CHAPTER 2

RELATIONAL MODEL
 Chapter 2: Relational Model
ƒ Structure of Relational Databases
ƒ Fundamental Relational Algebra Operations
ƒ Additional Relational Algebra Operations
ƒ Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations
ƒ Null Values
ƒ Modification of the Database

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 2
 Example of a Relation

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© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 3
 Basic Structure
ƒ Formally,
ggiven
v sets D1, D2, …. Dn a relation r is a subset
b of D1 x D2 x … x Dn

R ⊆ D1, X ….. X Dn (n: degree of R)

or
R = { <d1, ..., dn> | d1 ∈ D1, ..., dn ∈ Dn } (set of tuples)

ƒ Example: customer-name = {Jones, Smith, Curry, Lindsay}

customer-street = {Main, North, Park}
customer-city = {Harrison, Rye, Pittsfield}
Then r = { (Jones, Main, Harrison), (Smith, North, Rye),
(Curry, North, Rye), (Lindsay, Park, Pittsfield)}
is a relation over customer-name x customer-street x customer-city

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 4
 Attribute Types
ƒ Each attribute of a relation has a name
ƒ The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain
of the attribute
ƒ Attribute
A ib values l are ((normally)
ll ) required
i d to be
b atomic,
i that
h iis,
indivisible
à E.g.
E g multivalued attribute values are not atomic
à E.g. composite attribute values are not atomic
ƒ The special value null is a member of every domain
ƒ The null value causes complications in the definition of many
operations
p
à we shall ignore the effect of null values in our main presentation and
consider their effect later

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© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 5
 Relation Schema
ƒ A1, A2, …, An are attributes
ƒ R = (A1, A2, …, An ) is a relation schema
E.g. Customer-schema = (customer-name, customer-street, customer-city)
ƒ r(R) is a relation (variable) on the relation schema R
E.g. customer(Customer-schema)

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 6
 Relation Instance
ƒ The current values (relation instance) of a relation are specified by a
table
ƒ An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a table

attributes

customer-name
customer name customer
customer-street
street customer-city
customer city

Jones Main Harrison

Smith North Rye tuples
Curry North Rye
Lindsay Park Pittsfield

customer

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 7
 Relations are Unordered
ƒ Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary
order)
ƒ E.g. account relation with unordered tuples

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 8
 Relational Database
ƒ A database consists of multiple relations
ƒ Information about an enterprise is broken up into parts, with each
relation storing one part of the information
g account : information about accounts
E.g.:
customer : information about customers
depositor : information about which customer owns which
account

ƒ Storing all information as a single relation such as results in

à repetition
i i off information
i f i (e.g.
( two customers own an account))
à the need for null values (e.g. represent a customer without an account)
bank(account-number, balance, customer-name, ... )

ƒ Relational database design (Chapter 6 & 7) deals with how to

design
g relational schemas

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© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 9
 The customer relation & depositor relation

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© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 10
 Keys
ƒ Let K ⊆ R
ƒ K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a
unique tuple of each possible relation r(R).
ƒ By
B “possible
“ ibl r”” we mean a relation
l i r that
h couldld exist
i iin the
h
enterprise we are modeling.
à Example: {customer-name,
{customer name customer-street}
customer street} and
{customer-name}
are both superkeys of Customer, if no two customers can possibly have the
same name.
ƒ K is a candidate key if K is minimal
à Example: {customer-name}
{customer name} is a candidate key for Customer,
Customer
since it is a superkey, and no subset of it is a superkey.

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 11
 Schema Diagram for the Banking Enterprise

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© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 12
 Query Languages
ƒ Language in which user requests information from the database.
ƒ Categories of languages
à procedural
‚ specify what data are needed and how to get those data
à nonprocedural
‚ declarative
‚ specify only what data are needed
ƒ “Pure” languages:
à Relational
R l ti l Algebra
Al b
à Tuple Relational Calculus
à Domain Relational Calculus
ƒ Pure languages form underlying basis of query languages that
people
p p use.

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 13
 Relational Algebra
ƒ Algebra : operators and operands
à Relational algebra
‚ operands : relations
‚ operators : basic operators (+ additional operations)
 take
k two or more relations
l i as inputs
i andd give
i a new relation
l i as a result.
l
ƒ Procedural language
ƒ 6 Fundamental Operators
à select
à project
à union
à set difference
à Cartesian product
à rename

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 14
 Select Operation – Example

„ Relation r: A B C D

α α 1 7
α β 5 7
β β 12 3
β β 23 10

„ σA=B ^ D>5 (r) :

A B C D

α α 1 7
β β 23 10

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 15
 Select Operation
ƒ Notation: σp(r)
ƒ p is called the selection predicate
ƒ Defined as:
σp(r) = {t | t ∈ r and p(t)}
à Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of terms
connected by : ∧ (and),
(and) ∨ (or),
(or) ¬ (not)
à Each term is one of:
<attribute> opp <attribute> or <constant>
where op is one of: =, ≠, >, ≥, <, ≤
ƒ Example:
p
σ branch-name=“Perryridge”(account)

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 16
 Project Operation – Example

ƒ Relation r: A B C

α 10 1
α 20 1
β 30 1
β 40 2

„ ∏A,C (r) A C A C

α 1 α 1
α 1 = β 1
β 1 β 2
β 2

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 17
 Project Operation
ƒ Notation:
∏A1, A2, …, Ak (r)
()
where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name.
ƒ The
Th resultl is
i defined
d fi d as the
h relation
l i off k columns
l obtained
b i db by
erasing the columns that are not listed
ƒ Duplicate
D li t rows removedd from f result
lt – since
i relations
l ti are sets
t
ƒ Example: To eliminate the branch-name attribute of account

ƒ ∏account-number, balance (account)

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 18
 Union Operation – Example

ƒ Relations r, s: A B A B

α 1 α 2
α 2 β 3
β 1
s
r

ƒ r ∪ s: A B

α 1
α 2
β 1
β 3

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 19
 Union Operation
ƒ Notation: r ∪ s
ƒ Defined
D fi d as:
r ∪ s = {t | t∈r or t∈s}

ƒ For r ∪ s to be valid (Union compatible)

11. rr, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (e.g., 2nd column
of r deals with the same type
yp of values as does the 2nd
column of s)
à E.g.: to find all customers with either an account or a loan

∏customer-name (depositor) ∪ ∏customer-name (borrower)

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 20
 Set Difference Operation – Example

ƒ Relations r, s: A B A B

α 1 α 2
α 2 β 3
β 1 s
r

ƒ r – s: A B

α 1
β 1

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 21
 Set Difference Operation
ƒ Notation r – s
ƒ Defined as:
r – s = {t | t ∈ r and t ∉ s}
ƒ Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.
à r and s must have the same arity
à attribute
ib ddomains
i off r and
d s must be
b compatible
ibl

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 22
 Cartesian-Product Operation – Example

ƒ Relations r, s: A B C D E

α 1 α 10 a
β 10 a
β 2
β 20 b
r γ 10 b
s

ƒ r x s: A B C D E

α 1 α 10 a
α 1 β 19 a
α 1 β 20 b
α 1 γ 10 b
β 2 α 10 a
β 2 β 10 a
β 2 β 20 b
β 2 γ 10 b
Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)
© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 23
 Cartesian-Product Operation
ƒ Notation: r x s
ƒ Defined as:
r x s = { t q | t ∈ r and q ∈ s}

ƒ Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are disjoint; i.e.,

R ∩ S = ∅.
à If not, renaming of attributes is needed.

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 24
 Composition of Operations
ƒ Can build expressions using multiple operations
ƒ Example: σA=C(r x s)
ƒ rxs
A B C D E
α 1 α 10 a
α 1 β 19 a
α 1 β 20 b
α 1 γ 10 b
β 2 α 10 a
β 2 β 10 a
β 2 β 20 b
β 2 γ 10 b

ƒ σA=C(r x s) A B C D E
α 1 α 10 a
β 2 β 20 a
Original Slides:
β 2 β 20 b
Intro to DB (2008-1)
© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 25
 Rename Operation
ƒ Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of
relational-algebra
relational algebra eexpressions.
pressions
ƒ Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.

ƒ ρN (E) returns the expression E under the name N

ƒ If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then

ρN (A1, A2, …, An) (E)

returns the
h result
l off expression E under
d the
h name N, and
d
with the attributes renamed to A1, A2, …., An.

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 26
 Banking Example

branch (branch-name
(branch name, branch-city
branch city, assets)
customer (customer-name, customer-street, customer-only)

account (account-number, branch-name, balance)

loan (loan-number, branch-name, amount)

d p it ((customer-name,
depositor t account-number)
t b )

borrower ((customer-name,, loan-number))

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 27
 Example Queries
ƒ Find all loans of over $1200
σamount >1200 (loan)

ƒ Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than
$1200
∏loan-number (σamount>1200 (loan))

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 28
 Example Queries
ƒ Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an account, or
both from the bank
both,

∏customer-name
t (borrower) ∪ ∏customer-name
t (depositor)

ƒ Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an account
at bank.

∏customer-name (borrower) ∩ ∏customer-name (depositor)

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 29
 Example Queries
ƒ Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch.
∏customer-name (σbranch-name=“Perryridge”
(σborrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan)))

ƒ Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch but do not
have an account at anyy branch of the bank.
∏customer-name (σbranch-name = “Perryridge”
(σborrower.loan-number
b l b (borrower
b = loan.loan-number
l l x loan)))

– ∏customer-name(depositor)

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 30
 Example Queries
ƒ Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch.

Query 1
∏customer-name(σbranch-name = “Perryridge”
(σborrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan)))

Query 2
∏customer-name(
((σloan.loan-number borrower loan-number(
loan loan-number = borrower.loan-number
( σbranch-name = “Perryridge”(loan) ) x borrower
)
)

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 31
 Example Queries
ƒ Find the largest account balance
à Rename
R account relation
l i as d
à The query is:

∏balance(account) –
∏account.balance
b l (
σaccount.balance < d.balance (account x ρd (account) )
)

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 32
 Formal Definition
ƒ A basic expression in the relational algebra consists of either one of
the following:
à A relation in the database
à A constant relation
ƒ Let E1 and E2 be relational-algebra expressions; the following are
all relational-algebra expressions:
à E1 ∪ E2
à E1 – E2
à E1 x E2
à σp (E1), P is a predicate on attributes in E1
à ∏s(E1),
) S is a list consisting of some of the attributes in E1
à ρN (E1), N is the new name for the result of E1

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© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 33
 Additional Operations
We define additional operations that do not add any power to the
relational algebra, but that simplify common queries.

ƒ Set intersection
ƒ Natural join
ƒ Division
ƒ Assignment

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© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 34
 Set-Intersection Operation
ƒ Notation: r ∩ s
ƒ Defined as:
r ∩ s ={ t | t ∈ r and t ∈ s }

ƒ Assume union compatibility:

à r, s have the same arity
à attributes of r and s are compatible

ƒ Note: r∩s=r–(r–s)

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© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 35
 Set-Intersection Operation – Example
ƒ Relation r, s: A B A B
α 1 α 2
α 2 β 3
β 1

r s

A B
ƒ r∩s
α 2

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© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 36
 Natural-Join Operation
ƒ Notation: r s
ƒ Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S,, respectively.
p y The result is a relation on
schema R ∪ S which is obtained by considering each pair of tuples tr from r and ts
from s.
ƒ If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in R ∩ S, a tuple
p t is added
to the result, where
à t has the same value as tr on r
à t has the same value as ts on s
ƒ Example:
R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E,
(E B,
B D)
ƒ Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E)
ƒ r s is defined as:
∏r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E (σr.B = s.B r.D = s.D (r x s))

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© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 37
 Natural-Join Operation – Example
ƒ Relations r, s:

A B C D B D E

α 1 α a 1 a α
β 2 γ a 3 a β
γ 4 β b 1 a γ
α 1 γ a 2 b δ
δ 2 β b 3 b ∈
r s

„ r s
A B C D E
α 1 α a α
α 1 α a γ
α 1 γ a α
α 1 γ a γ
δ 2 β b δ
Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)
© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 38
 Properties
ƒ ∏ A1,…,Ak(r) ∩ ∏ A1,…,Ak(s) = ∏ A1 ,…,Ak (r s)
ƒ (r
( s)) t=r ((s t))
ƒ If R∩S=∅ then r s = r × s (important)
ƒ If R=S
R S then
th r s=r∩s

ƒ Theta
Th t Join
J i
à combine selection with Cartesian product
r θs = σθ (r × s)
where θ is a predicate on R×S

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 39
 Assignment Operation
ƒ The assignment operation (←) provides a convenient way to
express complex queries,
queries write query as a sequential program
consisting of a series of assignments followed by an expression
whose value is displayed as a result of the query.
ƒ Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation variable.
ƒ Example: Write r ÷s as
temp1 ← ∏R-S (r)
p ← ∏R-S
temp2 R S(( p × s)) – ∏R-S,S
((temp1 R S S ((r))
))
result = temp1 – temp2
à The result to the right of the ← is assigned to the relation variable on the
left of the ←.
à May use the variable in subsequent expressions.
expressions

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 40
 Example Queries
ƒ Find all customers who have an account from at least the
“Do nto n” and the “Uptown
“Downtown “Upto n” branches.
branches
à Query 1
∏customer-name(σbranch-name=“Downtown”(depositor account)) ∩

∏customer-name(σbranch-name=“Uptown”(depositor account))

à Query 2
∏customer-name, branch-name (depositor
(d p it account)
t)
÷ ρtemp(branch-name) ({(“Downtown”), (“Uptown”)})

Original Slides: Intro to DB (2008-1)

© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 41
 Example Queries

ƒ Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in

Brooklyn city.

∏customer-name, branch-name (depositor account)

÷ ∏branch-name
b h (σbranch-city “B kl ” (branch))
b h it = “Brooklyn”

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© Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Copyright © 2006 - 2008 by S.-g. Lee Chap 2 - 42
END OF CHAPTER 2