University of Baghdad

College of Education / Ibn Rused for Human Sciences

Department of English
M.A Studies

((Summary chapter 2+3))

Made by
M.A Candidates: Majida Sabree
Supervised by Dr Elaff Reead

2023-2024

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 Required Elements for Student Papers in APA Style

Based on the excerpt you provided, here are the required elements for student papers in APA Style:

 Title Page (Student-Specific Version): This includes the title of the paper, your name(s), affiliation (usually your
school and department), course information (course number and name), instructor's name, and assignment due date.
 Page Numbers: Starting on the title page, page numbers should appear in the upper right corner of the header.
 Text: This is the main body of your paper, containing your introduction, literature review, methodology (if
applicable), results, discussion, and conclusion.
 Reference List: This lists all the sources you cited in your paper, formatted according to APA Style.

Optional Elements:

 Tables and Figures: You can include tables and figures to present data or visuals, following APA formatting
guidelines.
 Appendices: Additional information that is not essential for the main text can be placed in appendices.

Elements Typically Not Required:

 Running Head: This is a short version of the title that appears on every page along with the page number. It's
usually not required for student papers.
 Author Note: This provides additional information about the authors, such as acknowledgements or funding
sources. Not typical for student work.
 Abstract: This summarizes the main points of your paper. While some instructors might request it, it's generally not
required for student assignments.

Important Note:

 Always refer to your instructor's specific requirements for the assignment. They might have additional elements
they want you to include or might ask for an abstract or specific formatting for the title page.
 Title of the Paper : This should be concise, informative, and accurately reflect the content of your paper.
Capitalize the first letter of the first word, all major words, and all words following a colon or hyphen.
Italicize the title (except articles, short prepositions, and conjunctions).
 Author Names and Affiliations): List all authors' names in order of contribution, with the first and last
names written out in full (no initials). Include their institutional affiliations after their names, including the
department and university.
 Author Note): This is optional and can be used to provide acknowledgements, funding information, or
author contact details.
 Running Head: This condensed version of the title appears in the upper left corner of all pages (except the
title page) along with the page number. It should be limited to 50 characters (including spaces).

Figure Reference:

The excerpt mentions, which likely depicts a sample professional title page in the APA Publication Manual.

Student title page in APA Style:

 Title of the Paper Same guidelines as the professional title page (concise, informative, major words capitalized,
italicized).
 Author Names List your name(s) with first and last names written out in full.
 Author Affiliations): Include your university name, department (if applicable).
 Course Information:

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o Course Number and Name: Use the format specified by your institution (e.g., PSY204, PSYC 4301).
o Instructor Name: Include your instructor's name as they prefer it (Dr., Professor, etc.).
 Assignment Due Date: Write the due date in month-date-year format (e.g., November 4, 2020, or 4 November
2020). APA recommends spelling out the month.
 Page Number: Include the page number in the top right corner (this applies to all pages in your paper).

Figure Reference:

Similar to the professional title page, there's likely in the APA Publication Manual that shows sample student title
page.
Crafting Effective Titles in APA Style

This section provides guidelines for writing clear and informative titles for your APA Style papers, especially
research papers.

Key Points:

 Conciseness and Clarity: Aim for a short and focused title that accurately reflects your paper's main idea.
 Highlight Key Variables: Include the variables, theoretical concepts, or their relationships you investigated.
 Search Engine Optimization: Use essential terms relevant to your topic to improve discoverability in research
databases.
 Avoid Unnecessary Words: Omit phrases like "a study of" or "method and results" as they add clutter.
 Abbreviations: Spell out terms for better indexing and reader comprehension.
 Animal Names: If using an animal name (e.g., Rat), include the scientific name in italics and parentheses (Rattus
norvegicus).
 Effective vs. Ineffective Titles: (likely in the APA Publication Manual) for examples of well-written and poorly
written titles.

Benefits of a Good Title:

 Increased paper downloads and citations (research suggests)

 Improved searchability in databases
 Clearer understanding of the paper's content

By following these guidelines, you can create a title that effectively communicates your research and attracts reader
interest.

 Title Case: Capitalize the first letter of the first word, all major words, and all words following a colon or hyphen
(except for short prepositions, articles, and conjunctions).
 Bold and Centered: Apply bold formatting and center alignment to make the title stand out.
 Positioning: Place the title three to four lines down from the top margin, but move it up if a longer author note
requires more space.
 Long Titles: If your title exceeds one line, consider separating it into a main title and subtitle with double spacing
between them.
 Repeating the Title: The title should also be included at the top of the first page of your paper's text body.

Author Names (Byline) in APA Style

This section outlines how to format author names (byline) on the title page of your APA Style paper.

Key Points:

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 Preferred Format: Use first name, middle initial(s), and last name to avoid confusion with authors having the same
first and last names.
 Consistency: Maintain the same name format throughout your publications for easier identification.
 Omit Titles and Degrees: Exclude professional titles (Dr., Professor) and academic degrees (PhD, MD) from the
byline.

Formatting:

 Single Author: Center the author's name in standard font (not bold or italic) after the paper title.
 Multiple Authors:
o Order: List authors based on their contribution level.
o Spacing: Center all names on the same line or multiple lines if needed.
o Separators:
 Use "and" to separate names for two authors.
 Use commas followed by "and" before the last author's name for three or more authors.
o Suffixes: Add spaces, not commas, after suffixes (e.g., Roland J. Thorpe Jr.).

By following these guidelines, you can ensure that your name and the names of your co-authors are presented
clearly and consistently in your APA Style paper.

Author Affiliations in APA Style

This section explains how to format author affiliations on the title page of your APA Style paper.

What is an Affiliation?

An affiliation identifies the institution where the author(s) worked or studied when the research was conducted. This
typically refers to a university or other institution.

Key Points:

 Maximum Affiliations: Include no more than two affiliations per author.

 Dual Affiliation: Only use this if both institutions provided substantial support for the study.
 Current Affiliation: If your affiliation has changed, mention it in the author note (Section 2.7).

Formatting:

 Single Affiliation: Center the affiliation information (department/division, institution name, city,
state/province/territory, country) after the byline. No superscripts needed.
 Multiple Authors, Shared Affiliation: If all authors share the same affiliation(s), list each affiliation centered on a
new line, starting below the byline. No superscripts needed.
 Multiple Authors, Different Affiliations: Use superscript numbers to link authors with their respective affiliations.
List affiliations in the order of authors' appearance in the byline. Place the superscript number after the author's
name (before the comma for multiple authors) and before the corresponding affiliation.
 Group Authors: Superscripts are typically not used for group authors as the group itself acts as the affiliation.

Examples:

In the APA Publication Manual for detailed examples of how to set up author bylines and affiliations based on
various scenarios.

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 By following these guidelines, you can ensure your affiliations and those of your co-authors are presented clearly
and accurately.

This passage provides a detailed explanation on how to format author affiliations in APA Style when authors have
different affiliations. Here's a breakdown of the key points:

Scenario: Multiple Authors with Different Affiliations

 Superscript Numbers: Use superscript Arabic numerals to link authors with their corresponding affiliations.
 Order: List affiliations in the same order as the authors appear in the byline.
 Formatting:
o Place the superscript number after the author's surname, without a space (for papers with 3+ authors, place it after
the surname and before the comma).
o Start each affiliation on a new line, centered and in standard font.
o Put a corresponding superscript number before the appropriate affiliation, with a space between the number and the
text.
 Shared Affiliation:
o If some authors share an affiliation, list it once and reuse the same superscript number in the byline for those
authors.
 Multiple Affiliations per Author:
o Separate superscript numerals with a superscript comma and space in the byline to indicate an author has two
affiliations.
 Exceptions:
o No superscripts are needed if there's only one author or all authors share the same affiliation(s).
 Group Authors:
o Superscripts are typically not used for group authors as the group itself acts as the affiliation.

Additional Tips:

 Refer to in the APA Publication Manual for specific examples of how to set up bylines and affiliations with
superscripts.
 Ensure consistency in using superscripts throughout the byline and affiliations.

By following these guidelines, you can accurately present the affiliations of authors with different institutional
backgrounds in your APA Style paper.

Author Note in APA Style

The author note provides additional information about authors and the research in your APA Style paper. It's
typically not used in student papers.

Structure:

 Organize the note into separate paragraphs.

 Omit paragraphs that aren't relevant to your work.

Content:

 ORCID (First Paragraph - Optional):

o Include authors' ORCID IDs and URLs if they have them.
o List each author on a separate line with indentation.
o Include the ORCID symbol in the URL.

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 Changes in Affiliation (Second Paragraph - Optional):
o Mention any changes in author affiliation since the study.
o Use the format: "[Author's name] is now at [affiliation]."
o You can also acknowledge an author's death here.
 Disclosures and Acknowledgments (Third Paragraph):
o Combine disclosures and acknowledgments if they're short.
o Use separate paragraphs for lengthy content.
 Study Registration: Include registry name and document number if applicable (e.g., "registered with
ClinicalTrials.gov").
 Open Practices and Data Sharing: Acknowledge open sharing of data/materials and cite the data set in the
reference list.
 Disclosure of Related Reports and Conflicts of Interest:
 Mention if the article is based on previously published work and cite it.
 Disclose any potential conflicts of interest or state there are none.
 Include required disclaimers from your employer or funding organization.
 Acknowledgments of Financial Support and Other Assistance:
 List all funding sources, grant numbers/names, funding recipients, and principal investigators (if applicable).
 Acknowledge colleagues who helped but aren't authors.
 Thank individuals for personal assistance (manuscript prep, etc.).
 Explain any special agreements about authorship (e.g., equal contribution).
 Do not acknowledge reviewers, editors, etc. in this section.

By following these guidelines, you can ensure your author note provides clear and relevant information about your
research and those involved.

Contact Information in the Author Note (APA Style)

Who is the Corresponding Author?

The corresponding author is the designated point of contact for inquiries about the published work and ensuring data
retention. Any author can take on this role.

Formatting:

 Include the corresponding author's full name and complete mailing address on separate lines.
 Separate the name and address with a comma and a period after the address.
 Provide the corresponding author's email address with no period at the end.
 Use the following format:
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to [author's name], [complete mailing address]. Email:
[email protected]

Placement:

 Position the author note in the lower half of the title page.
 Leave one blank line between the affiliation information and the "Author Note" label.
 Center the bold label "Author Note".
 Indent each paragraph of the author note and left-align the text.
 Do not label the paragraphs within the author note itself.

Example:

in the APA Publication Manual for a complete example of a title page with an author note.

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 By including clear and concise contact information, you ensure that readers can easily reach the corresponding
author for further questions or discussions about your research after publication.

Running Head in APA Style

What is a Running Head?

A running head is a shortened version of your paper's title displayed at the top of each page. It helps readers,
especially those using a physical copy, identify the paper's content.

Who Needs It?

 Required: Manuscripts submitted for publication.

 Optional: Student papers, if requested by the instructor or institution.

Student Papers:

 If not required, the header only includes the page number.

Why Do Authors Create It?

 Authors are best suited to choose the most important keywords for the abbreviated title.

Formatting:

 Content: Convey the title's idea in a shortened form.

o Example: Title - "Restless Nights: Sleep Latency Increases and Sleep Quality Decreases With Caffeine Intake"
Running Head - "CAFFEINE-INDUCED REDUCTIONS IN SLEEP EFFICIENCY"
 Length: Maximum 50 characters (letters, punctuation, spaces).
o If the title is already 50 characters or less, use the full title.
 Abbreviations: Avoid abbreviations except for "&" instead of "and" (optional).
 Placement:
o Page header, flush left, all caps.
o Right-aligned page number on the opposite side.
o Include on all pages, including the title page.
o No label "Running head" needed.

By creating a clear and informative running head, you can enhance the readability and searchability of your paper,
especially in printed versions

Abstract and Keywords in APA Style

Abstract:

 What is it? A concise summary of your paper's content.

 Who Needs It? Required for publication (check journal guidelines for specifics). Not usually required for student
papers unless instructed.
 Formatting:
o Typically limited to 250 words (check specific journal instructions).
o Placed on a separate page after the title page (page 2).
o Label: "Abstract" (bold title case, centered).

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o Format: Paragraph or structured (check journal preference).
 Paragraph format: Single paragraph, no indentation.
 Structured format: Single paragraph with labels (e.g., Objective, Method, Results, Conclusions).
o Examples: Refer to sample papers in the APA Publication Manual.

Keywords:

 What are they? Words or phrases describing your paper's key points.
 Purpose: Help readers find your work during searches.
 Who Needs Them? 3-5 keywords required for APA journals (not for students unless instructed).
 Formatting:
o Label: "Keywords:" (italic) below the abstract, indented 0.5 in.
o List: Lowercase (capitalize proper nouns), separated by commas, no period after the last one.
o Second line (if needed): Not indented.
o Example: See sample professional paper in the APA Publication Manual.

Additional Tips:

 Focus on conveying the essence of your paper in the abstract.

 Use clear and concise language in both the abstract and keywords.
 Ensure keywords accurately reflect the content of your work.

By including a well-written abstract and relevant keywords, you can increase the discoverability and understanding
of your research for readers and search engines.

Reference List in APA Style

The reference list in APA Style provides a way for readers to find the sources you cited in your paper. It
acknowledges previous research and allows readers to delve deeper into the topics you discussed.

Who Needs It?

Everyone writing an APA Style paper, including professional researchers and students (unless instructed otherwise).

Function:

 Documents and supports statements made about existing literature.

 Provides context for your research within a broader body of knowledge.
 Offers readers a way to locate the sources you cited.

Content:

The references you cite in your paper should be sufficient to:

 Support the need for your research.

 Enable readers to place your work in context.

Detailed guidance on citing sources:

 Refer to Chapters 8 (in-text citations) and 9 (reference list) of the APA Publication Manual.

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 Formatting:

 Start the reference list on a new page after the text, before any tables, figures, or appendices.
 Label: "References" (capitalized, bold, centered).
 Double-spacing throughout (between and within references).
 Hanging indent:
o First line of each reference flush left.
o Subsequent lines indented 0.5 in. (use paragraph formatting function for automatic indentation).
 Order of references: Refer to the summary provided or consult Chapters 8 and 9 of the APA Publication Manual for
specific instructions.By following these guidelines, you can create a clear and accurate reference list that facilitates
access to the sources you used in your research.

Footnotes in APA Style

What are Footnotes?

Footnotes are brief notes added to your paper to provide additional information or copyright attributions.

When to Use Them:

 Content Footnotes:
o Supplement or clarify points in the text.
o Should not be complicated, irrelevant, or nonessential.
o Only use them if necessary to strengthen the discussion.
o Limit them to one idea per footnote.
o Consider including supplemental material online instead of long footnotes (see Section 2.15 of APA Publication
Manual).
 Copyright Attribution:
o Required for lengthy quotations, test/scale items, or reproduced tables/figures.
o Wording for attribution explained in APA Publication Manual.

Formatting:

 Numbering:
o Use consecutive superscript Arabic numerals in the order they appear in the text.
o Place the callout after punctuation (except dashes).
o Place the callout before dashes.
o Place the callout inside closing parentheses if it applies to parenthetical content.
o No space before the callout in text.
o No callouts in headings.
 Reference in Text:
o Use the footnote number (e.g., "see Footnote 3") to refer back to a footnote.
 Placement:
o Preferred: Bottom of the page using your word-processing program's footnote function (see examples in the APA
sample paper).
o Alternative: Separate page after references with "Footnotes" label (bold, centered) and footnotes as double-spaced
indented paragraphs with superscript numbers.
o Ensure callout numbers and footnote numbers match.

Additional Tips:

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 Use footnotes sparingly to avoid distracting readers.
 Consider alternative ways to present additional information if footnotes become lengthy.
 Double-check the accuracy of your footnote callouts and corresponding footnotes.

By following these guidelines, you can ensure your footnotes provide valuable information without disrupting the
flow of your APA Style paper.

An appendix is used for supplemental information that would be distracting or inappropriate in the main text of an
APA Style paper. Here's a summary of the key points for including and formatting appendices:

 When to Use: Include an appendix only if it helps readers understand, evaluate, or replicate your research.
 Ethical Considerations: Ensure copyright attribution, accurate data representation, and human participant
protection for any appendix material.
 Content Examples: Lists of materials, instructions to participants, tests/scales, complex equipment descriptions,
detailed demographics.
 Formatting:
o Start each appendix on a new page after references, footnotes, tables, and figures.
o Label appendices with letters (Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.) or "Appendix" if there's only one.
o Mention each appendix in the text by its label (e.g., "see Appendix A").
o Title the appendix to describe its content (bold, centered, title case).
o Content can be text, tables, figures, or a combination.
o Number tables, figures, footnotes, and equations within the appendix with a letter-number
o Embed tables and figures within the appendix text.
o If the appendix only has one table/figure, use the appendix label as the table/figure title.

Supplemental materials, unlike appendices, are published online only and provide additional content to enrich
readers' understanding of a journal article. Here's a summary of key points for using supplemental materials:

 Content:
o Video/audio clips, animations
o Lengthy computer code, mathematical models
o Oversized tables, intervention protocols
o Expanded methods, color figures, data files
o Complete data sets (in online repositories or archives)
 Formatting:
o Accessible formats for wide audience
o Check with publisher for preferred file types
o Avoid less common formats (TeX, executable files) unless crucial
 Publication:
o Submitted with the manuscript for peer review
o Posted online with no editing upon acceptance
o Linked from the published article

Key Differences from Appendices:

 Appendices are printed while supplemental materials are online only.

 Appendices are for content that can be presented in print format, while supplemental materials are better suited for
downloadable files or interactive elements.

APA Style: Importance of Formatting and Order of Pages

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 Here's a summary of key points on formatting and page order in APA Style:

Importance of Formatting:

 Use APA guidelines to ensure a professional appearance.

 Proper formatting enhances readability and reviewer/instructor impression.
 Formatting errors can lead to misinterpretations and lower grades.
 Publishers use your file for typesetting, so correct formatting is crucial.

Order of Pages:

1. Title Page: Page 1 (includes title, author information, affiliations, date).

2. Abstract: Starts on a new page after the title page.
3. Text: Begins on a new page after the abstract (or title page if no abstract).
4. References: Starts on a new page after the text.
5. Footnotes: Optional, on a separate page after references (or after the text if no references).
6. Tables: Each starts on a new page after footnotes (or references if no footnotes).
7. Figures: Each starts on a new page after tables (or references if no footnotes/tables).
8. Appendices: Each starts on a new page after figures (or references if no footnotes/tables/figures).

Placement of Footnotes, Tables, and Figures:

 APA offers options for placement:

o Footnotes: In-text footer or separate page after references.
o Tables/Figures: Embedded within text after mention or on separate pages after footnotes (or references).
 Use automatic page numbering (don't type manually).

Page Headers:

 All pages (except title page) require a page number in the top right corner.
 Published manuscripts: Include a running head (shortened title) flush left, in addition to the page number (flush
right).
 Student papers: Only require the page number unless otherwise instructed.
APA Style: Font Selection and Formatting

Here's a breakdown of key points on fonts in APA Style:

 Accessibility is Key: Choose a font that's widely accessible for readers with assistive technologies.
 Modern Options: Both serif (Times New Roman) and sans-serif (Calibri) fonts are acceptable.
 Specific Font Recommendations:
o Sans-serif: Calibri (11 pt), Arial (11 pt), Lucida Sans Unicode (10 pt)
o Serif: Times New Roman (12 pt), Georgia (11 pt), Computer Modern (10 pt) - default for LaTeX
 Maintain Consistency: Use the same font throughout your paper.
 Exceptions for Specific Elements:
o Figures: Sans-serif font, 8-14 pt size within the figure image.
o Computer Code: Monospace font (Lucida Console 10 pt, Courier New 10 pt).
o Footnotes (in page footer): Use your word processor's default settings (typically 10 pt, single-spaced).
 Word Count vs. Page Count: Font variations affect page length. Use word count for paper length measurement.
 Further Resources: APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org/) for more details on fonts and accessible
typography.

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 APA Style: Special Characters, Line Spacing, and Formatting

Here's a summary of key points on special characters, line spacing, and formatting in APA Style:

Special Characters:

 Use your word processor's function or a plug-in (like MathType) to insert special characters.
 If unavailable, present them as images.
 Refer to Sections 6.44 and 6.45 for details on Greek letters and math symbols.

Line Spacing:

 Double-space your entire paper with some exceptions:

o Title Page: Double-space elements with additional blank lines for separation.
o Table Body & Figure Image: Single, 1.5, or double-space depending on clarity.
o Footnotes: Single-spaced in the page footer, double-spaced on a separate page.
o Displayed Equations: Triple or quadruple space before/after in special cases.
 No extra blank lines before/after headings, even at the end of a page.
 No extra space between paragraphs.

Margins:

 Use 1-inch margins on all sides (top, bottom, left, right) for most papers.
 Dissertations/theses bound in a book format may have different requirements (e.g., larger left margin).

Text Alignment:

 Left-align your text with a ragged right margin (uneven).

 Avoid full justification (flush with both margins).
 Don't manually hyphenate words at line breaks.
 Allow word processors to automatically break long DOIs/URLs (but not manually).

Indentation:

 Indent the first line of each paragraph 0.5 inch using the tab key or automatic paragraph formatting.
 Exceptions to indentation:
o Title Page: Centered title, byline, and affiliations (professional papers).
o Student Papers: Centered title, byline, affiliations, course info, instructor, and assignment date.
o Section Labels: Centered and bold.
o Abstract: First line flush left (not indented).
o Block Quotations: Indented 0.5 inch from the left margin. For quotations with multiple paragraphs, further indent
the first line of subsequent paragraphs by another 0.5 inch (total indentation of 1 inch).
o Headings: Level 1 - centered and bold, Levels 2 & 3 - left-aligned and bold/bold italic.
o Tables/Figures: Numbers, titles, and notes are flush left.
o Reference List: Hanging indent of 0.5 inch for each entry.
o Appendix Labels/Titles: Centered and bold.

APA Style: Paper Length and Word Count

Here's a breakdown of key points on paper length and word count in APA Style:

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 Determining Length:

 Journals: Follow the journal's specific guidelines for article length depending on the type of article.
 Student Papers: Follow your assignment instructions for required length.

Shortening a Paper:

 State points clearly and directly.

 Focus discussion on the specific problem investigated.
 Delete or combine data displays (tables/figures).
 Eliminate repetition across sections.
 Write in the active voice.
 Consider dividing a very long professional paper into multiple, more focused papers (consult Section 1.16 on
piecemeal publication).

Word Count vs. Page Count:

 Word count is recommended: Font variations affect page count.

 Counting Words:
o Include all words (citations, references, tables, figures - excluding figure image text, appendices).
o Use your word processor's built-in word count function (default settings are acceptable).
o Exclude text in the page header (running head/page numbers).

Journal-Specific Requirements:

 If a journal has specific instructions for page/word count determination, follow those instead.

APA Style: Paper Organization and Headings

Here's a summary of key points on organization and headings in APA Style:

Importance of Structure:

 Logical structure is crucial for clear and impactful writing.

 Consider optimal paper length and structure before writing.
 Logical sentence and paragraph order strengthen communication.

Headings:

 Identify section topics or purpose.

 Help readers navigate content and find information easily.
 Should be concise yet descriptive (see example papers for reference).
 Facilitate understanding of key points and argument flow.
 Use clear wording and formatting for all readers (including those with disabilities).
 Must be distinct from body text.
 Refer to APA website (https://apastyle.apa.org) for in-depth guidance on creating accessible headings.

Levels of Headings:

 APA Style offers five heading levels.

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 Topics with equal importance should have the same heading level (e.g., consistent levels for Methods and Results
sections across multiple experiments).
 Single-experiment papers should have consistent heading levels for sections like Method, Results, and Discussion.
 Avoid single-subsection sections (use at least two subsections or none, similar to outlines).

APA Style: Heading Levels and Usage

Here's a breakdown of key points on heading levels and usage in APA Style:

Number of Levels:

 APA Style uses five possible heading levels.

Level Progression:

 Level 1: Top-level or main sections.

 Level 2: Subsections of Level 1.
 Level 3: Subsections of Level 2, and so on.
 Consistent top-down structure for all sections.
 Each section starts with the highest level heading (even if subsections differ between sections).

Example:

 Paper with Level 1 headings for Method, Results, and Discussion.

 Method and Results might have Level 2 and 3 subheadings.
 Discussion might only have Level 2 subheadings.
 This creates a three-level heading structure overall.

Headings in the Introduction:

 "Introduction" heading is not required.

 Paper title acts as the Level 1 heading.
 Use Level 2 headings for subsections within the introduction.
 Level 3 for subsections of Level 2 headings, and so on.

Following the Introduction:

 Subsequent sections (e.g., Method) use Level 1 headings.

Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS) Explained

This summary highlights key points about JARS (Journal Article Reporting Standards) developed by APA:

 Purpose: Provide authors with guidelines for essential information to include in journal articles.
 Benefits:
o Increased clarity, accuracy, and transparency of research.
o Enhanced scientific rigor, methodological integrity, and research quality.
o Easier comparison and understanding of research across studies.
o Streamlined meta-analysis techniques.

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 Target Audience: Primarily professional researchers and advanced students, but some sections are relevant for
undergraduates (abstract & introduction).
 JARS Website: https://apastyle.apa.org/jars (for detailed information and future updates).

JARS Components Covered in This Chapter:

 Introduction to JARS (rationale and evolution).

 JARS terminology (with glossary link).
 Reporting standards for abstracts and introductions (applicable to all research types).
 Specific standards for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research.

Importance and Applications of JARS

JARS (Journal Article Reporting Standards) provide guidelines for researchers to improve the clarity, transparency,
and overall quality of their published work. Here's a breakdown of key points on its application:

 Benefits of JARS:
o Readers can better understand the research and its conclusions.
o Reviewers and editors can effectively evaluate manuscripts.
o Future researchers can replicate the study for verification.
o Transparency in research methods is promoted.
o The quality of published research is enhanced.
 Flexibility in Application: JARS offers some flexibility depending on the research type.
o The core information must be included in the article itself (excluding title page, abstract, and author note details).
o Replication-related details can be placed in supplemental online materials.
o Consult with journal editors for specific placement guidelines.
o Readability of the article should be prioritized.
 Evolution of JARS:
o Originally focused on quantitative research.
o Updated in 2018 to include:
 More details on quantitative research (JARS-Quant).
 Reporting standards for qualitative research (JARS-Qual).
 Reporting standards for mixed methods research (JARS-Mixed).
o JARS aims to support research publication without hindering the development of new methods.
JARS Terminology and Common Reporting Standards

This summary explains key points about JARS terminology and common reporting standards:

 Terminology:
o JARS covers various research methods (quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods).
o A glossary of related terms is available on the JARS website (https://apastyle.apa.org/jars/glossary).
o Authors can use preferred terms while ensuring clarity for readers.
o Reviewers and editors should be flexible with terminology variations.
 Common Reporting Standards:
o Apply to the initial sections of research articles (abstract and introduction).
o These sections share some overlap across research approaches.
o Specific details for each approach are covered in later sections.
 Separate Reporting Standards:
o JARS offers distinct guidelines for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research (covered in later sections).
o Specific quantitative methodologies (e.g., meta-analysis) might also have specialized standards.

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 For formatting and descriptions of other sections like title, references, and appendices, refer to Chapter 2 of the
APA Style manual.

Common Reporting Standards: Abstract

Here's a breakdown of key points on abstracts in JARS:

 Importance: The abstract is a concise summary, often the first impression for readers.
 Content: Include essential information to inform readers about the article's content.
 Target Audience: People searching literature might decide to read the full article based on the abstract.
 Structure: Dense with information, including key terms to aid searchability.
 Formatting and Length: Refer to Chapter 2 of APA Style for details.
 Content Standards (covered in later sections):
o Specific requirements for different paper types (quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods).
Abstract Writing Tips in APA Style (JARS)

Here's a summary focusing on how to write a good abstract according to JARS:

 Accuracy: Ensure the abstract reflects the paper's content accurately. Avoid including information not in the paper
itself. Cite previous research the study builds upon using author-date citation.
 Objectivity: Report findings without evaluation. Don't add comments or opinions not present in the paper body.
 Clarity and Readability:
o Use clear and concise language.
o Prefer verbs over nouns ("investigated" instead of "investigation").
o Use active voice ("we presented results" instead of "results are presented").
o Use present tense for generalizable conclusions/results.
o Use past tense for specific variables/outcomes measured.
o Refer to APA Style sections 6.40-6.48 for formatting statistical/mathematical information.
 Conciseness:
o Be brief and maximize information in each sentence, especially the first one.
o Start with the most important points. Don't repeat the title.
o Include only 4-5 key concepts, findings, or implications.
o Use search-friendly terms your target audience might use.

Abstract Content Requirements in JARS (Empirical Articles)

Here's a breakdown of information required in abstracts for empirical articles (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed
methods) according to JARS:

General Structure:

 Problem: Briefly state the research problem in one sentence if possible.

 Participants/Data:
o Describe participants or data sources, including relevant characteristics.
o Specify genus and species for non-human animal research.
o More details on participants will be in the paper body.
 Method:
o Briefly describe the study method, including:
 Research design (e.g., experimental, observational, etc.)
 Analytic strategy (e.g., ethnography, factor analysis)
 Data-gathering procedures

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 Sample size (quantitative) or description of observations/participants (qualitative)
 Materials or central measures used
 Whether it's a secondary data analysis
 Findings:
o Summarize key findings, including:
 Effect sizes and confidence intervals (quantitative)
 Statistical significance levels (quantitative, when possible)
 Main findings in relation to context (qualitative)
 Conclusions/Implications:
o Briefly state the research conclusions and their implications/applications.

Additional Requirements for Specific Article Types:

 Replication Articles:
o Specify the type of replication (direct, approximate, conceptual).
o Describe the scope and original studies being replicated.
o Briefly state the general conclusions reached in the replication.
 Meta-Analyses (Quantitative or Qualitative):
o Describe the research questions or hypotheses under investigation.
o Specify characteristics for study inclusion (variables, designs for quantitative; topic, design for qualitative).
o Outline the synthesis methods (statistical/qualitative) used to summarize/compare studies.
o Briefly summarize the main results, including:
 Number of studies, participants/observations/data sources, and their characteristics (all studies).
 Key effect sizes and moderators (quantitative).
 Most important findings in context (qualitative).
o Briefly state the conclusions, including limitations.

Literature Review Articles:

 Describe the reviewed content:

o Scope of literature (e.g., journals, books, unpublished abstracts).
o Number of items reviewed.
 Specify the time period covered in the review.
 Briefly state the general conclusions reached in the review.

Theoretical Articles:

 Explain how the theory or model works or its underlying principles.

 Describe the phenomena the theory or model explains and its connection to empirical results.

Methodological Articles:

 Describe the general class, key features, and potential applications of the methods, methodologies, or
epistemological beliefs discussed.
 Briefly explain the essential features of the reported approaches, such as:
o Robustness or power efficiency (statistical procedures).
o Methodological integrity and trustworthiness (qualitative methods).

Introduction Writing Tips in APA Style (JARS)

Here's a summary of key points on writing effective introductions according to JARS:

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 Overall Structure:

 The introduction opens the main body of your research paper.

Framing the Problem:

 Briefly introduce the issues you're researching.

 Discuss the broader context and potential effects of these issues.
 Consider the theoretical, practical, or therapeutic implications.
 Set reader expectations about the scope of your report.

Historical Context:

 Briefly review relevant literature to situate your research.

 Convey the problem's scope, context, and theoretical/practical significance.
 Explain how your work builds on or differs from previous research.
 Highlight key issues, debates, theoretical frameworks, knowledge gaps, or practical needs.

Articulating Study Goals:

 Clearly state your research aims, objectives, or goals.

 Explain the rationale for your chosen research design in relation to your goals.
 Ensure your goals justify the methods you used.

Quantitative Research:

 Identify primary, secondary, and exploratory hypotheses.

 Explain how these hypotheses connect to previous research.
 Specify if exploratory hypotheses resulted from planned or unplanned analyses.

Qualitative Research:

 You might include case examples, personal narratives, or vignettes.

 Describe your research goals and approach to inquiry (philosophical assumptions).
o Examples of qualitative research goals:
 Develop theory, hypotheses, or deep understandings.
 Examine social construct development.
 Address societal injustices.
 Illuminate social discursive practices.
o Examples of approaches to inquiry:
 Constructivist, critical, descriptive, feminist, etc.
 Note that researchers may define these philosophies differently.

Mixed Methods Research:

 Describe objectives for all study components.

 Explain why they're presented together and in that specific order.

Introductions for Other Paper Types:

 Follow similar principles, but tailor the motivation to the specific study type (e.g., replication studies).

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 JARS Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research

This summary highlights key points about reporting standards for quantitative research in JARS:

 Abstract and Introduction: Standards are similar for all research approaches (refer to sections 3.3-3.4 for details).
 Quantitative Research Specifics: Reporting standards for Method, Results, and Discussion sections differ
(covered in sections 3.6-3.8).
o Note: This information might be intermixed for better readability.
 JARS Tables:
o Table 3.1 outlines basic reporting expectations for all quantitative research.
o Additional tables address specific design features or claims (refer to Figure 3.1 for details).
o Not all tables are included in this chapter (refer to JARS website for full details).
 Mandatory Reporting: Every quantitative study requires information from Table 3.1 and at least one additional
table.
o Table 3.1 alone is insufficient for quantitative research reporting.

For specifics on additional tables and their content, refer to sections 3.9-3.12 of the source material

JARS Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research Methods (Continued)

Here's a breakdown of additional key points on JARS reporting standards for the Method section of quantitative
research:

 Sampling Procedures (Table 3.1):

o Describe how participants were selected:
 Sampling method (if systematic).
 Participation rate (percentage of approached participants who joined).
 Self-selection (by individuals or units like schools).
 Number of self-selected participants.
o Report inclusion/exclusion criteria (demographic or other restrictions).
o Describe data collection settings/locations and timeframe (general date range).
o Mention any agreements with participants (payments etc.).
o Note ethical approvals (institutional review boards etc.).
 Sample Size, Power, and Precision (Table 3.1):
o State the intended sample size and number per condition (if applicable).
o Report if the achieved sample differed from the intended sample.
o Justify the intended sample size (e.g., power analysis or precision).
o Describe interim analysis methods used to modify sample size (if applicable).
 Measures and Covariates (Table 3.1):
o Define all primary, secondary outcome measures, and covariates.
o Include measures collected but not reported in this article.
o Provide information on instruments used:
 Psychometric and biometric properties.
 Evidence of cultural validity (refer to specific JARS sections for citation guidance).
JARS Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research Methods (Continued)

Here's a breakdown of additional key points on JARS reporting standards for the Method section of quantitative
research:

 Data Collection (Table 3.1):

o Describe the methods used to collect data (questionnaires, interviews, observations etc.).
o Mention any participant masking procedures (blinding):

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 Who was unaware of participant assignments (participants, administrators, assessors).
 How masking was achieved.
 How masking effectiveness was assessed.
o Provide sufficient detail on instrumentation (assessments, equipment, imaging protocols) for replication.
 Quality of Measurements (Table 3.1):
o Describe methods used to improve data quality:
 Training and reliability of data collectors.
 Use of multiple observers (if applicable).
 Translation procedures for research materials (if applicable).
 Pretesting of materials on relevant populations.
o Address the psychometric properties of the measurements in context:
 Consider contemporary testing standards and the studied sample.
 Report psychometric characteristics following specific guidelines (e.g., Standards for Educational and
Psychological Testing).
o For subjective measures:
 Report interrater reliability.
o For composite scales:
 Consider including internal consistency coefficients.
JARS Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research Methods (Continued)

Here's a breakdown of additional key points on JARS reporting standards for the Method section of quantitative
research, focusing on research design:

 Research Design (Table 3.1):

o Specify the research design used (e.g., experimental, observational).

o If manipulations were involved:
 Describe participant assignment to conditions (randomization or other methods).
 Specify between-subjects or within-subjects design.
o Refer to Figure 3.1 (on JARS website) for additional tables based on your design.
o Consult specific sections (3.9-3.12) for details on design-specific reporting standards.

 Experimental Manipulations or Interventions (Table 3.1):

o Provide details for each condition, including control groups (if any).
o Describe how and when interventions were administered.
o Explain "treatment as usual" if it's a condition.
o Include intervention content (e.g., instructions given to participants).
 For unusual instructions or instructions as the manipulation, consider verbatim presentation in
appendix/supplements.
o Describe manipulation and data collection methods.
o Include details on mechanical apparatus used (model number, manufacturer, settings etc.) for stimulus presentation
or data collection (important in neuroimaging studies).
o Decide where to present this information (main text, appendix, or supplements) based on readability.
o For interventions like clinical or educational ones:
 Describe who delivered the intervention (training level).
 Report the number of deliverers, their average number of clients treated, and range.
o Describe:
 Setting of intervention delivery.
 Intended amount and duration of exposure (number of sessions, length).
 Timeframe for intervention delivery (single session or multiple with time between).
 Activities or incentives used to promote compliance.
o For translated instruments:

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 Explain the translation method (e.g., back-translation).
o Describe participant grouping during data collection (individual, small groups, intact groups).
o Identify the analysis unit (smallest group analyzed, e.g., individuals, classes).
o If the analysis unit differs from the intervention unit (randomization unit):
 Explain how this is addressed statistically (e.g., standard error adjustments, multilevel analysis).
JARS Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research Methods (Continued)

Here's a breakdown of additional key points on JARS reporting standards for the Method section of quantitative
research:

 Data Diagnosis (Table 3.1):

o Describe how data was inspected after collection.
o Mention any data modifications made (if applicable).
o Examples of data modifications:
 Outlier detection and processing.
 Data transformations based on data distributions.
 Treatment of missing data or imputation of missing values.

 Analytic Strategies (Table 3.1):

o Describe the quantitative analytical methods used (usually statistical).
o Address error-rate considerations (e.g., experiment-wise error rate, false discovery rate).
o Report analytical strategies for:
 Primary hypotheses.
 Secondary hypotheses.
 Exploratory hypotheses (derived from the data, not theory or previous research).
o Consider statistical power when using inferential statistics:
 This relates to the likelihood of correctly rejecting hypotheses (given alpha level, effect size, and sample size).
 Demonstrate sufficient power to detect relevant effects.
o Be mindful of sample size in these situations:
 When not rejecting the null hypothesis (arguing no differences).
 When testing statistical model assumptions (normality, variance homogeneity etc.).
 When fitting models.
o Consider using target precision (confidence interval width) for sample size determination.
o Use confidence intervals to justify conclusions about effect sizes.
JARS Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research Results

Here's a breakdown of key points on JARS reporting standards for the Results section of quantitative research:

 Data Presentation:

o Summarize the collected data.

o Report results of analyses relevant to your discussion.
o Provide sufficient detail to justify conclusions.
o Include all relevant results, even unexpected or non-significant findings (don't omit negative results).
o Consider data sharing (supplements or online archives) following ethical guidelines (Section 1.14).
o Avoid presenting raw data (and individual scores) in the main text due to space limitations.

 Participant Flow (Table 3.1):

o Applies to experimental and quasi-experimental designs.

o Describe the movement of participants (human/animal/units) through the study.
o Report:

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 Total number recruited.
 Number assigned to each group.
 Number who didn't complete or crossed over to other conditions (with reasons).
 Number used in primary analyses (might differ from total completers due to missing final measurements).
o Refer to Section 7.36 (Figure 7.5) for an example participant flow chart.
JARS Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research Methods (Continued)

Here's a breakdown of key points on JARS reporting standards for the Statistics and Data Analysis section of
quantitative research:

 General Approach:

o Follow the same structure as the Method section (primary, secondary, exploratory hypotheses).
o Ensure data diagnoses (handling missing data etc.) are reported in the Method section before results.
o Discuss any exclusions, transformations, or imputation decisions made during data diagnosis.
o Assume reader familiarity with statistical methods (no basic concept reviews or citations for common procedures).
o Justify the appropriateness of specific statistical procedures if needed.

 Missing Data:

o Report frequency/percentages of missing data.

o Explain reasons for missing data (missing completely at random, missing at random, not missing at random).
o Describe methods used to address missing data (if any, e.g., multiple imputation).

 Reporting Results of Inferential Statistical Tests:

o Provide enough information for readers to understand the analyses and consider alternative explanations.
o There's no one-size-fits-all "sufficient set of statistics" but it often includes:
 Sample sizes per group.
 Observed cell means (or frequencies for categorical variables).
 Cell standard deviations or pooled within-cell variance.
o For complex analyses (multivariate analyses etc.), consider means, sample sizes, and variance-covariance matrices.
o If information is extensive, consider supplementary data sets or appendices.
o For small samples (including N-of-1 studies), consider providing complete raw data in tables/figures
(confidentiality permitting).
o Include for inferential tests:
 Test statistic value/magnitude.
 Degrees of freedom.
 Exact p-value (probability of obtaining a more extreme value).
 Effect size and direction.
o Include measures of variability (e.g., standard error) with point estimates (e.g., means, regression coefficients).

 Confidence Intervals:

o Include confidence intervals for estimates of parameters, effect sizes etc.

o Use a single, pre-specified confidence level throughout the article (e.g., 95% or 99%).
o Base discussions and interpretations on point and interval estimates.

 Complex Data Analytic Techniques:

22
o Provide details of the models estimated (structural equation modeling etc.) in the Results section (supplements for
variance-covariance matrices).
o Specify the analysis software used (e.g., SAS PROC GLM, R package) and any settings.
o Report any estimation problems, regression diagnosis issues, or analytic anomalies.
o Report issues with statistical assumptions or data that might affect findings.

 Effect Sizes:

o Include some measure of effect size to show the magnitude/importance of findings.

o Provide confidence intervals for effect sizes whenever possible.
o Report effect sizes in original units (e.g., mean number answered correctly) for easier understanding.
o Consider reporting standardized or scale-free effect sizes (e.g., Cohen's d value).
o Provide enough information for readers to assess the observed effect's magnitude.

 Studies with Experimental Manipulations/Interventions:

o Clarify if the analysis was by intent-to-treat (including all assigned participants regardless of intervention
completion) or only included those who completed the intervention satisfactorily.
o Provide a rationale for the chosen analysis method.
JARS Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research Results (Continued)

Here's a breakdown of additional key points on JARS reporting standards for the Results section of quantitative
research:

 Ancillary Analyses (Table 3.1):

o Report any additional analyses conducted, including:
 Subgroup analyses (focusing on specific subgroups).
 Adjusted analyses (accounting for other variables).
o Indicate whether these analyses were:
 Pre-specified (planned beforehand).
 Exploratory (conducted after data collection).
o Consider including detailed results of ancillary analyses in supplemental materials.
o Discuss the impact of these analyses on statistical error rates (if any).

 Baseline Data (Table 3.1):

o Report baseline demographic and/or clinical characteristics of each group involved in the study.
o This helps assess group equivalence at the beginning of the study.

 Adverse Events (Table 3.1):

o If interventions were studied, detail all important adverse events (serious consequences) and/or side effects in each
intervention group.
o If no adverse events occurred, explicitly state this.
JARS Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research Discussion

Here's a breakdown of key points on JARS reporting standards for the Discussion section of quantitative research:

 Overall Structure:
o Follow the order of hypotheses presented earlier (primary, secondary, exploratory).
o Clearly state support or non-support for each hypothesis.
o Explain ambiguous findings.

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 Results Interpretation:
o Examine, interpret, and qualify your research results.
o Draw inferences and conclusions based on the results.
o Emphasize theoretical and practical implications of the findings.

 Combining Results and Discussion (Optional):

o For brief and straightforward discussions, consider combining them with the Results section into a "Results and
Discussion" section.
o If presenting multiple studies, discuss findings in the order presented.

 Exploratory Analyses:
o Discuss the implications of any exploratory analyses conducted.
o Consider both substantive findings and potential uncontrolled error rates.

 Contextualizing Findings:
o Discuss similarities and differences between your results and existing research.
o Use this comparison to contextualize, confirm, and clarify your conclusions.

 Avoiding Repetition:
o Don't simply repeat points already made in the Results section.
o Each new statement should contribute to your interpretation and reader understanding.
JARS Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research Discussion (Continued)

Here's a breakdown of key points on JARS reporting standards for the Discussion section of quantitative research,
focusing on limitations and strengths:

 Strengths and Limitations:

o Consider these factors when interpreting your results:
 Internal validity threats (bias, measurement imprecision, multiple testing).
 Sample size adequacy and external validity.
 Other limitations or weaknesses of the study.
o If interventions were used:
 Discuss successful implementation and intended mechanisms of action.
 Address intervention fidelity (how well it was delivered) and barriers to fidelity.
 Acknowledge limitations and alternative explanations for the results.
o Discuss the generalizability (external validity) of the findings:
 Consider differences between the target population and your sample.
 Analyze intervention applicability to different settings not included in the study.
 Address factors like measurement methods, time to measurement, incentives, compliance rates, and study settings.

 Study Implications:
o Conclude the Discussion section with a reasoned and justified commentary on your findings' importance.
o Consider these points:
 Why is the problem important (refer back to the introduction)?
 What larger issues might be influenced by your findings?
 What theoretical, clinical, or practical significance do the outcomes have?
 What real-life phenomena can your results explain or model (if findings are valid and replicable)?
 Do the findings warrant applications?
 What problems remain unresolved or arise due to your findings?
o Provide clear, unambiguous, and direct answers to these questions.
o This is where you justify why your research matters to both specialists and non-specialists in your field.

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 Additional Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research Methods (JARS)

Here's a breakdown of additional reporting standards for quantitative research methods (JARS), focusing on specific
designs and claims:

Table 3.1 Summary Applies To All Studies (Refer to previous summaries for details)

Additional Standards Based on Design Features:

 Studies with Experimental Designs:

o Random Assignment:
 Describe the unit randomized (e.g., individuals, classrooms).
 Explain the procedures used for random assignment.
 Specify the unit of randomization in outcome analysis.
 Describe masking procedures to ensure randomization quality (e.g., blinding).
o Non-Random Assignment:
 Describe the unit assigned (e.g., individuals, groups).
 Explain the assignment method and any restrictions (blocking, stratification).
 Detail procedures used to minimize selection bias (matching, propensity score matching).
 Clinical Trials:
o Report clinical trial registration (if applicable).
o Provide details on site-specific considerations for multisite trials (Method section).
o Describe how to access the study protocol.
o Detail the standard treatment for comparison studies.
o Explain the data safety and monitoring board and any stopping rules (if used).
o Justify the follow-up period length (if applicable).
 Nonexperimental Designs (Observational Studies):
o Describe the study design (e.g., prospective, retrospective, case-control, cohort).
o Explain participant selection and sampling methods.
o Define all variables and address comparability of assessment across groups.
o Indicate how predictors, confounders, and effect modifiers were included in the analysis.
o Discuss potential limitations (e.g., unmeasured confounding).

Refer to Figure 3.1 (JARS website) for a flowchart on selecting appropriate reporting standards.

Reporting Standards for Special Research Designs (JARS)

Here's a breakdown of reporting standards for special research designs in quantitative research (JARS):

Refer to Figure 3.1 (JARS website) for a flowchart on selecting appropriate reporting standards.

 Longitudinal Studies:
o Combine reporting standards for the underlying study design (e.g., experimental, observational) with longitudinal
specificities.
o Report on:
 Sample recruitment and retention methods (including attrition and missing data handling).
 Contextual changes during the study (e.g., economic recession).
 Instrumentation changes (e.g., changes in achievement measures).
 Previous publications using parts of the data (overlap with current report).
 N-of-1 Studies (Single-Entity Studies):
o Describe the design type (e.g., withdrawal-reversal, multiple baseline) and its phases.
o Indicate randomization usage (if any).

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o Report for each participant:
 Sequence completed.
 Results (including raw data for target behaviors and outcomes).
 Replication Articles:
o Specify the type of replication (direct, approximate, conceptual).
o Provide comparisons between the original and replication studies for readers to evaluate potential reasons for
differing findings.
o Compare:
 Recruitment procedures.
 Participant demographics.
 Instrumentation (hardware, software measures, modifications, psychometrics, informants, administration methods).
 Analytic methods (original and additional analyses).
 Replication decision rules (e.g., effect size comparisons).
Reporting Standards for Complex Analytic Techniques (JARS)

While JARS focuses on research design reporting, some quantitative procedures require additional information
beyond basic technique names and parameters. This is crucial for reader comprehension, evaluation of conclusions,
and potential replication.

Specific standards are available on the JARS website (https://apastyle.apa.org/jars/quantitative).

Here's a breakdown of these complexities for two techniques:

 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM):

o Involves specifying a structural or measurement model.

o Estimates model effects (parameters) and assesses model-data correspondence.
o Requires a comprehensive description of:
 Data preparation steps.
 Initial model(s) specification.
 Estimation process.
 Model fit assessment.
 Model respecification (if applicable).
 Results reporting.

 Bayesian Techniques:

o Estimate parameters based on observed and underlying distributions.

o Standards address:
 Model specification.
 Distribution description and plotting.
 Model computation.
 Bayes factor reporting (if applicable).
 Bayesian model averaging reporting (if applicable).

JARS Reporting Standards Summary (Quantitative Research)

General Structure:

 Title Page (Section 2.1)

 Abstract (Section 3.3)
 Introduction (Section 3.4)

26
 Method (Section 3.5) - Includes specific reporting for:
o Participants (3.5.1)
o Measures (3.5.2)
o Procedure (3.5.3) - Includes specific reporting for ancillary analyses, baseline data, adverse events (3.5.3.3)
o Data Analysis (3.5.4) - Includes specific reporting for statistics and effect sizes (3.5.4)
 Results (Section 3.6) - Includes specific reporting for:
o Ancillary analyses (3.6.1)
o Baseline data (3.6.1)
o Adverse events (3.6.1)
 Discussion (Section 3.7) - Addresses:
o Limitations and strengths (3.7.1)
o Study implications (3.7.2)
 References (Section 8)

Additional Standards for Specific Designs:

 Studies with Experimental Designs (3.9):

o Random Assignment (3.9.1)
o Non-Random Assignment (3.9.2)
o Clinical Trials (3.9.3)
o Nonexperimental Designs (3.9.4) - Includes observational studies
 Special Designs (3.10):
o Longitudinal Studies (3.10.1)
o N-of-1 Studies (3.10.2)
o Replication Articles (3.10.3)
 Complex Analytic Techniques (3.11):
o Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) (3.11.1)
o Bayesian Techniques (3.11.2)
 Quantitative Meta-Analysis (3.12)

Refer to JARS website (https://apastyle.apa.org/jars/quantitative) for specific details and downloadable

resources.

Key Differences in Reporting Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research (JARS)

Structure:

 Quantitative: Follows a more rigid structure with specific sections (Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results,
Discussion, References).
 Qualitative: More flexible, may combine Results and Discussion sections or use different headings (e.g.,
"Findings" instead of "Results").
 Length: Qualitative papers tend to be longer due to:
o Detailed explanations of chosen analytic methods and adaptations.
o Discussion of researcher's background and how it was managed.
o Inclusion of quoted materials and evidence in the results presentation.

Content:

 Quantitative: Relies on statistical analyses, reported with specific details and justifications.
 Qualitative: Lacks statistical analyses but emphasizes:
o Detailed rationales for chosen analytic methods.

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o Procedural descriptions of how methods were applied and adapted.
o Researcher reflexivity (discussion of background and potential biases).

JARS Resources:

 Specific reporting standards for qualitative research and meta-analysis are available on the JARS
website: https://apastyle.apa.org/jars/quantitative

Additional Notes:

 Qualitative papers need more flexibility in length limits due to the information required.
 Authors should work with editors if journal page limits create challenges for adequate review.
Reporting Qualitative Research Methods (JARS)

The Method section of a qualitative research article details how the research was conducted. Here's a breakdown of
key information to include (refer to Table 3.2 in JARS for details):

 Research Design Overview:

o Briefly summarize the research design (data collection and analysis strategies, approach to inquiry).
o Justify the design choice if not explained earlier.

 Researcher Description (Reflexivity):

o Explain researchers' backgrounds and prior understanding of the phenomena under study.
o Include relevant demographic, cultural, or identity characteristics.
o Describe how researchers' backgrounds influenced the research (positively or negatively).

 Participants or Other Data Sources:

o Report the number of participants, documents, or events analyzed.

o Include relevant demographic or cultural information about participants.
o Describe data source perspectives and characteristics (e.g., newspapers, archives).
o Explain processes for archival searches or data location.
o Report participant characteristics relevant to the research topic (e.g., age, ethnicity, history).
o Consider sensitivity and participant identity expressions when describing characteristics.
o Include other factors influencing the phenomenon under study (e.g., therapist orientation in psychotherapy
research).

 Researcher-Participant Relationships:

o Describe interactions and relationships between researchers and participants.

o Explain any impact these relationships had on the research process.
o Consider how existing relationships might have affected trust and disclosure.

Reporting Participant Recruitment in Qualitative Research (JARS)

There's no minimum participant number for qualitative studies. Authors should justify their chosen number
based on the research method/approach.

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 Recruitment Process:

 Describe the recruitment method (e.g., face-to-face, email).

 Explain how you conveyed the study purpose to participants (considering potential differences from the stated
objectives).
 Detail any incentives or compensation offered.
 Discuss ethical considerations:
o Institutional review board approval (if applicable).
o Adaptations for vulnerable populations (if applicable).
o Safety monitoring practices.
 Explain how the number of participants was determined (considering design, data collection/analysis strategies).
 Report on:
o Attrition (refusal rates, dropout reasons).
o Final number of participants/data sources.
o Rationale for halting data collection (e.g., saturation).

Participant Selection:

 If selecting from a pool, explain inclusion/exclusion criteria and the selection process.
o This can involve:
 Purposive sampling (maximum variation).
 Convenience sampling (snowball selection).
 Theoretical sampling.
 Diversity sampling.
 Describe the general study context (data collection time and sites).
 If using archived data, explain the original recruitment/selection process and your decisions for selecting
participants from that set.

Data Collection:

 Use clear terminology for data collection relevant to your research approach (e.g., "data identification").
 Describe the data collection form (interviews, observations, etc.).
 Report any alterations made to the data collection strategy during the research.
 For interviews (especially unstructured/semi-structured):
o Communicate the content of central/guiding questions.
o Describe the question format (open questions, paraphrasing, prompts).
 Explain the data collection process (who was present, number of times data were collected, duration, context).
 Discuss the extensiveness of researcher engagement (depth and time intensity).
 Describe how reflexivity was managed/used in data collection (if applicable).

Recording and Data Transformation:

 Explain how data were recorded for analysis (audio/visual recording, field notes, transcription).
 Describe any data transformations that were made.

Reporting Qualitative Data Analysis in JARS

The Method section of a qualitative research paper should explain how the data was analyzed and ensure
methodological integrity. Here's a breakdown of key information to include:

 Data-Analytic Strategies:
o Describe the chosen methods and their purpose.

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o Explain the data analysis process in detail.
o Discuss how the analytic approach was determined (inductive or pre-determined categories).
o Include details on analytic procedures (coding, thematic analysis).
o Describe the coders/analysts and their training (if not mentioned earlier).
o Specify the units of analysis (e.g., transcript, text segment) and how they were formed.
o Explain how categories or codes were developed (emergent or pre-determined).
o Provide examples and details of code/category development (if relevant).
o Mention any software used for analysis.
 Methodological Integrity:
o Highlight procedures throughout the paper that ensure the quality of your research.
o Demonstrate that your analysis supports the claims you make.
o Focus on key aspects of methodological integrity:
 Adequacy: Does the data capture relevant diversity for your research questions and approach?
 Researchers' Perspectives: How did you manage your own perspectives in data collection and analysis (to
minimize bias)?
 Groundedness: Are your findings well-supported by evidence (quotes, excerpts, descriptions)?
 Meaningfulness: Are your contributions insightful and relevant to existing literature and study goals?
 Context: Do you provide relevant context for your findings (setting, participant information, interview questions)?
 Coherence: Do you present findings in a way that addresses contradictions or disconfirming evidence?
 Consistency: Do you discuss consistency in analytic processes across changing conditions (use examples or
describe how consistency was ensured)?

Checks for Methodological Integrity:

While not mandatory, using some checks can strengthen your research:

 Participant Feedback on Transcripts or Data

 Triangulation (using multiple data sources or investigators)
 Checks on Interview Thoroughness or Demands
 Consensus or Auditing Processes
 Member Checks (participant feedback on findings)
 Data Displays or Matrices
 Thick Description, Case Examples, Illustrations
 Structured Researcher Reflexivity Methods
 Checks on Finding Utility (e.g., evaluating solutions)

Refer to JARS website (https://apastyle.apa.org/jars/glossary) for the glossary of terms.

Reporting Findings or Results in Qualitative Research (JARS)

The Findings or Results section of a qualitative research paper details the outcomes of your data analysis. Here's a
breakdown of what to include:

 Terminology:
o You may use "Findings" or "Results" for the section heading.
 Content:
o Describe the research findings (themes, categories, narratives).
o Explain the meaning and understanding derived from the data analysis (related to the study purpose).
o Include evidence to support your findings (quotes, excerpts, data displays).
 Balance these illustrations with clear explanations of their meaning and how they connect to your research
questions.
o Don't let the evidence overshadow the clear description of your findings.

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 Presentation:
o Align the presentation style with your study design:
 Grounded theory: Use categories organized hierarchically.
 Ethnography: Use a chronological narrative format.
o Ensure the writing style aligns with your chosen approach to inquiry.

Remember:

 The presence of quantified information depends on your study goals and approach.
 Don't simply report raw data; explain the meaning you derived from it.

Reporting Qualitative Findings and Discussion (JARS)

Findings/Results Section:

 Terminology: Use "Findings" or "Results" for the section heading.

 Content:
o Describe research findings (themes, categories, narratives).
o Explain the meaning derived from the data analysis (related to the study purpose).
o Include evidence to support your findings (quotes, excerpts, data displays).
 Ensure a clear balance between evidence and explanation.
o Don't simply report raw data; explain the meaning you derived from it.
 Presentation:
o Align the presentation style with your study design (grounded theory vs. ethnography).
o Ensure the writing style aligns with your chosen approach to inquiry.

Depicting Findings:

 Use illustrations (diagrams, tables) to organize and present findings.

 Photographs or video links can be used with proper descriptions.
 Artistic presentations of findings require additional information to support the research and clarify the analysis
process.

Discussion Section:

 Purpose: Communicate the study's contributions to existing research and its goals.
 Content:
o Interpret the meaning of your findings (go beyond simply restating results).
o Describe the central contributions and their significance to your field.
o Identify similarities and differences from prior research.
o Discuss how your findings support, challenge, or elaborate on existing knowledge.
o Consider alternative explanations for your findings (acknowledging limitations).
o If applicable, discuss multiple interpretations emerging from the data.
 Limitations and Strengths:
o Include a subsection to identify strengths and limitations of the study (consider data quality, source, analysis
processes, and how they impact methodological integrity).
o Discuss limitations of generalizability or transferability of your findings.
 Study Implications:
o Explain how your findings can be used and their potential applications.
o Discuss emerging research questions, theoretical insights, new understandings, or methodological designs.
o Consider implications for policy, practice, or advocacy.

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 Qualitative Meta-Analysis:

 Refer to JARS website (https://apastyle.apa.org/jars/qual-table-2.pdf) for specific reporting standards.

o Key features include reporting on the aggregative process (how studies were selected and integrated) and reporting
situatedness (considering the perspectives and contexts of primary study authors).

Mixed Methods Research Reporting:

 See Section 3.18 of JARS for details on reporting mixed methods research.

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