kelvi Fahrenhei
100o C 373 K 212o F

Steam point
0o C 273 K 32o F
Ice point
Difference 100o C 100 K 180o F

between Ice
and Steam
points
These scales were developed in different times due to different requirements. First,
Fahrenheit scale was developed then Celsius scale which is more practical and more
commonly because it breaks up into 100 divisions easily. it is more manageable and more
understandable.
6
Ice point and steam point on Celsius scale is 0o C and 100o C respectively. There is a
difference of 100 Division. Ice point and steam point on Kelvin scale is 0 K and 100 K
respectively. There is also a difference of 100 divisions. Achange in temperature of one
degree Celsius is the same as a change of one Kelvin. Ice point and steam point on
Fahrenheit scale is 32o F and 212o F respectively. There is difference of 180o F between
the ice point and steam point.
Unknown
Ice Point Steam point
temperature X
x l
l0 lX l100
0o C TX 100oC
Basically this diagrams shows how does a thermometer work. There are two points
shown in the figure which are ice and steam points represented by l0 and l100 respectively.
The unknown temperature might be at point X. A change of property is length
corresponds to 1 degree changes in Celsius or One hundredth of the change in property
(length) between the Ice point and the steam point corresponds to one degree Celsius. If
we plotting this on a graph, we are assuming that the property is changing continuously
between the ice and steam points. So we would have a straight line on the graph between
the ice and steam points or between l0 and l100 . lX basically the unknown temperature
which is to be measured.
l( x ) − l(0)
Tx / o C = ×100
l(100) − l(0)
7
T/oC
100
(steam
Tx
0
(ice
l0 lx l100 length/m
17. Problem: In an unmarked thermometer it was found the length at the ice point was 5 cm
and at the steam point it was 25 cm. Find unknown temperatures when the length was (i)
14 cm and (ii) 3 cm.
Data
l( x ) − l(0) l( x ) − l(0)
l0 = 5 cm
o
Tx1 / C = ×100 o
Tx2 / C = × 100
l(100) − l(0) l(100) − l(0)
l100 = 25 cm
14 − 5 3−5
o
Tx1 / C = ×100 o
Tx2 / C = × 100
lx1 = 14 cm 25 − 5 25 − 5
Tx2 / C = −10 C
o o o o
lx2 = 3 cm Tx1 / C = 45 C
18. Inter conversion from one scale to other:
( Temp on scale A ) − ( ice point on scale A ) ( Temp on scale B ) − ( ice point on scale B )
=
number of divisions on scale A number of divisions on scale B
Inter conversion from Fahrenheit scale to Celsius scale
TC − 0 TF − 32
=
100 180
100
TC = × (TF − 32)
180
5 9
TC = × (TF − 32) OR TF = × TC + 32
9 5
8
Inter conversion from Kelvin scale to Fahrenheit scale
TK − 273 TF − 32
=
100 180
100
TK = × (TF − 32) + 273
180
5 9
TK = × (TF − 32) + 273 or TF = × (TK − 273) + 32
9 5
Inter conversion from Kelvin scale to Celsius scale
TK − 273 TC − 0
=
100 100
100
TK = × (TC − 0) + 273
100
TK = TC + 273 or TC = TK − 273
9
HEAT-II
1. Before we begin – we shall do a couple of numerical to reinforce the
methodology of changing temperature scales
Problem 1. The hottest place on Earth as of 2005 is in the Lut Desert in Iran at
70.7 degrees Celsius. This inviting region is abiotic – meaning without life; not
even bacteria have been found. The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on
Earth was −89.2 °C at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983.
Convert these temperatures to their Fahrenheit and Kelvin equivalent
Data:
T Hot = 70.7o C
T Cold = - 89.2o C
Celsius to Fahrenheit
5 9
TC = × (TF − 32) TF ( Hot ) = × 70.7 + 32 = 159.3 F
o
9 5
9 9
TF = × TC + 32 TF ( Cold ) = × (−89.2) + 32 = −128.6 F
o
5 5
Celsius to Kelvin
TC = (TK − 273) TK ( Hot ) = 70.7 + 273 = 343.7 K
TK ( Cold ) = ( −89.2) + 273 = 183.8 K
Problem 2. Find the temperature at which the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales have
the same value
Data:
TC = TF =?
5
TC = × (TF − 32)
TC − 0 TF − 32 9
=
100 180 5
TC = × (TC − 32)
100 9
TC = × (TF − 32)
180 9T = 5T − 32 × 5
C C
5 4T = −160
TC = × (TF − 32)
C
9 TC = −40 C = −40o F = T
o
F
1
2. Thermal Expansion in Matter: Heat when added to matter, normally causes
expansion in all states (Solid, Liquid, Gas). That is, all materials, when heated,
normally undergo physical expansion, this expansion is termed as Thermal
expansion. Different materials will expand by different amounts for the same rise
in temperature. There are some materials which contract on heating – these are
said to have anomalous behaviour – water near its freezing point has such
behaviour. As a rule gases expand more than liquids and liquids expand more than
solids. The fact that different materials expand by different amounts for the same
rise in temperature is used in many applications. The most common being a
thermostat.
3. Thermal Expansion in Solids: A Solid Thermostat. Two metal strips having
different expansion rates are welded together and riveted at one end. On heating
the larger expansion of one metal forces the system to bend – this is employed in
many devices, like a thermostat, where the force of the bent strips is used to make
or break an electrical contact.
Linear Expansion in Solids: The expansion in one dimension is known as linear

expansion. Materials have three dimensions then how can we say material is
expanding in one dimension only? Take a thin long rod (length 50 cm) of
diameter 1 cm2 and heating the rod. After heating its length increases by 1 cm and
diameter increases 1/50 cm which is negligible as compared with length so this is
constrained to expand in one direction only. This expansion will depend upon:
(a) original length of the thin rod
(b) Change in temperature
(c) Nature of the material of the rod
2
L1 L2
T1 T2
L1 L2
∆L = Change in length = L2 - L1
L2 = Length after Linear expansion.
L1 = Original Length
α = Coefficient of linear expansion.
∆L = L2 − L1
∆T = T2 − T1
L2 − L1 ∝ L1
L2 − L1 ∝ T2 − T1
( L2 − L1 ) ∝ L1 (T2 − T1 )
( L2 − L1 ) = α L1 (T2 − T1 )
L2 = α L1 (T2 − T1 ) + L1
L2 = L1 ⎡⎣1 + α (T2 − T1 ) ⎤⎦
α=
( L2 − L1 )
L1 (T2 − T1 )
L2 – L1 is very small value for 1 K change in temperature, so α is very small
value. The unit of α is K-1.
4. Volume Expansion in Solids: The expansion in three dimensions is known as
volume expansion. This expansion will depend upon:
(a) original volume
(b) Change in temperature
(c) Nature of the material.
∆V = Change in volume = V2 - V1
V2 = volume after expansion.
3
V1 = Original volume
β = Co-efficient of volume expansion
∆V = V2 − V1
∆T = T2 − T1
V1 ∝ V2 − V1
V2 − V1 ∝ T2 − T1
(V2 − V1 ) ∝ V1 (T2 − T1 )
(V2 − V1 ) = βV1 (T2 − T1 )
V2 = β V1 (T2 − T1 ) + V1
V2 = V1 ⎡⎣1 + β (T2 − T1 ) ⎤⎦
β=
(V2 − V1 )
V1 (T2 − T1 )
5. The figure shows a metallic nut – a metal piece with a hole in it. When the nut is
heated – it expands. What happens to the size of the hole?
a) Does the hole expand,
b) Does the hole contract, or
c) Does the hole remains the same
A B
The Hole has to expand as the spacing between atoms increases on heating and it
will expand at the same rate as the nut.
This is illustrated by figure B, where the hole is replaced by a bolt of the same
material, (or we can have a nut without a hole).
Now if the hole remained the same or contracted the bolt (or material where the
hole is) would not have room to expand, which it should, as it is made of the same
material as the nut.
4
6. Expansion of liquids: Unlike solids, liquids and gases require a container to give
them shape therefore, whenever we are considering expansion of fluids we have
to take into consideration the expansion of the container. We do know that liquids
expand more than solids therefore, when a liquid in a container is heated from
outside, like in a thermometer, the container expands first lowering the liquid
level and only when the heat makes the liquid expand its level starts to rise. On
the other hand, if heating is from within the liquid in the container, like in an
electric kettle the level rises immediately, though its rate of increase falls as the
container also starts to expand, though at a smaller rate.
7. There are two types of expansion in liquids. a) Real expansion is observed
expansion after the container has expanded b) apparent expansion is the
expansion of the Liquid.
Real Expansion = Apparent Expansion + Expansion in container
γ real = γ container + γ liquid
However, we can make liquids expand linearly if they are forced to expand in a
space which does not expand (or expands negligibly) as compared to the liquid
for the same temperature range, e.g. mercury, and alcohol expand appreciably
more than glass for the same range of temperature so we use this to our advantage
in liquid-in-glass thermometers.
8. Anomalous Expansion of Water: there are some materials which do not expand on
heating. These materials are given a special name anomalous material. In other
words they behave different from what is normal. Water is one such a material. It
is the unusual expansion of water. When water is heated, from 0ºC to 4ºC, it
contracts instead of expanding. In other words its density increased as the
temperature increases between that point which is very useful and nature has
utilized this anomalous behaviour of water for its benefit. Unusual means when
you cooling something it contract rather than expands but when water is cooled
from 4ºC to 0ºC it expands. When water is heated from 0ºC to 4ºC, it contracts.
Therefore, it is an anomalous behaviour. This is an unusual behaviour and so
termed as anomalous i.e. unusual because on heating water contracts rather than
normal expansion as would be expected and vice versa.
5
9. Effects of anomalous behaviour:
a) Ice floats on water: Because material expands when it is cooled, its density
is to be decreased as mass remains the same and it occupies a larger
volume. So it become denser, therefore, rises. Once the water is concerted
into ice it floats on the surface of the water due to the decrease in it
density. Temp of water below ice is 4ºC because ice is an insulator.
Aquatic or marine life survives in winter.
b) Stones and even mountains crack due to expansion of water in crevices.
c) Water pipes burst in winter.
10. Expansion in Gases: like liquids, gases also require a container to give them shape
therefore, whatever has been said about liquids is also true for gases – both being
considered as fluids (which flow). Gases however, can be restrained in containers
which have no room for expansion and they can be compressed (their volume can
be decreased). For example take a syringe and just push and pull the gas out. If we
close the end of the syringe with some material and apply pressure. The plunger is
going upto some extent and then it stops. We have to apply larger amount of force
to make the plunger move further. Because we apply a lerger force, so we
compress gases. The expansion in gases is not linear as in solids and liquids. for
expansion of gases, we use different relationships.
6
11. Boyles Law: for a given mass of a gas, volume V and pressure P are inversely
proportional to each other provided the temperature does not change.
P = Pressure of Gas
PV= Const
V = Volume of gas
50
40
Pressurs /Pa
PV = constant 30
20
PV
1 1 = constant
10
PV
2 2 = constant 0
P1V1 = P2 V2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Volume /cubic cm
Two conditions that mass of gas and temperature are kept constant. We say
temperature does not change, means when a gas is compressed some heating
effect takes place due to friction and compression of molecules. So we have to
wait for certain period of time for that heat to be dissipated in order o satisfied the
Boyles law.
12. Application of Boyle’s law: A cylinder contains 1500 cm3 of a gas at a pressure
of 1.5x105 Pa. If this gas is compressed to 250 cm3 find the new pressure
assuming the temperature has not changed
Data
P1 = 1.5x105 Pa
V1 = 1500 cm3, V2 = 250 cm3
P2 = ?
P1V1 = P2 V2
1.5 × 105 × 1500 = P2 × 250
1.5 × 105 × 1500
P2 =
250
P2 = 9.0 × 105 Pa
7
13. Charles's Law: Volume of a fixed mass of any gas and its temperature are directly
proportional to each other provided the pressure is kept constant. The mass of gas
(number of moles) and pressure are kept constant.
Volume - Temperature
V = Volume of gas
500
T = Temperature of gas
Volume /cubic cm
400
300
V
= constant 200
T 100
V1 V2
= 0
T1 T2 -273 -173 -73 27 127
Temperature /celcius
Charles’ further added that if the line continuously expanding in the negative
temperature range the line would meat the temperature axis at -273 ºC.
14. Concept of Absolute zero: Pressure law: Pressure of a fixed mass of any gas and
its temperature are directly proportional to each other provided the pressure is
kept constant. The mass of gas (number of moles) and volume are kept constant.
Pressure - Temperature
500
P = Pressure of gas
400
Pressure /Pa
T = Temperature of gas 300

200
P
= constant 100
T 0
P1 P2 -273 -173 -73 27 127
=
T1 T2 Temperature /celcius
Here the line also meets the temperature axis at -273 ºC which gives the concept
of absolute zero. -273 ºC is a temperatures at which both Charles law and pressure
law ultimately have either volume equal to zero or pressure become zero. That is
why this temperature is given the name as absolute zero. There is no temperature
below this because if we expand the line below this temperature then we either
have the negative volume or pressure which is not possible.
8
15. Application of Charles's law: The volume of a gas in a container is 2.5 m3. What
would be the volume this gas would occupy if its temperature is increased by a
factor of three? Suggest a possible practical usage of this effect.
Data V1 V
= 2
T1 = T /K T1 T2
T2 = 3T /K 2 .5 V2
=
V1 = 2.5 m3 T 3T
2 .5
V2 = ? m3 V2 = × 3T
T
V 2 = 7 .5 m 3
16. Avogadro’s Law: the three gas laws can be combined in Avogadro’s law
PV
= constant
T
The mass of gas (number of moles) is kept constant
V = Volume of gas
P = Pressure of gas
17. Ideal Gas Equation: From Avogadro’s laws
PV = nRT
V = Volume of gas
P = Pressure of gas
n = number of moles (mass)
R = Rydberg gas constant
In all gas laws temperature (T) is measured on the Absolute temperature scale i.e.
in Kelvin. This equation is valid for ideal gases only. We use real gas and few
gases are close but still not perfectly ideal gases. Noble gases like helium are the
nearest approximation of ideal gases. Ideal gas is that which obeys gas laws.
18. Question 1. What is the relationship b/w linear and

volumetric expansion? Linear expansion takes place in one
direction only whereas volume expansion is in three
directions. If we have a cube of material of length l, then
9
linear expansion would be l + ∆l, Each side of the cube is
going to increase by this factor ∆l, Volume of new cube is: ( l + ∆ l )
3
It is going to be a cubic relationship. However the coefficient relationship, α:β is

approximately 1:3
19. Question 2. Why a little sag is left in the wires when used in summer? During
winter wires will contract due to decrease in temperature and become taut – if sag
is not left then the wires may snap due to this contraction.
20. Question 3. What do you mean by ideal real gas? Any real gas which follows the
gas laws in the ideal form are ideal gases.
10
HEAT-III
1. Heat capacity: it is the amount of heat absorbed or released by a mass of
substance to rise or lower its temperature by one Kelvin.
2. Specific Heat Capacity: it is the amount of heat absorbed or released by a one Kg
mass of substance to rise or lower its temperature by one Kelvin. The quantity of
heat depends upon the mass and change in temperature.
m = mass
∆T = Change in Temp
c = Specific Heat capacity
∆Q = Heat Energy
∆Q ∝ m
∆Q ∝ ∆T
∆Q ∝ m∆T
∆Q = m c∆T
∆Q
c =
m∆T
Unit of specific heat capacity is J kg-1K-1

3. Measuring of Specific heat capacity: mass can be measured by any ordinary lab
balance or electronic balance. Change in temperature can be measured by
thermometer. Heat energy can be measured by power meter or Joule meter and
specific heat capacity can be calculated. For measuring the specific heat capacity,
remember that liquids can not exist in free space, they requires a container. For
measuring the specific heat capacity of liquid, when liquid is in container, it
should also kept in mind that some energy will also absorb by the container and
the temperature of the container will rise. Measuring the mass and change in
temperature of the liquid which is in the container and the heat energy of the
system. So measures the specific heat capacity of the liquid. In this case we
should know the heat capacity of the container.
Mass = m2 – m1 i.e. total mass (liquid + container) – mass of empty container
∆T = T2 – T1 i.e. Temperature rise for a given time
4. Problem: 100 g of water at 15 oC is heated to a temperature of 65 oC. If 21,000 J
of energy were provided, find the specific heat capacity of water.
Data:
m = 100g = 0.1 kg ∆Q
c=
∆T = 273+65 – (273+15) = 50 K m∆T
21,000 J
c = Specific Heat capacity
c= = 4, 200
∆Q = Heat Energy = 21,000 J 0.1× 50 kgK
5. Measuring of Specific heat capacity by Method of mixtures: Here we have to find
the specific heat capacity of liquid by the method of mixture. This method
involves two bodies the liquid which is cold and a hot solid body of known mass
and known specific heat capacity.
Mass = m1 mass of hot body
Mass = m2 total mass (liquid + container) – mass of empty container
∆T (fall) = T1 – Tx i.e. Temperature fall of the body
∆T (rise) = Tx – T2 i.e. Temperature rise of the liquid
∆Q Energy supplied ∆Q = m1 x c1 x ∆T (fall)
∆Q = m2 x c2 x ∆T (rise)
According to the law of heat exchange:
Amount of heat gained by cold body = Amount of heat lost by hot body
Or
Heat gained = Heat lost
m2 x c2 x ∆T (rise) = m1 x c1 x ∆T (fall)
However in case of liquids the heat energy required by container has also to be
taken into account.
6. A calorimeter of mass 0.15 kg, having heat capacity of 400 Jkg-1K-1 contains 0.10
kg of water at 15 oC. A metal piece of mass 0.25 kg heated to 100 oC is
transferred to the calorimeter. The final temperature is recorded at 40 oC.
Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal.
mass of calorimeter m1= 0.25 kg, mass of water m2= 0.10 kg
T1 = 15 oC = 15+273 = 288 K; T2 = 40 oC = 40+273 = 313 K
∆T = (313 - 288) = 25 K
c1 (calorimeter) = 400 Jkg-1K-1
c2 (water) = 4,200 Jkg-1K-1
mass of metal m3= 0.25 kg
T3 = 100 oC = 100+273 = 373 K; T2 = 40 oC = 40+273 = 313 K
∆ T = (373 - 313) = 60 K
c3 (metal) =? Jkg-1K-1
m1c1∆ T + m 2 c2 ∆ T = m3 c3 ∆ T
0.25 × 400 × 25 + 0.1 × 4200 × 25 = 0.25 × c3 × 60
2, 500 + 10, 500 = 15c3
13, 000 = 15c3
c3 = 867 Jkg −1 K −1
7. Transmission of Heat: Heat (energy) transfer from one body to another only if
there is a difference in temperature. There are three modes of heat transfer:
a) Conduction: heat transfer through contact. Two come in contact, because of
difference in temperature hot body lose energy and cold body gain energy.
Hot Cold
End End
A medium is required to transfer heat from one body to another. Heat travels
from hot end to cold end via the vibration of particles. The vibration is
transferred from particle to particle until it reached to the cold end.
b) Convection: Transfer of heat through actual

movement of particles. A medium is necessary.
Convection is normally takes place in fluids.
When a liquid is heated, it expands and its
density decreases. It becomes lighter and it
rises. Cold liquid at the top is denser so it sinks.
It is a continuous process.
c) Radiation: Heat transfer through electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic
radiations can travel through vacuum so medium is not necessary. For
example ligt reaches us from sun.
8. Factors Effecting The Conductivity: conductivity depends on the following

factors:
a) Cross sectional area of the conductor
b) Length of the conductor
c) Material of the conductor.
d) Temperature difference between the ends
e) Time for which the conductor remains in contact
Cross sectional area ∆Q∝A
Length ∆Q∝1/L or L-1
Difference in Temperature ∆Q∆∝T
Time ∆Q∝t
A ∆ Tt
∆Q ∝
L
kA (T 2 − T1 )t
∆Q =
L
∆ QL
k =
A (T 2 − T1 )t
If L = 1 m, t = 1 s; ∆T=1 K and A= 1 m2 then k = ∆Q.
k is coefficient of thermal conductivity of the material i.e. energy transferred per
second through a cross section of one square meter of a conductor of length one
meter and placed at a temperature difference of 1K
9. Problem: A glass window in the outer wall has a surface area of 4 m2. The
temperature outside the room is 7 oC, whereas the inside of the room is at 22 oC.
Calculate the amount of heat lost every second if the glass is 10 mm thick (k for
glass is 0.8)
Data
A= 4m2
k A (T 2 − T 1 ) t
L= 10 mm = 1x10-2 m ∆Q =
L
∆T= 22+273-(7+273) = 15K
0 .8 × 4 × 1 5 × 1
∆Q =
k = 0.8 Jm-1K-1-1 1 0 × 1 0 −3
∆Q=? ∆ Q = 4,800 J
10. Application of Conduction, Convection, Radiation:
a) Conduction
i. Conduction makes it possible to cook food
ii. Conduction property of substance make it possible to use them as a
conductor or insulator (metals, air, fur, lagging etc)
b) Convection
i. Weather systems including blowing wind are a result of convection
(sea and land breezes)
ii. Domestic hot water supply (Geysers) works using convection
iii. Room Ventilators use convection
c) Radiation
i. Heat and light of sun reaches us by radiation
ii. Body can be scanned by radiation
iii. X-Ray is application of radiation
iv. Radioactive elements emit radiation
11. Latent Heat: It is the amount of heat required to change the state of a substance of
a 1 kg mass. The SI unit of latent heat is joule/ kg.
Latent Heat of Fusion: It is the quantity of heat needed to convert 1kg of solid
state of a substance to the liquid state without any change in its temperature (at its
melting point). The SI unit of latent heat is joule/ kg. Latent heat of fusion of ice
= 336,000 or 3.36 x 105 Jkg-1. It should be noted that the temperature of the solid
will not rise (or remain same) until all the solid is melted or is converted into
liquid state. Now, we are understood what a latent heat is.
Let us take ice and record its temperature; suppose it is -10ºC. It is placed in a
beaker and heated at a constant rate. A thermometer inserted in the beaker
indicates the temperature. We will observe that initially the temperature of the
thermometer rises up to 0ºC and then although heat is constantly being added to
the system there will be no increase in temperature for a certain passage of time.
Where does the added heat go? The answer to this question is the amount of heat
added to the ice is used to overcome the attractive forces between the molecules
of ice. Those molecules which gain sufficient energy break their bonds within the
solid and convert into a liquid state.
Continue heating at a constant rate. We will observe that the temperature of the
thermometer starts to rise again (indicating that all ice has converted into water)
and it rises up to 100ºC and again, although heat is constantly being added to the
system, there will be no further increase in temperature for a certain passage of
time. Again now where does the added heat go? The answer is the amount of heat
added to the water at 100oC is used to overcome the attractive forces between the
molecules of water. Those molecules which gain sufficient energy break their
bonds within the liquid and convert into a gaseous state (or steam).
12. Latent Heat of Vaporization: It is the amount of heat energy required to convert
one kg of a liquid into its gaseous state without changing its temperature. Its S.I
Unit is Joule / Kilogram. (As in the case of Latent Heat of fusion the temperature
during the conversion of the state remains unchanged). Latent Heat of
Vaporization of water = 2,260,000 Jkg-1 or 2.26 x 106 Jkg-1
13. Graphical Representation: In the example explained above all the ice converts
into liquid. At this point the thermometer record temperature as 0ºC. Keep this
thing in mind that heat is constantly being added to the water. After all the ice has
melted the temperature starts increasing again and is recorded by the thermometer
however, when it reaches 100ºC again there will be no increase in temperature
beyond 100ºC for another long period although heat is constantly being added.
The heat added will be used by the molecule to change their state. Solid – liquid –
Gas. The graph shows that at 0oC due to latent heat of fusion of ice the
temperature do not change. Temperature rise to 100ºc and then remains constant
although heat is being added constantly.
Temperature-time
constant heating
120
Temperature /oC
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
-40
Time / seconds
14. Vaporization: It is the process of conversion of liquids into vapors. Process of

vaporization or evaporation takes place at all temperature, although its rate is
different.
15. Factors Effecting Evaporation:
a) Surface area of the liquid.
b) Temperature
16. Sublimation: It is the process in which the solid convert directly into the gaseous
state without passing through the liquid state.
17. Boiling: It is the temperature at which the rate of evaporation is such that the
vapor pressure of the liquid equals the atmosphere. Strictly saying boiling is
evaporation at a certain temperature. Liquid have fixed boiling Points. Boiling can
not take place at all temperatures.
18. Why a hot cup of tea place on a table cools down and a cold glass of water warms
up? Heat is transferred from a hotter body (higher energy) to a colder body (lower
energy) – when we place a hot cup of tea it loses energy to the surroundings so it
cools, where as a cold glass of water being at lower temperature has to gain heat
from the surrounding so it heats up.
19. What is forced convection? Convection depends upon (i) difference in
temperature (ii) surface area. However the surface area is dependant on the
amount of fluid particles coming in contact with that surface area – increase the
number of particles increases convection and hence larger exchange of energy
(heat). In forced convention the flow of air or liquid over the surface will increase
the rate of convection.
20. By which mode of heat transfer is heat lost by:
a) The Engine of a car: Conduction to radiator and forced convection due to
flow of air over the radiator
b) A Hot rod of iron dropped in water: Conduction (iron to water) and
convection in water
c) Ventilated Room: Air convection
LIGHT-I
1. We are looking another form of energy which is light. We shall discuss and try to
explain behaviour of light in geometric optics. we are in this section concerned
with the optical rather than the energy properties of light
2. Electromagnetic Spectrum contains large number of radiations. All radiations
travel with same speed i.e. with speed of light. Gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet,
visible light, infrared, microwave and radio waves are different parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum. We are interesting only in visible light.
3. Basic Definition:
a) Light: Light is a form of energy, that produces sensation in eyes, permitting
the brain to formulate an image, we call as sight (allows us to see) – Visible
light consists of all colours we can perceive.
b) Ray of light: The direction in which light moves is represented by the help of
a ray.
c) Beam: Beam is a collection or bundle of rays.
d) Parallel Beam: the rays which are align parallel

to each other.
1
e) Converging Beam. The rays of light which are
met on a point.
f) Diverging Beam: rays coming out of a point and

spread in all directions.
g) Luminous Objects: Objects which emit light. Bulb, flame, sun, stars etc.
h) Non-Luminous Objects: Objects which do not emit light. Book, table etc.
i) Transparent object: Object through which light can pass. Glass, Water etc.
j) Opaque objects: Objects which block light. Book, desk etc.
k) Translucent object: Objects which partially transmit light. Plastic, oily sheets,
thin paper etc.
l) Real image: An image which can be projected, Image on a screen, cinema
film etc.
m) Virtual image: An image which can be seen but not projected on a screen.
Image in a mirror etc.
4. Theory of Vision: Light falls on an object which reflects it, reflected light falling
into our eye allows us to see.
Source
Object Rays from source

Eye
Reflected ray from object
5. Reflection of light: Bouncing back of light into the same medium.

6. Types of Reflection: there are two types of reflections.
2
a) Normal reflection: if the reflection from the plane surface is regular then
this type of reflection is normal reflection.
b) Diffused or Scattered Reflection: if the surface is rough, the light which
comes can bounce off in different directions. Because of scattering of
light, intensity of light falls.
7. Laws of Reflection: there are two laws of reflection
a) 1st Law: Incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the reflecting surface lie
in the same plane.
b) 2nd Law: the Angle of incidence equals the Angle of reflection
The principle of reversibility states that light will follow exactly the same path if
its direction of travel is reversed
Plane mirror
Reflected ray r i Incident ray

Reflected Incident
Angle Angle
Normal
8. Reflection from Mirrors: Mirrors are smooth polished surfaces, which reflect light
like in normal reflection. There are different types of types of mirrors:
a) Plane Mirror: A mirror whose surface is plane or flat.
b) Spherical Mirror: A mirror whose surface is curved. There are two types
of spherical mirrors.
i. Concave Mirror whose inner curve surface is reflecting.
ii. Convex Mirror whose outer curve surface is reflecting.
Spherical Mirrors
3
Concave Mirror Convex Mirror
9. Terms related to Spherical Mirrors:

a) Pole: (P) It is the centre of the mirror.
b) Centre of Curvature: (c) It is the centre of the P
c
sphere of which the spherical mirror is made.
c) Principle Axis: Is the line joining pole (p) and
centre of curvature (c).
d) Principle Focus: (F) Is the point through which, light passes or appear to
pass after reflection from a curved surface.
e) Focal Length: (f) Distance b/w the pole and principle focus.
f) Radius of curvature: (r) It is the radius of the sphere of which the spherical
mirror is made.
Beam r
of light F P
c
In plane mirrors the size of the image equals the size of the object whereas
spherical mirrors are used to alter the size of the image
10. Rules For Drawing A Ray Diagram:
a) After reflection from a curved mirror the rays parallel to the principle axis
will pass or appear to pass through the principle focus.
b) A ray striking the pole of mirror is reflected in such a way that
c) Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)
d) A ray passing through the principle focus, after reflection travels parallel
to principle axis.
e) A ray passing through the centre of curvature on reflection passes through
the centre of curvature (i.e. bounces back along the incident path)
4
f) Any of the two rays can be use for image formation. Point of intersection
of rays gives us image.
11. Using ray diagrams for concave mirrors:
A
M
f
P I
c O
B
p
Reflection from Concave Mirror
M
In case of concave mirror the rays of light after reflection from the mirror actually
pass through the principle focus of the mirror. Its image can be obtained on a
screen. The image formed is real.
Focal length of Concave mirror (f) is positive.
Object distance (p) is positive.
Image distance (q) is also positive.
Image Distance: (p) Distance of image from mirror.
Object Distance: (q) Distance of object from mirror
Focal length, object and image distance are positive because all these are on the
right side of the pole.
12. Using ray diagrams for convex mirror
If rays of light are parallel to principle axis are reflected in such a way that the
rays of light appear to come from principle focus. Its image can not be obtained
on a screen. The image formed is called a Virtual image.
Its focal length is considered (-) negative
Image distance is considered (-) negative
5
Object distance is considered (+) positive
Object
Image P
c f
p
q
Reflection from Convex Mirror
13. The mirror equation:

Consider an object OA placed in front of concave mirror its real image is formed
at position B as shown in the figure.
A
M
f I
P
c O
B
p
∆ A O P R ∆ B IP
O A O P
= ⇒
IB IP
M P PF
=
IB IF
PF O P
=
IF IP
f p
=
q − f q
f p
=
q− f q
qf = p (q − f )
qf + pf = pq
D ivid in g b y p q f
qf pf pq 1 1 1 6
+ = ⇒ + =
pqf pqf pqf p q f
14. Problem: An object is placed on the axis of a concave Spherical Mirror at a
distance of 20 cm from the mirror. If the focal length of the mirror is 15 cm,
calculate the position of the image.
Data:
p = 20 cm = 0.20 m, f = 15 cm = 0.15 m
q=?
1 1 1
+ =
p q f
1 1 1
+ =
0.2 q 0.15
1 1 1 0.20 − 0.15 0.05
= − = =
q 0.15 0.20 0.20 × 0.15 0.03
0.03
q= = 0.60m
0.05
15. Problem: An object is placed on the axis of a convex Spherical Mirror at a
distance of 20 cm from the mirror. If the focal length of the mirror is 15 cm,
calculate the position of the image.
Data:
p = 20 cm = 0.20 m, f = - 15 cm = - 0.15 m
q =?; f is negative as mirror is convex
1 1 1
+ =
p q f
1 1 1
+ = −
0 .2 q 0 .1 5
1 1 1 0 .2 0 + 0 .1 5 0 .3 5
= − − = − = −
q 0 .1 5 0 .2 0 0 .2 0 × 0 .1 5 0 .0 3
0 .0 3
q = − = − 0 .0 8 6 m
0 .3 5
16. Linear Magnification: A magnified image is the one whose size is greater than the
object. Linear Magnification is the ration of size of image to the size of object.
Size of image varies with the distance of object from mirror, so the ration of
image distance to object distance gives magnification.
size of image p
M= =
size of object q
7
17. An image formed by a concave lens is three times its object size. If the focal
length of the mirror is 15 cm, calculate the position of the image.
Data:
M=3, p = ?, f = 15 cm = 0.15 m, q = ?
p 1 1 1
M = ; + =
q p q f
p
3 = ⇒ p = 3q
q
1 1 1
+ =
3 q q 0.15
4 1 1 3 3
= ⇒ = =
3 q 0.15 q 4 × 0.15 0.60
0.60
q= = 0.20 m
3
18. Uses of plane mirrors:
a) Use to see our image
b) Use in periscope to bend light in a particular path. Periscope is used in
submarine.
19. Uses of spherical Mirrors:
a) In wing (rearview) mirror of vehicles
b) Used to reflect light from sources like car headlights, search light and spot
light etc
c) In optical instruments like astronomical telescopes
d) Used by Doctor’s to examine throat, ear, nose, and eyes.
20. Question: Why image distance and focal length of convex mirror is negative?
P f P
c c f
p q p
q
8
All distances are taken from the pole P, along the x-axis as shown. In case of
concave f, p and q are all to the right of P so are positive. In case of convex p, is
to the right of P so is positive but f and q are the left of P so are negative.
21. Distinguish between a convex and a convex mirror:
Concave Convex
Physical bulge Inwards Outwards
Reflecting surface Inside Outside
When parallel beam falls converges diverges
Focal length (f) positive negative
Image distance (p) positive positive
Object distance (q) positive negative
9
LIGHT-II
1. Refraction: Change in the direction of light when it enters from medium to other.
For refraction two mediums are required. One is rarer medium (air) and other is
denser medium (water, glass). The incident ray is in air and moving towards the
denser medium. Angles are always taken from the normal or perpendicular from
the surface. The incident angle is angle between the normal and the incident ray.
Angle between the normal and refracted ray is the angle of refraction.
Incident ray Rarer medium

i High velocity
Denser medium
r Low velocity
Refracted ray
2. Refractive Index: The extent of refraction of a ray of light is given by the

refractive index. The ray of light bends due to the change in velocity of light when
it enters from one medium to other
speed of light in air (vacuum)

η or refractive Index=
speed of light in medium
3. Speed of light in different materials:
Material speed m/s RI = c/v
Vacuum (c) 3.00 x 108 0

Air 3.00 x 108 1.00
Water 2.26 x 108 1.33
Alcohol (ethanol) 2.20 x 108 1.36
Glass 2.00 x 108 1.50
Diamond 1.24 x 108 2.42
Refractive index of glass is 1.50 and that of water is 1.33
4. Laws of refraction:
a) The incident ray, refracted ray and normal, at the point of incidence, lie in
the same plane.
b) Ratio between sin (i) and sin (r) is constant and equals the refractive index
Snell’s Law Rarer medium
Incident ray High velocity
i
velocity in air c Sin(i )
n= = =
velocity in medium v Sin(r )
Denser medium
Low Velocity
r
Refracted ray
5. Difference b/w Reflection and refraction:
Reflection Refraction
The medium through which the The medium through which the light
travels changes
light travels does not change
angle (i) = angle (r) angle (i) ≠ angle (r)
Speed of light remains same Speed of light changes
6. Problem 1.The path of the ray is show in the figure. Calculate the refractive index
of the material. Calculate the velocity of light in the material.
Data
25o
Incident angle (i) = 25o Air
o
Refracted angle (r) = 15
Velocity of light c = 3.00 x 108ms-1
15o
Material
c c
Sin(i ) Sin(25) 0.423 n= ⇒v=
n= = = v n
Sin(r ) Sin(15) 0.259 3 ×10 8
n =1.63 v= = 1.84 × 108 ms −1

1.63
7. Problem 2. The path of the ray is show in the figure. Calculate the value of θ.
Calculate the velocity of light in plastic the Refractive Index of which is 1.6.
Data: θo Air
o
Refracted angle (r) = 12 ,
RI of plastic η = 1.6
Velocity of light c = 3 x 108ms-1 12o
Plastic
Incident angle (i) = θo=?
Sin(i ) Sin(θ )
n= =
Sin(r ) Sin(12) c c
n= ⇒v=
Sin(θ ) v n
n =1.6 =
0.208 3 ×10 8
v= = 1.88 × 108 ms −1
Sin(θ ) = 1.6 × .208 = 0.333 1.6
θ = Sin −1 (0.333) = 19.4o
8. Critical Angle: Angle of incidence in denser for which the corresponding angle of
refraction in rarer medium is 90º is called the critical angle. The Refractive index
also depends on critical angle.
W hen light is entering from rare to densor m edium
Sin ( i )
n=
Sin ( r )
And W hen light is entering from densor to rare m edium

Sin ( r ) Rarer
n= Refracted ray r
Sin ( i ) medium
Sin (90) 1
= =
Sin ( c ) Sin ( c ) Denser
1 medium
n= i =c
Sin ( c )
Incident ray
9. Problem3. Sapphire has a critical angle of 34.4o. What is its refractive index?
Data
Critical angle= 34.4 degrees. Refractive index =?
1 1
n= = = 1.77
Sin(c) Sin(34.4)
10. Total internal reflection: When a ray of light enters from denser to rarer medium
in such a way that the angle of incidence is greater that critical angle, the ray of
light cannot enter the other medium and is reflected back in the same medium.
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
Refracted ray
Rarer medium
i
Denser medium
m c
m Incident ray
No light ray with m>c is refracted, and as the reflection takes place inside the
medium, so it is called “Total Internal Refraction”. As total internal reflection is a
type of reflection, therefore, the laws of reflection are applicable
11. Conditions of Total Internal Reflection:
a) The ray of light should enter from denser to rarer medium.
b) Angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle of that medium.
c) When angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the ray emerges at
an angle i = 90º, the ray of light travels along the boundary of the prism.
d) When angle of incidence is further increased no refraction takes place and
the ray of light is reflected back (by the boundary) in such a way that
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection. Total internal reflection has
occurred at this point.
12. Multiple images in back coated mirrors: Mirrors are glass materials which might
have certain thickness. Due to thickness, there are two ways of making a mirror.
Coating the back side of the mirror then light has to travel through the mirror to
the reflecting surface and bounce back. If front side of the mirror is coated, the
light is just strike the top surface and bounces back. In this case, we have a perfect
reflection. Front coated mirrors are used where high precisian work is to do.
Normally we use mirrors everyday are back coated mirrors. In back coated
mirrors the light enters the material. Some light is reflected from the top surface
and some light is reflecting from the reflecting surface. In this case, some ghost
images might be produced. Ghost images depend upon the type of materials and
coating used and reduces the cost of the mirror.
13. Finding the critical angle using Total Internal Reflection: In a laboratory, right
angle prism is used to find the critical angle. Place a pin on a sheet of a paper and
then isosceles side of prism next to that. There are multiple rays coming out from
that source. As the angle with which the rays striking the top surface of prism, the
light can be refracted in different angles. The last ray is refracted just along the
surface. If we increase the angle, we find that the ray is totally internally reflected
and it going to be bounced back and can be viewed from the other side of the
prism One side of the prism is acting as a reflector. Place an eye, move it forward
and backward, see the images just disappearing. The moment when images are
disappearing, back the eye to the position where the image is most bright next to
the dimmest position and that is in fact the proper critical angle
14. Optical Fiber: Optical fibers are made up of very fine stands of glass, coated with
another type of glass whose refractive index is less the inner glass so that the
condition of total internal reflection is satisfied. It is also provided with protective
coating to avoid damage. Different type of optical fibers are Single mode, Single
mode step index fiber. Multimode step index fiber. Multimode graded index fiber.
Cladding
Fibre
> Critical Angle
15. Advantage of optical fiber: Optical fiber are:

a) Light in weight
b) Flexible
c) Cheaper than copper cables
d) No heating effect (minimum energy loss)
e) Can carry huge information, capacity is thousands of times greater than
electrical signals or radio waves
f) Can carry telephone signals
g) Minimum amount of energy is lost.
16. Uses of Optical Fiber:
a) Used for transmission of computer data,
b) telephonic signals and TV programmes,
c) Widely use in medical field as endoscopes and related specific scopes
i. Endoscope: Can view and photograph internal parts of human body.
ii. Bronchoscope: Used to view sour throat.
iii. Cysto scope: Used to examine liver working.
iv. Gastro scope: Used to examine stomach.
17. Questions:
a) Why minimum or no power is lost in optical fibers? Very little energy is
absorbed when light moves in a transparent medium – so minimum power
is lost in Optical Fibers.
b) Can total internal reflection take place when light enters from air into
water? No for Total Internal Reflection light has to come out of a more
denser material. Water is denser than air so TIR is not possible as light
enters water.
c) Can we take a photograph of the image obtained using optical fiber? Yes –
Optical fibers create real images therefore they can be photographed.
18. Lenses: Lenses are transparent object used to converge or diverge rays of light
there are different type of lenses, two of them are:
a) Convex lens: The lens which is thinner at the edges and thicker at the
middle is convex lens. It is also called converging lens because it converge
all rays of light at one point.
b) Concave lens: This lens is thicker at the edges and thinner at the centre
and diverge the rays of light called diverging lens.
Convex Lens Concave Lens
Converging or Concave Lens Lens

Bea
m
of o
ligh F
t
Diverging or Convex Lens

Lens
Beam
of
light F o
19. Using ray diagrams for convex lenses:

Lens
M A
f P
I O
c
B p
q
Principle focus (F): Point where rays of light converge or appear to converge.
Principal axis: line joining centre of curvature and optical centre
Optical centre: Centre of the lens – a ray passing through this point is not
refracted
Centre of curvature (c): Centre of the sphere of which the lens is made.
Focal length (f): Distance b/w principal focus and optical centre.
Object distance (p): Distance of object from lens.
Image Distance (q): Distance of image from lens.
20. Reflection for convex lenses: If rays of light parallel to principle axis are refracted
in such a way that the rays of light appears to come from principle focus. Its
image can be obtained on a screen. Image formed is real
Its focal length is considered (+) positive.
Object distance is considered (+) positive.
21. Refraction from Convex lens: If rays of light parallel to principle axis are
refracted the rays of light appears to converge at principle focus. Its image can be
obtained on a screen. The image formed is real inverted and, depending upon its
position diminished or magnified.
Its focal length is considered (+) positive
Object distance is considered (+) positive
22. The lens equation: The lens equation: consider an object OA, is placed in front of
a convex lens. A ray of light starting from the point A and moving parallel to the
principal axis strikes the lens at point M. after refraction through the lens, it
passes through the principal focus F. a second ray AP also starting from point A
passes through the optical centre of the lens and moves straight and intersected
the first ray at point B. Thus B is the real image of point A. if this process is
repeated for other points of the object OA then real image IB of the object OA is
obtained. Generally the distance of the object from the lens is represented by p
and that of image by q.
Lens
M A
f P
I O
c
B p
q
∆AOP R ∆BIP
OA OP PF OP
= ⇒ =
IB IP IF IP
f p
=
q− f q
MP PF
=
IB IF
f p
=
q− f q
qf = p (q − f )
qf + pf = pq
qf pf pq
+ =
pqf pqf pqf
1 1 1
+ =
p q f
23. Questions: Distinguish between a convex and a convex mirror.
Concave Convex
Physical bulge Inwards Outwards

Reflecting surface inside Outside
When parallel beam falls converges diverges
Focal length (f) positive negative
Image distance (p) positive positive
Object distance (q) positive negative
24. Difference b/w concave and convex lens:
Sr. # Concave Convex
i. Converge light Diverge light
ii. Focal length is positive Focal length is negative
iii. Image distance is negative. Image distance is positive
iv. Principal focus is real focus. Principal focus is real focus.
v. Image can be obtained a on Image cannot be obtained on
screen. screen.
25. Similarities between concave and convex lenses:
a) Both use principals of refraction.
b) Both are transparent.
c) Ray of light that pass through the optical centre of both lens suffers no
refraction.
d) Both can be used to change the size of image as compared to the size of
object.
e) Object distance is considered positive for both lenses.
26. Difference b/w lenses and spherical mirrors: The formula for both lens and mirror
1 1 1
is the same + = both behave similarly, but there are some
p q f
differences between them:
Lens Spherical Mirrors
Image is formed on opposite side of the Image is formed in front of the mirror
lens
Follow laws of refraction Follow laws of reflection
Transparent object Opaque object
27. Uses of lens formula:
a) Lens formula is very useful in determining the focal length of a lens.
b) From the information of focal length of the length, it possible to use lenses
for the construction of different instruments.
c) It also helps in determining the spectacles needed for a person unable to
see clearly.
LIGHT-III
1. What is a simple microscope? A microscope is a device to see very small objects. It
usually consists of a number of lenses. However a simple microscope consists of only
one lens. It is also commonly known as a magnifying glass. Object is placed between the
focal point and the principal axis of the lens. Light coming from the object O, parallel to
the principal axis passes through the focal point. The ray of light which passes through
the optical center does not refract. When these two lines join, they meet at point I, which
tells us the location of image. From the figure, we can see that it is vertical, magnified
and virtual because it only can be seen through the lenses otherwise it does not exist.
2. Can we use lens to increase the intensity of light? If so, what type of lens will be used for
this purpose? Yes as lenses have the property to converge light rays, therefore they can be
used to increase the intensity of light at a point. A converging or convex lens has to be
used.
3. You are unable to visually see the corner of a lens if they are thick or thin. How can you
find, what type of lens is it? Even when we cannot visually see the edges, or if it is a thin
lens and we cannot for sure say if it is convex or concave, we can always determine if it
is converging or diverging and hence learn about it
Convex lenses are converging and
Concave lenses are diverging
4. Problem 1. An object 3.0 cm high is placed at a distance of 15.0 cm from convex lens of
focal length 10.0 cm. Find (a) Position of image, (b) Nature of image, (c) size of image.
Data
P = 15.0 cm, f = 10.0 cm, h = 3.0 cm
q = ?
1 1 1
= +
f p q Size of image image distance q
= =
1 1 1 Size of object object distance p
= +
10 15 q Si 30
=
1 1 1 15 − 10 3 15
= − =
q 10 15 150 30 × 3
Si == = 6.0 cm
150 15
q =
5
q = 3 0 cm
The image is real, inverted and magnified.

5. Problem 2. An object 3.0 cm high is placed at a distance of 5.0 cm from convex lens of
focal length 10.0 cm. Find (a) Position of image, (b) Nature of image, (c) size of image.
Data
P = 5.0 cm, f = 10.0 cm, h = 3.0 cm , q = ?
1 1 1
= +
f p q
1 1 1 Size of image image distance q
= + = =
10 5 q Size of object object distance p
1 1 1 5 − 10 Si 15
= − = =
q 10 5 50 3 5
50 15 × 3
q = Si == = 9.0 cm
−5 5
q = − 1 0 cm
The image is Virtual, erect and magnified
6. The Human Eye: eye just behaves like a pin hole camera. The parts of the eye we are
concerned with are, the Eye lens, the Eye ball and the Retina. This is because we are only
looking at optical defects of the eye and their resolution
Ciliary muscle
Human Eye
7. Image information in eye: Rays of light from the object pass through the lens. For the
rays of light parallel to the principal axis, the image is formed at the focal length of the
lens. Nature has designed the eyeball in such a way that the retina or the inner surface of
the eye ball is at the principal focus of the eye lens. The image is formed on the retina.
The nerve cells connected to the retina carry messages to the brain.
8. Defected eye: If the image is formed on the retina, the eye is working properly and the
person can see object clearly. Under certain circumstances, the image is not formed on
the retina; instead it is formed either in front of the retina or behind it. In both situations,
the person is unable to see the objects clearly and the eye is said to be defected.
9. Causes of defects: There are two main causes (reasons) due to which the eye is unable of
focus the image properly. These optical defects can be either
i. Defects in the eye lens: The defect in the eye lens are of two basic types
a. Thickness of the lens increases and is more than normal.
b. Thickness of the lens decreases and is less than normal.
With the variation in the thickness of the lens, the principal focus (the point at which the
image is formed) changes. Hence the image is not formed on the retina, and the object
cannot be seen clearly.
ii. Defects in the eye ball: The defects in the eye ball are also two main types
a. Diameter of eye ball increases and is larger than normal.
b. Diameter of eye ball decreases and it is smaller than normal.
If the eye lens is working properly it will focus the image at its principal focus. With the
variation in the diameter of the eye ball, the retina connected on the inner of the eye ball
will change its position. Again the image will not form on the retina and the object cannot
be seen clearly.
10. Defects of Vision: There defects in eyeball or the lens lead to the two main defects of
vision.
i. Short sightedness or myopia.
ii. Long sightedness or hypermetropia.
Whatever is the type of defect, it can be corrected using appropriate lens.
11. Short sightedness: It is the type of defect in which near objects can be seen clearly and
distant objects cannot be seen clearly.
Reason: The main reasons for this defect can be either
a) Increase in the thickness of the lens. In such a situation the focal length of the lens
decreases and the principal focus is in front of the retina instead of being on the
retina. (The size of eye ball is same.)
Normal thickness Increased thickness
b) Diameter of the eye ball has increased. In such a situation the size of ball increase
and the retina moves backward, again the focal point will be in front of retina,
instead of being at the retina. (The thickness of lens is same.)
Normal eyeball Large eyeball
In both cases, the image is formed in front of the retina.

Correction: If spectacles with concave (diverging) lens are use this defect can removed.
As the lens of eye is thinner at the edges so, diverging lens diverge the rays of light and
the focal point of the combination is adjusted such that the image is formed on the retina
and the image can be seen.
12. Long Sightedness or hypermetropia: It is the type of defect in which distant objects can
be seen clearly and near objects can not be seen clearly.
Reason: The main reasons for this defect can be either
a) Decrease in the thickness of the lens: This increase the focal length of the lens and
principal focus shifts behind the retina outside the eye-ball. (Size of eye-ball is
same)
Normal
Decrease
b) Diameter of the eye ball has decreased: The focal point of lens do not change but
the eye-ball shrinks moving the retina forward. The image is formed behind
retinal outside eye-ball. (Thickness of lens is same)
Small eyeball
Normal eyeball
In both cases, the image is formed behind the retina.

Correction: Convex (converging) lens can be use to correct long sightedness. Convex
lens move the rays of light towards the bottom of lens decrease the focal length of the
lens. The focal length of the lens used is adjusted in such a way that the image is formed
on the retina.
13. Power of Lens: Reciprocal of focal lens of the lens used is called power of lens.
1
P =
f
Its unit is m-1 (per meter) or Diopter.
14. Significance of power of lens: The power of lens can be positive or negative and gives
use information about the type of lens used. As focal length of concave lens is negative
so power of such lens will be negative. As the power of lens is inversely related to its
focal length so smaller the focal length, greater will be the power of the lens. Thicker
lenses have smaller focal length hence have higher power.
15. Question: What happen to the ray of light traveling parallel to the principal axis? The ray
of light traveling parallel the principal axis and falls on the lens. If the lens is converging
then it meets on the focal point. If the lens is diverging, then it diverges and ray of light
will expand. The diverging beam appears as it originates from the focal point. In both the
lenses, a parallel ray of light either converges or diverges to the focal point.
16. Why do the thickness of the lens changes with the passage of time? With aging the celery
muscles which control the thickness of lens will become weaker and cannot exert the
same amount of pressure.
17. Find the power of concave lens of focal length 5cm.
Data
f = 5 cm = 0.05 m
P=? (For concave lens focal length f is taken as negative)
1
P=
−f
1
P= = 20 diopters
− (0.05)
Lecture # 15
Fundamental Concepts of Chemistry
Matter and Chemistry:
Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with matter and changes that occur in it. In chemistry
we also study theories, laws and principles related to changes in matter. More precisely, in
chemistry we study chemical and physical changes and properties of elements and compounds.
In this lecture our focus is on the basic concepts of chemistry. There are many concepts that are
used in chemistry. The fundamental concepts include atom, molecule, ion, element, compound,
mixture, symbols, formulas, equations, atomic number, mass number, atomic mass, molecular
mass, mole, etc.
Matter:
Matter is any substance that has physical existence. That is, any thing that has mass and volume.
All that we see around us, or we can feel by touch are material substances. Mass is the quantity
of matter that a substance contains in it. Volume is the space that a body occupies.
Physical states:
Matter exists in three physical states. These are: solid, liquid and gas. In solids, the particles are
very close to one another. In gases, the particles are very away from one another. In liquids, the
situation is intermediate. A substance can be changed from one physical state to another. Ice,
liquid water and steam are three physical states of water.
Atom:
The atom is the smallest particle of an element that represents the elements in all chemical
reactions. There are three types of fundamental particles in an atom.
1. Electrons
2. Protons
3. Neutrons
The electron is a very small particle. It has negative electric charge. The proton is a positively
charged particle which is much heavier than electron. Neutron is an electrically neutral particle.
It is the heaviest among the three particles. Protons and neutrons are found in the center of atom
and collectively constitute a body called nucleus. Electrons revolved around the nucleus.
1
Atomicc Mass:
An atom
m is a very small partiicle. But it also has m
mass. The quuantity of thhis mass is very small.
Atomicc mass is thhe mass off one atom of an elem
ment and is defined ass follows. The
T relativee
averagee mass of oone atom off an elemennt which teells us how heavy or llight is thatt atom withh
respect to one atom
m of carbon--12. This unnit is called amu or atomic mass uunit.
One atoomic mass unit
u is one-twelfth of thhe mass of carbon-12.
c
1 amu = 1/112 x(mass of
o one atom
m of C-12)
u carbonn-12 is chossen as standdard. Carbonn-12 is the most abunddant isotopee of carbon.

In this unit
For exaample: the atomic
a masss of hydrogeen is 1.008 amu.
a
Molecuular mass:
By molecular masss we mean the
t mass of a molecule. It is the suum of atomiic masses off all the
atoms of
o all elemennts present in a molecuule. We can calculate thhe moleculaar masses off water,
sulfuricc acid, and glucose
g as follows.
fo
1. Water, H2O;
O 1x2 + 166 = 18amu
2. H2SO4: 1 x 2 + 32 +166 x 4 = 98am
mu
2
3. C6H12O6: 12 x 6 + 1 x 12 + 16 x 6 = 180amu
Mole:
The amount of a substance that contains Avogadro’s number of particles is called a mole. It is
the atomic mass, molecular mass or formula mass expressed in grams. For example, 18 grams of
water is one mole of water. If you drink 9 grams of water, it means you have taken a half more of
water. The Avodagro’s Number is the number of particles that is found in one mole of a
substance. Its value is: 6.02 x 1023. It is a huge number. If a person has eaten 180 g of glucose,
he has eaten 6.02 x 1023 of glucose molecules.
Formula mass:
The Formula mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms present in the
formula of that substance. For example, the formula mass of NaCl is 23+ 35.5 = 58.5.
Molecular mass:
The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms present in a
molecule of that substance. For example, molecular mass of water, H2O, is 1x2+16= 18.
Ion:
An electrically charged atom or molecule is called an ion. It has two types: cations or positive
ions, and anions or negative ions. H+ is a cation whereas Cl- is an anion. Ions may be simple or
compound. Simple ion consists of a single atom, but a compound ion is comprised of two or
more atoms. For example, Na+ is a simple ion but SO42- is a compound ion.
Molecule:
An atom or group of bonded atoms which can exist independently.One molecule of helium (He)
consists of one atom of helium. It is a monoatomic molecule. The molecules of other noble gases
are also monoatomic. One molecule of water (H2O) consists of three atoms. So it is a polyatomic
molecule.
Atomic number:
3
The total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called atomic number. The atomic
number of hydrogen is 1. The atomic number of oxygen is 8, sodium is 11 and iron is 26. All the
atoms of an element have same atomic number.
Mass number:
The total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is called the mass
number of that atom. The mass number of carbon-12 is 12. It has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
Atoms of an element may differ in the mass number.
Isotopes:
The atoms of the same element having different mass number are called isotopes. Isotopes of an
element have equal number of protons but different number of neutrons. Hydrogen element has
three isotopes. They are called:
(1) Ordinary hydrogen or protium,
(2) Deuterium or heavy hydrogen, and
(3) Tritium or radioactive hydrogen.
Ordinary hydrogen has no neutron. Deuterium has one neutron. Tritium has two neutrons.
Element:
An element is the simplest form of matter which cannot be converted into simper forms by any
physical or chemical means. If in a collection of atoms, all atoms have the same atomic number,
they all belong to the same element.
For example, Na, Fe, O etc. are elements.If you look at a periodic table, you will see elements in
it. Elements are of many types. They have different physical states. Today, more than 110
elements are known. Of these 90 elements occur naturally. Other elements have been formed in
nuclear reactors through nuclear reactions. Majority of the elements are metals, but many
elements are non-metals. There are some elements which have properties in-between metals and
non-metals. They are given the name metalloids.
Metals are elements which have high electropositivity. They easily lose electrons and have
shining surfaces. For example: Cu, Ag, Au are metals. Non-metals are generally less
electropositive and more electronegative.
4
Compound:
A compound is a substance that is formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements
in a definite ratio. For example, water (H2O) and common salt (NaCl) are compounds. At
present, many millions of compounds are known.
Both the elements and compounds are pure substances. Elements are represented by symbols and
compounds are shown by chemical formulas.
Mixture:
When two or more substances are mixed in any ratio in a manner that no chemical combination
occurs is called a mixture. A mixture is a mixed substance formed by the physical combinations
of two or more substances(elements or compounds). For example, air is a mixture of nitrogen,
oxygen and some other gases. The mixtures are of two types.
1. Homogeneous mixtures, and
2. Heterogeneous mixtures
A homogeneous mixture has uniform composition. It is also known as a solution. For example, a
mixture of salt (NaCl) and water is a homogeneous mixture. In a homogenous mixture, one thing
is completely “dissolved” in another substance. On the other hand, a heterogeneous mixture does
not have uniform composition. For example, a mixture of sand and water is a heterogeneous
mixture.
Chemical reaction:
A chemical reaction is a chemical change that involves one or more elements or compounds. It is
process in which one or more chemical bonds are broken or formed. In a chemical reaction, one
or more substances undergo chemical change and form one or more new substances. The
substances before the reaction are called reactants and the substances that are formed as a result
of the reaction are called products.
A chemical reactions is shown by a “chemical equation”. A chemical equation consists of

reactants, products and an arrow sign.
Reactants Æ Products
5
A chemical equation must be “balanced”. A balanced chemical equation is that in which the
number of atoms of all elements involved in the reaction are equal on both sides of equation.
That is, the number of atoms of an element in the reactants must be equal to the number of atoms
of that element in the product. Look at the following equation. Is it balanced?
H2 + Cl2ÆHCl (not balanced)
No. it is not balanced. Why? Because the number of hydrogen atoms in the reactants side are 2
while in the product side there is only 1 H atom. Similarly, number of Cl atoms are not equal on
both the sides. How can you balance it? Write 2 before HCl in the product side. The equation
now will be balanced.
H2 + Cl2Æ 2HCl (balanced)
6
Lecture 16
Atomic Structure
Man has known the fact that matter is composed of very very small particles since ancient times.
It is generally accepted that the concept that matter is discontinuous and composed of tiny
particles was first given by the Greek philosophers of the fifth century BC, Leucippos and
Democritos. It is notable that Plato and Aristotle did not believe in the existence of atoms and
regarded the matter as continuous. Later in 100 BC a Roman poet Lucretius illustrated the idea
of atom by his poetry. The word atom is from Greek words ‘a’ meaning ‘not’ and ‘tomos’
meaning divisible. Thus, the meaning of atom is the particle that is indivisible.
In 1808, John Dalton (1766-1844), an English schoolteacher put forward the concept of atom on
the scientific grounds. He proposed that the elements of atoms that are indivisible.
Today, the atom is defined as the smallest particle of an element that can enter into chemical
reactions.
Atom is not indivisible. It is, in fact, a tiny organized system consisting of smaller particles.
These smaller particles that make up the atom are called subatomic particles. Subatomic particles
of fundamental importance are electrons, protons and neutrons. These particles combine together
in varying number to form atoms of different elements.
The number of protons in its atoms is the characteristic property of an element. All the atoms of
an element have the same number of protons. The atoms of different elements have different
number of protons. A neutral atom has as many electrons as protons. Number of neutrons is not
fixed. Generally, it is equal to the number of protons in the lighter atoms, and much higher than
the number of protons in the heavier atoms. Atoms of the same element can have different
number of neutrons. Such atoms are called isotopes. Most elements have two or more isotopes.
DISCOVERY OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
Now, the question is how were electrons, protons, and neutrons discovered? There are a number
of experiments that ultimately led to the discovery of these particles and their arrangement in the
atom. These experiments include:
• Passage of electricity through solutions

• Discharge tube experiments
• Radioactivity
• Chadwick’s experiment
• Spectroscopic studies
PASSAGE OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH SOLUTION –ELECTROLYSIS
There are numerous substances that pass electricity in solution or in their molten state. They are
called electrolytes, and the process is called electrolysis. Electrolysis was thoroughly studied by
an English scientist Michael Faraday (1791-1867), who in 1832-1833 found out the relationship
1
between the quantity of electricity passed through the solution and the quantity of matter
deposited at the electrodes as a result of the passage of electricity, and put forward his two
famous laws.
Faraday’s experimental results led George John Stone StoneStoney in 1874 to conclude
that electricity like matter is discontinuous and consists of particles. In 1891, he gave the
nameelectron to this particle of electricity. (Electron is a Greek word for ‘amber’ which is
electrified when rubbed with wool).
Discharge Tube Experiments

(Crookes Tube Experiments)
Discharge tube experiments provided strong evidence for the existence of subatomic particles. A
discharge tube is a glass tube having two electrodes sealed in at each end. It is connected to a
high voltage battery to provide required voltage and to a vacuum pump to evacuate air or gas
from the tube.
Since William Crookes, a British physicist, was the first of several scientists to construct
discharge tubes, these are also known as Crookes tubes.
Working: At ordinary pressure, electricity does not pass through the tube since gases are non-
conductor of electricity. As the gas or air from the tube is gradually evacuated with the vacuum
pump, pressure decreases in the tube; a number of interesting phenomena are observed one after
the other.
When the pressure is reduced to a very small value, around 0.01-0.001 torr, an electric
discharge takes place producing a uniform glow inside the tube. Experiments have shown that it
is due to a radiation emitted from the cathode, which travels towards the anode. Because the rays
are emitted from cathode they are given the name cathode rays. Now the question is what are
these cathode rays? The cathode rays are the streams of electrons emitted from the cathode. All
electrons have the same charge and mass; they all are identical.
CONCLUSION
All atoms contain smaller particles called electrons. All electrons are identical. An
electron is a negatively charged particle. Its charge is –1.6 x 10-19 coulombs. An electron is an
extremely small material particle with a mass of 9.1 x 10-28 grams.
DISCOVERY OF PROTON
In 1886, E. Goldstein, a German physicist discovered that in addition to cathode rays,

another type of rays is also produced in the discharge tube which travel in the direction opposite
to that of cathode rays.The rays were given the name canal rays as they passed through the canals
of the cathode. These rays were made up of positively charged particles. These particles are
formed due to the ionization of the atoms or molecules of the gas present in the tube. In the
discharge tube, cathode rays, the electrons, collide with the atoms or molecules of the gas in the
tube and knock out one or more electrons from these atoms or molecules leaving them with a
positive charge. When an atom or molecule loses one or more of its electrons, it acquires a net
positive charge equal to the number of electrons lost. For example, hydrogen and helium may
produce H+2 and He+ ions. They may also produce H+ and He2+ ions.
2
Thus, positive rays are the stream of positive ions of the gas present in the tube that are produced
due to the ionization of their atoms or molecules.
Out of all positive ions obtained from different gases, the lightest ion was that of hydrogen. This
ion, H+, was named as proton (Greek protos, ‘first’) by Rutherford in 1920. It carries a charge
equal to that of an electron but opposite in sign. The ions produced from all gases in the
discharge tube have been found to have charge that is integral multiple of the charge of a proton
(H+ ion). It shows that atoms contain one or more positively charged particles, the protons.
J.J. THOMSON’S MODEL OF ATOM
By the end of the nineteenth century it became all clear that atoms consist of negatively charged
electrons and a positively charged part, but it was not clear how atoms are constructed. In 1898,
J.J. Thomson suggested that an atom might be a positively charged sphere in which negatively
charged electrons are embedded. This model of the atom is sometimes called the “plum pudding”
model. Of course, it was based on insufficient information and soon found to be incorrect.
Today, it is known that neutron is a neutral particle with mass 1.008665 amu or 1.675x10-24 g.
The nucleus of every atom contains neutrons alongwith protons except ordinary hydrogen, which
has no neutron.
Rutherford’s Experiment
In 1909, Ernest Rutherford, with Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, performed a very important
experiment. In their experiment they shot a stream of high-speed a-particles at very thin sheets of
various materials such as gold. They observed that most of the a-particles (about 99.9%) passed
through the sheet without any deflection. However, some particles deflected through various
angles, and a few almost completely reversed their direction.
Rutherford’s atomic model: To explain the results of his experiment, Rutherford in 1911
proposed an atomic model. The main points of his model are as follows:
An atom consists of a nucleus which contains almost all mass and all positive charge of the atom.
Around the nucleus, there are electrons which revolve around the nucleus just as the planets
revolve around the sun.
Light
Atomic spectra have greatly helped us in understanding the electronic structure of the atom. The
light emitted from an atom gives us information about the electronic structure of that atom.
Light has many forms such as visible or white light, ultraviolet light, infrared light, X-rays and y-
rays etc. all these forms of light propagate through space as electromagnetic waves. Like all
other waves, electromagnetic waves are described in terms of their velocity, frequency,
wavelength, and amplitude. The wavelength, λ(lambda), is the distance between two successive
crests or troughs of the wave. The frequency, v (nu), is the number of wave crests or troughs that
pass a given point in one second. Light travels with a constant speed of 3.00 x 108 m/s, c.
Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength at constant velocity. Thus,
v = c/λ
3
all electromagnetic waves have the same speed in space but their wavelengths and frequencies
vary. The wavelength of the visible or white light is about 400 to 750 nm, (4000 to 7500A0)
Continuous spectrum
A spectrum is a display of component colours (or wavelengths) of radiation on a screen or
photographic plate. Visible light is composed of a mixture of electromagnetic waves of all
wavelengths (frequencies) ranging from about 400 nm to 750 nm. When a narrow beam of
visible light is passed through a glass prism it is spread out into a band of colours ranging from
long-wavelength red light to short-wavelength violet light. A prism refracts light to different
wavelengths through different angles and thus disperses the beam of light into its component
wavelengths to form a continuous spectrum. A continuous spectrum contains all the wavelengths
present in that range. All the colours are present in continuity and there is no demarcation or dark
band between them.
Atomic Spectrum
When an element in its atomic form is heated, it emits radiation. If a beam of light emitted by a
sample of an excited element is passed through a prism, a spectrum containing only a few lines
(wavelengths) is obtained. This spectrum is known as a line spectrum. Since the light is emitted
by atoms of an element, the spectrum is also called an atomic emission spectrum (or simply
emission spectrum or atomic spectrum). The dark regions of the spectrum correspond to the
wavelengths for which light is not emitted. On the other hand, if we pass a beam of white light
through a sample of unexcited gas (any element in gaseous state) and the transmitted light is
passed through a prism, the spectrum obtained is called an absorption spectrum. The absorption
spectrum of an element is also a line spectrum. It is the photographic negative of the emission
spectrum. The absorption spectrum of an element lacks those wavelengths that are present in its
emission spectrum.
Significantly, each element displays a characteristic set of lines in its emission or absorption
spectrum. An element emits the same wavelengths that it absorbs. Thus, the emission or
absorption spectra can serve as “fingerprints” on the basis of which the elements can be
identified.
Atomic Spectra of Hydrogen

Hydrogen is the simplest element. A number of scientists studied the emission of radiation from
hydrogen atom. The atomic spectrum of hydrogen consists of several series of lines.
Planck’s Quantum Theory of Light:

In 1099, Max Planck proposed a revolutionary theory about the nature of light. The theory
successfully explained several observations concerning the interaction of light and matter, which
could not be explained by the wave theory of light. The theory is called Plank’s quantum theory
of light. It states:
1. Light is emitted or absorbed by matter discontinuously in the form of discrete packets or
bundles of energy called quanta (singular quantum). These quanta of light are also named as
photons.
2. Each photon of light has a particular amount of energy which is proportional to the
frequency of light.
4
Here E is the energy, v is the frequency, ?is the wavelength, c is the velocity of light, and h is the
constant of proportionality called the Planck’s constant. Its value is 6.63 x 10-34 joule second.
The Planck’s quantum theory, thus, says that light is discontinuous and consists of discrete
particles called photons. The light (energy) is absorbed or emitted by a substance in the form of
these photons.
Bohr’s Atomic Model
Keeping in view the Rutherford’s atomic model, the Planck’s quantum theory of light, and the
results of the studies of atomic spectra, Neils Bohr (1885 – 1962), a Danish physicist, in 1913 put
forward his model of atomic structure. The postulates of this model are as follows:
1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain fixed orbits, or stationary states. It means that
the energy of the electrons is quantified, that is, an electron can have only certain discrete
quantities of energy and none in between. The orbits are also called energy levels.
2. Only those orbits are possible for which the angular momentum (mvr) of an electron is the
integral multiple of h/2?. That is,
mvr = n x h/2? Where n = 1,2,3,4,…
Where m is the mass, v the velocity, r the radius of the orbit of an electron, h is the Planck’s
constant. n specifies the orbits. When n = 1, this is orbit number 1, when n = 2, this is orbit
number 2, and so on.
3. As long as an electron moves in its own orbit, no emission or absorption of radiation occurs.
4. Emission or absorption of radiation takes place when an electron jumps from one orbit to
another. An electron jumps from an orbit of lower energy (an inner orbit) to an orbit of
higher energy (an outer orbit) as a result of the absorption of radiation. When an electron
jumps from an orbit of higher energy to an orbit of lower energy, radiation is emitted. The
energy of the light absorbed or emitted is equal to the difference of the energies of the orbits
between which the electronic transition occurs.
:. ∆E = E2 – E1 = hv
Radii or Orbits: Different orbits have different radii. On the basis of Bohr’s atomic model, radii
of the electronic orbits can be determined.
Ground State and Excited State

The ground state of an electron is the lowest energy state that an electron normally occupies.
When energy is absorbed, the electron jumps to a higher energy state. This higher energy state is
known as the excited state (higher energy state). The ground state of an electron is the stable
state while the excited states are unstable states. As a result of absorption of energy when an
electron jumps to an excited state, it immediately jumps back to the ground state with the
emission of energy.
5
Wave Nature of Matter:
In 1924, a French physicist Louis de Broglie, using Planck’s equation (E = hv) and Einstein’s
equation (E = mc2), put forward a hypothesis that electron (and hence matter) possesses wave
properties. That is, electron is a wave. Later, Davison and Germer in 1927 experimentally
discovered the wave nature of electron. Subsequently, other particles, such as protons, neutrons
and helium nuclei (a-particles) were also shown to exhibit wave properties.
The wave behaviour of matter can only be observed for very small particles. For big bodies the
associated wavelength is much too small to be observed.
In short, under certain conditions, an electron resembles a particle while under some other
conditions, it behave as if it is a wave. The electron and hence the matter possesses dual nature.
However, it has been found that electrons can be treated as wave more effectively than as small
particles.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
In 1927, Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976), a German physicist, put forward a principle called the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle (or Heisenberg indeterminacy principle). It states:
“It is impossible to determine with exact accuracy both the momentum and the position of an
electron (or any other body) simultaneously.”
It means the more accurately we know the momentum of an electron, the less accurately can we
know its position and vice versa.
Thus, Bohr’s model of an electron moving with a known velocity (or momentum, as it is mv), in
a well-defined orbit (that is, with known position) cannot be correct. In other words, we cannot
say where an electron lies around the nucleus.
Quantum Mechanics
The concepts given by Planck, Bohr, de Broglie, Heisenberg, and others ultimately led to the
development of a new theory of the structure of atom, known as quantum mechanics or wave
mechanics. Quantum mechanics replaced the classical mechanics (the Newtonian mechanics).
If the electron is a wave, then it should be possible to describe it with the help of some
mathematical equations like the other waves. In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger (1887–1961)
succeeded to develop an equation. This equation is the foundation stone of the quantum
mechanics. It offers a mathematical approach to understanding the wave nature of matter.
The quantum mechanical treatment of an electron is highly mathematical as the Schrodinger
equation is a very complex equation. Hydrogen is the only atom for which it has been solved.
Each solution of this equation is described by a set of constant numbers called quantum numbers.
Quantum Numbers
The quantum mechanics explains the structure of atom with the help of four quantum numbers.
These numbers are used to describe the distribution of electrons in space around the nucleus. The
quantum numbers and their significance is given below:
1. Principal Quantum Number, n

The principal quantum number (n) describes the main energy level, or shell, that an electron
occupies in an atom. n may be any positive integer:
6
n = 1,2,3,……
When n = 1, it is the first main energy level, or the first shell. When n =2, it is the second shell.
And, so on. A main energy level or shell is the main region around the nucleus in which an
electron may be present. Shells 1, 2, 3, 4,…..are also sometimes called K, L, M, N, …….shells.
2. Azimuthal (or subsidiary) Quantum Number, l

Azimuthal quantum number (l) describes subshells or sublevels in shells or main energy levels.
It denotes the shape of the region in space an electron occupies. Its values are given by:
l = 0 to (n – 1)
Thus, when n = 1, then
l=0
When n = 2, then l = 0, 1
When n = 3, then l = 0, 1, 2
And, so on.
Thus, the values of l designate subshells or sublevels that electrons can occupy in a main shell.
Each value of l is given a letter notation. Thus:
l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …….
s, p, d, f, g, h,..........
Thus, in the first shell (n = 1, l = 0), there is one subshell and it is s. In the second shell there are
two subshells, s and p. in the third shell (n = 3), there are three subshells, s, p and d. In the fourth
shell (n = 4), there are four subshells (s, p, d, and f). And, so on. Notice that the number of
subshells in any given shell is simply equal to the value of n for that shell.
(The first four letters (s, p, d, f) find their historical origin in the study of the atomic spectra of
the alkali metals. In these spectra four series of lines are observed and they are termed as the
sharp, principal, diffuse and fundamental series. For l = 4, 5, …… we just continue with the
alphabet.)
Notice that the electrons in their ground state in atoms of all elements occupy only s, p, d and f.
3. Magnetic Quantum Number, m

It designates the spatial orientation of the region an electron occupies. This region is called an
orbital. An orbital is the region around the nucleus in which the probability of finding an electron
is maximum. Each subshell is composed of one or more orbitals. The values of m are given by:
m= -l, …….0…….+l
Thus, when l = 0, m=0
When l = 1, m= -1, 0, +1
When l = 2, m= -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
When l = 3, m = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3
Values of m serve to determine the orientation of an orbital in space relative to the other orbitals.
In subshell s, there is only one orbital s. In subshell p, there are three orbitals, px, py,pz. In
subshell d, there are five orbitals, and in subshell f, there are seven orbitals.
4. Spin Quantum Number, s
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It refers to the spin of an electron. Electron has a spin, that is, it rotates about its own axis. An
electron can spin only in either of two directions, clockwise or anticlockwise. Therefore, s has
only two values +1/2 and –1/2.
Atomic Orbitals:
From the above discussion we can conclude that in an atom there are various main energy levels
or shells. Each shell has one or more sublevels or subshells. Each subshell consists of one or
more orbitals. An orbital is the actual region where an electron is found. It can be defined as
follows:
“An orbital is the region around the nucleus in which the probability of finding an electron is
maximum.”
Note that an orbital can have a maximum of two electrons.
SHAPES OF ATOMIC ORBITALS
Each s orbital in an atom is spherically symmetrical with respect to the nucleus. That is, an s
orbital in shape is like a symmetrical sphere such as a football. Each p orbital is like a dumbbell.
The three p orbitals (px, py and pz) are present perpendicular to one another. Subscripts x, y and
z indicate the axis along which each of the three two-lobed p orbitals is directed. The d and f
orbitals have complex shapes.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
The arrangement of electrons in shells, subshells and rbitals in an atom is called the electronic
configuration. The electronic configuration of an atom is governed by the following rules and
principles:
1. Pauli Exclusion Principle,
Since electrons are described by four quantum numbers, any two electrons in an atom must
differ in at least one quantum number. Pauli exclusion principle states:
“ In an atom no two electrons can have the same values of the four quantum numbers.”
It can also be stated as:
“An orbital can accommodate no more than two electrons and these electrons must have
opposite spins.”
Take the example of helium, He, which has two electrons, both the electrons are in 1s orbital.We
express this as 1s2. These two electrons have the same three quantum numbers, for both
n = 1
8
l = 0
m = 0
But, they differ in the fourth quantum number. If for one electron
s = + 1/2
then for the other s = -1/2
The two electrons having opposite spins are said to be “paired”, while if there is only one
electron in an orbital, it is called “unpaired”.
(Pauli exclusion principle was put forward by a Swiss physicist Walgang Pauli (1900-1958) in
1925.)
2. Aufbau Principle
(Aufbau is from German aufbauen meaning “to build up”). This principle states:
“In an atom an electron tends to occupy the lowest energy orbital available.”
As we go away from the nucleus, the energy of the shells increases. In writing electronic
configuration, we start filling electrons from 1s. When it is completely filled, we go to 2s the
to 2p and son on. Consider the following:
H (Z =1) 1s1
He (Z = 2) 1s2
Li ( Z= 3) 1s2, 2s1
Be (Z=4) 1s2, 2s2
B (Z=5) 1s2, 2s2, 2p1
C (Z=6) 1s2, 2s2, 2p2
N ( Z =7) 1s2, 2s2, 2p3
O ( Z =8) 1s2, 2s2, 2p4
F (Z=9) 1s2, 2s2, 2p5
Ne (Z=10) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6
Na (Z=11) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6 , 3s1
(n+l) Rule
This rule states:“The orbital with the lowest energy is the one for which the sum of n and l is
lowest. When two orbitals have the same ( n + l ) value, the orbital with the lower n value
has the lower energy.”
Take the example of potassium (K) that has 19 electrons. The first eighteen electrons have
the following arrangement:
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6
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Where will go the 19th electron, to orbital 3d or 4s? Let us apply (n+l) rule, for 3d
n +l
3 + 2 =5
and for 4s
n+l
4 + 0 =4
Thus, 4s has lower energy than 3d; the 19th electron will go to 4s.
K (Z = 19) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6 ,4s1
4. Hund’s Rule
All the orbitals in a subshell have equal energy. How are then electrons filled in a subshell?
Hund’s rule states:
“As long as the orbitals of same energy available, electrons occupy the separate orbitals and
have parallel spins.”
Atomic Radius
The size of an atom is measured in terms of radius. It is not possible to determine the precise
size of an atom since the outermost shell of an atom has no precise outer boundary. As we go
away from the nucleus, the electron density decreases to a very small value but it does not
become exactly zero even at a large distance from the nucleus. Moreover, we cannot isolate a
single atom and measure its diameter the way we can measure the diameter of a football. We
can estimate only the radius of a combined atom. Moreover, the size of the electronic cloud
also depends upon its environment. In spite of all these difficulties, we talk about the atomic
size because it is very useful in understanding many properties of elements. The atomic
radius is defined as follows.
“The half of the bond length of a homonuclear diatomic molecule is called the atomic radius
of the bonded atoms.”
That is, if two atoms of the same element are covalently bonded, the half of the bond length
will be the radius of each atom.
For Example, H-H bond length is 0.78 A. The one-half of this distance is 0.37 A. This is the
atomic radius of hydrogen. Similarly, the CI-CI bond length is 1.98 A, the atomic radius of
CI is 0.99 A. Other atomic radii can be found in a similar way. This atomic radius is the
covalent radius since it is the radius of an atom involved in a covalent bond, and not the
radius of a free atom.
If we know the length of a bond between two dissimilar atoms (A-B), and the radius of one
of them, we can calculate the atomic radius of the other:
rA + rB = A-B bond length
Change of atomic radius in the periodic table
1. Atomic radius decreases as we go from left to right in the periodic table. It is because as
we go from left to right in a period, the nuclear charge increases. This increasing nuclear
10
charge pulls the valence electrons with increasing force and as a result the atomic radius
decreases from left to right in the periodic table.
2. Atomic radius increases as we go from top to bottom in a group. It is because the number
of shells increases in going from top to bottom. The increasing number of shells
increases the atomic radius.
Ionic Radius
When one or more electrons are added to an atom, a negative ion, anion, is formed. While, when
one or more electrons are removed from an atom, a positive ion, cation, is formed .In general,
cations are always smaller than the neutral atoms from which they are formed, whereas, anions
are larger than the neutral atoms from which they are formed.
The decrease in the size of a cation is due to two factors: (1) The removal of electron(s) from the
outermost shell. Often all the electrons from the outermost shell areremoved which means the
removal of a whole shell. (2) the decrease in the total electron-electron repulsion. For example,
radius of Na = 1.86 A and that of Na+ = 0.95 A.
The increase in the size of an anion is due to the added repulsion between the new electrons and
the electrons already present. For example, radius of CI=0.99 A and of CI- = 1.81 A.
In a series of ions of different elements having the same number of electrons (isoelectronic ions)
the size decreases with the increase in the nuclear charge.
Ionization Energy
Since electrons are attracted by the nucleus, energy must be supplied to remove an electron from
an atom. This energy is called ionization energy or ionization potential, and defined as follows:
“The minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an
isolated gaseous atom in its ground state is called the ionization energy,”
For example, the ionization energy of Na is 495.8 kJ/mol.
An atom has as many ionization energies as it has electrons. The energy required to remove the
first electron is called the first ionization energy, the energy required to remove the second
electron is known as the second ionization energy, and so forth. For example, for calcium the
first ionization energy (IE) is 590 kJ/ mol.
The second ionization energy is 1145 kJ/ mol.

The ionization energy depends on the following factors
1. Atomic radius
The greater the atomic radius, the farther away is the outermost electron from the
nucleus, the easier it is to remove it. Thus, lower will be the ionization energy.
2. Nuclear Charge
The greater the nuclear charge, the more attracted will be the electrons by the nucleus,
and the higher will be the ionization energy.
3. Shielding effect
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The intervening shells between the nucleus and the outermost electrons reduce the
attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electrons. This effect is known as the
shielding or screening effect. The greater the shielding effect, the easier it will be to remove
the electron, and the lower will be the ionization energy. The shielding effect increases from
top to bottom in the periodic table with the increase in the number of shells.
4. Type of orbital
The order of ionization energy with respect to orbitals is
s > p> d > f
It is most difficult to remove an electron from an s orbital because it is least diffused. The f
is the most diffused orbital, so it is the easiest to remove an electron from f orbital.
Change of IP in the period table.
In the periodic table the ionization energy increases from left to right due to decrease in the
atomic size and increase in the nuclear charge.
From top to bottom in a group, the ionization energy decreases due to increase in the atomic
size and increase in the shielding effect.
Electron Affinity
Electron affinity can be defined as follows. When an electron enters an atom, energy is either
released or absorbed. This energy is called electron affinity. Thus:
“The amount of energy evolved or absorbed when an electron is added to a gaseous atom in
its ground state is called electron affinity.”
Electron affinity shows the ability of an atom to accept one or more electrons. When a
chlorine atom accepts an electron 348kJ/mol energy is released.
Cl(g) + e ----------------Cl(g) EA= -348 kJ/mol
The halogens that have the most negative electron affinities readily form negative ions. By
accepting one electron a halogen atom assumes the stable electronic configuration of the
noble gas immediately following it.
In general, electron affinity becomes more and more negative in going from left to right in
the periodic table as the nuclear charge increases and the atomic radius decreases.
Some elements gain more than one electrons to form anions. For example, oxygen gains two
electrons to form a bivalent anion.
O(g) + e ---------------- O (g) EA = -142 kJ/mol
O(g) + e ---------------- O(g) EA = +780 kJ/mol
In the second step energy is absorbed. Electron affinities of anions are always positive. This
is because of the repulsion between the negative ion and the incoming electron.
Problem: (a) Which element should easily form the cation: K (IP= 419kJ/mol or F (IP=
1680kJ/mol)?
(b) Which element should easily form anion: Na (EA= -53kJ/mol) or Br (EA= -324kJ/mol)?
Answer: (a) K, (b) Br.
12
Lecture # 17
Chemical Bond
How atoms join with each other?
The existence of solids and liquids is a clear proof that atoms combine with one another.
But, the question is why atoms combine with one another and how?
Isolated atoms are unstable and to gain stability they combine with one another. This
combination is expressed by the term chemical bond (theword bond means linkage,
attachment, connection, etc.). The chemical bond can be defined as follow:
“The chemical bond is a force which holds atoms together in a molecule or a

compound”
It was in 1916 that W. Kossel (Germany) and G.N. Lewis (USA) independently proposed
that atoms join together through the involvement of electrons. The noble gases (He, Ne, Ar,
etc.) are stable, and have eight electrons in their outermost shells (except helium which has
two electrons). It was thought that since the noble gases are stable, all elements tend to
achieve the noble gas electronic configuration. This is known as the octet rule. (Octet: group
of eight.) Now, how can atoms achieve eight electrons in their outermost shells? Kossel
suggested that this is done by actual transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to
another. Lewis proposed that atoms acquire noble gas electronic configuration by mutual
sharing of electrons between two atoms. These views gave the two concepts of bonds: ionic
bond, and covalentbond.
Ionic Bond or Electrovalent Bond
The concept of ionic bond was suggested by W. Kossel in 1916. Ionic bond is formed due to
transfer of electrons. When electrons are transferred from one atom to another, the atom that
loses electrons becomes a positive ion and the atom that gains electrons becomes a negative
ion. These oppositely charged ions then attract each other and are attached with each other
through the opposite electric charges. Thus, we can define the ionic bond as follows:
1
“The ionic bond is the bond which is formed between oppositely charged ions due to
electrostatic force of attraction.”
Take the example of NaCl. Sodium atom has one electron in its valence (outermost) shell.
Chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outermost shell.
Sodium atom loses its valence electron and becomes a positive ion, while chlorine atom
accepts one electron to form a negative ion. These ions attract each other due to their
opposite changes to form ionic bond:
Na Æ Na+ + e-
Cl + e-ÆCl-
Na++ Cl-ÆNa+Cl-ÆNaCl
Energetics of Ionic Bond

Why an ionic bond is formed? The natural principle is that every system tends towards more
stability. Atoms form bonds to acquire stability. For most cases we can understand stability
as a state of less energy.Thus, in general, we can say that every system tends to acquire a
state of lower energy. Let us study the energy changes in the formation of NaCl from gaseous
sodium and chlorine atoms.
To remove the outermost electron from sodium atom the energy (the ionization energy)
required is 494 kJ/mol. When a chlorine atom gains an electron, the energy (electron affinity)
released is 348 kJ/mol.
This shows that the ionization energy of sodium is so high that the energy released when a
chlorine atom accepts the electron is not sufficient to provide the energy needed to remove
the electron from sodium. An additional 495-348 = 147 kJ energy is required to make
possible the transfer of one mole of electrons from isolated sodium atoms to isolated chlorine
atoms.
These sodium ions and the chloride ions combine together to form solid crystalline sodium
chloride. During this step a high amount of energy (788 kJ/mol) is released.
Na+(g) +Cl-(g) ÆNaCl(s) ∆H = - 788 kJ/mol
This energy is known as the lattice energy.
2
“The lattice energy is the amount of energy evolved when one mole of a crystalline ionic
compound is formed from its gaseous ions.”
The lattice energy here is high because one mole of sodium ions and one mole of chloride
ions are arranged in the formation of crystal in such a way that one sodium ion is surrounded
by six chloride ions and vice versa. Thus, it is the large lattice energy, which makes the
formation of sodium chloride energetically favorable. The lattice energy is, in fact, the
driving force behind the formation of sodium chloride from its elements.
In the same way we can understand the formation of any ionic compound. Ionic bond is
formed between the elements having large difference of electronegativity, (usually higher
than 1.7). In general the elements of group VIIA (halogens) form ionic bond with metals.
Characteristics of Ionic Compounds
1. Ionic Compounds are Non-molecular
An ion attracts the oppositely charged ions from all directions, so the ionic bond is non-
directional. When a large number of cations and anions come closer to one another, they
arrange themselves in such a way that one ion is surrounded by a number of oppositely
charged ions. Each ion is surrounded by the greatest possible number of oppositely charged
ions depending on the relative ionic radii of cations and anions. Thus, ionic bonds do not
form freely existing particles called molecules. Therefore, ionic compounds do no consist of
molecules.
2. Ionic Compounds are Solids
Under ordinary conditions, all ionic compounds are solids. It is because in ionic compounds,
ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction.
3. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points
In ionic compounds, the oppositely charged ions are held in the crystal by strong electrostatic
forces. Therefore, high energy is needed to overcome the strong electrostatic forces. Thus,
the ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.
4. Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents
Polar solvents like water have high dielectric constants (the ability of a solvent to decrease
the attractive force between the ions dipped in it). Therefore, such solvents break the forces
3
of attraction between the ions and get them dispersed in them. In nonpolar solvents ionic
compounds are generally insoluble.
5. Ionic compounds are electrolytes
Ionic compounds conduct electricity in their solutions and in molten sates. This is because in
solution or in molten state the ions become free from one another and can move under the
effect of electric field.
Covalent Bond
The concept of covalent bond was given by G.N. Lewis in 1916. Covalent bond can be
defined as follows:
“Covalent bond is the bond which is formed due to
sharing of electrons between tow atoms.”
Take the example of a hydrogen molecule. Hydrogen atom has one electron in its valence
shell:
H (Z = 1) 1s1
When two hydrogen atoms come close to each other, they share their electrons to form a
covalent bond:
H. +H.Æ H:H
This shared pair of electrons holds the two atoms together; each electron of the pair is
attracted by both the nuclei. The shared pair of electrons is also known as bonding pair of
electrons.
Covalent bond is a unidirectional bond and holds the bonded atoms to form a freely exiting
particle called a molecule. Therefore, the covalent bond is generally shown by a small line
drawn between the symbols of the bonded atoms. The line represents the bonding pair of
electrons. Thus
H:H is represented as H–H
Type of Covalent Bond
4
A covalent bond between two atoms may be formed by mutual sharing of one, two or three
pairs of electrons. Therefore, the covalent bonds are of three types.
Single Covalent Bond: The bond that is formed due to sharing of one pair of electrons
between two atoms is called the single covalent bond. The H-H bond is a single covalent
bond. Similarly, H-C1, Cl-C1, F-F Br-Br are single covalent bonds.
Double Covalent Bond: The bond that is formed due to sharing of two pairs of electrons
between two atoms is called a double covalent bond. Each atom contributes two unpaired
electrons that are paired with the electrons of the other atom. Take the example of O2. An
oxygen atom has the following electronic configuration.
O 1s2, 2s2, 2px2 , apy1, 2pz1
It has two unpaired electrons, one in orbital 2py and other in 2pz. Two oxygen atoms share
two pairs of electrons to form a double covalent bond:
O:+ :OÆ O::O
or
O=O
Similarly, ethene has a carbon-carbon double bond:
H2C=CH2
Triple Covalent Bond
When a bond is formed due to sharing of three pairs of electrons between two atoms, it is
called a triple covalent bond. Take the example of N2. A nitrogen atom (z = 7) has the
following electronic configuration:
N 1s2, 2s2, 2px1 , apy1, 2pz1
It has three unpaired elections. Two nitrogen atoms form a triple bond by sharing three pairs
of electrons. Similarly, ethyne has a carbon-carbon triple bond.
Coordinate Covalent Bond
Coordinate covalent bond is a special type of covalent bond, which differs from the simple
covalent bond in the way of formation:
“The covalent bond between two atoms in which both of the bonding electrons are donated
by one of the atoms, is known as the coordinate covalent bond.”
5
The H+ ion has no electron, yet it forms a bond. For example, it forms a bond with the
nitrogen of ammonia. It is because the nitrogen of ammonia has a non-bonding, or lone, pair
of electrons which it donates to form a bond with hydrogen ion:
H++ :NH3ÆNH4+
A coordinate covalent bond is also represented by an arrow sign showing the direction of the
donation of electron pair.
The atom that donates the pair of electrons is called the donor, and the atom that accepts the
pair of electrons is called the acceptor.
Coordinate covalent bond is also known as dative bond or co-ionic bond.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Characteristics of Covalent Compounds
1. Covalent compounds are molecular: The atoms bonded by covalent bonds form
independently existing units known as molecules.
2. Covalent compounds may be solids, liquids or gases: The covalent compounds consist
of molecules. In gases these molecules are free from one another and exert practically no
force of attraction under ordinary conditions. In liquids and solids intermolecular forces
of attraction, van der Waals forces, or hydrogen bonds hold the molecules together.
3. Non-electrolytes: In general, the covalent compounds arenon-electrolytes. Exceptions
includeacids and bases.
4. Insoluble in water: In general, the covalent compoundsare insoluble in polar solvents
like water, and soluble in nonpolar solvents like organic liquids.
Electronegativity
A shared pair of electrons is attracted by both of the bonded atoms. For example in H:C1 both H
and C1 attract the bonding pair. This power of an atom to attract the bonding pair of electrons is
called electronegativity, which can be defined as follows:
“The ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of
electrons towards it is known as electronegativity.”
Fluorine is the most electronegative element. Its electronegativity is 4. Then comes oxygen
whose electronegativity is 3.5.
6
Polar and Nonpolar Bonds
If two bonded atoms have equal electronegativity, the bonding electrons pair will be shared
equally between the two atoms. In other words, the electron density of the bonding electron pair
is distributed equally and symmetrically between the two atoms. Such a bond is known as a
nonpolar bond. Thus;
“ the bond between two atoms having equal electronegativity
is a nonpolar bond.”
For example, C1-C1, O=O, N=N bonds are nonpolar bonds.
On the other hand, if the atoms forming a bond have different electronegativities, the bonding
pair is shared unequally. The more electronegative atom acquires a greater share of the bonding
electrons as compared to the less electronegative atom. Due to this the more electronegative
atom acquires a partial negative charge and the less electronegative atom acquiresa partial
positive charge. These charges are of equal magnitude, and the overall charge is zero. Such a
bond is known as a polar bond. It has negative and positive poles. Thus:
“The polar bond is the bond between two atoms
having differentelectronegativities.”
Take the example of H–C1. Chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen. Thus, the bonding
pair of electrons is shared unequally, and chlorine has greater share of electrons than hydrogen.
As a result, chlorine is partially negatively charged and hydrogen is partially positively charge.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem:
Which of the following molecules are polar and which are nonpolar?
BeCl2, H2S, CS2, BF3, NH3, PCl3
Answers:
BeCl2 is a linear molecule, and is nonpolar.
H2S is an angular molecule (like H2O) with polar bonds, so it is polar.
CS2 is a linear molecule (like CO2), so it is nonpolar.
7
BF3 is a trigonal planar molecule. Its bond moments cancel one another so the molecule is
nonpolar.
PC13 is also a trigonal pyramidal molecule (like NH3) and is polar.
Bond length
“The distance between the nuclei of two bonded
atoms is called the bond length”.
The bond length of a single bond is longer than a double bond, which in turn is longer than a
triple bond.
Bond Energy
When a bond is formed between two atoms a certain amount of energy is released during this
process. When that bond is broken the same amount of energy is required to do so. This energy is
known as bond energy
“The bond energy is the energy evolved when a
bond is formed between two atoms.”
Or
“The bond energy is the energy required to break
a bond between two atoms.”
The bond energy is also known as bond dissociation energy.
The Modern Concept of covalent Bonding

There are two important modern concepts of chemical bonding, both are based on the quantum
mechanics: valence bond theory (VBT), and molecular orbital theory (MOT). According to VBT
“a covalent bond between two atoms is formed due to the overlap of two half-filled orbitals,
one from each atom.”
Molecular orbital theory (MOT) treats a molecule like an atom. An atom consists of atomic
orbitals surrounding a nucleus. Likewise, a molecule consists of molecular orbitals surrounding
two or more nuclei present in the molecule. Atomic orbitals are monocentric, they surround
only one nucleus while the molecular orbitals are polycentric, and surround more than one
nuclei.
8
Summary: A chemical bond is the force which holds atoms together.The bond may be ionic or
covalent. Ionic bond is formed by the transfer of 1 or more electrons and covalent bond is formed
by the sharing of electrons.In ionic bond there is complete transfer of electrons which result in
formation of positive and negative ions which are called cations and anions these cations and
anions are held together by the strong electrostatic force of attraction. So the ionic bond is very
strong bond.The electrons which are present in the outer most shell of an element are called
valence electrons. It the valence electrons which take part in bonding, for example there are one
valence electrons in Na and seven in Cl.
Differentiation between ionic and covalent bond:
• Ionic compounds have ionic compounds while covalent compounds have covalent bonds.
• Since in ionic compounds, ions are held together through very strong electrostatic forces,
ionic compounds are solids at room temperature. Whereas covalent compounds consist of
molecules which are held together through weak inter molecular force, there for they may
be solids, liquids or gases.
• Ionic compounds have higher melting and boiling points than covalent compounds.
• In general, ionic compounds are soluble in water and insoluble in organic solvents. While
covalent compounds are generally insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents.
• Ionic compounds don’t conduct electricity as such but do so in molten state. Covalent
compounds don’t conduct electricity in general.
Explain bond formation in H2 and NaCl?
H2 In H2 two hydrogen atoms are held together through a covalent bond. Each hydrogen atom
contributed 1 electron. So there are two shared electrons this is known as a shared pair of
electrons. It is this shared pair of electrons which holds two H atoms together.
H. + H.Æ H__H
NaCl In NaCl there is ionic bond Na+ is positive ion while Cl- is negative ion, these ions are
held together through very strong electrostatic force of attraction.
Na+ + Cl-ÆNaCl
9
Lecture 18
Chemical Reactions
Chemical Reactions:
A chemical reaction is a chemical change in which one or more substances change into one or
more other substances. In other words, a chemical reaction is a process in which one or more
bonds are broken and one or more bonds are formed. For example, rusting of iron is a chemical
reaction. Similarly burning of natural gas is a chemical reaction.
Chemical and physical change:
During a chemical change a new substance is formed while during a physical change no new
substance is formed. For example, burning of wood is a chemical change while change of water
into ice is a physical change. During a chemical change a chemical reaction occurs whereas
during a physical change no chemical reaction occurs. Chemical change is generally a permanent
change, while physical change is only a temporary change and can be reversed easily.
Chemical property of a substance is a property in which that substance undergoes a chemical

change. For example, it is a chemical property of an acid to react with a base and form salt and
water.
Exothermic and endothermic reactions:
When a chemical reaction takes place, change in energy also occurs. The reaction during which
heat is evolved is called an exothermic reaction. On the other hand, the reaction during which
heat is absorbed is called an endothermic reaction.
Heat of reaction:
When a chemical reaction occurs, certain amount of heat is either evolved or absorbed. This
amount of heat which is evolved or absorbed during a chemical reaction is known as heat of
reaction. It is also known as enthalpy of reaction and is denoted by ∆H. Its units are joules per
mole or Kcal per mole.
1
Types of Reactions:
There are a number of types of reactions.
1. Addition reactions: the reactions in which two or more substance react to form a single
substance. Ethene reacts with hydrogen to form ethane.
C2H4 + H2Æ C2H6
2. Substitution reaction: the reactions in which one substance is replaced by another

substance from a molecule:
CH3-Cl + NaOHÆ CH3-OH +NaCl
This reaction is also known as double displacement reaction.
3. Elimination reaction: the reactions in which one or more atoms are eliminated from a
molecule. For example, removal of H2O from ethanol to form ethene.
CH3-CH2-OH Æ CH2=CH2 + H2O
4. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Many reactions involve transfer of electrons from one atom to another atom. These
reactions are known as oxidation-reductionreactions. The loss of electrons from an
atom is known as oxidation, while the gain of electrons by an atom is called reduction.
Oxidation and reduction always take place simultaneously and the extent of oxidation is
equal to the extent of reduction. That is, the loss of electrons is equal to the gain of
electrons. The substance that undergoes oxidation is known as the reducing agent, and
the substance that undergoes reduction is known as the oxidizing agent.
2
5. Combustion reactions: combustion means burning, and it is the reaction of a substance
with oxygen. In a combustion reaction heat is produced. For example, the reaction of
methane with oxygen is a combustion reaction.
CH4 + O2ÆCO2 + H2O
Generally in a combustion reaction, carbon dioxide and water are produced.
6. Neutralization reactions:
When an acidic solution is added to a basic solution in the right proportion, the properties
of each are lost, and a salt and water are formed. This process is called neutralization.
“The reaction between an acid and a base that forms

a salt and water is called neutralization”.
For Example,
HCI (aq) + NaOH (aq) ÆNaCI (aq) + H2O
HNO3 (aq) + NaOH (aq) Æ NaNO3 (aq) + H2O
Chemical reactions may occur in solution or gaseous form. Generally, the chemical reactions are
carried out in solution. Water and organic solvents are used for this purpose.
Rate of Reaction:
When a reaction occurs, one or more bonds are broken and then one or more bonds are formed.
This process of bond breakage and formation takes some time. How much a reactant changes
into a product in a given time is important. By the rate of reaction we mean the amount of
reactant that is converted to product per unit time. It can also be defined on the bases of the
appearance of a product. So, the rate of a reaction is the amount of product formed per unit time.
The rate of reaction is also called speed or velocity of reaction. It is measured in moles/seconds.
Thus, the rate of a reaction is the amount of product which is formed in one second.
Rate of Reaction = concentration of product formed/time
On the basis of the rate of reactions, we can classify the reactions into the following categories.
• Very slow reactions: some reactions are very slow. For example, conversion of graphite
into diamond in the earth crust is a very slow process.
3
• Slow reactions: some reactions occur with slow speed, e.g. rusting of iron is a slow
process.
• Moderate reactions: most organic reactions occur with moderate speed.
• Fast reactions: many reactions occur with a fast speed. Strong acid strong base reactions
are fast reactions.
• Very fast reactions: some reactions are very fast such as explosions.
4
Lecture # 19
Mixture and Solution
Mixture:
A mixture is a “mixed” substance which obtained on mixing two are more substances without
undergoing any chemical reaction.
Types of mixtures: Mixtures are of two types:
• Homogenous Mixtures
• Heterogeneous. Mixtures
Homogeneous mixture
A Homogeneous mixture has uniform composition throughout its body. They are known as
solutions. For example, when sugar or salt is dissolved in water it forms a solution in which the
sugar or salt and water are uniformly mixed (the sugar or salt is dissolved uniformly in water).
Another common example is air.
Heterogeneous mixture
A Heterogeneous mixture is that which does not have uniform composition. e.g. granite which
consists of quartz, feldspar and mica and you can identify each of the substances separately in
the mixture.
Heterogeneous mixtures can be suspensions or colloids.
Solution:
“A solution is a homogenous mixture of atoms, ions or molecules of two or more substances.”
A homogenous mixture is that which has uniform composition throughout its body. In other
words, it has only one phase. Suppose, we stir some sugar into a glass of water. The grains of
sugar disappear and we have a clear liquid that looks just like pure water. The sugar molecules
have dispersed among the water molecules, and sugar and water thus form a solution.
1
Types of solution
Solutions can be classified on the basis of their state: solid, liquid, or gas. Thus there are
nine types of solutions. The most common type of solutions is a solid dissolved in liquids. The
liquid is mostly water.
Solvent and Solute

The solvent is the component of a solution that is visualized as dissolving another
component called a solute. Usually the component present in the larger quantity is called the
solvent, and the component present in the smaller quantity is called the solute.
Concentration and its units

By concentration we mean the relative amounts of the components of a solution. It tells
us the ratio of the quantity of one component to the quantity of the other or to the total quantity
of solution. It has many units. Some common units are discussed below.
Percentage
The ratio of the mass of the solute to the mass of the solution multiplied by 100 is called
mass percentage.
Mass Percentage of a solute = Mass of the solute x 100

Mass of solution
Example
A solution contains 25 grams of sugar in 150 grams of water. What is the %age by mass
of sugar in the solution? (14.3%)
For liquid-liquid solutions, it is sometimes more convenient to express the concentration
in the units of percentage by volume:
Volume Percentage of a liquid = Volume of the liquid x 100

Total volume
Example
A solution of 10 ml acetone and 50 ml water was prepared. Calculate the percentage by volume
of acetone. (16.67%)
2
Molarity (M)
Molarity is the most common unit of concentration used in chemistry.
“Molarity or the molar concentration is the number of moles of solute dissolved per dm3 of
solution”. (1 dm3 is equal to 1 Liter)
Thus
Molarity=Number of moles of solute
Volume of solution in liters
Example: 15g of NaOH were dissolved in enough water to prepare 100 cm3solution. Calculate
the molarity of NaOH. (3.75 mol/dm3)
Molarity (m)
“Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved per kilogram of solvent”.
Example: 15 g of NaOH was dissolved in 100 g of water. Calculate the molality of NaOH.
(3.75 mol/Kg)
Molality is independent of temperature as it is mass-to-mass ratio, while molarity is temperature

dependent as it is mass to volume ratio.
Solubility and Saturation
This is an important question that how much a solute at maximum can be dissolved in a
given quantity of a solvent. The maximum amount of a solute dissolved in a given amount of a
solvent is called solubility of that solute. It can be precisely defined as follows:
“The solubility of a solute in a given solvent is the concentration of that solute in its saturated
solution at a specific temperature”.
Solubility can be expressed in any of the units of concentration. However, it is commonly
expressed in grams per dm3.
“A saturated solution is the solution which can dissolve no more amount of the solute, at
the given temperature”.
3
If we start slowly adding sugar (sucrose) to water taken in a beaker. At first it dissolves rapidly,
but then gradually the dissolution process becomes slow. The continued addition of sugar
eventually brings the solution to saturation, after which any additional sugar simply falls to the
bottom of the container where it remains undissolved. At this point, there is an equilibrium
between the excess undissolved solute and the dissolved one.
This solution of sugar is said to be saturated, and the concentration of sugar in this solution is
called its solubility.
Dissociation of Solutes
When sugar dissolves in water, the solute particles that are dispersed through out the
resulting solution are sugar molecules. On the other hand many solids (electrolytes) undergo
dissociation or ionization when dissolve. For example, NaCl forms sodium and chlorine ions in
solution.
The solubility of NaCl at 25oC have been estimated to be 5 mol/dm3 or 292.5 g/dm3.
Sparingly Soluble Substances
The substances that have very low solubility are known as sparingly soluble or slightly soluble
substances. Example, AgCl.
Hydration
When an ionizable substance (an acid, base or salt) is added to water to form a solution, it
breaks up into ions. The ions are surrounded or encaged by water molecules due to attraction
between the ions and water molecules. This process is known as hydration.
Water is a polar molecule in which the hydrogen atoms are partially positively charged
and the oxygen atom is partially negatively charged. Being polar, water molecules surround the
ions dipped in it. Thus, in water solution all cations and anions are hydrated. The cations are
attracted by the negative ends (oxygen) of water molecules and the anions are attracted by the
positive ends of the water molecules (hydrogens).
Water of hydration
Water can become incorporated in solid compounds by occupying specific crystal sites in
the solid without being strongly bonded to a specific atom. This water is called water of
hydration or water of crystallization. The compounds having water of hydration are called
hydrates. Some examples are CaSO4.2H2O, CuSO4.5H2O, CaC12.6H2O. Many hydrates lose
4
their water of hydration upon heating and form anhydrous compounds. For example, crystalline
copper sulfate pentahydrate (blue) changes into anhydrous copper sulfate (white) on heating.
Hydrolysis
“The reaction of water with an anion or a cation or both of a salt causing a change in the pH is
called hydrolysis”.
Colloids:
Colloids form the dividing line between solutions and heterogeneous mixture. They are not true
solution. In colloids the disperse particles are larger than typical molecules. In colloids we don’t
have solute or solvent. Rather, we have dispersed phase and dispersion medium colloids
scattered light. This is called Tyndal effect.
Solution Colloid
i. This is the homogeneous and stable mixture i. This is the heterogeneous and stable
of a solute in solvent. mixture of particles in the solvent.
ii. Particle sizes of solutes are very small does ii. Particles are larger sized and visible
not visible under light microscope. through the light microscope.
iii. Solute evenly distributed does not show. iii. Particles are remaining scattered does not
Brownian movement, tyndal effect etc. steeled down longer perion. They show
Brownian motion and exhibit tyndal effect.
What is a saturated solution?

A saturated solution is that solution which cannot dissolve more solute at a given temperature. If
in such a solution you add more solute at that temperature, it will not dissolve and will settle
down at the bottom.Thus, the solution which can not dissolve more solute at a particular
temperature is called a saturated solution.
What is solubility?
The amount of solute needed to form a saturated solution in a given quantity of solvent at
specific temperature is called the solubility of that solute in that solvent at temperature. In other
words solubility is the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent
at a particular temperature.
How molarity is different from molality?
5
Molarity is a unit of concentration. It is the number of moles of solute present per litter of
solution.
Molality is another unit of concentration. It is the number of moles of solute present per Kg of
solvent. So, molarity is mass per volume whereas molality is mass per mass. Therefore, molarity
varies with temperature but there is no effect of temperature on molality.
6
Lecture # 20
Acidss, Bases and
a Salts
Arrhen nius concep

pt of acid an
nd base:
According to Arrheenius theory which produuces H+ ionns when disssolved in
y an acid is substance w
water, examples;
e H HNO3 etc.
HCl,
HClÆ H+ + Cl-
According to this theory

t O - when diissolved in water.
a basse is a substance whichh produces OH
Examplles includeNNaOH and KOH.
K
Na+
NaOHÆ N + OH-
When ana acid and a base reactt, they cancel each otheer. This reacction is knoown as neutrralization
and in neutralizatio
n on reaction a salt and water
w is form
med. Exampple;
HCl+NaOH
H NaC
Cl + H2O
Acid Baase Salt W
Water
Soome bases Their uses

Producction of fertiilizers (ammoonium and nitrate salts), used in the
Amm
monia (NH3) manuffacture of nittric acid, neuutralize the accid (in the peetroleum
industrry) and prevent prematurre coagulatioon in natural / synthetic laatex.
Aluminium hydroxxide
(Al(OH)3) Manuffacture otherr aluminium compound and a to make ggastric mediccine
(antacid)
Calcium
m hydroxidee To maake cement, limewater,
l neeutralize the acidity of sooil and
(Ca(OHH)2) application of sewage treatmennt.
Sodium
m hydroxide
(NaOH)) Used in
i the manuffacturing of soaps,
s deterggents, and cleeaners.
Lowry--Bronsted concept
c of acid and baase:
According to Lowrry-Bronstedd concept, ana acid is a pproton donoor and a base is a protonn acceptor.
When acid-base
a reaction occuurs, another set of acid and base is formed. Thhey are calleed
conjugaate acids annd bases.
Examplle: When HCl is dissolvved in wateer the follow

wing reactioon occurs.
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-
Hydronnium (H3O+) ion is a coonjugate acid whereasC

Cl- ion is coonjugate basse.
Reactioon of acids with

w metals::
Al + HCl AlCl3 + H2
Mg + H2SO O4 MggSO4 + H2s
1
Fe + H2SO4 FeSO
O4 + H2
Acid-baase reaction
ns:
NaOH + HN NO3 NaNO3 + H2O
N
KOH + CH H3COOH CH3COOOK + H2O
ons of acids with metal oxides:

Reactio
Al2O3 + 6HHCl 2A
AlCl3 + 3H
H 2O
3K2O + 2H H3PO4 2K3PO4 + 3H
3 2O
Acid an
nd Base Strrength
According to Arrh hes H+ ionss and a basee furnishes OH- ions in
nitions, an acid furnish
henius defin n
their aq
queous soluttions. For ex
xample:
HCII(g) Æ H+ (aq)
( + CI- (aaq)
N + (aq) + OH
OH (s) Æ Na
NaO O - (aq)
Howeveer, all acidss, and all bases

b are no
ot equally strong.
s Thee strength oof an acid or
o a base iss
estimateed by a num
mber of paraameters, succh as:
1. Deg
gree of disso
ociation
2. Perccent degree of dissociaation
3. Dissociation co
onstant
Degreee of dissociaation
It tells us how fast an acid
a or basee undergo dissociation
d of ionizatioon when theey are put in
n
water. Degree
D of ddissociation
n is the ratio
o of the nuumber of th
he moles or molecules dissociated
d
and the total number of the mo
oles or moleecules initiaally taken. Thus
T
The higherr the degreee of dissociiation of ann acid or a base, the stronger
s theey are. Thee
maximu
um value off the degree of dissociaation is 1.
2
Percentage Degreee of Dissocciation
Percentt degree of ddissociation
n is obtained
d by multipllying the deegree of disssociation by
y 100.
Strong acids and bases are alm

most 100% dissociated in water, while
w weak acids
a and bases are nott
100% dissociated.
d HCI, HNO
O3, NaOH and
a KOH aare almost 100% dissoociated in dilute
d waterr
solution
n, while CH
H3COOH is only 1.4% and
a NH4OH
H is again 1..4% dissociiated.
Dissociiation Consstant (Ka and Kb)

According
g to Lowry--Bronsted concept
c an acid
a is a prroton donorr. Thus, in general, an
n
acid, HA
A, forms th
he following
g equilibrium
m in water:
HA + H2O A− + H3O+
The equ
uilibrium co
onstant exprression for this
t reactionn is:
Water is
i present in ount so its concentration is almosst constant. Thus, the product Kcc
n large amo
[H2O] is own as the dissociation
i also consttant and kno n constant of
o an acid and
a is given the symboll
Ka.
Strong acids, such

h as HCI, HNO
H 3 have very
v large vvalues of diissociation constants. While
W weak
k
acids haave very sm
mall values of
o Ka, for ex
xample:
CH3COOH Ka = 1.8 x 10-5
HCN
N Ka = 4.9 x 10-10
H 2O Ka = 1.0x10-14
3
According to Low
wry-Bronsted
d concept a base is a proton
p acceeptor. Thus,, in generall, a base, B,
reacts with
w water aas follows:
B + H2O H+ + OH-
BH
pH and
d pOH
Pure water is only about 2x10-7 peercent dissoociated (selff-dissociatioon) into ionss at 25oC.
H 2O H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Then, the equilibrium

e constant, Kc,
K is
Since waterr is in excesss, [H2O] iss constant:

H2O] = [H+][OH-] = Kw
Kc[H
Thus, Kw = [H+][OH
H- ]
Kw is know
wn as ionic product
p of water. Its value
v has been experim
mentally foun
nd as:
Kw = 1x10-14 mol
m 2 dm-6
Or Kw = 1 x 10-14 mol
m 2 lit-2
In pure water (or inn a neutral aqueous

a sollution)
[H+] = [OH-] = 100-7mol/dm3
The H+ ion concen

ntration in solution can om more thaan 10 mol/ddm3 to less than 1x10-
n range fro
15
dm3. The pH
mol/d H scale wass devised ass a conveniient way off expressingg such a wide range off
concenttration. Thee pH is defin
ned as follow
ws:
“The pH
p of a solution is the negative
n loggarithm to thhe base
4
10 of the hydrogen ion (or hydronium ion) concentration”.
Mathematically,
pH = −log10[H+]
or pH = - log10 [H3O+]
The concept of the pH was proposed in 1909 by the Danish chemist Soren Sorenson (1868-
1939).
In the same way we can also define pOH.
pOH = - log [OH-]
5
Table: 7.1 pH, pOH, (25oC), and H+ ion, oH ion concentration
[H+], M pH [OH], M pOH
More acidic 10 -1 10-15 15 More acidic
1 0 10-14 14
10-1 1 10-13 13
10-2 2 10-12 12
10-3 3 10-11 11
10-4 4 10-10 10
10-5 5 10-9 9
10-6 6 10-8 8
Neutral 10-7 7 10-7 7 Neutral
More basic 10-8 8 10-6 6 More basic
10-9 9 10-5 5
10-10 10 10-4 4
10-11 11 10-3 3
10-12 12 10-2 2
10-13 13 10-1 1
10-14 14 1 0
10-15 15 10 -1
At 25 oC,
[H+][OH-] = 1 x 10-14
pH + pOH = 14
Thus,
The pH of a neutral solution is 7, the pH of acids is less than 7 while that of bases is
higher than 7.
------------------------------------------------
Problem:
What is the pH of a 0.016 mol/dm3 solution of NaOH?
6
Solution:
NaOH is a strong base and dissociates almost 100% to form OH- ions, thus
[OH-] =[NaOH]
= 0.016 mol/dm3
Therefore,
pOH = - log [OH-]
= - log 0.016
= 1.8
pH + pOH = 14
pH = 14-pOH
= 14 – 1.8
= 12.2
_______________________________________________
Measurement of pH
The pH of a solution can be determined by two general methods:
1. Indicators 2. pH meters
Indicators
Indicators are chemical compounds which change colour with pH and thus give an
approximate value of the pH of a given solution. There are a number of indicators. A special
indicator is the universal indicator, which is a mixture of several indicators that has several
colour changes over a wide range of pH.
pH Meters
A pH meter is an electrical instrument that employs two electrodes to measure the
potential difference between the solution to be tested and a standard solution of known pH. This
potential difference is related to the pH of the solution being tested. The pH is read directly from
the dial of the instrument.
Common Indicators:
7
To determine the end-point in an acid-base titration or to determine the pH of a solution,
various compounds are used, that are called indicators. Broadly speaking, “an indicator is any
compoundwhich changes colour with the change in pH”. An acid-base indicator is a weak acid
(or base) whose colour is different from that of its conjugate base (or acid). Take the example of
phenolphthalein (C20H13O4H):
C20H13O4H (aq) Æ C20H13O4- (aq) + H+ (aq)
(colourless) (red) conjugate base
Table: Some indicators and their colour changes

Indicators Approximate pH range Corresponding coloru change
Methyl orange 3.1 – 4.4 Orange to yellow
Bromophenol blue 3.8. - 4.6 Yellow to blue
Methyl red 4.4 – 6.2 Red to yellow
Phenolphthalein 8.0 – 10.0 Colourless to red
A paper strip impregnated with a universal indicator is often used. This is known as pH paper.
When a part of this strip is dipped in a solution, the paper shows a colour from which the pH can
be judged.
Neutralization
When an acidic solution is added to a basic solution in the right proportion, the properties
of each are lost, and a salt and water are formed. This process is called neutralization.
“The reaction between an acid and a base that forms

a salt and water is called neutralization”.
For Example,
HCI (aq) + NaOH (aq) ÆNaCI (aq) + H2O
HNO3 (aq) + NaOH (aq) Æ NaNO3 (aq) + H2O
8
Buffers or Buffer Solutions
Normally, solutions change their pH when an acid or a base is added to them. For
example, pure water, when kept open, changes its pH from neutral to acidic due to the absorption
of CO2 from air forming carbonic acid (H2CO3).
However, there are certain solutions, which tend to maintain their pH. These are known
as buffers or buffer solutions.
Definition:
“A buffer solution is a solution which undergoes only a slight change of pH when an acid
or a base is added to it”.
A buffer offers resistance against any change in its pH.

Most commonly:
“A buffer solution is a solution of a weak acid and a salt of it, or a buffer solution is a
solution of a weak base and a salt of it.”
For example, a solution of acetic acid and sodium acetate forms a buffer:
(CH3COOH + CH3COONa) solution
and a solution of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride forms a buffer:

(NH4OH + NH4CI) solution
Buffers maintain their pH upon addition of acids or bases by shifting equilibrium position.
Buffers play a very important role in many chemical and biological processes. For
example, the control of the pH is very important in the treatment of sewage in electroplating, and
in the manufacturing of photographic materials. Maintaining a constant pH is essential for many
metabolic processes; the pH of the blood has to be close to 7.4 and the pH of saliva is close to
6.8.
9
Oxidation and Reduction
Many reactions involve transfer of electrons from one atom to another atom. These
reactions are known as oxidation-reductionreactions. The loss of electrons from an atom is
known as oxidation, while the gain of electrons by an atom is called reduction. Oxidation and
reduction always take place simultaneously and the extent of oxidation is equal to the extent of
reduction. That is, the loss of electrons is equal to the gain of electrons. The substance that
undergoes oxidation is known as the reducing agent, and the substance that undergoes reduction
is known as the oxidizing agent.
Oxidation Number
A very important question is how to decide whether a given reaction is an oxidation-
reduction reaction or not. To recognize such reactions, we can use the concept of oxidation
number, also known as oxidation state:
“The oxidation number of an atom is an apparent charge that is assigned to it on the
basis of certain rules.”
For compounds, the oxidation number may be defined as follows:
“Oxidation number of an atom in a compound is the apparent charge on the atom if both
electrons of each bond are arbitrarily assigned to the atom of higher electronegativity”.
The oxidation number is not the real electrical charge. It is the charge that would be
associated with a particular atom if we assign both the electrons of each bond to the atom of
higher electronegativity. The oxidation number is the measure of the extent or degree of
oxidation of an element in its compounds.
10
Lecture # 21
Metaals and Noonmetals
The moodern classiffication of elements

e is based on thhe modern periodic
p law
w.
The moodern periodic law staates that thee physical and
a chemiccal propertiees of elemeents are thee
periodicc function oof their atom
mic numberss.
When elements
e are arranged on the basiis of the m
modern perioodic law, we
w get modeern periodicc
table.
In the modern
m periiodic table the
t elements are arrangged in the orrder of incrreasing atom
mic number.
When the
t elementts are arrannged in the order of inncreasing attomic numbber, the eleements withh
similar properties aappear at definite interrvals. Whenn elements with similaar propertiess are placedd
in the saame columnn, we get grroups or fam
milies of eleements haviing similar pproperties. Thus,
T in thee
modernn periodic taable, we haave vertical columns annd horizonttal rows. Thhe horizonttal rows aree
also callled periods.
Periodss in the periiodic table:
1
Rows of elements are called periods. There are 7 period in the periodic table. The number of
elements in a period increases as you move down the periodic table.
Groups in the periodic table:
Columns of elements in the periodic table are called groups. Elements within a group show
similarity in properties. In a group, the elements have the same outer electron arrangement. The
outermost electrons are called valence electrons. Why the elements belonging to the same group
have similar properties? It is because they have the same number of valence electrons.
Representative elements: In the periodic table there are two sets of groups. The group A
elements are called the representative elements. The group B elements are the non-representative
elements. Representative elements are named after the first element of the group. So we have,
lithium family, beryllium family, boron family, carbon family, nitrogen family, oxygen family,
fluorine family or halogens, and helium family or noble gases. Group IA and IIA are also called
alkali metals and alkaline earth metals respectively.
Transition metals:
The transition elements are located in groups IB to VIIIB. Copper, zinc, iron, silver, mercury and
gold are examples of transition metals. These elements are very hard, with high melting points
and boiling points. The transition metals are good electrical conductors and are very malleable.
Periodic properties:
There are a number of properties which change in a definite manner as we move from one end to
the other end of periodic table. Such properties are called periodic properties. Periodic properties
include: atomic and ionic radii, melting points and boiling points, metallic character, ionization
potential, electron affinity, electronegativity, etc. take the example of electronegativity. The
electronegativity of an element is the ability of the element with which it attracts the shared pair
of electrons towards it. The electronegativity increases as we go from left to right in the periodic
table. It decreases from top to bottom in a group.
Physical states of elements:
Most elements in the periodic table are solids. At room temperature all metals are solids except
mercury. Only a few elements are liquids such as bromine and mercury. Some elements are
gases. These are nonmetals. Nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine and noble gases are found in
gases state at room temperature.
2
Ores:
An ore is a material that contains a metal in such quantities that it can be mined and worked
commercially to extract that metal.
Metals are not found in free state. They are found in the form of minerals and ores.
The metal is usually contained in chemical combination with some other element in addition to
various impurities. For example, iron is found in the form of ores such as hematite (Fe2O3),
magnetite (Fe3O4), limonite (FeO(OH).n(H2O)).
Properties of metals and nonmetals (ref.

(http://chemistry.about.com/od/periodictableelements/a/Metals-And-
Nonmetals.htm)
Metal Physical Properties
• lustrous (shiny)
• good conductors of heat and electricity
• high melting point
• high density (heavy for their size)
• malleable (can be hammered)
• ductile (can be drawn into wires)
• usually solid at room temperature (an exception is mercury)
• opaque as a thin sheet (can't see through metals)
• metals are sonorous or make a bell-like sound when struck
Metal Chemical Properties

• have 1-3 electrons in the outer shell of each metal atom
• corrode easily (e.g., damaged by oxidation such as tarnish or rust)
• lose electrons easily
• form oxides that are basic
• have lower electronegativities
• are good reducing agents
Nonmetals
3
Nonmetal Physical Properties
• not lustrous (dull appearance)
• poor conductors of heat and electricity
• non-ductile solids
• brittle solids
• may be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature
• transparent as a thin sheet
• nonmetals are not sonorous
Nonmetal Chemical Properties
• usually have 4-8 electrons in their outer shell
• readily gain or share valence electrons
• form oxides that are acidic
• have higher electronegativities
• are good oxidizing agents
Metalloids or semimetals:
There are some elements which have properties between metals and nonmetals. They are called
metalloids or semimetals. The metalloids or semimetals are located along the line between the
metals and nonmetals in the periodic table. The metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium,
arsenic, antimony, and tellurium.
• Electronegativities between those of metals and nonmetals
• Ionization energies between those of metals and nonmetals
• Possess some characteristics of metals/some of nonmetals
• Reactivity depends on properties of other elements in reaction
• Often make good semiconductors
Metals are generally good conductor of electricity. It is because metal has free electrons in it,
according to modern bonding concepts metals have a special type of bond which is called
metallic bond. The metal atom held together in a way there valence electrons are delocalized and
free to move in the entire crystal. This is known as sea model. These free electrons help in
conduction of electricity.
For example cooper wires are commonly used to conduct electricity because they have free
electrons which conduct electricity.
4
On the other hand most nonmetals are poor conductor of electricity it is because they donot
possess free electrons like metals. Some nonmetals do conduct electricity. For example, Graphite
has layer structure and posses free electrons which conduct electricity.
Chemical properties:
Differences between Metals and Nonmetals
Metals Nonmetals
Lose their valence electrons Gain or share valence electrons easily.
easily.
Form oxides that are basic. Form oxides that are acidic.
Are good reducing agents. Are good oxidizing agents.
Have lower electro Have higher electro negativities
negativities
Usually have 1-3 electrons Usually have 4-8 electrons in their outer shell.
in their outer shell.
Physical properties
How can you compare physical properties of Metals and Nonmetals? Some differences are given
below:
Metals Nonmetals
Good electrical conductors and Poor conductors of heat and electricity.
heat conductors.
Malleable - can be beaten into Brittle - if a solid.
thin sheets.
Ductile - can be stretched into Non-ductile.
wire.
Possess metallic luster. Do not possess metallic luster.
Opaque as thin sheet. Transparent as a thin sheet.
5
Lecture # 22
Metallurgy of Copper & Aluminum
Almost all metals are found in the combined state as compounds on the crust of the earth. So we
have to extract them. This process of metal extraction is called Metallurgy.
Metallurgy is the science and art of extracting a metal from its ores and carrying out different
processes to bring metals into their useful forms. Thus, the various processes involved in the
extraction of metals from their ores and refining them are broadly known as metallurgy.
Minerals: The natural materials in which the metals or their compounds occur in the earth are
called minerals.
Ores: Those minerals from which the metals can be extracted profitably are called ores.
Gangue or Matrix: The rocky impurities, including silica and earthly particles, present in an ore
are called gangue or matrix.
Metallurgy of Aluminium:
Aluminum is the most abundant metal. It is the third most abundant element in the earth crust
(about 7%). Aluminium is a reactive metal and so does not occur free in nature. It occurs in clays
in the form of aluminium silicates.
Ores of aluminium:
Aluminium has a number of ores. Some important ores are as follows:
1. Oxide Ores:
Bauxite, Al2O3.xH2O
Corundum, Al2O3
2. Fluoride Ore:
Cryolite, 3NaF.AlF3 or Na3AlF6
1
3. Silicate Orees:
Kaolin,Al2O3.2SiO2.2H
H2O
Potash mica, K2O.3Al2O3.6SiO2.22H2O
Extracttion of alum
minium:
(Ref: htttp://www.ss-cool.co.uk
k/gcse/chem
mistry/extrraction-of-m
metals/revisse-it/the-eleectrolysis-
of-bauxxite)
Aluminnium is com
mmonly exxtracted froom its ore bauxite. The
T bauxitee (red-brow
wn solid) -
aluminiium oxide mixed
m h impurities - is extraccted from thhe earth.The extracted aluminium
with m
oxide iss then treatted with alkkali, to rem
move the im
mpurities. Thhis results iin a white solid called
d
aluminiium oxide or
o alumina.T
The aluminna is then trransported to
t huge tankks. The tank
ks are lined
d
with grraphite, this acts as thee cathode. Also
A o the tank,
blockss of graphitte hang in tthe middle of
and actts as anodes.The alum
mina is then dissolved in molten cryolite
c - thhis lowers the meltingg
point.
Electriccity is passeed and elecctrolysis begins. Electrrolysis is thhe decompoosition of a compound

d
using ellectricity.
When dissolved,
d thhe aluminiuum ions and oxide ions in the alum
mina can move.
Reactioon at Cathodde:
4Al+ +12e- 4Al((s)
Reactioon at Anode:
3C +6O2- 3CO2 (g) + 12e-
Purificaation of Bauuxite:
Bauxitee when obtaained from the earth crrust containns many ipuurities such as ferric oxide, silica,
and titaanium oxidee. These im
mpurities arre removed. Baeyer prrocess is coommonly used
u for thee
purificaation of bauuxite. In this process, thhe ore is treeated with concentrated
c d NaOHsoluution calledd
caustic soda. The following
f reeaction takees place:
2
Al2O3 + 2N
NaOH 2Na[Al(OH
H)4](aq)
Then CO2 is passed

d.
Reactio
on with CO2
2Al(OH)4- + CO2 2Al(OH)3(s) + CO32-- + H2O
The pro
oduct is filteered and heaated at 1000
0 °C. The prrocess is caalled calcinaation. As a result
r of
this pro
ocess, pure aalumina is obtained.
o
Al(OH)3 + Heat Al2O3 (s)) + 3H2O (g

g)
Now wee have puree alumina.
Electroolysis of Alu
umina to ob
btain Alum
minium:
The pro
ocess used for
f the electrolysis of alumina
a is called Hall’s process. Alumina iss aluminium
m
oxide, Al olysis. The cell used for
A 2O3. Thiss is subjecteed to electro fo electrolyysis is a steeel containerr
whose inner
i surfacce is lined with
w graphiite. The pow
wdered alum
mina is mixxed with fused cryolitee
and fluo
orspar. Thee melting po
oint of alum y high, but it dissolves in molten
mina is very n cryolite att
about 1000 °C. wh
hen electriciity is passed
d, aluminiu
um is deposiited at the graphite
g catthode. From
m
there it is drawn ouut in molten
n form.Thiss aluminium
m is 99% pu
ure. Furtherr purificatio
on is carried
d
ough a proceess called Hoope’s
out thro H metthod.
Refinin
ng of Alumiinium:
In the Hoope’s
H proocess, alumiinium is purrified by eleectrolytic method.
m For tthis purposee a box-likee
cell is used.
u The cell
c is operaated in a manner
m that in it three layers are m
maintained.. The lowerr
layer co
onsists of im
mpure alum
minum alloy
yed with cop
pper. The middle
m layerr consists of
o a solution
n
of cryollite and barrium fluorid
de. The uppeer layer con
nsists of purre aluminiuum. Theselay
yers remain
n
separateed due to diifference is specific graavity. The lower layer acts as anodde where alluminium iss
oxidized and Al3+ ions move toward
t the upper layerr which is negatively
n charged. Thiis layer actss
as cathode and when
w Al3+ io
ons reach in
i this layeer they gain
n electrons and are deposited
d ass
aluminiium metal th
here.
Reactioon at Anode:
3
AlÆ Al3+ + 3e-
Reaction at cathode:
Al3+ + 3e-Æ Al (pure aluminium)
The aluminium obtained in this process is about 99.99% pure.
Metallurgy of Copper:
Copper is a common metal. It is used for a wide variety of purposes. It is a good conductor of
electricity so its wires are used in electrical appliance and cables.
Over 360 ores of Copper are known. Some important ores are as follows:
Sulfide ores:
Copper pyrite or chalcopyrite, CuS.FeS or CuFeS2
Chalcocite, Cu2S
Carbonate ores:
Malachite, CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Azurite, 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Oxide ores: Cuprite, Cu2O
Extraction of Copper:
Extraction of copper is good example of pyrometallurgy. In the metallurgy of copper the

following steps are commonly used:
• Mining of ore from its mines

• Crushing and grinding of the ore
• Concentration of the ore and its purification
• Chemical process to obtain metal from the ore
• Purification of the metal
4
• Conversionn of the metal into alloy
ys
Importaant process employed in

n the extracction of copper:
– Con
ncentration through Fro
oth-flotationn
– Roaasting
– Smeelting
– Redduction (Besssemerizatio
on)
– Reffining
Concen
ntration byy Froth flotaation meth
hod:
By concentration hhere we meean to free the

t ore from
m impuritiees. Copper iis commonlly extracted
d
from co
opper pyritee. Copper pyrite
p is co
oncentrated by a proceess called ffroth-floatattion. Ore iss
crushed
d and grounnd to make a powder. This is plaaced in a larrge tank coontaining water and oill
(such as pine oil). The mixturre is stirred
d by blowing gh it. The ore is wetted
g air throug d by oil and
d
rises to the surfacee from wherre it is skim
mmed off. Thhe impuritiees (called gangue) are wetted
w with
h
water seettle down at
a the bottom
m.
Roastin
ng:
By roassting here we
w mean heeating in airr strongly but
b below the melting point of th
he ore. As a
result, impurities
i a converteed into siliccate slag. Th
are he slag floaats at the su
urface from
m where it iss
removeed. The ore undergoes
u t followin
the ng reaction:
CuS.FeS+ 4O2 Cu2S (s)+ 2FeO

2 (s) + 3SO2 (g)
Smeltin
ng:
By sm
melting heree we meaan heating the produuct obtained from rooasting stro
ongly in a
Reverbeeratory furn
nace. The product
p from
m the roastiing is mixed
d with silica (SiO2) an
nd heated att
1100 °C
C. Following reaction takes
t place in
i the furnaace:
O2
FeO + SiO FeSiO3
5
Ferrouss silicate is formed
f which is a slag. It is less dense
d that molten
m coppper matte, Cu
u2S, and so
floats th from where it is removeed.
he surface fr
Reducttion (Bessem
merization):
Molten copper(I) ssulfide, Cu2S,

S is put in Bessemer
B cconverter an
nd heated strrongly. As a result of
mental coppper is produ
this elem uced. The co
opper obtainned is called
d the blisterred copper.
2Cu2S + 3O
3 2 2 2O + 2SO
2Cu 2 2
2Cu2O(l) + Cu2S(l) 6Cu (l) + SO2(gg)
This co
opper is callled blistereed copper because
b it hhas blisters on it which
h are produ
uced due to
o
evolutio
on of sulfurr dioxide. When
W coppeer solidifies,, sulfur diox
xide escapees from it an
nd producess
blisters. Blistered ccopper is ab
bout 99% pu
ure.
Refinin
ng of Coppeer:
Copper is refined by electroly

ytic processs. In the eleectrolytic cell
c CuSO4 solution is used as an
n
electrollyte. Impuree copper is used
u to act as anode, while
w pure copper
c is ussed to act ass a cathode.
At anod
de, copper atoms
a lose electrons
e an
nd become copper
c ions. These cop
pper ions mo
ove through
h
the solu
ution and reeach at the cathode. At
A cathode tthese coppeer ions gainn electrons and depositt
there a atoms. So inn this way refined
r copp
per is obtain
ned which is
i almost 1000% pure.
Reactioon at Anode:
C 2++ 2e-
Cu Æ Cu
Reactioon at Cathoode:
Cu2++ 2e-Æ Cu (ss) pure copp

per
----------------------------
6
Summary GSC101 lecture # 23
Lecture 9
Iron and its Metallurgy
Ores:
An ore is the naturally occurring compound of a metal from which that metal can be extracted. In
the earth crust, metals are generally found in the form of compounds which are found mixed with
other substances these naturally occurring minerals of metals are called ores. For example; halite
is an ore of Na and hematite and magnetite are the ores of Fe.
Alloys:
A material that has metallic properties and is composed of two or more chemical elements of
which at least one is a metal (i.e. steel is an alloy of carbon in iron; stainless steel is an alloy of
carbon, chromium and sometimes nickel in iron.)
Metallurgy:
It is the science and art of obtaining a metal from its ores. There are number of types of
metallurgy.
In electrometallurgy, electricity is used to obtain a metal. Electrolysis is carried out of the molten
or solution form of the ore and metal is obtained at the cathode. For example; Na is obtained by
the electrolysis of NaCl by the Downs process.
In pyrometallurgy strong heat is used to extract a metal from its ores. For example, Fe is
extracted from its ores by heating at high temperature.
Iron is extracted through pyrometallurgy in a furnace called Blast Furnace. Commonly hematite
and magnetite are used to obtain iron. A number of reactions occurs at high temperature in the
blast furnace.
The reactions occurring in blast furnace are as follows.
• Reactions in blast furnace:
Fe2O3 + CO Æ 2Fe3O4 + CO2 (g)
Fe3O4 + CO Æ 3FeO +CO2 (g)
FeO + CO Æ Fe(l) + CO2 (g)

Iron is a common metal. It has been known since prehistoric ages. Iron is soft, malleable, and
ductile.
Occurrence:
Iron is a common metal. How it occurs?
• Metallic iron occurs in the free state in only a few localities in the world.
• In chemical compounds the metal is widely distributed.
• After aluminum, iron is the most abundant of all metals, and ranks fourth in abundance
among all the elements in the earth's crust.
• It is found in meteorites, usually alloyed with nickel.
• Iron is found in the earth crust in the form of ores. Its principal ore is hematite and other
important ores are magnetite, siderite, and limonite.
• Pyrite, FeS, the sulfide ore of iron, is not processed as an iron ore because it is too
difficult to remove the sulfur.
• Small amounts of iron occur in combination in natural waters, in plants, and as a
constituent of blood.
Physical properties of Iron metal:

What are the common physical properties of iron?
• The atomic number of iron is 26, and atomic weight is 55.847.
• Pure iron melts at about 1535° C and boils at 2750° C.
• The specific gravity of iron is 7.86.
• It is a metal which is easily magnetized at ordinary temperatures, but at about 790° C the
magnetic property of iron disappears.
Chemical Properties:
Describe some common properties of iron.
¾ Iron reacts with a number of elements. For example, it make compounds with the
halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine), sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, and silicon.
¾ Iron reacts with acids and displaces hydrogen from dilute acids.
¾ It reacts with oxygen to form ferrosoferric oxide, Fe3O4.
¾ Rust: When exposed to moist air, iron undergoes deterioration or corrosion and forms a
reddish-brown, flaky, hydrated ferric oxide commonly known as rust.
¾ When iron is dipped into concentrated nitric acid, it forms a layer of oxide that renders it
passive—that is, it does not react chemically with acids or other substances.
Give some uses of iron:

¾ Iron has a wide variety of applications. It is used in processed forms, such as wrought
iron, cast iron, and steel.
¾ Commercially pure iron is used for the production of galvanized sheet metal and of
electromagnets.
¾ Many compounds of iron are used in different purposes. Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4), which
is also called green vitriol or copperas. It is used as a mordant in dyeing, as a tonic
medicine, and in the manufacture of ink and pigments.
Metallurgy of Iron: what are the reactions that take place in the Blast Furnace?
• Combustion of Coke
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + heat
CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)
• Reduction of Fe2O3
2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 4Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 4Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
• Calcination
CaCO3(s) + heat →CaO(s) + CO2(g)
• Slag formation
CaO(s) + SiO2(s)→ CaSiO3(l) (slag)
CaO(s) + Al2O3(s)→Ca(AlO2)2(l)
What are the Products which are formed in the Blast Furnace?
¾ Pig iron - 93-95% Fe, 3-5% C, 1% Si, 0.1- 0.3% P, <1% S
¾ Waste gases – CO2 and CO
¾ Slag – CaSiO3 and Ca(AlO2)2
Pig Iron:
Pig iron usually refers to the iron alloy with carbon content of the 2 to 4.3%, also known as cast
iron. Besides carbon, pig iron also contains silicon, manganese and small amounts of sulfur and
phosphorus. It cannot be forged, but can be cast. According to the presence of carbon under the
different forms, pig iron can be divided into steel making pig iron, foundry pig iron and ductile
iron.
What is cast iron?
This is pig iron melted with scrap Iron. It is the least pure of all forms of iron containing 93% Fe
and 5% C.
The cast iron with carbon content of less than 0.2% is called wrought iron or pure iron. The cast
iron with carbon content of 0.2-1.7% is called cast steel. So, cast steel is a kind of special cast
iron. More than 2% of content is called pig iron.
What is wrought iron?
It is the purest form of iron produced when impurities are removed. It contains 0.5% impurities.
Wrought iron is very soft, plastic and easily deformed, but its strength and hardness are lower, so
not widely used.
What is steel?
Steel is a common form of iron which usually contains 0.1 to 2% carbon. Steel has many types.
Since the pure iron metal is not very strong, impurities are added into it.
For example, carbon is added in iron to make steel which is much stronger than iron.
Lecture 10
Corrosion and its Prevention
We all are aware of the rusting of iron. In the same manner most other metals also deteriorate
with time. This process is called corrosion.
Corrosion occurs in all substances. It is the chemical or electrochemical reaction between a

material, usually a metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration of the material and its
properties. However, the term is commonly used with reference to metals. It can be broadly
defined as follows.
“The deterioration of a metal as a result of its reaction with the environment is called corrosion”.
Chemically corrosion is an oxidation process that occurs at the surface of a metal. The rusting of
iron, tarnishing of silver, the development of a green coating on copper are well known forms of
corrosion. Corrosion is a great cause of the damage of metallic articles. Bridges, ships, vehicles,
and other metallic things suffer from corrosion badly.
Sources of Corrosion:
Following are the common causes or sources of corrosion.
• Contact with atmosphere

• Submersion in water or water solutions
• Underground soil attack.
• Contact with chemicals.
There are two major factors which increase the rate of corrosion rapidly. They are;
• Temperature
• Moisture
Rate of corrosion:
Corrosion is a chemical process. It is an oxidation-reduction reaction that occurs at the surface of

a metal. In this process the metal undergoes oxidation. Different metal corrode with different
speeds. Gold is so stable that it does not corrode. Alkali metals like sodium and potassium
corrode rapidly when exposed to atmosphere. Iron corrodes slowly, and silver, copper and tin
corrode very slowly.
Rusting of Iron:
The corrosion of major concern is the rusting of iron. It is the cause of huge economic loss every
year. From common person to big industries all suffer from corrosion in one way or the other.
Now the question is what the rust is.
Rusting is a chemical reaction. When iron cones in contact with oxygen and moisture it is
oxidized to hydrated ferric oxidized, Fe2O3.xH2O. This is rust. This substance is porous and
flaky. So it is removed away continuously. Thus the whole metal is eaten away.
Iron + Oxygen + Water ==> Hydrated Iron(III) oxide
Protection of iron form Rusting:
The protection of corrosion can be classified as follows:
• Active corrosion protection

• Passive corrosion protection
• Permanent corrosion protection
• Temporary corrosion protection
Active corrosion protection:
The aim of active corrosion protection is to influence the reactions which proceed during
corrosion. It is possible to control the corrosion reaction in such a manner that corrosion is
avoided. Examples of such an approach are the development of corrosion-resistant alloys and the
addition of such materials to the metal which can inhibit corrosion.
Passive corrosion protection:
In passive corrosion protection, the metal is mechanically isolated from the damaging
environment. For example by using protective layers, films or other coatings rusting can be
avoided.
Permanent corrosion protection:

The purpose of permanent corrosion protection methods is mainly to provide protection at the
place of use. Machines are located, for example, in factory sheds and are thus protected from
extreme variations in temperature, which are frequently the cause of condensation.
Prevention of Corrosion:
There are a number of methods which are used to avoid or slow down corrosion in a metal and
rusting of iron in particular.
Protective metallic coating:
In this method a metal is coated with a thin layer of another metal which is resistant to corrosion.
Rusting of iron can be prevented by coating it with tin, zinc or chromium. Tin plating is a well
known technique. In this technique, a layer of tin is applied on the surface of ion container. Tin
cans are good example. When zinc is coated on iron, the process is called galvanizing, and the
iron coated with zinc is called galvanized iron. However, zinc is not used in food cans because it
readily reacts with acids found in food stuff and fruit juices.
Coating with paints:
Metal can be protected against corrosion by applying acoating of paints on their surfaces. For
this purpose, any paint can be used. However, red lead and zinc chromate are commonly used.
Grease, plastic emulsions, and enamels can also be used for this purpose. Oiling is a common
household and small scale industrial method to protect small tools from rusting.
Cathode Protection:
Corrosion is actually an electrochemical process. During the corrosion reaction the metal plays
the role of anode where oxidation occurs which eats out the metal. If we connect iron through a
conductor to a more reactive metal in a manner that the electrical circuit is established, then
oxidation will occur on the other metal and iron will be acting as cathode. This method will then
protect iron from corroding. For example, if an underground iron pipe is connected to a zinc rod.
The zinc rod will undergo corrosion and iron will not. This method can be used to protect ship
and underground foundations of bridges from rusting.
Alloying:
Many metals can be made more resistant to corrosion by making their alloys. Steel, bronze, brass
are metal alloys and are more stable than their pure metals.
Stain less steel is an alloy of iron. A wide variety of stainless steels are made today for different
purposes. The common stain less steel has the following composition. C = 0.18 %, Cr = 18 %, Ni
= 8 %, rest is iron or Fe. Stainless steel is used to make surgical instrument and cutlery etc.
Applications of Alloys:
Alloys are very important, as they have special properties and are more viable and useful than
the pure metals. They have greater resistance to corrosion. For example, steel is mire resistance
to corrosion than pure iron.
Many alloys also have useful magnetic properties. For example, Alnicohas a strong magnetic
properties. It is Fe-Al-Ni-Co.
Very hard steel is used to make jaws of rock crushers. It has Manganese and Vanadium.
Some alloys also have attractive colours, For example, Au-Cu is an alloy which has red or
yellow colour.
Tin plating and methods of tin plating:
The art of applying tin on the surface of a metal is called tin plating. The purpose of tin plating is
to protect the metal from corrosion. Tin plating of iron is very common.
There are a number of ways to coat tin on iron.
Electroplating is commonly used for large scale tin plating. This is an electrolytic process. For
this purpose, an electrolytic cell is made in the cathode is made of iron sheet and tin is used as
anode. The electrolytic solution contains a salt of tin such as tin sulfate or tin chloride. When
electric current is passed, tin ions move to the iron cathode and are deposited on it. In this way a
layer of tin is coated on the surface of iron sheet.
Another method to coat tin layer on iron surface is hot-dip method. In this method, sheets of
iron are dipped in molten tin.
Classical method of tin plating is a manual technique. A metal tool or article is polished with tin
with the help of a rag or brush. Traditionally, brass and copper utensils are tin plated by this
method.
Stainless steel:
Steel is an alloy of iron. There are many types of steel. A very useful type of steel is the stainless
steel. It is so called because it is resistant to corrosion or rusting. The composition of common
stainless steel is as follows: chromium 18%, nickel 8% and carbon 0.18 %.
The stainless steel is hard and has a high tensile strength. Why it is resistant to rusting? This is
due to the thin film of chromium oxide which is developed on the surface due to the reaction of
chromium with oxygen. This is hard and tough film and does not corrode.
Applications of Stainless Steel:
o It is used to make cutlery

o It is used to make surgical instruments
o It is also used to make different household utensils and containers.
o It is also used to make automobiles parts, decoration aricles and electronic
appliances.
Lecture 11
Hydrogen and Oxygen

In this lecture we will discuss two important elements, namely hydrogen and oxygen.
Hydrogen:
Hydrogen is unique element. Its atom is the smallest atom and has only 1 proton and 1 electron.
It is generally placed at the top of group IA along with alkali metals but it is not a metal and it is
not fully justified to place it in group IA.
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. The stars are mostly composed of
hydrogen. In the earth crust hydrogen is found in the form of compounds. The most abundant
compound of hydrogen is H2O. Petroleum and natural gas also contains hydrogen. Hydrogen is
also a part of organic compounds.
Isotopes of hydrogen:Hydrogen exists in the form of three isotopes. They are ordinary hydrogen
or protium, heavy hydrogen or deuterium, and radioactive hydrogen or tritium.
Industrial Preparation of hydrogen:

On large scale hydrogen is prepared by a number of process. Some of them are discussed below.
• Electrolysis of Water:
In this method, electricity is passed through water containing a small amount of sulfuric
acid. Hydrogen is obtained at cathode. At anode oxygen is obtained.
2H2O Æ2H2 + O2
• Coke and Steam Process:

Coke (a form of carbon) is mixed with steam and strongly heated. Water gas is produced
which is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
gas.
How to separate H2 from CO ?
(1) Liquefaction process: the b.p. of CO = -192 °C andb.p. of H2 = -253 °C. When this
mixture is liquefied, CO first liquefies and thus separated leaving behind hydrogen gas.
(2) Bosch Process:
Then more steam is added and the mixture is heated strongly in the presence of ferric
oxide. A mixture of carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas is obtained. This is known as
Bosch process.
How to separate CO2?

Carbon dioxide is separated by passing the mixture through water under pressure. Carbon
dioxide is dissolved in water and hydrogen is liberated.
• Steam and hydrocarbon process:

In this process a mixture of methane and steam is passed over a nickel catalyst at about 900 C
under high pressure. A mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas is obtained.
CH4 + H2O Æ CO + 3H2
Carbon monoxide is separated by the method discussed above.
Laboratory Preparation:
In the laboratory, hydrogen gas can be prepared by the action of a dilute solution of a strong acid
on reactive metals like zinc.
Action of dil. Acids on metals:
• Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2 (g)
• Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2 (g)
Action of Water on CaH2

CaH2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + 2H2 (g)
Chemical reactions of hydrogen:
1. Reaction with Oxygen: Burning of H2
2H2 + O2 2H2O + Heat
2. Reaction with N2
3H2 + N2 2NH3
3. Reaction with Sulfur
H2 + S H2S
4. Reaction with Phosphorus
3H2 +2P 2PH3
5. Reaction with Chlorine
H2 + Cl2 2HCl
Applications of H2
• Preparation of NH3 (heating H2 and N2at 500 °C using Fe2O3/Al2O3 as catalyst. The
process is called Haber process.
• Preparation of HCl: Hydrogen gas is reacted with chlorine gas to obtain HCl.
• Preparation of methanol: heating water gas with ZnO2/Cr2O3catalyst:
CO + 2H2 CH3OH
• Hydrogenation of vegetable oils to ghee
Hydrides:
The binary compounds of hydrogen with other elements are called hydrides. Hydrogen reacts
with almost all elements and forms binary compounds. Common examples are H2O, NH3, HX
(X is a halogen), CH4 and other hydrocarbons.
Ionic Hydrides: With alkali metals and calcium, hydrogen forms ionic hydrides.
2Li + H2Æ 2LiH
2Na + H2Æ 2NaH
Ca + H2Æ CaH2
They are ionic compounds and show typical properties of ionic compounds.
Covalent Hydrides: The hydrides of p-Block elements are covalent hydrides.
Common examples: CH4, NH3, H2O, HCl, PH3, H2S, HBr, HI.
They are molecular. Have low b.p., m.p.
Metallic hydrides: The hydrides of transition metals are called metallic hydrides.
They are non-stoichiometric.They are interstitial compounds and they retain properties of the
original metal.
Complex hydrides: common examples are LiAlH4NaBH4
Nascent Hydrogen: The hydrogen at the time of its generatioin in a reaction is called nascent
hydrogen. It is atomic hydrogen. It may react with any reactant available, or atomic hydrogen
may produce hydrogen gas. For example:
Zn + 2HCl Æ ZnCl2 + 2[H]
2[H] Æ H2
Oxygen:
Oxygen is a common element. In the earth crust, it is the most abundant element. Oxygen atom
has 8 protons and 8 electrons. Common isotope of oxygen has 8 neutrons. Molecular formula of
oxygen gas is O2. Oxygen gas is about 20% of the air by volume. Oxygen is necessary for life.
Most organic compounds also contain oxygen.
Characteristics of Oxygen:
• Abundance: most abundant in Earth crust, 50%
• In the air: 21% by volume
• Most abundant compounds: H2O, SiO2
• In the periodic table, group VIA,
• Electronegativity: 3.4.
• Electronic configuration:
• O2 is paramagnetic
Allotropes of Oxygen: there are two allotropes of oxygen:

• Ordinary oxygen, dioxygen, oxygen gas, O2
• Ozone, O3
Formation of O2- ions: oxygen has high electron affinity, so it absorbs electrons.
Absorption of first electron is exothermic while that of the second electron is endothermic.
O + 2e-Æ O2-
Preparation of Oxygen:
Laboratory preparation: By heating potassium chlorate using MnO2 as catalyst: heated at
240°C
2KClO3Æ2KCl + 3O2 (g)
Industrial preparation:On the industrial scale, oxygen is prepared by the following methods.
• Electrolysis of water:Electrolysis of water produces hydrogen and oxygen gases.
• Liquefaction of air:The major components of air are oxygen and nitrogen. Their boiling
points are given below.
b.p. of O2 = -183°C
b.p. of N2 = -196°C
So these gases can be separated by liquefaction.
Chemical properties:
Oxygen is a reactive element and reacts with almost all metals and non-metals, the compounds
the oxygen formed with other elements are of different types.
1. Reaction with C, S, P, H2 oxides are formed.
C + O2 Æ CO2
S + O2 Æ SO2
P4 + 5O2 Æ P4O10
2H2 + O2 Æ 2H2O
2. With sodium
The following reaction occurs at room temperature:
4Na + O2Æ 2Na2O sodium oxide
At higher temperature:
2Na + O2Æ Na2O2
sodium peroxide
3. With potassium
Potassium reacts with oxygen to for superoxide:
K + O2Æ KO2 potassium superoxide
4. With Mg, Ca and Ba
2Ca + O2Æ 2 CaO
5. Reaction with Fe
2Fe + O2Æ 2FeO
4FeO + O2Æ 2Fe2O3
6. Reaction with CH4 (Combustion)

CH4 and other hydrocarbons burn:
CH4 + 2O2Æ CO2 + 2H2O + Heat
Oxides: The binary compounds of oxygen:

The binary compounds of oxygen with other elements called oxides. Oxides are of three types.
1. Normal oxides; in which the oxidation number of oxygen is -2.
2. Peroxides; in which the oxidation number of oxygen.
3. Super oxides; in which the oxidation number of oxygen is -1/2
Normal oxides are very conmen. H2O, CO2, NO2 are its examples. H2O2 is hydrogen per oxide.
KO2 is potassium super oxide.
Types of Oxides:
1. Covalent oxides or acidic oxides. They are oxides of nonmetals, CO2, H2O, NO2, SO2,
etc. When dissolved in water, they form acids:
CO2 + H2O Æ H2CO3
SO2 + H2O Æ H2SO3
SO3 + H2O Æ H2SO4
2. Basic oxides: The basic oxides are the oxides of metals. They react with water to form
bases:
Na2O + H2O Æ 2NaOH
CaO + H2O ÆCa(OH)2
BaO + H2O Æ Ba(OH)2
Interesting chemistry of KO2: How O2gas is produced in rescue masks? It is done by the reaction
of K2O with water:
4KO2 + 2H2O Æ 4KOH + 3O2
2KOH + CO2Æ K2CO3 + H2O
Applications of Oxygen gas:
1. Oxidizing agent: it is used in steel making, and is used to burn impurities.
2. To bleach pulp and paper (oxidation of coloured compounds usually gives colourless
products).
3. Medical use (to ease breathing difficulties)
4. To produce oxy-acetylene flame
2C2H2 + 5O2 Æ 4CO2 + 2H2O
5. To produce oxy-hydrogen flame
Compounds of Oxygen: Sulfuric Acid

Preparation of H2SO4 by Contact Process involves the following reactions:
1. S + O2 Æ SO2
2. 2SO2 O2Æ 2SO3 Catalyst: V2O5
3. SO3 + H2SO4 + H2S2O7
4. H2S2O7 + H2O Æ 2H2SO4
Chemistry Lecture 12
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a common element, it occurs in the form of element and compounds. Nitrogen gas is
composed of N2 molecules. Nitrogen gas is found 78% by volume in air. Nitrogen molecule N2 is
very stable because there is a triple bond which binds nitrogen atoms together. In the triple bond,
1 bond is sigma and other 2 bonds are pi bonds. Nitrogen compounds are numerous; examples
includeammonia, urea and nitric acid. Many organic compounds also contain nitrogen.Naturally
occurring minerals of nitrogen are saltpeters KNO3 and NaNO3.
Laboratory preparation of nitrogen gas: By heating NH4NO2 which is prepared by the

action of ammonium chloride with sodium nitrite:
NH4Cl + NaNO2Æ NH4NO2 + NaCl
NH4NO2ÆN2 + 2H2O
Large scale obtaining: On large scale nitrogen gas is obtained by liquefaction of air:
b.p. of O2 = -183°C
b.p. of N2 = -196°C
Chemical Properties:
1. Reaction with oxygen:
N2 + O2Æ 2NO heating at 1500-2000 °C
2. Heating with Mg, Ca, B

Nitrides are formed: BN (boron nitride), Ca3N2 (calcium nitride)
3. Reaction with H2 (Haber process) produces ammonia (NH3).
Applications of Nitrogen gas:

1. Nitrogen is used to prepare ammonia which is then used to prepare nitric acid and
fertilizer.
2. It is used as an inert gaseous blanket to exclude O2 to a processing and packaging of
foods.
3. Liquid nitrogen is used as a coolant to freeze foods rapidly.
Ammonia, NH3
Ammonia is a base. It is because it has a lone pair of electrons which can be donated to a proton,
thus ammonia is electron pair donor or it is an proton acceptor.
N2 + H + NH4+
Ammonia is a binary compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. Its molecular formula is NH3. It is
prepared on industrial scale by the method called Haber process. In this process nitrogen is
reacted with hydrogen in the presence of catalyst Fe2O3/ Al2O3.
N2+ 3H2 2NH3
The reactants are heated at 500 0C.
Laboratory preparation of ammonia:

In the laboratory ammonia can be prepared by the action of base on ammonium chloride.
1. NH4Cl + NaOH NH3 + NaCl+ H2O
2. NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 NH3+ H2O + CaCl2
Nitric Acid, HNO3

Nitric acid is an important compound of nitrogen. It is one of the common acids used extensively
in laboratories and industries.
Preparation of Nitric acid:

Nitric acid is prepared industrially by a method known as Ostwald’s method.
In this method nitric acid is prepared by the oxidation of ammonia.
There are three main steps:
1. Oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide
2. Oxidation of nitric oxide to NO2.
3. Reaction of NO2 with water to produce nitric acid.
Chemical reactions are shown by the chemical equations as follows:
4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O
2NO + O2 2NO2
3NO2 + H2O 2HNO3 + NO
Chemistry Lecture # 13
Halogens and Chlorine gas
The elements of group VII are called halogens, which means salt formers. Halogens include the
following elements:
1. Fluorine (F)
2. Chlorine (Cl)
3. Bromine (Br)
4. Iodine (I)
5. Astatine (At)
Atomic Numbers of Halogens are given below along with the name of the element:
1. F Fluorine (9)
2. Cl Chlorine (17)
3. Br Bromine (35)
4. I iodine (53)
5. At Astatine (85
Occurrence: halogens occur in the form of different compounds in the earth crust.
1. Salts e.g., NaCl, Br- , I-

2. Fluorspar, CaF2
3. Cryolite, Na3AlF6,
4. Fluorapatite, Ca5(PO4)3F
-------------------------
Halogens form diatomic molecules: F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
Physical States: In their elemental forms, halogens occur as diatomic molecules. They have
different physical states. Fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a
solid.
Electronegativity: The electronegativity of an element is the ability of the element to attract the
shared pair of electrons toward it. The halogens are very electronegative elements. Fluorine has
the highest electronegativity among all the elements. The electronegativity values of halogens
are given below:
1. F 4.0
2. Cl 3.0
3. Br 2.8
4. I 2.5
Electron affinity: The electron affinity of an element is the energy absorbed or evolved when an
electron enters into an atom of the element. A halogen atom absorbs an electron to make a
negative ion (anion). During this process energy is evolved. Electron affinity values of halogens
are given below:
Chlorine gas (Cl2)
In this lecture we will study chlorine as a typical halogen. Chlorine is a yellowish green coloured
gas.
Laboratory preparation: In the laboratory, chlorine gas is prepared by the action of

hydrochloric acid on manganese dioxide.
4HCl + MnO2Æ MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2(g)
Industrial preparation:
On the industrial scale chlorine gas is prepared by sodium chloride.
1. Electrolysis of molten NaCl (Downs Cell Process):

It may be prepared by the electrolysis of molten NaCl. For this purpose a special electrolytic cell
is used which is called Downs cell and the process thus is called the Downs cell process. The
melting point of NaCl is 801°C, which is a very high temperature. To lower the melting point of
NaCl, calcium chloride is added. The electrolytic mixture in the Downs cell contains 40% NaCl
and 60% CaCl2. Chlorine gas is obtained at anode.
2NaCl Æ2Na + Cl2(g)
2. Electrolysis of Brine (Castner-Kellner Cell Process): In this method aqueous solution of

sodium chloride (common salt) is electrolyzed. The aqueous solution of NaCl is called
brine. Chlorine gas is obtained at the anode. In the Castner-Kellner cell Moving mercury
cathode is used. Sodium is discharge at the mercury electrode and forms sodium amalgam.
The sodium amalgam is taken into another compartment where it react with water to
produce NaOH and hydrogen gas. Mercury is recirculated.
2NaCl + 2H2O Æ 2NaOH + H2(g) + Cl2(g)
Physical properties:
1. Chlorine is a greenish yellow gas.

2. It has pungent smell.
3. Chlorine is a toxic gas. If it comes in contact, it produces inflammation of lungs, throat
and nose.
4. Its boiling point is -34.6 C, and melting point is -101.6C.
5. It is fairly soluble in water.
Chemical properties of Chlorine gas:
Chlorine is a reactive gas. It reacts with many metals and non-metals. It also reacts with
compounds.
Reactions with metals:
2Na + Cl2Æ 2NaCl
2K + Cl2Æ 2KCl
2Sb + 3Cl2Æ 2SbCl3
2Fe + 3Cl2Æ 2FeCl3
Sn + 2Cl2 Æ SnCl4
Reactions with non-metals
P4 + 6Cl2Æ 4PCl3
P4 + 10Cl2Æ 4PCl5
2S + Cl2Æ S2Cl2
Reaction with hydrogen:
H2 + Cl2Æ 2HCl
Reactions with Compounds
Reaction with Ammonia:
2NH3 + 3Cl2Æ N2 + 6HCl(g)

6NH3 + 6HCl Æ 6NH4Cl(s)
Oxidation of FeCl2 to FeCl3
2FeCl2 + Cl2Æ 2FeCl3
Chlorine replaces bromine and iodine from their compounds. It is a stronger oxidizing agent than
bromine and iodine.
2NaBr + Cl2Æ 2NaCl + Br2
2KI + Cl2Æ 2KCl + I2
Photochemical reactions: chlorine also undergoes photochemical reactions. In these reaction a

photon of light breaks the chlorine molecule into chlorine free radicals which are chlorine atoms.
The chlorine radicals then react with other compounds such as methane.
CH4 + Cl2Æ CH3Cl + HCl
Chlorine as a bleaching agent:

Chlorine reacts with water to form HCl and HOCl. HOCl then breaks up to form atomic or
nascent oxygen. The atomic oxygen is very reactive and is a strong oxidizing agent. It reacts with
the spots and remove them. This is called bleaching action.
H2O + Cl2ÆHCl + HOCl
2HOCl Æ2HCl + 2[O] Nascent Oxygen
Uses of Chlorine:
Chlorine is a useful element. It is used for a variety of purposes.
• For sterilizing drinking water

• To prepare PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) plastic
• To prepare CCl4 and CHCl3
• To prepare HCl
• To prepare bleaching powder, CaOCl2.H2O
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
One of the important compounds of chlorine is HClwhich hydrogen chloride. It is a gas. When it
is dissolved in water, we obtain hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is a commonly used acid.
Hydrogen chloride can be prepared by a number of methods.
Laboratory preparation: In laboratory HCl can be prepared by the action of sulfuric acid on
sodium chloride.
NaCl + H2SO4Æ NaHSO4 + HCl(g)
Industrial preparation: On industrial scale, HCl is prepared by the reaction of chlorine with
hydrogen gas.
H2 + Cl2 Æ 2HCl
Chemical reactions of HCl:

• Reaction with a base, NaOH or KOH
HCl + NaOHÆNaCl + H2O
HCl + KOH ÆKCl + H2O
• Reaction with ammonia
HCl + NH3 Æ NH4Cl
• Reaction with calcium oxide
2HCl + CaOÆ CaCl2 + H2O
• Reaction with sodium carbonate
2HCl + Na2CO3 Æ 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
Chemistry Lecture 14:
Organic Chemistry
Organic Chemistry:
Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry that involves the study of carboncompounds. It deals
with the structures, composition, and synthesis of organic compounds. Organic compounds are
obtained from natural sources like plants, animals and microbes. They are also synthesized in
laboratory. There are millions of organic compounds. They have wide variety of application such
as in medicine, fertilizer, food, clothing, communication, transportation etc.
Catenation:
Carbon has a very unique ability that its large number of atoms can bond with each other to make
chains of different lengths. This property of carbon to make chains is called catenation.
C-C C-C-C C-C-C-C C-C-C-C-C C-C-C-C-C-C-C
Hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbons are the compounds of carbon and hydrogen. There are different classes of
hydrocarbons such as aliphatic, aromatic, cyclic, acyclic, saturated and unsaturated, etc.Aromatic
compounds are benzene and those which resemble benzene. They burn with black soot. They
possess aromaticity and are comparatively more stable than expected. They are unsaturated
compounds but are resistant to addition reactions. Their characteristic reactions are electrophilic
substitution reactions. The structure of benzene is given below.
Classification of organic compounds:

There are millions of organic compounds and this makes it physically impossible to study each
individual compound. To facilitate their study, organic compounds are classified into various
groups and sub-groups.
They may be broadly classified into the following classes:
• Open chain or acyclic compounds

• Closed chain or cyclic compounds
Open chain or acyclic compounds:
These compounds contain an open chain system of carbon atoms. The chains may be either
straight chains (non-branched) or branched. The open chain compounds are also called aliphatic
compounds. The name aliphatic is derived from the Greek word aleiphar meaning fats, as the
earlier known compounds of this class were either obtained from animal or vegetable fats, or had
fat like character.
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 ,CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2OH, H2C = CH2
Closed chain or cyclic compounds.
These compounds contain one or more closed chains (rings) of atoms and are known as cyclic or
ring compounds.
The aliphatic hydrocarbons are the organic compounds which contain no benzene ring. They
may be open chain or closed chain. The closed chain compounds are also called cyclic
compounds. The major classes of aliphatic hydrocarbons are alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and
cycloalkanes, etc.
Functional groups:
An atom or group of atoms which imparts some specific properties to a compound is called a
functional group. For example, -OH is functional group. It is known as hydroxyl group. The
compounds which have this functional group show specific properties. They are phenols and
alcohols.
Structural formula:
It is very common in organic chemistry that two or more compounds have same molecular
formula. For example, both ethanol and dimethyl ether have same molecular formula, C2H6O.
Why they are different? They are different because they have different arrangements of atoms in
their molecules. The arrangement of atoms in molecule is represented by a formula which is
known is the structural formula. The structural formula of a compound is the formula which
shows the arrangement of atoms in its molecule. The structural formula of a compound shows
which atom is attached with which atom.
Isomers and isomerism:
Two or more different compounds which have same molecular formula are called isomers. This
phenomenon is known as isomerism. Ethanol and dimethyl ether are isomers. Similarly, n-butane
and isobutene are isomers. They are two different compounds, and have same molecular formula
(C4H10) but different structures. Isomerism is very common in organic compounds. There are
many types of isomerisms.
Sources of organic compounds:
There are many sources of organic compounds. Plants, animals, petroleum, natural gas, coal are
common sources of naturally occurring organic compounds. A huge number of compounds have
been synthesized in laboratories by chemists. A great number of new compounds are being
added continuously.
All organic compounds must contain carbon. Almost organic compounds also possess hydrogen.
Many compounds also contain oxygen and/or nitrogen. Other common elements found in
organic compounds are halogens, sulfur, and phosphorus.
Oxygen containing organic compounds:
Oxygen-containing organic compounds are very numerous. Many functional groups contain
oxygen. Some examples are given below.
Alcohols:
Alcohols are common organic compounds. They contain –OH functional group. This is called
hydroxyl group. Examples: Methanol, CH3-OH; ethanol, CH3-CH2-OH.
Both methanol and ethanol are liquids and are used as solvents.
Phenols:
Phenols also contain –OH functional group, but in a phenol the –OH group is attached to an
aromatic carbon.
Aldehydes:
Aldehydes are those organic compounds which have aldehydic carbonyl functional group,-CHO.
Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde are common aldehydes.
Ketones:
Ketones are those organic compounds which contain ketonic carbonyl functional group. This
group is –CO–. There is a double bond between carbon and oxygen, C=O. Acetone is a common
ketone (H3C-CO-CH3). It is a liquid and used as a solvent.
Carboxylic acid:
Carboxylic acids are compounds which contain carboxylic group, –COOH. Carboxylic acids are
important organic compounds. Examples: formic acid, acetic acid, benzoic acid. Carboxylic
acids are common in living organisms, proteins are composed of amino acids. Citric acid is
found in citrus fruits. Milk contains lactic acid. Gapes have tartaric acid.
Carboxylic acids are weaker than mineral acids. Oils and fats are esters of glycerol with fatty
acids.
Esters:
Esters are also common organic compounds. They are formed by combination of carboxylic
acids and alcohols. Ethyl acetate is a common ester. Its formula is: CH3-COOCH2-CH3. Fats and
oils are esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Glycerol is a triol, i.e., it has three –OH groups.
Ethers:
Ethers are also a common class of organic compounds. They have C-O-C bonding. Dimethyl
ether, and diethyl ether are common ethers. Diethyl ether is commonly called ether. It is
anesthetic. It is used as a solvent in laboratory and industry.
Nitrogen containing organic compounds:
Nitrogen containing organic compounds are also very common. Amino acids contain nitrogen.
Similarly DNA and RNA also contain nitrogen. Another important class of natural products
called alkaloids also contains nitrogen. Common nitrogenous compounds have amino groups.
Amines:
Amines are nitrogenous organic compounds which contain amino group. Amines may be
primary, secondary and tertiary. Examples: CH3-NH2 (Methyl amine), CH3-NH-CH3 (Dimethyl
amine) and (CH3)3N (Trimethyl amine).
Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (Fats and oils) are naturally occurring common organic
compounds. They are also part of our food.
Organic Reactions:
A chemical reaction is a chemical change. It is a process in which one or more bonds and broken
and one or more bonds are formed.Coutlessnumber of reactions occur involving organic
compunds. But all these reaction belong to only a few types of reactions. Most common types of
organic reactions are given below.
• Substitution reactions
• Elimination reactions
• Additions reactions
In substitution reactions, one group is replaced by another group.
OH- + CH3-Cl Æ CH3-OH + Cl-
In the reaction Cl-is replaced by OH- group.

In elimination reactions, groups are eliminated from a molecule.
CH3-CH2-Cl Æ H2C=CH2 +HCl
In this reaction HCl is eliminated from chloroethane and ethene is formed.
Addition reaction is reverse of elimination reaction. In an addition reaction, a molecule

adds to another molecule. So, two molecules of reactants combine to form one molecule of
product.
H2C=CH2 + HBrÆ H3C-CH2-Br
Applications of Organic Compounds:
Organic compounds are very important chemical substances. They have a wide variety of
applications in modern human life. Organic compounds are essential part of our food. The fibers
and dyes are organic compounds. Similarly, fragrances and flavours are organic substances.
Plastic and other polymers are also organic compounds.
Numerous organic compounds are used as medicines for different diseases. The number of such
compounds is rapidly increasing.
Many fertilizers are also organic compounds. Similarly, soaps and detergents and other
household materials are organic compounds.
Biology lecture # 1
Levels of Organization in Life

(From Atom to Biosphere)
WHAT IS LIFE?
Anything is living if:
y It can acquire energy from the environment, e.g., plants acquire energy using
sunlight and carbon dioxide and animals gain energy by eating plants like goats
eat plants.
y It is capable of reproducing itself, e.g., all animals produce young ones like lions
produce cubs. Plants also reproduce seeds to give rise to new plants.
y Mutating / changing itself: all organisms have a property of mutations, i.e., their
heredity material – DNA changes itself during division or other times and the
result is change in any characteristic of the organism. This characteristic may be
beneficial or harmful; organisms survive better if mutation is beneficial and may
die if it is harmful.
BIOLOGY – THE STUDY OF LIFE
Biology (Bio – life; logos – study, reasoning); biology is hence the study of life or living
organisms. Biology is about exploring the living part of the world, e.g., studying about animals,
plants and even microorganisms is biology.
Biology have many subdivisions; for example, anatomy – the study of structures, physiology –
the study of functions, microbiology – the study of microorganisms and many more.
The exploration of life helps in understanding the phenomena of nature and effective utilization
and management of natural resources. We can find solutions to various problems for example
treatment for various diseases could be discovered, methods for energy production from
biological materials may be found, e.g., few bacteria can produce fuel from grasses.
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN LIFE
• Atoms
• Molecules
o Micromolecules
o Macromolecules
• Cells
• Tissues
• Organs
• Organ-systems
• Organisms
• Populations
• Communities
• Ecosystems
• Biosphere
Diagram below:
Biosphere
Ecosystem
Community
Population
Organisms
Organ
systems
Organs
Tissues
Cells
Molecules
Atoms
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN LIFE – MORE DETAILS
Atoms
Greek: a, not; tom, to cut: The smallest component of an element that have all the properties of
that element. In nature, 92 kinds of elements are present, out of which only 16 make the living
organisms, called bioelements. Bioelements are Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H),
Nitrogen (N), Calcium (Ca), and Phosphorus (P). These elements make 99% of living mass.
Others ten elements make 1 % of total living mass named Potassium (K), Sulfur (S), Chloride
(Cl), Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg), Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Nz), and
Iodine (I).
Atoms
All living things consist of atoms, like all other forms of matter. Atoms consist of “subatomic
particles”; charged or not charged. These include electrons which are negatively charged
particles, protons which are positively charged and neutrons which have no charge. Protons and
neutrons are present inside the center and the electrons revolve around these in orbits.
Atoms do not live in isolation but join together to make molecules (compounds).
Molecules
Atoms join together by a process called “bonding” to each other to construct molecules. Bonding
is of two types.
y ionic bonds
y covalent bonds
In inonic bonding one atom gives one or more of its electron to the other atom which is called a
donor and the other receive the electron called recipient. The donor atom then becomes
positively charged and the recipient becomes negatively charged. In covalent bonding, however,
the atoms share one or more of their electrons and these electrons revolve in the orbit of both
atoms. Covalent bonding is more strong form of bonding.
On the bsis of their size molecules are categorized into micromolecules and macromolecules.
Micromolecules are the molecules with low molecular weight, e.g., glucose, water.
Macromolecules are the molecules with high molecular weight, e.g., proteins, carbohydrates and
lipids.
An organism consists of enormous number of biomolecules different types. Though some

organisms are unicellular, i.e., consist of one cell only. Many other organisms are multicellular,
i.e., these consist of many cells.
Organelles
Molecules make organelles. Organelles are sub-cellular structures, assemble together to make
cells – the units of life, e.g., mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi bodies, nucleus. For example,
mitochondria of a cell (Singular: mitochondrion) is called “powerhouse” of the cell. This
organelle is present in the cytoplasm of the cells and makes energy for the cells hence called
“power house”. These are found in both plants and animals. Another example is nucleus present
in almost all cells.
Organelle: nucleus.
Cells – the basic unit of life
All the living organisms consist of cells. Cells are called the basic units of life. Cells are
specialized in their structure and functions. There are different types of cells present in the bodies
of multicellular organisms. But some organisms like amoeba consist of only one cell. Cells are
categorized based upon the placement of their nuclear material into prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells. Prkaryotic (Pro: old, Karyotic: related to nucleus) cells are those cells that do not have a
true nucleus – it means that their nuclear material is not covered by a membrane. While
eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus, i.e., their nuclear material is covered by a membrane called
nuclear membrane. Sometimes a cell makes a whole unicellular organism, like Prokaryotes and
Protists. A variety of cells makes a single, multi-cellular organism.
Animals Cell
Plant Cell
Bacterial Cell
Stem Cells
These are the undifferentiated cells in which most of the genes are switched on and these have a
potential to make almost all cells of the body. These cells are present in a few places in adult
organism or present in the embryos. These are useful for human beings because these can be
used in making organs of any type which may be damaged by for example a disease.
Tissues
These are the groups of similar kind of cells which perform a same function. The tissues perform
a common function, specialized to the tissue. For example, epithelial tissue that makes the skin.
Onion Epidermis (tissue)

Organs and organ systems
Tissues group and work together to make a unit called organ. Different tissues in an organ work
differently to perform collective function of the organ. For example in stomach, there are muscle
tissues that contract and relax for grinding and there are secretory cells which secrete gastric
juices to digest the food. Collective action is the secretion of gastric juices and its mixing.
Digestive system in humans.
In the simple to complex organisms, many organ-systems are present, for example, in humans
digestive system, cardiovascular system, respiratory system and many more are present that work
for a specific purpose. Digestive system consists of oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, intestine,
pancreas, liver and rectum. Cardiovascular system consists of heart, vessels and blood.
Organism
Organ-systems join together to constructs organisms. In an organism, the organs and organ-
systems coordinate to perform the activities of the whole organism. For example, in humans
brain control the activities of most of the organs and organ-systems. If a person is running;
cardiovascular system provides it oxygen and nutrients, muscles contract and relax for
movement and nervous system coordinate all of these functions.
Population
All organisms of a species living in an area at a particular time are called population, like all deer
in a forest. Biologists study populations to explore the interactions between organisms. For
example, interactions between male-male, female to female or else.
Ducks in a local park
Community & Ecosystem
Different populations living in an area in a particular time, for example, in a forest plants,
animals, algae, fungi live together are called a community. Populations interact with each other
and also to the abiotic factors of the area to make Ecosystem, for example, a lake ecosystem.
Plant community in a forest.
Biosphere
The part of the world covered or inhabited by the living organisms is called biosphere. This is
also called zone of life on Earth. Biosphere includes all ecosystems, like forests, lakes, oceans
and valleys where biotic components exist.
Exercise
1. Draw a flow chart to demonstrate the levels of organization in life.

2. Label various parts of atom in the following diagram:
3. Label various parts of a bacterial cell in the following diagram:
Biology lecture # 3
Diversity of Cells and Mitosis
Animal Cell Vs Plant Cell
Animal Cell Plant Cell

Cell membrane is outer most layer Cell wall is present outside the cell
membrane
Have a large central vacuole
Many small vacuoles
Nucleus on a side
Nucleus in the center
Roughly rectangular shape due to presence
Roughly round and/or have variable
of cell wall
shapes
Plastids are present
Plastids are absent
Cilia rarely present
Cilia present
Centrioles absent in most of the plants
Centrioles present
A typical animal cell.
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A typical plant cell.
Prokaryotic Cell Vs Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
No defined nucleus but a nucleoid region Defined nucleus with nuclear membrane
No membrane bound organelles Membrane bound organelles are present
Small in size (e.g. 1-2 microns in bacteria) Larger than prokaryotic cells on average
(20 microns of animal cells)
Cell wall consist of peptidoglycan (a
polymer of amino acids and sugars) Cell wall consist of cellulose (plants) and
chitin (fungi)
CELL DIVISION
Division is the property of cells. Cells have to divide for various purposes, for reproduction or for growth
and repair of the tissues. There are two types of the cells called somatic cells and germ line cells. Somatic
cells are those which make all the tissues of the body except for some cells which are involved in
reproduction. Few cells involved in reproduction and are meant for making gametes for reproduction.
There are two types of the cell divisions called Mitosis and Meiosis. Mitosis is the division of the somatic
cells and also serves as means of asexual reproduction. Meiosis is however involved in division of the
germ line cells.
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Stages of mitosis in onion root tip cells.
CELL CYCLE
Cells go through a cyclic process in which they pass by various phases over time. These phases include a
phase of rest, high metabolic activity and division. It is also defined as the sequence of events or a cyclic
process between divisions of the cell. The cell cycle consists of the following phases:
o Interphase (consist of Gap 1 phase, Synthesis Phase, Gap 2 phase)

o M Phase (Mitosis or Division Phase)
o Resting or G0 Phase (Gap 0, read as Gap not)
Interphase
Interpahse consist of following phases. This is normally called as rest phase but actually it is a phase of
high metabolic activity.
Gap 1
Cells increase in size in Gap 1. They produce materials required for DNA synthesis.
The G1 checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis.
Synthesis phase
DNA replication occurs during this phase. An S phase check point checks that whether the
synthesis of DNA is correctly done or not. If everything is correct cell continue to the next phase and if
not then cell wither have to die or correct its errors.s
Gap 2
During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the cell will continue to grow. Cell prepares
all the materials required for division, e.g. microtubule proteins. The G2 checkpoint control mechanism
ensures that everything is ready to enter the M (mitosis) phase and divide.
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Cell Division or M- Mitosis Phase
Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is focused on the orderly division into two daughter
cells. A checkpoint in the middle of mitosis (called Metaphase Checkpoint) ensures that the cell is ready
to complete cell division.
Resting or G0 (Gap 0)
A resting phase in which the cell has leaves the cycle and has stopped dividing. G0 starts from G1 and
cell may sustain in G0 may be for years.
Mitosis
Mitosis is the cell division that results in two daughter cells which are like each other. Though, mitosis is
a term that is used to describe the nuclear division.
Cell division consists of following phases:
Karyokineses – division of nucleus
o Divided into Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase
Cytokinesis – division of cell
o Different in animal and plant cells
Karyokinesis
1. Prophase
o Chromatin material condenses and chromosomes becomes visible

o Each chromosome is replicated (duplicated) and consist of two sister chromatids
o At the end of the stage nuclear membrane disappear
o Centrioles move towards poles of the cell and microtubules starts forming
2. Metaphase
o Chromosomes arrange themselves at the equator

o Kinetochores are attached to the microtubules
3. Anaphase
o Chromosomes starts moving towards the poles

o The sister chromatids separate from each other, so each sister chromatid move towards a
pole
4. Telophase
o Chromosomes (sister chromatids) reaches at the poles
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o Nuclear material starts de-condensing again
o Nuclear membrane starts forming
The nuclear division is complete, next is the Cytokinesis or division of the cell.
Anaphase
Telophase
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Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis in plant and animal cells is different from each other. In plant cells, a cell plate starts forming
in the center of the cell and moves towards sides. The cell plate divides the cell into two cells. The cell
plate consists of material produced by Golgi bodies in vesicles. This material contains the cell membrane
and cell wall components.
Cytokinesis in animal cells occurs in a different way. In animal cells a cleavage furrow is formed by
invagination of cell membrane. This process occur with the help of cytoskeleton (microfilaments
particularly). The furrows divide the cell into 2 daughter cells.
Cleavage in animal cells.
Importance of Mitosis
Mitosis is the cell division which helps in development and growth processes of the cells and hence the
tissues. Development of new cells is a requirement in many parts of the body like epithelia usually keep
growing. Replacement of cells and wound healing is another requirement of the organisms which also
need new cells. Regeneration is a capability of some organisms. They came make their lost parts. This
process also needs mitosis. Mitosis also serves as a means of asexual reproduction in various organisms.
Errors in Mitosis
Cells divide correctly most of the times because of many check points at various phases but sometimes it
may go wrong. If it happens due to any reason the result is usually serious problems. Uncontrolled
division of the cells may result into abnormal tissue growth and cancer.
Exercise
1. Draw various steps of mitosis.
2. Demonstrate the process of cytokinesis in animal cells.
3. Give any two examples of regeneration in animals.
4. Show the process of cytokinesis in plant cells with the help of a diagram.
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Biology lecture # 4
CELL DIVISION – MEIOSIS
Reduction Division
MEIOSIS - CONSIST OF TWO DIVISIONS
Meiosis occur in germ line cells to make gametes, gametes are formed for sexual reproduction.
Meiosis is also called reduction division because it results in four daughter cells which are
haploid. We know that chromosomes occur in pairs e.g. human have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs
which is called a diploid number. The chromosomes in each pair are called homologous because
these are like each other and are complementary to each other. Meiosis makes cells that have a
half number of the chromosomes in each daughter cell called a haploid number also.
Diploidy and Polyploidy
The condition of having two sets of chromosomes is called diploidy (2N number of
chromosomes). The gametes formed by meiosis, hence, are called haploid (N number of
chromosomes). For example, in humans 2N is 46 and N is 23 in each gamete, when gametes
combine in fertilization the chromosome number is retained to 2N. Some plants have more than
two sets of chromosomes and are called polyploids. This characteristic is called polyploidy.
Phases of Meiosis
• Meiosis I
o The reduction division
o Chromosome number becomes half in each daughter cell (N)
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• Cytokinesis I
• Meiosis II
o Just like mitosis
o Chromosome number remains same in daughter cells
• Cytokinesis II
Meiosis I
• Meiosis I consist of following phases:

o Prophase I
o Metaphase I
o Anaphase I
o Telophase I
Stages of Meiosis I
• Prophase I is a long phase in meiosis. It consist of following stages:
o It is marked by the pairing of homologous chromosomes (synapses) and

recombination (exchange of the parts of chromosomes.
o Paired chromosomes are called Bivalents or Tetrads.
Homologous chromosomes carry out recombination during meiosis.
• Metaphase I
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o Chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers by kinetochore, one kinetochore per a
chromosome and not per chromatid.
o One homologue on each side so there is a 50-50 chance to get each parents
chromosome.
• Anaphase I
o The chromosomes move towards the poles.
o A homologue, consist of two chromatids moves and sister chromatids do not
separate.
o The result is half number of chromosomes towards each pole.
• Telophase I and Cytokinesis

o Chromosomes reach at poles, half on each side.
o Cell divides and then starts meiosis II.
Events of Meiosis II
• Karyokinesis
o Prophase II
o Metaphase II
o Anaphase II
o Telophase II
• Cytokinesis
o Each cell divides into two cells.
At the end of meiosis each cell divides into 4 haploid cells.
This division is different in males and females.
In females, after first meiotic division (meiosis I), cytoplasm is unequally distributed and one
large and other small cell are produced. The small cell is called a polar body. Then both of these
cells carry out meiosis II. Polar body divides into 2 polar bodies. The large cell however is
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divided into one ovum (large) and another polar body. So that meiosis results into 1 ovum and 3
polar bodies.
In males, both meiotic divisions results into equal sized cells called sperms.
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
• Cell divides into 2 daughter cells • One cell divides into 4 daughter cells
• Alike in males and females • Different in males and females
• Chromosome number remains equal • Chromosome number becomes half (N)
(2N) in daughter cells in daughter cells
Importance of Meiosis
Major advantage of meiosis is the genetic variations by recombination (crossing over). During
prophase I of the meiosis crossing over takes place which result in genetic recombination. When
gametes combine to make a zygote, more variations arise. This variation assures new
combinations resulting in increase in adaptability of the organism.
Errors in Meiosis
Meiosis is a well regulated process but sometimes errors may arise which may lead to mostly
serious disorders. The common cause of disorders in non-disjunction of the homologous pairs of
chromosome abnormally. This may results into unequally distributed chromosomes in the
gametes and when these fertilize, they give rise to individuals with disorders.
For example, in Down’s syndrome the affected individual have 3 homologues in the 21st pair of
chromosomes.
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Non-disjunction results into abnormal gametes, e.g., in above diagram N and N are normal and N
+1 or N -1 are abnormal gemetes.
Twins
There are two types of twins.
• Fraternal twins
o These are produced by separate eggs (also called dizygotic twins)/ These are
produced if two eggs are released and fertilized.
o These are genetically different from each other and may be both males, females or
both male and female.
• Identical twins
o These are produced by division in the same egg (also called monozygotic twins).
These are produced by division in the zygote.
o These are genetically same / identical and have same characteristics. Both of these
are either males or females.
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Environment and twins
Environment may affect even the identical twins. Identical twins may also have different
characteristics if they are brought up in different environments. We know that the genes interact
with environment to produce various characteristics. This characteristic also affects the twins.
Exercise
1. Draw various steps of meiosis I.
2. Demonstrate difference between the meiosis in females and males.
3. What are the effects of non-disjunction? Describe with the help of a diagram.
6
Biology lecture # 5
Chromosomes, DNA and Genes
Heredity Information Flow
Reproducing itself is a property of life. Transferring characteristics to next generation is a property of

living organisms. Heredity information flow in living organisms is carried out by the genes. The
“Chromosome theory of heredity” states that the genes are present on chromosomes and are responsible
for the transfer of characteristics from generation to generation. Genes are present in the form of DNA
molecules, organized in a structure called chromosome (chromatin material).
Chromatin - the Genetic Material
Genetic material is present in the nucleus of the cell in eukaryotes and in the nucleoid region in
prokaryotes. These are called chromatin material. Chromatin material is not visible during interphase
(non-dividing state) of the cell. These become visible during cell division due to condensation of
chromosomes.
Functions of Genetic Material
There are some important properties of genetic material, which are following:
• It replicates itself.
• It regulates the growth and development of the organism.
• It allows the organism to adapt to the environmental changes.
Chromosomes - DNA – Genes
Chromosomes consist of DNA molecule associated with proteins. In chromosomes, DNA is wrapped
around proteins. Few of these proteins are called histones and few others. DNA is associated with histone
and non-histone proteins in a chromosome.
Introduction of DNA and Gene
DNA is a macromolecule (large molecule) organized in structure chromosome. In prokaryotes DNA is a

circular molecule. In eukaryotes it is a long linear molecule. Mitochondria and chloroplast also have their
own circular DNA molecules.
Gene is a length of DNA that codes for a peptide or protein. So that gene is a part or length of DNA.
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Condensation of Genetic Material
Chromatin material condenses during prophase of mitosis in the form of chromosomes. Chemical analysis
shows that chromosome consist of DNA and proteins. DNA is a long molecule about 2nm thick running
continuously within each chromosome. Chemical analysis shows that DNA is acidic in nature.
The Structure of Chromosomes
Chromosome consists of a DNA molecule wound around proteins. DNA in human cell (all chromosomes)
is about 6 feet long, packed in a microscopic nucleus of a cell. In one human chromosome, it is 1.7-8.5
cm long. How is this possible? The answer is “coiling” and “super-coiling”. The chromosome consists of
highly condensed structure. If we can open this like a thread, then the long thread will appear like a
flower like structure called solenoid which consists of many smaller units. These small units are called
“nucleosomes”. A nucleosome is a length of DNA coiled around a set of proteins. The DNA coils around
histones twice, which is up to 200 base pairs long. Two nucleosomes are connected to each other by a
length of DNA, which is called “linker DNA” (up to 80 base pairs long).
Chromosome coiling and nucleosome.
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Two nucleosomes.
Chemical Composition of DNA
DNA is a complex macromolecule (large molecule). DNA stands for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid. The
smallest unit of DNA is called a “nucleotide”; nucleotides join to make polynucleotide. We can say that
DNA consists of nucleotides joined together.
Nucleotides
Each nucleotide consists of:
1. Deoxyribose sugar
2. Phosphate group
3. Nitrogenous base
Structure of a nucleotide.
There are four nucleotides based upon four different nitrogenous bases attached to them. Nitrogenous
bases are of two types: purines and pyrimidine. Purines include two bases Adenine and Guanine
which have a double ringed structure. Pyrimidine bases include the other ones called Thymine and
Cytosine that have single ringed structure.
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Mechanism of Gene Action
Genes express themselves by making proteins. Making the proteins by DNA occur by two processes
called transcription and translation. Transcription is formation of a form of RNA from DNA called
messenger RNA (mRNA). mRNA is formed inside the nucleus in eukaryotes and in nucleoid region in
prokaryotes. The next process is translation, which is formation of a protein or peptide by mRNA with
the help of another organelle called ribosome.
Replication is another function of DNA. It is doubling of DNA molecule to make two copies of itself.
Replication occurs before cell division to make copies of DNA for the daughter cells.
Genetic code is a term used for the parts of DNA that code for proteins. A codon is a 3 nucleotides code
for an amino acid, i.e., codon is a 3 nucleotide set of DNA molecule that codes for a protein.
Transcription and Translation
• Transcription = DNA mRNA
• Translation = mRNA Protein
• The following scheme is called the central dogma of molecular biology / genetics
DNA RNA Protein
Transcription
• DNA mRNA
The process of transcription involves an enzyme called RNA polymerase. One strand of DNA act as the
template strand which is actually coded into the mRNA.
• Steps of transcription
o RNA polymerase identifies and attaches to a region called promoter on the DNA
upstream the gene.
o RNA polymerase open the double helix chain which results in the formation of
transcription bubble.
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Transcription Process
• RNA polymerase moves on the gene, the helix unwinds and make a complementary
strand of RNA. This strand of mRNA protrudes out of transcription bubble.
• At end of the gene there is a stop sequence. Usually it is a series of GC base pairs
followed by a series of AT base pairs.
• These sequences make a hair pin loop like structure which stops RNA polymerase from
transcribing.
• Thymine is coded as uracil in mRNA.
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Transcription in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
In prokaryotes, the mRNA directly moves into cytoplasm and its translation starts because there is no
nuclear membrane, nucleoid region is continuous with cytoplasm. In eukaryotes, mRNA formed moves
out of nucleus through nuclear pores and then it is translated in the cytoplasm with the help of ribosomes.
Modification of mRNA in eukaryotes
mRNA in eukaryotes has to travel from nucleus to cytoplasm, to protect it from the action of nucleases
(the DNA cutting enzymes) and proteases (protein cutting enzymes), it is modified. On its 5’ end a cap of
7 methyl GTP is added; while on the 3’ end a poly A tail is added. Introns are also removed. Introns are
DNA sequences in the eukaryotes which are non coding and should be removed from the mRNA. The
coding regions are called exons.
mRNA in eukaryotes have regions – exons and introns
Translation
• mRNA ------- Protein
The process of translation consists of three major steps: initiation, elongation, and termination.
Steps of Transcription
• In prokaryotes, translation starts while transcription is going on because there is no barrier

between nucleoid and cytoplasm.
• In eukaryote, first introns are removed.
Process of Translation
Initiation:
• The mRNA binds to the small unit of ribosome.

• The large ribosomal subunit has 3 binding sites called E (Exit), P (Peptidyl), and A (Aminocyl).
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• When the first codon (triplet code) is aligned at the P site then the large ribosomal subunit
attaches to the small subunit.
A ribosome.
• A tRNA carrying the amino acid methionine attaches to the start codon (AUG) on the messenger
RNA.
A tRNA with an amino acid on the P site.

Elongation:
• A tRNA with its amino acid attaches to the A binding site.

• Peptide bond formation occurs between the methionine and the amino acid carried at the A
binding site.
• Ribosome moves in the 3' direction down the messenger RNA by three bases, shifting the tRNA
and polypeptide chain to the P Binding site.
• The A binding site is open and a vacant tRNA (without amino acid) is in the E binding site.
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• Now, the next tRNA brings another amino acid and bind to A site.
• A peptide bond is formed between the second and this new (thirs) amino acid.
• Ribosome moves in 3’ direction and the vacant tRNA is released from the E site.
• This process continues until a stop codon arrives on mRNA.
• A Releasing factor comes and binds to the A site in place of stop codon. The polypeptide chain
separates from tRNA and ribosome. Then ribosomal units disassemble again. mRNA molecule
also released which has been coded.
Peptide bond is formed between the amino acids brought by tRNAs present on P and A sites.
Growing polypeptide is present on P site and empty amino acid on E site. New tRNA with an amino acid
will come and attach on A site.
Exercise
1. Explain the process of transcription with the help of diagram.
2. Explain the process of translation with the help of diagrams.
3. Differentiate between the transcription and translation processes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
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Biology lecture # 6
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Nutrition
Acquiring energy from environment is one essential property of life. Plants acquire energy from
sunlight and prepare their food. We call them producers. Animals, however, acquire energy from
either plants or other animals or organic materials. We call the consumers or decomposers.
Common Modes of Nutrition in Animals
y Herbivores
◦ Plant eaters, e.g. goat
y Carnivores
◦ Flesh, meat eaters, e.g. lion
y Omnivores
◦ Mixed food, e.g., bear, crows
y Detritivores
◦ Dead organic matter, e.g. earthworms
Dentition is according to the mode of nutrition
Dentition in animals; incisor, canine, premolar and molar teeth.
Mouth Parts also are also according to the mode of nutrition
Animals have different types of tongues according to their mode of nutrition. For example, frogs
have forked, inverted and sticky tongue to catch insects. Tongue of chameleon is also sticky and
very long. Beaks of birds make another example. Birds have a variety of beaks; long, small,
curves and many other. All of these are present in birds according to their mode of nutrition for
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example parrots have long curves beak for cutting and breaking nuts. Pelican have a very long
and wide for catching fish from water. Snouts in mammals make another example. Mammals
have different snouts according to their food.
A parrot: observe the long and curved beak.
Nutrition, Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Assimilation, Elimination
y After acquiring food and ingestion, animals have to digest it.

y Digestion is actually, breaking down food into small ingredients. For example,
carbohydrates to glucose.
y Absorption is movement of food into blood after digestion.
y Assimilation is utilizing those broken small molecules for getting energy for organisms
functions.
y Elimination is removal of the undigested matter from the body.
Nutrition and Digestion in Human beings

Humans are omnivores, i.e., we eat plants (vegetables) and meat (chicken, beef). Digestive
system of humans hence is adapted accordingly.
Basic Components of Human Digestive System

y Alimentary canal
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o From mouth to anus
y Alimentary canal in humans consist of following parts:
o Oral cavity
o Pharynx
o Esophagus
o Stomach
o Intestine (small and large)
Rectum and anus
y Accessory glands
o Liver, Pancreas
Digestive system in human beings.
Sensing the Food

We look at the food and smell when we get a food. These are called sensory qualities of food.
This is the first part of food selection and foods which are improper are rejected. If the food
looks inappropriate or it smells bad, it is rejected. This is a human adaptation just like other
animals.
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Alimentary Canal - From mouth to anus
The Oral Cavity
Food selection is one function of the oral cavity. Oral cavity has tongue with taste buds. Food
selection takes place by taste buds if food tastes bad it is rejected. Tongue converts the ground
food mass to a bolus. Grinding the food is the other important function of oral cavity. Oral cavity
contains teeth for this purpose. Dentition is according the food types. Teeth are of four types;
incisors, canine, premolars and molars. Human have all four types of teeth; few animals have
others. Lubrication and chemical digestion is another function of the oral cavity. Salivary
glands secrete saliva which contains amylase for digestion of starch. It also contains mucous for
lubrication of food.
Pharynx
Pharynx is a part of digestive system. It lies just behind the mouth and nasal cavity and above the
esophagous and larynx. Food bolus passes through pharynx to enter the esophagus. Pharynx
helps swallowing by closing the trachea and nasal cavity pathways.
Esophagus
It is a long tube starts from pharynx and enters stomach. From pharynx, food enters esophagus.
In esophagus, food moves down to stomach by a series of muscular contractions called
“peristalsis”. Bolus moves down by alternate contraction and relaxation of muscles of esophagus.
Sometimes an antiparistalsis occur, i.e., movement from stomach to mouth that result in
vomiting.
Stomach
Stomach is mainly a storage organ. It also helps in digestion of proteins. Stomach has guarded
openings on either side. There is a sphincter (group of muscles) which is pyloric sphincter that
controls movement of food from stomach to intestine. The other sphincter is present where
esophagus meets stomach. Gastric glands in stomach produces gastric juice, which contain
mucus, hydrochloric acid and an enzyme called pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is converted into pepsin
which is its activated form. Pepsin converts proteins to peptides. Protection of the stomach walls
from the acid particularly is important, mucus secreted by the stomach walls cover the stomach
lining to protect it from acidic damage.
Stomach is also designed to mix up the food with enzymes and acid. Churning movements of
stomach walls thoroughly mixes the food with gastric juice. Churning converts food to chyme,
small part of which enters the small intestine by pyloric sphincter.
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Small Intestine
It consist of three parts; duodenum, jejunum and ilium. Duodenum (first 25 cm of intestine) is
the first part where most of the digestion occurs. Bile enter here from liver and helps
emulsification and digestion of lipids. Pancreatic juice from pancreas also enters here, which
contains trypsin, pancreatic amaylase and lipase fordigestion of protein, carbohydrates and lipids.
Intestinal juice is also released, which help in digestion of all foods.
Jejunum is the next 2.4 m of the small intestine; remaining digestion takes place here. Ilium is
the last 3.5 m long part where absorption takes place. Its lumen is highly folded. It have
extensions of the epithelium called villi and microvilli, which increases the surface area to a
greater extent to increase absorption.
A single villus in smalle intestine.
Large Intestine
Undigested food comes in the large intestine. It consists of various parts including caecum,
colon, and rectum. Absorption of water from the undigested matter occurs in colon. Water is
returned to blood vascular system. Remaining semi solid mass is called feces that are are stored
in rectum, when rectum is full it give rise to a reflex for defecation and feces are excreted out.
Intestinal Motility is an important factor. If the motility in large intestine is increased then there
is less water reabsorption and result is a situation called diarrhea. On the other hand if motility
is decreased then constipation is the result which means that feces will have less than normal
water.
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Liver and Pancreas
Liver produces a secretion called bile which helps in fat digestion and emulsification. Bile is
stored in gall bladder and is released by its contraction. Liver perform various functions called
deamination, converting ammonia to urea, destroys old blood cells and manufactures fibrinogen,
which is blood clotting factor.
Exercise
1. Diagrammatically show various parts of human digestive system.
2. How human beings find out the quality of foods?
3. List various functions of small intestine.
4. List various functions of liver and pancreas.
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Biology lecture # 7
Transport System and

Blood – the Circulatory Fluid
Why transport systems?
Organisms have to exchange materials with the environment. They also need to distribute nutrients, gases
and metabolic products within their body.
Living organisms …
• acquire energy or food from the environment; they have to distribute energy and food within the
body.
• need an intake of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide from their bodies.
• need to remove toxic materials and waste products from their bodies.
• have to distribute hormones and other materials in the body.
• have to exchange materials with the environment
For all that, they require a Transport System.
Transport systems in organisms
A transport system should fulfill the requirements of the organism for all of the above functions like
nutrient distribution or gas exchange.
We take some examples here:
y Unicellular organisms
◦ e.g. amoeba
y Simple multicellular organisms
◦ Small organisms; e.g. sponges, hydra
y Plants and animals
◦ Plants
◦ Animals
Unicellular organisms
Unicellular organisms have a simple body, just one cell. Their requirements are also few. For example
amoeba performs the transport via cytoplasmic streaming which is the movement of their cytoplasm and
few organelles. Food vacuoles distribute the food in the body. Contractile vacuoles removes the water fro
the body. Cytoskeleton helps in the movement of all the above parts.
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Amoeba.
Simple multicellular organisms
Simple multicellular organisms transport materials by simple methods. Like hydra have a mouth and a
body cavity; water enters through mouth and transport of materials takes place in the body cavity. Body
wall also exchange materials with the water outside as organism is aquatic. Hence, water act as a medium
of transport. Few cells help in transport, which are present inside the body towards body cavity.
Hydra: transport system.
Transport in plants
Transport in plants occurs by roots and conducting tissues called phloem and xylem. Roots absorb water
and materials from soil. Plants remove water through a process of transpiration. The leave has guarded
openings called stomata, which open and close to remove water.
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Stomata: opened and closed.
Transport in animals
Animals have a system called circulatory system for transport. There are two kinds of this system called
an open circulatory system and closed circulatory system. In an open circulatory system, the circulatory
fluid is freely moving in the body cavity bathing tissues and there is/are pumping heart/s but these only
send blood to some vessels which are then connected to body cavity. In closed circulatory system, the
blood never leaves vessels and heart and is always present inside the vessels.
Diagrammatic presentation of an open circulatory system. In this system circulatory fluid (e.g.
Hemolymph moves into body cavity and from here to back to heart.
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Diagrammatic presentation of closed circulatory system. I this system, blood never leaves vessels.
Basic components of human circulatory system
Blood is the circulatory fluid which is the medium for transport. Blood vessels are the tubular system for
transport of blood within the body. Heart is the pumping organ that pumps the blood toward the body.
Composition of blood
Human blood consists of plasma (fluid) and cellular content (cells). Plasma is the fluid with dissolved and
un-dissolved materials. It consists mainly of water, which have many inorganic and organic materials
dissolved in it. Cellular content consist of Red Blood Cells (RBCs), White Blood Cells (WBCs) and
Platelets. Red blood cells are also called erythrocytes and white blood cells are also called leukocytes.
Plasma consists of 55% of the blood. Cells constitute 45% of the blood Average human body has about
5liters of blood.
Blood contents could be separated based upon their densities and weights by various methods including
centrifugation and sedimentation.
4
Components of blood.
Functions of the main components of blood
Blood plasma
Plasma consist of 55% of the blood, It consist of 92% water. 0.9% of it consists of salts – NaCl, Mg, Zn
ions etc. The salts maintain the pH of the blood. Plasma has 7-9% part consist of proteins. Important
proteins include antibodies, fibrinogen and albumin. Plasma also contains digested food, nitrogenous
wastes, hormones, respiratory gases etc.
Blood cells and cell-like bodies
Cellular components of blood consist of erythrocytes, leucocytes, thrombocytes. Erythrocytes – Red

Blood Cells carry oxygen with the help of a protein called haemoglobin. In men 5-5.5 million cells/mm3
RBCs are present. This number is 4- 4.5 million/mm3 in women. Men have usually larger bodies and
more muscle mass, so that heir demand for oxygen is more than women.
Leukocytes – White Blood Cells are categorized in to two kinds: Agranulocytes and granulocytes.
Agranulocytes are theose white blood cells which have nongranulated cytoplasm, these include
monocytes and lymphocytes. Granulocytes are those WBCs, which have granulated cytoplasm. These
include basophils, eosinophils and neutrophils. Platelets are the third type of cells or we can call these,
cell like bodies. These are formed by fragmentation of a single cell called megakaryocyte.
Erythrocytes (RBCs) do not have a nucleus at maturity. That is why these look concave under
microscope.
5
Blood cells include RBCs and WBCs (lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils).
Platelets.
Blood groups in human beings and blood transfusion
Blood cells have some specific protein present on their surfaces called antigens, which are meant for the
identification of the blood cells. About 29 blood groups are identified. The most important blood group
systems are, however, two named as ABO and Rh blood group systems. There are four main types of
blood groups present in human beings according to ABO blood group system. These blood groups are
based upon presence or absence of two antigens on surface of RBCs called antigen A and antigen B
(Table 1). Other important blood group is based upon presence or absence of Rh antigens on the surface
of RBCs. The people have Rh antigen on the surface of their RBCs are called Rh positive and those who
do not have it are called Rh negative. ABO system works with the help of Rh system. So that we talk of
the blood groups based upon ABO system with Rh positive or negative. For example, A +ive means that
the person have an A blood type with Rh antigens present.
Table 1: Blood groups, antigens and antibodies.
Blood Group Antigen A Antigen B Antibody A Antibody B

A Present Absent Absent Present
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B Absent Present Present Absent
AB Present Present Absent Absent
O Absent Absent Present Present
Blood transfusion
Blood transfusion is required in case of some diseases, surgery or in case of injuries. Blood groups of
donor and recipient should match, otherwise could cause agglutination reactions leading to even death of
the patient. Blood groups are matched using antigen antibody reactions. A blood group O -ive is called
Universal donor because it has not antigens, hence, it cannot react with any of the antibodies in recipient’s
blood. Universal acceptor is AB+ blood group which has all antigens.
Exercise
1. What are the ABO blood groups and how these are important in transfusion?
2. Describe various transportation systems in unicellular and small multicelluar organisms with the
help of diagrams.
3. What are various components of blood and how can we separate them?
4. Describe important functions of white blood cells.
5. Identify the following:
Diagrams of blood cells
a. _____________________ b. _______________ c. _______________ d. _______________
e. ____________________ f. g. _______________
__________________
6. List various functions of red blood cells.
7
Biology lecture # 8
Circulatory System
in Humans - Blood Vessels and Heart
Circulatory System in Humans
Circulatory system in humans consists of blood, vessels and heart. Blood is the circulatory fluid.
We can call it a liquid tissue. Blood consist of plasma – the watery fluid and cells – the cellular
content. Blood has been described in detail in last lecture. Here we talk about heart and blood
vessels. Heart is a pumping organ and is highly muscular. Function of the heart is to pump blood
with pressure towards lungs and body. Vessels are of three main types; arteries, veins and
capillaries. Arteries carry blood from the heart to body. Veins return blood from body to heart.
Capillaries connect arteries to veins. Function of the capillaries is the exchange of materials.
Structure and functions of blood vessels
Arteries and veins are elastic in their structure. These also have a layers of muscles. These
consist of 3 layers:
◦ External layer - connective tissues layer

◦ Middle layer, consist of smooth muscles
◦ Inner layer, consist of endothelium
Lumen of both of these is meant for blood flow. Arteries have a lumen smaller in diameter and
veins have large.
Artery, vein and capillaries.
1
Comparison of Arteries, Veins and Capillaries
Arteries Veins Capillaries

Carries From heart to body; From body to heart; From arteries to
blood one exception one exception is tissues to veins
pulmonary artery pulmonary vein
Stat of Oxygenated Deoxygenated Oxygenated to
blood deoxygenated
Layers 3 3 1
Walls Thick Thin in comparison to Very thin; one cell
arteries thick only called
endothelium
Pressure High Low Medium
Valves Absent Present Absent
Arteries carry blood from heart to body. These face maximum pressure. Their function is to
distribute blood to all the body tissues. Blood is pumped in the arteries by the heart with very
high pressure that is why arteries are thick walled to withstand high pressure.
Veins have to collect blood from the body and return it to the heart. Veins face less pressure,
pressure almost negligible in major veins. Blood flow in major veins against gravitational pull
and with low pressure so that veins have valves that prevent backflow of blood. In many parts of
the body like arms and legs there are muscles that contract and relax to move the blood towards
heart.
Capillaries have to exchange materials with tissues; these originate from arteries and pass from
tissues then joins to make veins. Capillaries have to carry out exchange of materials with the
tissues that is why their walls are just one celled thick. Capillaries when enters tissues makes
branches, where they branch groups of muscles are present which may open or close to increase
or decrease the blood flow towards tissues.
2
Comparison of an artery and a vein.
Main arteries and veins in human arterial and venous systems
y head, shoulders, arms

y other body organs like kidneys, gonads, liver etc.
Structure of human heart
Heart in human beings is a muscular pump to push blood towards body and lungs. Heart in
humans is of the size of a clenched fist. Heart consists of four chambers including 2 atria and 2
ventricles. Atria receive blood from body and lungs. Ventricles push blood from heart to body
and lungs. These chambers (atria and ventricles) are connected to each other. At their junction
valves are present, which are responsible to prevent backflow of blood.
Left side of the heart, particularly ventricle is stronger because it has to push blood to the whole
body in comparison to right side.
3
Structure of human heart.
Double pumping action of heart and role of valves
Deoxygenated blood from body enters the heart through major veins (vena cava) to right atrium.
When right atrium contract, blood enters the right ventricle. There is a valve called tricuspid
valve that prevents backflow of blood. On the other side, oxygenated blood from lungs enters the
left atrium and when left atrium contract it enters the left ventricle. At the junction of left atrium
and ventricle another valve is present called bicuspid valve that prevents backflow of blood.
Tricuspid and bicuspid valves are collectively called atrioventricular vales.
In fact, both atria are filled at the same time and also contract at the same time to push blood in
the ventricles. Both ventricles also contract at the same time to push blood toward body (left one)
and lungs (right side). Right ventricle pushes blood in the pulmonary artery towards lungs. At
this junction a valve is present called pulmonary valve that prevent backflow of blood from
pulmonary arteries to right ventricle. Left ventricle pushes blood towards aorta, which is the
main artery distributing blood the body. This junction is also guarded by a valve called aortic
valve, which prevents backflow of heart from the aorta to left ventricle. Pulmonary and aortic
valves are collectively called as semilunar valves.
Self-excitatory system of the heart
Heart has self-excitatory system. Heart has s group of muscles called sinoatrial node which
produces impulse (electrical activity) that spread in the heart to contract its various chambers
systematically. Impulse spread toward atria first and causes the atria to contract. Then it enters
another node called atrioventricular node where its magnitude is increased and then it enters
the ventricles and the ventricles contract. The self-excitatory group of muscles of the heart is
called pace maker.
4
Cardiac Cycle
Cardiac cycle is the time period from when the blood enters the heart to the time when blood is
pushed by the heart. We can also say that it is the time period from artial and ventricular diastole
to ventricular systole.
Cardiac cycle consists of following steps:
1. Both atria and ventricles are relaxed. This is the time when both atria are filled with
blood from body and lungs. All heart muscles are relaxed, which means that these are at
diastole.
2. Then both atria contract and blood is pushed into ventricles. This is called atrial systole.
At this time, both AV valves are open and both semilunar valves are closed.
3. Then the ventricles contract and push blood into aorta and pulmonary artery. This is
called ventricular systole. With this, a cardiac cycle is complete.
4. Then again, both atria and ventricles are relaxed, i.e., come back to the initial state.
Double Circulation
Human circulatory system is called a double circulatory system because heart receives and sends
blood from and to lungs (pulmonary circuit) and body (systemic circuit). Look at the diagram
below for a detailed view.
y Systemic circulation
◦ From heart to body and vice versa

◦ Head, shoulders and arms
◦ Lower body organs
y Pulmonary circulation
◦ From heart to lungs and vice versa
5
Double circulation in humans.
Exercise
1. Draw the structural diagram of human heart.
2. Differentiate between arteries and veins using diagrams.
3. Draw the structure of a capillary. Also describe the functions of capillaries.
4. Explain the significance of valves in preventing backflow of blood in heart.
6
1

Biology lecture # 9
Respiratory System
Why respiration?
y Living organisms needs energy for their activities.

y Energy is extracted by complex metabolic processes from food or photosynthesis.
y Respiration is the process of exchange of gases to produce energy in biological form.
What is respiration?
Respiration consist of processes involves exchange of gases in living organisms or metabolic

reaction to produce energy. Respiration is one of the most important metabolic activities. It is of
two types:
o Organismic respiration consists of breathing or ventilation, i.e., inhalation and

exhalation movements and gas exchange.
o Cellular respiration consist of metabolic reactions to produce energy by
utilization of oxygen, production of carbon dioxide and extracting and conserving
energy from food molecules in biological form, such as ATP.
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is of two types:
o Aerobic, in which oxygen is utilized to produce energy.

Example is electron transport chain in mitochondria.
o Anaerobic, in which oxygen is not involved but energy is produced using other
molecules.
Example is fermentation in some bacteria.
Organismic respiration
Organismic respiration is the ventilation or breathing, i.e., the movements which causes
inhalation and exhalation. Air contains gases and exchange of gases occurs in the specialized
organs, for example, lungs in humans.
Difference between cellular and organismic respiration
• Cellular respiration is a series of events of metabolic reactions for production of energy.

2
• Organismic respiration is the process of coordinated movements of body that results in

inhalation and exhalation of air. We also call it breathing or ventilation.
Respiration in air and water
Respiration in air is easier in comparison to water because air is lighter and water is denser. Also,
air is much more saturated with oxygen than water. So that gas exchange in air is easier in the
water than in water.
Respiration in plants
Gas exchange in plants occurs by stomata in mesophyll cells. Stomata are openings guarded by
guard cells; these are used for transpiration in plants through water vapors. Roots of land plants
get the oxygen required by the plants from air present in soil. Aquatic plants acquire their oxygen
from oxygen dissolved in water.
Respiration in animals
In animals, respiration occurs by means of specialized organs, for example gills in fishes and
lungs in terrestrial animals. The most important property of the respiratory organs is respiratory
surfaces that support and facilitate the process of repiration.
Properties of Respiratory surfaces
Properties of Respiratory surfaces include a large and moist surface area, a thin epithelium,
ventilation (air availability) and a capillary network.
Respiration in some small animals
In small animals, respiration occurs by means of general body surface or specialized systems.
Hydra is an aquatic organism, which have a mouth and body cavity through which water moves
in and out. Cells of the inner body wall exchange gases with that water. Cells of the epidermal
layer exchange gases with the water.
In some other organisms like earthworms which have a closed circulatory system the exchange
of gases takes place by the capillaries, which are present in closed vicinity with the body wall.
In the arthropods, especially insects like cockroach a very special system of gas exchange exist
called the tracheal system. Tracheal system is a system of tubes which are extensions of the
body wall and makes a network of tubes called tracheae, tracheoles and air sacs in the body.
These have openings to the exterior called spiracles. Air enters in through spiracles and enters
the trachea and tracheoles, which are present close to the tissues. Gas exchange is easier because
in trachea only air is present, which is a very lighter medium. Tracheal system is a very efficient
system of respiration.
3
Respiration in fish, frog and birds
Fishes
Fishes are aquatic animals; these have respiratory organs called gills. Water enters through
mouth into the gills where gas exchange occurs and then water move out from gills. Heart is
fishes is called a single circuit heart, which pumps blood towards gills where gas exchange
occurs and then blood moves towards body.
Frogs
Frogs are called a transition between aquatic and land animals. These live in water and land both.
These have three different types of respiratory system at different stages of life. When a frog is
hatched for an egg and becomes a larva, it lives in water and respires through gills. When it
becomes an adult frog it respires by lungs and skin. Frog’s skin has a network of blood
capillaries so that gas exchange may occur there.
Birds
Birds have a very efficient system of respiration. Birds respire through lungs. They also have air
sacs in their in their body and bones, which also helps in capturing air and hence efficiency of
gas exchange is improved.
Respiratory organs
Land animals have their respiratory organs named lungs. In aquatic animals, gills are the organs
for gas exchange.
Respiratory system in humans
Respiration in human beings occurs by lungs and associated air passageways. Human respiratory
system consists of:
Air passageways in humans
o Nostril and nasal cavity

o Pharynx
o Larynx
o Trachea
o Bronchi
o Bronchioles
Lungs in humans
o Pleural cavity
4
o Body of lungs
o Alveoli – the smallest units
Lungs inhuman beings.
Structure and functions of various parts of air passageways
Nose and nasal cavity
Nose is the part for inhalation. Nose and nasal cavity is lined with ciliated epithelium and its
surface is covered with mucus. The ciliated and moist surface traps dirt and other particles. The
air, which enters inside is filtered, moist and warm.
Pharynx
It is a small muscular passage, which is lined with mucous membrane. Air moves down to larynx
through pharynx.
Larynx: the voice box
Larynx is a complex cartilaginous structure, through which air moves down to trachea. Its
opening is ciliated and covered with mucous. Mucus membrane is stretched across into thin
edged fibrous bands called vocal cords. Vocal cords help in voice production.
5
Trachea (windpipe)
Trachea is a long tube stretched from larynx to lungs. It has a tubular structures and it lies ventral
to the esphagous. It has C-shaped cartilaginous rings which are supporting structure and prevent
tracheal collapse. Trachea extends through the chest cavity or thorax. In thorax, it divides into 2
tubes called bronchi one entering each lung.
Bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli
Trachea divides to form bronchi in thorax region. Bronchi enter the lungs and divide further to
make bronchioles (when they attain a diameter of 1mm or less). Bronchi have same cartilaginous
rings but these become irregularly distributed plates when reaches at the end of bronchioles.
Alveoli
Brochioles keep dividing further and enter deep into the lungs to give rise to air sacs. Air sac is
the functional unit of lungs. Air sacs consist of several microscopic structures called alveoli.
Alveoli and air sacs are covered by a network of capillaries. This network is the site of gas
exchange.
Functional units of lungs.
Structure of lungs
There is a pair of lungs, one is right and other is left. These are present in chest cavity. Lungs are
protected by ribs and pleural cavity (double membrane fluid filled cavity). Lungs are spongy in
structure because of the presence of millions of alveoli. Below lungs a muscular floor of the
chest is present, which is called diaphragm.
6
Breathing
Breathing is the process of inhalation and exhalation. Lungs are spongy, cannot pull or push air
themselves. Breathing movements occurs with the help of pressure and movements of
diaphragm. Diaphragm is dome-like structure present as the floor of chest cavity. When it is
contracted, it becomes less dome-like, which results in expansion of chest and inhalation of air.
When it is relaxed then it becomes more dome-like and pressure in the chest is decreased, which
results in exhalation of air. When muscles between the ribs contract, the rib cage is elevated; and
when relax, ribs settle down. This movement also helps in the process of breathing.
Exchange of gases in alveoli
Gases are exchanged against a pressure difference in the blood and lungs (alveoli). Blood
capillaries are distributed around alveoli in very thin layers. Blood cells and alveolar air are very
close for exchange of gases. Gases are exchanged at the alveoli.
Hemoglobin (Hb) in blood cells help in exchange of oxygen against the concentration difference.
Hb + O2 HbO2 (reversible if pressure of gases in air is changed)
Transport of CO2
Carbon dioxide is more soluble and dissolves in tissue fluids. From here it enters into blood
capillaries. Carbon dioxide is transported in blood as:
o 20 % as carboxyhemoglobin
o 5% by few plasma proteins
o About 70 % as bicarbonate ions combined with sodium.
o CO2 + H2O –Carbonic anhydrase- H2CO3
o H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
7
Figure showing association of the alveoli with blood capillaries in lungs.
Factors affecting gas exchange
• Carbon dioxide
o If CO2 increases then O2 tension decreases. The result is that capacity of
hemoglobin for O2 is reduced.
• Temperature
o Rise in temperature decreases the oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin.
• pH
o If pH declines then oxygen carrying capacity declines.
• H+ ions bind to hemoglobin to decrease oxygen carrying capacity.
Lung capacity and effect of exercise on breathing rate
In humans, fully inflated lungs have a capacity of 5 liters. Normally, at rest or sleep exchange is
half a liter. During exercise, it may increase up to 3.5 liters. It means that there is a 1.5 L residual
8
volume that cannot be expelled. Inhalation per minute is 15-20 times; during exercise it may be
up to 30 times to fulfill the needs of exercising muscles.
Changes in composition of breathed air
Gas Inhaled air Exhaled air

Oxygen 21 % 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.04% 4%
Nitrogen 79% 79%
Water vapors Variable Saturated
Exercise
1. Differentiate between cellular and organismic respiration.
2. Draw the structure of human lungs.
3. What are characteristics of a respiratory surface?
4. How exercise affects the breathing process?
Biology lecture # 10
Excretory System
Introduction and need of excretion
Living organisms have to metabolize which consist of anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism
consists of all reactions for formation of compounds. Catabolism is break down of various
compounds including glucose, proteins and lipids for the formation of energy.
Catabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
carbohydrates + oxygen CO2 + H2O + energy
proteins + oxygen CO2 + H2O + NH3 + energy
lipids + oxygen CO2 + H2O + energy
Metabolic wastes
We can see in the reactions above that metabolic waste products are carbon dioxide, water and
ammonia. These are waste and surplus materials. These have to be removed. Ammonia is highly
toxic for the tissues. Water and CO2 are dangerous for the body if these are present in excess.
Rise in CO2 may result in decrease in pH in blood which is dangerous. Ammonia is highly toxic
and has to be converted into less toxic form. But those forms also need to be removed. Changes
in water concentration in tissue fluids also create problems. Higher concentration may cause
dropsy, which is accumulation of water in tissues. Decrease in water concentration may lead to
dehydration. For all of these reasons an excretory system is required.
Excretion in Vertebrates
Major waste products in vertebrates
• Carbon dioxide
• Mineral salts
• Urea
• Creatinine
• Uric acid
• Excess water
Excretion in animals
1
• Unicellular organisms
• Small animals
• Large animals
• Adaptations to habitat
o water - fresh and brackish e.g. marine
o desert
o terrestrial
Excretory Organs
• Skin acts as excretory structure

• Salt glands are present in some marine or brackish water inhabiting organisms
• Intestine sometimes act as excretory organ
• Kidney
o Major organ for excretion in vertebrates
o Help also in osmoregulation
• Structure of kidney is different in organisms living in fresh and marine waters. Kidneys
in fresh water organisms is modified to produce dilute urine while kidneys of marine or
brackish water inhabiting animals are designed to produce concentrated urine.
Basic components of human excretory system: kidneys and accessory parts
Adrenal gland
Renal artery
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary bladder
Urethra
Various parts of human excretory system.
External and internal structure of kidney
2
Kidney is a bean shaped structure. A pair of kidneys is present in abdominal cavity attached to
dorsal body wall. The concave part of kidney lies towards vertebral column. There is a
depression present towards the vertebral column which is called hilus. The concave part provides
space for entrance and exit of renal artery, vein and nerves. A thin tube ureter arises out of the
concave part of kidney.
Structure of a kidney.
Renal cortex and renal medulla
If we look at a section of a kidney, then the outermost layer, reddish in color is called cortex.
After cortex the second layer consists of structure like pyramids occur. This region is called
medulla. A funnel shaped cavity is present towards inside that receives urine called renal pelvis.
Nephron
Nephron is the functional unit of kidney. Kidneys have many small structures present in cortex
and medulla called nephrons. Function of the nephron is to produce urine. Nephron consists of
following structures:
◦ Glomerulus, which is a capillary network.
◦ Bowman’s capsule (Glumerular capsule) is the capsule like structure in which the
glumerulus is present.
◦ Convoluted tubule
◦ Loop of Henle
◦ Collecting duct
3
Structure of a nephron.
Functioning of the kidney: Urine formation
Function of the kidney is to produce urine. Kidney produces urine by following mechanism.
Pressure Filtration
` Pressure filtration in the renal corpuscle occurs due to blood pressure in renal artery.
Molecules other than RBCs and plasma are filtered, i.e., these enter into the renal
capsule.
` It is called Bowman’s filtrate
` It consist of salts, glucose, urea and uric acid
4
Filtration apparatus: Bowman’s capsule and glumerulus.
Reabsorption
The filtrate moves down the tubular system. Next step is called reabsorption. Reabsorption
means that those compounds which are useful for the body return back to the blood and the
remaining part of filtrate in the tubules makes urine consist of water and nitrogenous wastes.
Reabsorption occurs through the network of capillaries surrounding the tubules. Reabsorption is
selective process. Glucose, water and salts are reabsorbed.
In the last step, only nitrogenous wastes remain inside the urine. This urine now goes down to
pelvis and uretes. Through ureters it enters the urinary bladder for temporary storage. When
bladder is full, there is a reflex for urination through urethra. Urination is not under conscious
control in infants. In adults, however, this is under the conscious control through a sphincter
present on the junction of urinary bladder and urethera.
Osmoregulation
Kidneys help in osmoregulation. This also helps in the maintenance of blood pressure. In case of
increased blood pressure dilute urine is produced to temporarily reduce the quantity of water. In
case of decreased blood pressure concentrated urine is produced and water is reabsorbed to
compensate for fluid loss like in case of too much perspiration. Thirst is also a reflex in response
to decreased quantity of water in blood.
Exercise
1. Draw a labeled diagram of human kidney.
2. Describe the structure of human excretory system with the help of diagram.
3. Describe the process of urine formation.
4. Describe the role of kidneys in osmoregulation.
5
Reproductive System
Introduction of reproduction
Reproduction is one of the basic characteristics of life. It is a biological process by which the organisms
produce their young ones which are similar to their parents. This ability also allows organisms to adapt
itself to the changing environment.
Types of Reproduction
There are two types of reproduction, asexual and sexual. In asexual reproduction, offspring are produced
by simple cell division. No gametes are involved and offspring have same characteristics as their parents.
In sexual reproduction, two organisms are involved in reproduction and offspring have characteristics
which are combination of their parents and some new. Gametes are involved in this kind of reproduction.
Sexual reproduction has advantage of increase in genetic variability. Gametes are formed by a process
called meiosis in which alterations in genetic material takes place. As two organisms are involved, mixing
of their characteristics takes place that increase more genetic variability. Genetic variability leads towards
more adaptability to the environment.
Types of asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves no gametes. There are many methods of asexual reproduction in organisms
including:
Binary fission
Multiple fission
Budding
Regeneration
Vegetative propagation in plants
Binary fission
This is a type of asexual reproduction in which one unicellular organism divides into two by simple
division. In bacteria, for example, binary fission takes place:
1. Replication of single chromosome takes place.

2. Daughter chromosomes move towards opposite poles.
3. Cell membrane invaginates and meets in the center.
4. Cell wall follows the cell membrane and cell divides into two.
Binary fission also takes place in unicellular organisms like amoeba and paramecium. In these organisms:
1. nucleus elongates and divide into two
2. Cytoplasm also divides and cell divides into two
1
Process of binary fission.
Multiple fission
This is a process in which a single cell divides into many cells. For example amoeba makes a cyst in
unfavorable conditions. Its nucleus divides into many nuclei and every part is surrounded by some
cytoplasm. When favorable conditions come, the cyst split into many cells, each one a new amoeba.
Multiple Fission results in production of many daughter cells.
2
Budding
In this process an outgrowth (called bud) appears on the surface of an animal and may separate later on to
develop into a new organism. Examples are yeast, hydra.
Budding in yeast
Regeneration
Regeneration is the formation of lost part of the body. Examples are starfish and planaria. If their one
body part is lost then they have ability to grow it again. In star fish an arm is lost then the arm grows
again.
Regeneration in planaira.
Vegetative propagation in plants
It is a process that involves the vegetative propagation of some plant part such as stem or leaves.
Examples are runners, suckers. Runners like grasses and strawberry and suckers like banana and mint.
3
Adventitious roots are means of vegetative propagation.
Sexual reproduction in Plants
Flowering plants reproduce by sexual reproduction. Flowers have male and female parts called stamen
and carpel. Fertilization occurs with the help of a process called pollination, i.e., transfer of pollen grains
from anthers of stamen to carpel and then ovary. Pollination is of two types: self pollination and cross
pollination.
Formation of seed and fruit
Seed is formed from the zygote. It consists of embryo and its food.
When the seed are formed then the wall of ovary becomes fleshy or scaly and forms fruit
wall.
The floral parts (sepals, petals etc.) fall off.
The ripened ovary is called fruit.
Sexual reproduction in Animals
In animals, it occurs through fertilization of gametes (sperms and ova). Gametes are produced by meiosis
which is the reduction division. These have half a number of chromosomes. Females and males are
different in only one pair of chromosomes. Males have a chromosome different called a Y chromosome in
one pair. So females have an XX pair while males have XY.
Example of Frogs
• Frogs carry out sexual reproduction.

• Female frog lays a large amount of ova in water and male release sperms on these.
• Sperms and ova fertilize to produce zygote.
4
• Zygote the divide by mitosis to develop a larva which lives in water for a specific period of time
and then by a process called morphogenesis develops into adult frog.
Reproductive system in humans
Humans reproduce sexually by fertilization of gametes called sperms and ova. Gametes are produced by
specialized organs called testes and ovaries. Gametes have a haploid number of chromosomes, i.e., 23
chromosomes. 22 of these pairs are alike but 23rd pair is different in males and females. Females have X
chromosomes in their gamete while males have an X or Y. Gender of the child is hence determined by the
sperm, X or Y. Female always contribute an X in gamete. If male gamete has a Y then a male child will
be produced. If sperm have an X then female child will be produced.
Basic components of male reproductive system
Human male reproductive system consists of a pair of gonads called testes, and a system of accessory
tubes. (testis: sing.; testes: plural). Testes are paired which produces sperms. Testes lie outside the body in
the sac called scrotum. From testes, sperms are transferred to main duct called vas deferns. Vas deferns
makes a complex system of ducts called epididymis. From epididymis, sperms pass through the
urinogenital tract and discharged.
Function of testes
Function of testes is to produce sperms and the male hormone testosterone. Testis consists of a system of
tubules called seminiferous tubules.
Process of Spermatogenesis
1. In the seminiferous tubules, germinal epithelium produces the cells called spermatogonia.
2. Spermatogonia divide into primary spermatocytes (2N).
3. Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis to produce secondary spermatocytes (N).
4. Secondary spermatocytes divide further to make 4 haploid cells called spermatids.
5. Spermatids are converted to sperms by morphological changes.
Testis also has some large cells in seminiferous tubules called sertoli cells. These cells provide support
and nourishment to the developing sperms.
Mature sperm
Basic components of female reproductive system
Female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries and an associated system of tubes. A pair of
ovaries lies inside the female body cavity which produces ova. Ovaries leads to the tubes called oviducts
5
also called fallopian tubes. Oviduct opens into uterus. Ovum is fertilized in the oviducts then it passes to
the uterus where it is implanted. A placenta is established between the uterine and fetal tissues for the
exchange of materials. Uterus is connected to the vagina through cervix.
Function of ovaries
Function of ovaries is to produce ova and female hormones estrogen and progesterone. Germ cells in
ovary produce many cells called oogonia.
Process of Oogenesis
1. Oogonia produce primary oocyte (2N) by mitosis.

2. The primary oocyte divides by meiosis into secondary oocyte (N) and a polar body.
3. The secondary oocyte divides to form one ovum and a polar body.
4. The first polar body also divides to form 2 polar bodies.
5. Hence from secondary oocyte, one ovum and three polar bodies are produced.
Usually ovary releases one ovum at a time, this is called ovulation. Sometimes it releases more which
may result into fraternal (non-identical) twins.
Exercise
1. Draw the process of spermatogenesis.

2. Draw the process of binary fission in bacteria.
3. Draw the process of multiple fission in amoeba.
4. Differentiate the process of meiosis in males and females.
6
Ecology I
Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms and their environment.
Environment
The physical surroundings of an organism including air, water, soil etc. Organisms have to
interact with environment. Environment provides organisms everything required to live.
Environment is always changing, may be supportive or hostile. Organisms living in an
environment are “best fit” for that particular environment.
Environment consist of biotic and abiotic factors
• Biotic factors
o Animals, plants, fungi, algae, bacteria
• Abiotic factors
o Air, water, soil
What is Ecology?
• The study of interactions between organisms with each other and their environment.
• Biosphere and environment.
o Surface of Earth’s crust
o Water bodies on Earth’s surface
• Atmosphere that surrounds Earth
Soil support life. Rain helps in water availability.
1
Levels of Organization in an Ecosystem
• Species
• Population
• Community
• Ecosystem
Then comes:
• Biome
• Biosphere
2
Species: male and female Golden Pheasants
.
Population is the group of organisms of same species living in an area.
Ecosystem
Ecosystem is the area where organisms live in interaction with non-living factors.
3
Organisms and their environment
Organisms live in specific locations or areas suitable for them. Habitat is the term used for
physical location of organism. Another term is niche. Niche is defined as ecological role of
organisms. Organisms interact with their surroundings; their interaction is termed as niche.
Organisms and their environment.
Biotic and Abiotic Components
• Living / Biotic Components of an Environment

o Animals, plants; Interactions between organisms.
• Non-living / Abiotic Components of an Environment:

o Air, water; Interactions between organisms and their environment.
Energy Flow in Ecology
Main source of energy in an ecosystem is “Sunlight”. Autotrophs (producers) are the organisms
which utilize the energy stored in inorganic compounds and use sunlight to make their food.
These organisms carry out “photosynthesis” and use this energy to convert “carbon dioxide and
water into oxygen and glucose”. The other type of autotrophs makes carbohydrates using
chemical energy e.g., many bacteria. These are called chemoautotroph. Heterotrophs
(consumers) are the organisms that cannot make their own food and depends upon organic
source.
o Herbivores (the organisms that eat plants, i.e., producers; also called primary
consumers)
o Carnivores (the organisms that eat herbivores or other carnivore animals)
o Omnivores (the organisms that eat upon plants and animals both)
4
Pyramids in Ecology
• Decomposers (these are the organisms which break down the dead organic matter)
• Consumers (the organisms which feed upon producers or other consumers)
• Producers (the organisms which makes their own food by either using sunlight or
inorganic chemicasl)
An example of ecological Pyramid.
5
Food Chains are straight energy flow relationships in an ecosystem.
Food Webs
Food webs are complex energy flow pathways and relationships in an ecysystem.
An example of a terrestrial food web.
6
Introduction of the factors that affect the quality of environment
Factors that Affect Environment
• Air currents
• Temperature
• Soil
• Water
• Light
Human interference
Industrial effluents
Industrial growth results in the production of more and more effluents. Industries produce
effluents which may be solid or liquid. These may contain heavy metals, toxic chemicals. These
are disastrous for the biodiversity. These should be treated well. The solution is treatment plants
for removal of dangerous materials.
Deforestation
Forests are cut down for wood; wood may be used in buildings, furniture etc. Forests are also cut
for making towns. This result in destruction of habitats of organisms which may leads to
extinction of many organisms. As organisms are related, results may be increase or decrease of
number of other organisms, e.g., if sparrows are decreased then insect pests may increase and
destroy crops in that area.
Human interference: littering by the tourists.
Urban spread
As populations are increasing there is an increasing need of towns and cities. Urban spread
requires the cutting of forests or other type of habitat destruction.
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Construction of dams, waterways
Dams and water ways etc are constructed on water bodies. These may result in habitat
destruction of fish and other aquatic animals. Loss of biodiversity results in instability of
ecosystem.
Agriculture
Agriculture also affect environment. In grasslands keeping too many animals may result into loss
of grass and destruction of ecosystem. In crop growing fields fertilizer use and growing
exhaustive crops (the crops that uses much of soil’s resources) may result in damage to the
ecosystem.
Natural factors
Natural disasters like floods, earthquakes etc. may lead towards total or partial habitat
destruction. Both biotic and abiotic factors are affected. The whole structure of ecosystem may
change.
Importance of environment for the healthy living of organisms
Organisms have to live in environment
Organisms need food, shelter and other resources. If the balance of environment is changed by
extinction of an organism or some other factor then many organism in the food chain or web are
disturbed. A balanced ecosystem is required for healthy living of organisms.
Exercise
1. Differentiate between niche and habitat.
2. Describe the effects of human interference on ecosystems.
3. Define the following:
a. Population
b. Community
c. Ecosystem
d. Biosphere
4. Describe some abiotic and biotic factors of an ecosystem.
5. Draw a typical water ecosystem.
6. Draw a typical example of terrestrial ecosystem.
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Ecology II - Ecosystems
Ecosystems - An Introduction
Ecosystem is an area where the organisms are living in an area in interactions with each other
and their physical surroundings. There are many types of ecosystems, mainly divided into two
categories:
o Aquatic ecosystems (ecosystem in water)
o Terrestrial ecosystems (ecosystem on land)
An aquatic ecosystem.
Basic components of an ecosystem; and their roles / significance
Ecosystem consists of:
• Abiotic factors
o Air, water, soil
o Temperature, pH, humidity
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• Biotic factors
o Animals, plants, protists, bacteria
Biotic components
• Producers
o Plants, algae
• Consumers
o Animals
• Decomposers
o Fungi, bacteria
Pyramids in Ecosystems
Ecological relationships are also shown in the form of pyramids in ecology. These are called
ecological pyramids or trophic levels. On the base come producers, then consumers and then
decomposers.
A pyramid.
Producers
The living organisms which make their own food are called producers. Examples include plants,
bacteria and algae. They carry out photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and sunlight to water and
oxygen. They synthesize carbohydrate by a process called Calvin’s cycle. Entry point of energy
in the ecosystem is producers.
2
Consumers
These are the organisms that uses organic carbon source. These use carbohydrates produced by
plants. Types include primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. Consumers include herbivores,
carnivores and omnivores.
Consumers
3
Decomposers
These organisms feed upon dead organic matter. These include fungi and bacteria.
Abiotic components of Ecosystem
Water, Light, Air and Soil
• Water is a limiting factor in an ecosystem. It is required by living organisms. Organisms

have to adapt according to the availability of water.
• Sun light is the primary source of energy, e.g. zones of a lake.
• Air manages temperature and other things.
• Soil supports life.
4
ECOSYSTEMS – EXAMPLES
Climate and weather affect the ecosystem. There are various ecosystems in the world and in
Pakistan according to the climate of the area.
Aquatic Ecosystems
Water is a liquid medium to support life. Aquatic ecosystems may be of fresh water or marine; a
lake or a sea.
Water has some properties
• It changes its temperature slowly; more appropriate for life.

• It absorb considerable amount of energy (sunlight) but at depths its level decreases for
photosynthesis.
• Nutrients are concentrated at bottom.
• Water is abundantly available in this ecosystem.
Fresh water lakes
• Lakes vary in nutrient, physical conditions and depths.

• Life also varies according to the conditions.
• Lakes have three zones:
o Littoral – shallow water, photosynthesis occur, most diverse, anchored plants,
submerged plants, phyto and zooplankton and fishes.
o Limnetic – upper layer of deep water, have good light penetration, photosynthesis
occur, cynobacteria – protozoans – crustaceans and fishes.
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o Profundal – bottom layer of deep part, almost no light for photosynthesis, high
nutrients on bottom, bacteria – decomposers.
Human interference
Wastes comes from different areas and results in eutrophication. Excessive growth of
cyanobacteria creates a scum on the surface; result is that plants and animals die. Decomposer
bacteria further decompose result in more organic matter. Ultimately habitat destruction is the
result.
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Plants and animals adapts to the changes from water to land habitat. Supporting tissue developed
for the purpose; animals have skeleton and plants have vascular bundles to support these
organisms on land. Water conservation is another adaptation to conserve water.
Types of Terrestrial Ecosystems
Divided into four main types:

o Forest ecosystems
Tropical rain forests
Temperate deciduous forests
Coniferous alpine and boreal forests
o Grassland ecosystems
o Desert ecosystems
• Tundra ecosystems
Major ecosystems in Pakistan
• Pakistan has a variety of climate and seasons.

• Have these main ecosystems:
o Temperate deciduous forests – Shogran and Neelum valley
o Coniferous alpine and boreal forests – Kaghan, Malam Jabba, Dir and Chillas
o Grassland ecosystems – Gilgit, Kashmir, Waziristan, Chitral and Kallat
o Desert ecosystem – Mianwali, Bahawal Nagaar, Bahawalpur and more, Thal,
Thar and Cholistan
o Tundra ecosystem – mountains of Karakoram and Hindukash
Temperate deciduous forest
• Present in Southeast Asia, India, North America, China, Japan etc.

• Have moderate temperature – 4 – 30 C
• Rain fall 750 to 1500 mm
• Plants – Taxus, Pinus, Berberis, ferns, grasses, herbacious; shed their leaves in dry season
• Animals – Rehesus monkeys, leopard, black bears
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• Soil - very fertile and rich in nutrients
• Humans hunt animals and cut wood
Coniferous alpine and boreal forest
• Eurasia, North America, Canada

• Low temperature – freezing to 10C
• Snow cover is present
• Harsh climate – less suitable for life
• Highly adapted species lives here, Marco polo sheep, bisons, wolf, black bear
• Plants – Pinus species grow; have long waxy needle like leaves to survive cold
• Human disturbs less because less accessible
Grassland ecosystem
• Pakistan, Eurasian countries, North America

• Two types – Prairies, Savana
• Rain fall 250-750 mm, water is a crucial factor
• Plants are grasses – tall and short, legumes, herbs, mosses, lichens
• Animals are reptiles, amphibians, mammals
• Decomposers are fungi, bacteria
• Human impact – agriculture and live stock
Desert ecosystem
• Rain fall – 25-50 mm

• Perennial plants, cacti, succulent leaves and stems
• Animals adapt to little water, kangroo rats, reptiles, birds
• Human impact – desertification
Tundra ecosystem
• Very cold, snowy

• Small perennial flowers
• Mosquitoes grow well, birds feed upon these (geese, ducks)
• White bears, foxes, snow owls are present
• Human interference can produce long lasting effects because plants grow slowly but this
interference is low due to harsh weather
7
A monkey in Ayubia National Park.
8
Monkeys in Ayubia National park, you can see the solid wastes behind these.
Black bear which was once found in the Ayubia National Park
9
A beautiful ecosystem.
Exercise
1. What is an ecosystem? Name some areas of Pakistan that have desert ecosystems.
2. With the help of a drawing show the grassland ecosystem.
3. Describe various components of an aquatic ecosystem with the help of a diagram.
4. List some effects of human interference on ecosystems.
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Food Chains and Food Webs
Ecosystem
An area where the organisms are living in interactions with each other and their physical
surroundings is called an ecosystem. There are many types of ecosystems, mainly divided into
two categories:
o Aquatic ecosystems (water ecosystems)
o Terrestrial ecosystems (land ecosystems)
Ecosystem
Ecosystem consist of biotic (living) and abiotic (non living) components.
• Biotic factors:
o Producers, Consumers, decomposers
o Plants, animals, fungi / bacteria
Biotic factors are in relationship with each other in an ecosystem. These also interact with abiotic
factors present in their surroundings like air, water, sunlight.
Trophic levels
Trophic levels or feeding levels in an ecosystem define roles of the groups of organisms.
• Producers
o Plants, algae
o Consumers
o Animals
o Decomposers
• Decomposers
o Fungi, bacteria
1
Pyramids in Ecosystems
Autotrophs – Producers
These are the organisms that make their own food using sunlight as an energy source. These
convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates. Producers are the only source for all
organic food in the planet Earth; this is the entry point of energy. These provide food to all other
life forms. Examples include plants, algae.
Chemotrophs
These are the organisms, which uses inorganic chemicals as energy source and makes
carbohydrates. These lives in deep oceans, where there is no light source. Examples are some
bacteria and deep sea worms.
Heterotrophs – Consumers
Organisms that do not make their own food and get food from other organisms are called
consumers. They get energy by eating either plants or other animals. Their source of food hence
is organic compounds produced by producers. Examples are small and large animals.
2
Types of Consumers
Consumers are divided into three classes:
◦ Primary consumers – herbivores (plant eaters)

x e.g., goats, cows
◦ Secondary consumers – primary carnivores (meat eaters that eat herbivores)
x e.g., frogs, snakes
◦ Tertiary consumers – secondary carnivores (meat eaters that eat other meat eaters)
x e.g., eagle, hawk
Goat – herbivore Squirrel - herbivore
Cat - carnivore
Decomposers
These are the organisms that eat dead organic matter. These feed upon animals and plants – their
fallen parts or dead organisms. These recycle food in the ecosystem, convert non available
organic matter into available matter for producers.
3
Food chains
What is a food chain?
Food chain is a one-way flow of energy in an ecosystem.

Producers to consumers to decomposers
In an ecosystem different food chains exist. This is a relationship of eating and being eaten.
Example of a food chain from land (grassland) ecosystem
Grassland ecosystem has following characteristics:
o Rain fall 250-750 mm, water is a crucial factor

o Plants are grasses – tall and short, legumes, herbs, mosses, lichens
o Animals are reptiles, amphibians, mammals
o Decomposers are fungi, bacteria
Sunlight Grass Primary consumer (Rat/Mole)
Tertiary Consumer (Hawk) Secondary Consumer (snake)
A grassland ecosystem food chain.
Example of a food chain from aquatic ecosystem
• Aquatic ecosystem is marked by:
o Water, which is a liquid medium to support life.

o May be fresh water or marine; a lake or a sea.
• Light, temperature penetration is important for biodiversity.
A Simple Food Chain in a Lake
4
Arctic ecosystem
Food web
What is a food web?
• A network of eating and being eaten.

• Feeding relationships between organisms are not as simple as food chains.
• There is a diversity of organisms and one organism may be eaten by more than one other
organisms.
• Example is grass is eaten by cows, buffaloes
Example of a food web from land (grassland) ecosystem
• Grassland ecosystem have small plants, reptiles, amphibians and mammals.

• Grass is eaten by most of the herbivores.
• Herbivores are eaten by more than one carnivores.
A food web of Grassland Ecosystem.
Example of a food web from aquatic ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystem has phytoplanktons, zooplanktons, plants, animals and decomposers. Food
webs may be simple or complex starting from producers.
5
A food web in an aquatic ecosystem.
Desert Ecosystem
• Dry and hot environment.

• Few specific plants.
• Well adapted animals.
A desert food web.
Forest Ecosystem
• Dense vegetation, animal diversity is high
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• Simple to complex food webs
Exercise
1. Draw a food chain in a grassland ecosystem.
2. Draw a food chain in an aquatic ecosystem.
3. Draw a food web in a forest ecosystem.
4. Draw a food web in a lake ecosystem.
7
Algae and Fungi
Algae are:
The organisms range in size from microscopic unicellular to large sea weeds, demonstrate following
characteristics:
y Major producers of oxygen

y Provide food for animals in various food chains
y Source of chemicals with pharmaceutical value
y Utilize carbon dioxide to reduce the greenhouse effect
y Source of valuable materials including biofuels, food and agar (part of media for microbial
growth)
y Thrived for 1.5 billion years, are an integral part of the global ecosystem
Distinguishing characteristics of algae, with examples
y Photosynthetic, autotrophic
y Eukaryotic, have cell wall consist of cellulose
y Classified by their:
y energy storage products
y cell walls
y colour (due to types and abundance of pigments their plastids)
y cellular organization
y Reproduce both asexually and sexually
y Asexually by mitosis
y Sexually when there is environmental stress
y Plus and minus gametes fuse to form zygospore which give rise to new organism e.g.
chlamydomonas
1
y Some reproduce by conjugation like spyrogyra
Volvox is algae consist of rounded colonies.
Types of Algae based upon the pigments
y Green algae (chlorophyll, soluble in organic solvents only, such as alcohol), 7000 species
y Red algae (have “phycobilins” water soluble pigment) 4000 species, cosmeics, gelatin etc
y Brown algae 1500 species, weeds
y Golden brown algae (formation of petroleum products)
y Carotenoids are also algal pigments soluble in organic solvents
y Euglenoids, both plant and animal like characteristics
Algae could be distinguished by cellular organization:
y Unicellular algae: species occur as single, unattached cells that may or may not be motile. For
example, Chlamydomonas, Euglena.
y Filamentous algal species occur as chains of cells attached end to end. These filaments may be
few to many cells long and may be unbranched or branched in various patterns. For example,
Spirogyra.
y Colonial algae occur as groups of cells attached to each other in a nonfilamentous manner. For
example, a colony may include several cells adhering to each other as a sphere, flat sheet, or other
three-dimensional shape. For example, Volvox.
2
Spirogyra
Distribution and Significance of algae
Algae are widely distributed in various areas of the world in small to large water bodies. These are
present in small ponds to huge oceans. Green algae are found almost everywhere. Red algae and brown
algae are mostly marine organisms. Euglenoids are fresh water inhabitants. When algae grow a lot
covering large area of water it is called algal blooms.
Important producers of the planet Earth
Algae are producers in many food chains particularly in aquatic ecosystems. These convert sunlight into
energy and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. These help in reducing the Greenhouse effect by absorbing
carbon dioxide.
Algae as human diet alternatives
Agar is used in the place of gelatin to make gels in many foods. Weeds are part of the salads and other
materials for making various kinds of salads and desserts. Some are used in making ice creams.
Production of Agar
These are also used in production of Agar which is material extracted from sea weeds and help in
solidifying bacterial growth media.
Agar is very important in scientific research

Used to culture microorganisms on solid surface
A plentiful and cheap source for growing microorganisms
Used in almost all microbiology research laboratories, for example in clinical laboratory
3
Agar medium to test bacterial growth and effect of an antibiotic on it.
Algal Biofuels
Algae can produce huge biomass. This biomass could be used to convert into fuels like ethanol. Algae are
potential source of biofuels.
The Fungi
Fungi are the heterotrophs and major decomposers which feed upon decaying organic matter. These range
in size from microscopic to large ones. These include heterotrophs, symbionts and parasites.
Mushroom.
Distinguishing characteristics of fungi, with examples
y Unicellular to multicellular
y Eukaryotic
y Body is made of long filaments of hyphae (singular: hypha) which form a mycelium (collection
of hyphae)
y Have a cell wall, made up of chitin
y Reproduce both asexually and sexually
Spores
Mating of hyphae
4
Some important groups of Fungi
Phylum Zygomycota = the Bread Molds

e.g. Rhizopus – black bread mold
Phylum Ascomycota = the Sac Fungi

e.g. Yeast
Phylum Basidiomycota = the Club Fungi

e.g. Mushrooms, puffballs, bracket fungi, rusts, smuts
Phylum Deuteromycota = the Fungi Imperfecti

e.g. Penicillium
Life cycle of fungi.
5
Hyphae and mycelium; Spores on the top (fruiting bodies).
Mating in fungi.
Habitats and Significance of fungi
Fungi grow in almost every habitat imaginable, as long as there is some type of organic matter present
and the environment is not too extreme. It is a diverse group; number of described species is somewhere
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between 69,000 to 100,000 (estimated 1.5 million species total). It is present in soil, water, or on foods.
These may also live on animal or plant bodies. Mycorrhizae are the fungi associated with the roots of
vascular plants. Lichens are the association between fungi and algae.
Lichens
Lichens consist of association between algae and fungi. It is a symbiotic association. These are usually the
first inhabitants of a new ecosystem.
Fungi are important reducers / decomposers
y Feed on dead organic matter

y Convert it to less toxic form
y Convert into useable form for plant’s use
Food source and food spoilage
Many fungi are source of food and many other spoils foods.
y Mushrooms
Various types
Poisonous to edible
Used as food, protein source
y Some fungi cause spoilage of foods

Bread molds
Sources of medicines
Some fungi are sources for medicines.
y Truffles
Used in medicines
Gorw inside soil
y Penicillium
Source of penicillin
y Other drugs
Pathogenic fungi causing diseases in plants and humans
Many fungi are pathogenic and cause infections in animals, plants and human beings. These may cause
skin infections, eye infections and others. Parasites can harm human beings and plant infections can
damage crops.
Yeast
Yeast is a very important organism for biotechnology and food industry. It is used to make various
biotechnological products. It is eukaryotic and better in making proteins in comparison to prokaryotes. It
7
is also used in wastewater treatments because it absorbs heavy metals and converts other contaminants
into less toxic form.
Structure of yeast while budding.
Exercise
1. What are important characteristics of algae?

2. What are important uses of fungi?
3. What are lichens and their significance for ecosystems?
8
1

Animals and Their Importance
Distinguishing Characteristics of Animals, with examples
y Consist of eukaryotic cells

y Multicellular organisms, from simplest sponges to complex animals like mammals
y Highly adapted to their environments
y Widely distributed, present in all types of aquatic to terrestrial ecosystems even in air, e.g.,
the birds
y Important parts of food chains as consumers of different levels
y Heterotrophic, rely on organic carbon sources
y Independently living or parasitic
y Reproduce asexually or sexually
y Very important for human beings and the ecosystems
Diversity of animals
These are widely distributed and are present in almost all habitats. There are two major groups
including invertebrates and vertebrates. Animals are wild if these are living in natural habitat or
these are termed as domestic if these are kept for some benefit or as pets. Animals are kept in
captivity or controlled habitats if there is a need in zoological gardens and safari parks.
Phyla of Invertebrates with examples
Porifera
These are simple animals with one opening as mouth and a body cavity. These are aquatic organisms.
y e.g. Sponges
y Two layered, no specific organ, porous body
y Highly specialized cells
2
Leucosolenia.
Coelenterates
The animals with 3 body layers. These have stinging cells which have a poison to paralyze or kill the
prey.
y e.g. Jelly fishes which are marine
y Have simple organs
y Have stings, mouths, tentacles
Aurelia – a jelly fish.

The worms
These are of different kinds including round worms, flat worms and earth worms.
y Regeneration: These have ability to regenerate their lost part.
y Parasites, decomposers
y Grow very long
3
Earthworm and flat worm.
Arthropods, widely distributed
These are one of the most diverse groups of animals. These organisms have an exoskeleton.
y Four major groups

y Arachnids (spiders)
y Crustaceans
y Insects
y Millipede, centipede
y Have sense organs, are segmented, have exoskeleton
House fly. Butterfly
Molluska
These organisms are specific to have shells around their soft bodies.
y Soft bodies, hard shells

y Aquatic mostly
4
y Snails, lobsters
y Some of these make pearls
Sepia.
Echinoderms
These are the animals with spiny skins hence called echinoderms (echino-spiny).
y Exclusively marine
y Have a water vascular system for the movement
y Examples are star fish, sea cucumber, brittle star
Brittle star.
Importance of Invertebrates
y Invertebrates are very important part of lot of food chains hence important for stability of
ecosystems
y For human use:
y Sponges are used widely in sound proofing, washing
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y Worms are important parasites of domestic animals and human beings

y Insects are pests of many crops, many useful insects like honey bee, lac insect
y Lobsters makes pearls, cultured for pearls
These are components of Food Webs
y Component of aquatic food webs

y Components of terrestrial food webs
y Maintain ecosystem stability, if one becomes extinct then the whole food chain or web
may become disturbed.
Role in Soil Fertility
y Some invertebrates are decomposers, e.g., Earthworm

y They feed upon dead organic matter and increase soil fertility
y When animals die their bodies become part of soil and decomposed to add nutrients to soil
Parasitic Invertebrates
These could harm the humans and also harm our domestic animals and crops. There are many treatments
available for these.
y Ticks, mites, lice are ectoparasites

y Worms are endoparasites
y Leeches are ectoparasits
Major Classes of Vertebrates and their Importance
Vertebrates are the organisms with a vertebral column precisely with 3 main characteristics at any stage
of their life including notochord, nerve cord and pharayngeal slits.
Vertebrates are divided into:
y Fishes
y Amphibians
y Reptiles
y Birds
y Mammals
Fishes
y Aquatic animals, occupies fresh water and marine habitats, widely distributed, bony or
cartilaginous
y Have gills for gas exchange, 5 chambered single circuit heart
y Have streamlined and slimy body, ectotherms
y Have fins (appendages) and tail
y Cultured in ponds and caught from natural habitats, are important food source of proteins
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y Cultured for ornamental purposes

y Examples are Rohu, Carps, sharks, electric rays
An ornamental fish.
Amphibians
y Are transition between aquatic and land animals

y Gills, lungs and cutaneous respiration
y 5 chambered double circuit heart, mixing of blood
y Some part of the life is aquatic and some part terrestrial
y Produce large number of eggs, no parental care
y Ectotherms
y Examples are frogs, toads
A frog.
Reptiles
y Of diverse types, widely distributed, aquatic and marine

y Highly adapted for hot dry habitats such as deserts
y Terrestrial animals, ectotherms
y Scaly skin, four chambered double circuit heart
y Lungs for gas exchange
y e.g. lizards, chameleon, turtles, tortoises, crocodiles, snakes, gavials
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An alligator.
Birds
y Arial mode of life, terrestrial life, fore arms modified into wings
y Endotherms, 4 chambered heart
y Lungs and air sacs for respiration
y Lays fewer eggs, provide parental care
y Bones light weight called hollow bones
y Grain eaters to omnivores
y e.g. parrots, pigeons, peacock, pelican, king fisher
A type of crane.
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Mammals
y Widely distributed, most complex, endotherms

y 4 chambered heart, lungs for gas exchange
y Highly developed brains
y Young ones are born mostly, mother feed them with milk, provide parental care
y Have hairs on their body, provide insulation
y Thick skin with skin sensory receptors
y Heterotrophs, herbivores to omnivores
A rhinoceros.
Importance of Vertebrates
These are beneficial
y Important parts of food chain and webs

y Beauty and diversity of nature
y Provides protein foods to human beings, eggs, milk, meat, honey
y Furs and feathers are used for various purposes
y By products of fish industry
y Pearls, clam culture
y Lac insect and silk worm
y Snake venom for medicines
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These are harmful
y Poisonous animals, e.g. frogs, snakes,

y Parasitic animals, e.g. worms, mites, ticks
y Insect pests of crops
y Other animal pests e.g. rats
y Termites damage woody structures of buildings
Exercise
1. How biology helps in dealing with parasites?

2. How can we use knowledge of biology to improve our animal keeping capability?
Applications of Biology
Biology – Useful for Humankind and World
• Demands and problems are increasing with increase in population.

• Biologists investigate phenomena of nature and problem and find ways to resolve these.
• They introduced techniques and technologies to explore all biological resources to cope
demands and resolve problems.
Biotechnology
• Biotechnology is the use and manipulation of biological processes, organisms and systems
to manufacture products to improve the quality of human life.
• The term biotechnology was first used in 1970’s.
• Some important applications
Genetic Engineering
Fermentation and Microorganisms
Genetic Engineering
• It is a process in which a useful gene is taken from one organism and inserted into another
organism. The resulting organism is called transgenic.
• This process is carried out with the help of vectors and enzymes.
• Most common vector is bacterial plasmid.
• Most common enzymes are restriction endonucleases or restriction enzymes.
1
The Process of Genetic Engineering: Transgenic organisms (organisms that acquires a foreign
gene)
Transgenic bacteria
o E. coli – most commons microorganisms in biotechnology because these have many

strains (types) which are non-pathogenic, i.e., these cannot produce disease.
o GRAS (Generally regarded as Safe) Organisms are those which are known for their
non-pathogenecity.
o Chemical industry: Acids and alcohols are produced using bacteria.
o Pharmaceutical industry
o Formation of insulin by E. coli for diabetic patients
o Formation of human growth hormone for dwarf children
o Formation of vaccines
Transgenic Bacteria
Transgenic bacteria are used in many industries, for example:

o Food industry
o Yogurt, Cheese, Sour creams are prepared using microorganisms
o Breads b use of yeast
o Beverages, drinks by yeasts or some bacteria
o Treatment of waste materials is also carried out using different form of bacteria or
even yeast. The microorganisms are used to treat:
2
o Solid wastes
o Waste water
o Oil spills
o Nuclear wastes
o Bacteria and algae are also helpful in biofuels production (biogas, biodiesel etc).
Transgenic plants
These plants are produced to develop certain specific properties in these, for example, resistance to
viruses. Some examples are following:
o Virus resistant crops (cotton)

o Insect resistant corn
o Genetically modified banana
o Pesticide resistant crops
o FOOD SAFETY AND SECURITY: This is very important in modifying food crops
particularly that if we are inserting a gene of resistance or else, the plant should not
develop any harmful characteristic. For this purpose, before selling any transgenic
seed or other product to market, it is tested for safety. This is called biosafety.
Transgenic animals
o Transgenic mice as model of human disease

o Obese rats, diabetic mice
o Genetically modified organisms to increase milk yield
o Genetically modified farm animals to produce antibodies
o FOOD SAFETY AND SECURITY: This is very important in modifying food
producing animals particularly that if we are inserting a gene of interest the animal
should not develop any harmful characteristic. For this purpose, before selling any
transgenic product to market, it is tested for safety. This is called biosafety.
Fermentation Pathways
Microorganisms carryout fermentation, i.e., utilization of anaerobic pathway for production of

energy. They produce many useful products for us during these pathways. These products are
commercially produced by growing such organism in mass culture in very big vessels called
fermenters or bioreactors.
Following products are obtained by this process:
• Biofuels
• Acids and alcohols
• Yogurt, cheese, sour creams
• Bread
• Beer, wine
3
Applications of biology in culturing Animal
Animals are traditionally cultured for their products
• Meat from fish, chicken, goats, cows

• Milk from cows, buffaloes
• Eggs from hens, ducks
• Wool from sheep
• Leather industry uses skins
• Honey from Honey bee
• Silk from silk worm
Poultry farms provide us with meat and eggs.
Common types of animal cultures
Aquaculture
Ornamental fish
Seri culture (Silk worm)
Dairy and Poultry
Apiculture (honey bee)
Biological pest control
We discuss these one by one briefly.
Aquaculture
Culturing animals in water is called aquaculture for example fish farming.
• Fish farming, Prawn culture

• Pearl oyster culture
• Other aquacultures (clams, lobsters etc.)
4
• Byproducts of fishing industry include many cosmetics and some animal diets.
Biology helps in improvement of fish varieties and also extraction of various products from these,
for example:
Selection of fishes in a fish pond (herbivores, carnivores)

Feed for fishes which may increase their production
Diseases and their treatment: biology help in finding causes of diseases and their
treatments.
Aquaculture for Ornamental Fish
Ornamental fishes are the beautiful usually small fishes kept in small aquaria in houses or other
places like hotels. Biology helps in:
Feed: which is good for their maintenance

Diseases: how can we handle diseases
Requirements for healthy culture in small to large aquaria
We keep aquaria at home.
Sericulture
Culture of silk moth for making silk on mulberry leaves is called sericulture. It is a popular home
industry in many parts of the world
Biology helps in improvement of this culture:
Process of making silk

Diseases in moth or larvae can result in huge loss
Biology helps in making new varieties, e.g., wingless variety, varieties which completes
5-6 cycles in a year
5
Cocoon
Mulberry leaf
Sericulture, a cocoon on the leaf of mulberry.

Dairy and poultry
Biology plays very important roles in dairy and poultry industries. Biology helps in many ways
for example:
• Improved breeding techniques and cross breeds (more vigorous and resistant).
• Improved quality and quantity yield of meat, milk, wool and eggs.
• Diagnosis and cure for diseases in farm animals.
• Biological knowledge is also helping in providing balanced food for best yield.
Apiculture (honey bee)
Keeping the honey bee for honey production is called Apiculture (Bee keeping). Biologists
explore the phenomena behind Honey production, like knowledge of biology tells us that:
Honey bee is a social insect and lives in large colonies

Queen bee, drones and workers
Biology helps in understanding how this system works and can help in production of better
varieties and improved system for culturing these animals to increase yield of honey.
Honey bee (small sized). Honey bee (large sized).
6
Man’s head is covered
while handling bees.
Man’s hands are also covered.
A unit of honey bee keeping farm.
Biological pest control
A large number of organisms damage the useful plants or animals and can cause huge losses.
These are called pests, e.g., many insects damage crops.
There are few ways to control pests:
Primary or cultural control

o Crop rotation rather than monoculture, i.e., different crops are grown at different
seasons.
Chemical control
o Various chemicals are used to kill insects but insects may develop resistance and
chemicals are dangerous for health
• Biological control means that the pests are controlled or killed by living organisms.
o This is the most promising method of pest control

o The natural enemies and predators of the pests are used to kill the pests
o Lady beetles for citrus fruits
o Bacillus thuringienesis for cotton
Selection of biological control agent needs care. These should be ecologically safe. For example
if we introduce a sparrow for eating an insect and that sparrow also start eating some plants. This
will be even more harmful for crops and environment.
Advantages of biological pest control
They do not pollute the environment.
7
They do not disturb the natural ecosystem.
A more permanent control because pest usually do not develop resistance
Applications of Biology in agriculture and plant growth
Plants are in many ways useful
• Parts of ecosystems, producers

• Food crops: crops, which makes our food like wheat, rice, vegetables.
• Many useful products like perfumes, medicines, furniture
• Beauty of the nature, ornamental plants
Biology helps in:
• Understanding the life cycles and methods of spread

• Better varieties by cross breeding or genetic engineering
• Disease mechanisms and control
• Appropriate soil, fertilizers and water availability
Exercise
1. Discuss the role of biology in apiculture.

2. Describe the process of sericulture.
3. What are important advantages of biocontrol?

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Summary of lecture # 1

Introduction to G. Science & System of Measurement

1. Physical Quantities: A Physical Quantity is that which can be described or

3. Physical Quantities can be sub-divided into two different components:

Smaller units (smaller than a meter)

¾ Distance is scalar quantity while displacement is a vector quantity

a) Bodies moving in the same direction. V relative = V 2 - V 1

b) Bodies moving in opposite directions V relative = V 2 + V 1

• A proportional quantity increasing with respect to (w.r.t.) another will give a

3. Steps required to plot a graph:

i. Choice of variables along x-axis and y-axis means which quantity is to be

4. Presentation of the Graph

7. Rate of change, or slope of a graph:

Normal to curve at point P

Graphs allows us to derive empirical relationships between the quantities represented on

y2 − y1 Distance (y 2 -y1 ) Distance

As we know that change in velocity divided by time is acceleration so slope of a distance

What states of a body’s motion are shown by the following figures?

9. What is meant by negative acceleration and negative velocity. Represent these

Negative velocity Negative

3. There are certain conditions when we do equations of motion:

• Motion will always be taken along a straight line

4. Relationship between velocity and time

• A constant velocity means that the speed or the velocity is changing at a

5. First Equation of Motion: Derivation

change in velocity ∆ velocity ∆v

∆t = t (starting from zero time)

Where Vi = initial velocity, Vf = final velocity, a = acceleration, t = time

6. Suppose that a ball is travelling at 10 ms-1 in a direction that we decide to call

8. Second Equation of Motion

Distance = Time x Average Velocity

Average Velocity is given by

First Equation of Motion:

Second Equation of Motion: 1

9. Relationship between Displacement and Time

Displacement of a moving object is proportional to its average velocity and time as

s = vav x t (directly if v is constant; a=0)

Generally s ∝ t2 (accelerated motion)

10. Constant Acceleration Motion:

12. Third Equation of Motion: Derivation

From first equation of motion

Using value of average velocity and time in equation

2as = vf2 – vi2

Newton’s laws of motion

Therefore in the SI measurement system F = ma

LINEAR MOMENTUM & TENSION IN A STRING

5. Question: The mass of an astronaut is 65 kg.

Here, a is the acceleration of the F1 = - m1a

m1u1 + m2u2 = 0 m1v1 + m2v2

15. Advantages of Friction

µ is known as coefficient of friction fs = µ sR

19. Methods to reduce Friction

G x Distance (covered in the direction of force)

4. Work against gravity:

Work done in falling and rising has to be same

5. Sometimes force is applied at an angle. Then we use trigonometric relations to

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER- II

Total Energy remains constant

Heat lost 65%