ACCIDENT PREVENTION SYSTEM

Abstract:

In hilly regions, there will be a number of curves and hairpin bends. The roadway is one of the
often-used modes of transport in these regions. Accident rate and death rate in hilly regions are
increasing day by day. The roads in this region will definitely have bends and steep curves;
hence, it is difficult to see the vehicles coming from the opposite side. The proposed system aims
in reducing the risk of driving vehicle in the terrain region with hairpin bends and steep curves.
The deployed controller with ultrasonic sensor senses the vehicle coming towards the bend and
intimates it to the other side of the bend or curve; it gives three stages of LED alerts to the driver
driving the vehicle from the opposite side of the hairpin bend or curve. It also senses the
accidents of the vehicle, it will alert through the buzzer. These alerts will indirectly convey the
drivers to slow down the speed of the vehicle. The foremost focus of the proposed system is to
prevent accidents for the drivers and passengers in order to decrease the death rates in hilly
regions.

INTRODUCTION

There are many dangerous roads in the world like mountain roads, narrow curve roads, T roads.
In these some mountain roads will be very narrow and they contain so many curves. As per the
statistics, researchers envision that by 2020 the world’s motor vehicles fleet will surpass 2
million in numbers. India’s automobile fleets grow at an annual rate of around 7 to 8%. Road
accidents contributes for over 1.2 million mortalities worldwide, demand for the safe vehicular
country is very high. The privation of medical facilities during emergency and the increased
number of accidents is a major concern to consider in the modern-day world. The accident in the
hilly region occurs mainly due to the design of curved roads and hairpin bends, the lack of
tracking or monitoring facility makes the accident situation worse in terrain regions

Embedded system implementation

Introduction:
An embedded system is one kind of a computer system mainly designed to
perform several tasks like to access, process, and store and also control the data in various
electronics-based systems. Embedded systems are a combination of hardware and software
where software is usually known as firmware that is embedded into the hardware. One of its
most important characteristics of these systems is, it gives the o/p within the time limits.
Embedded systems support to make the work more perfect and convenient. So, we frequently use
embedded systems in simple and complex devices too. The applications of embedded systems
mainly involve in our real life for several devices like microwave, calculators, TV remote
control, home security and neighborhood traffic control systems, etc.

User interface

Embedded system

Software Hardware
Inputs
Output

Link to other systems

Fig: Overview of embedded system
Embedded system:

Embedded system includes mainly two sections, they are

1. Hardware
2. Software
 Input devices interfacing
and driver circuits

Timers Memory

Power
Application
supply and
Processor Serial specific
oscillator
communication circuits
circuits
ports

Interrupt Parallel
controller ports

Output devices interfacing

Block diagram of embedded system

Embedded System Hardware:

As with any electronic system, an embedded system requires a hardware platform on

which it performs the operation. Embedded system hardware is built with a microprocessor or
microcontroller. The embedded system hardware has elements like input output (I/O) interfaces,
user interface, memory and the display. Usually, an embedded system consists of:
  Power Supply
 Processor
 Memory
 Timers
 Serial communication ports
 Output/Output circuits
 System application specific circuits

Embedded systems use different processors for its desired operation. Some of the processors
used are

1. Microprocessor

2. Microcontroller

3. Digital signal processor

Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller

Microprocessor

• CPU on a chip.
• We can attach required amount of ROM, RAM and I/O ports.
• Expensive due to external peripherals.
• Large in size
• general-purpose

Microcontroller

• Computer on a chip
• fixed amount of on-chip ROM, RAM, I/O ports
• Low cost.
• Compact in size.
• Specific –purpose
Embedded System Software:

The embedded system software is written to perform a specific function. It is

typically written in a high level format and then compiled down to provide code that can be
lodged within a non-volatile memory within the hardware. An embedded system software is
designed to keep in view of the three limits:

 Availability of system memory

 Availability of processor’s speed
 When the system runs continuously, there is a need to limit power dissipation for events
like stop, run and wake up.

Bringing software and hardware together for embedded system:

To make software to work with embedded systems we need to bring software and
hardware together .for this purpose we need to burn our source code into microprocessor or
microcontroller which is a hardware component and which takes care of all operations to be done
by embedded system according to our code.

Generally we write source codes for embedded systems in assembly language, but the processors
run only executable files. The process of converting the source code representation of your
embedded software into an executable binary image involves three distinct steps:

1. Each of the source files must be compiled or assembled into an object file.

2. All of the object files that result from the first step must be linked together to produce a
single object file, called the re-locatable program.

3. Physical memory addresses must be assigned to the relative offsets within the re-
locatable program in a process called relocation.

The result of the final step is a file containing an executable binary image that is ready to run on
the embedded system.
 Source code

Assembler

Linker

Locator

Executable file

Processor

Flow of burning source code to processor

Applications:

Embedded systems have different applications. A few select applications of embedded

systems are smart cards, telecommunications, satellites, missiles, digital consumer electronics,
computer networking, etc.

Embedded Systems in Automobiles

 Motor Control System

 Engine or Body Safety
 Robotics in Assembly Line
 Mobile and E-Com Access

Embedded systems in Telecommunications

  Mobile computing
 Networking
 Wireless Communications

Embedded Systems in Smart Cards

 Banking
 Telephone
 Security Systems

Implementation flow:
Stage 1:
Considering the problems of existing methods and giving solution to that problem by considering
the basic requirements for our proposed system

Stage 2:

Considering the hardware requirement for the proposed system

For this we need to select the below components:

1. Microcontroller

2. Inputs for the proposed system (ex: sensors, drivers etc..,)

3. Outputs (ex: relays, loads)

Stage 3:

After considering hardware requirements, now we need to check out the software requirements.
Based on the microcontroller we select there exists different software for coding, compiling, debugging.
we need to write source code for that proposed system based on our requirements and compile, debug the
code in that software .

After completing all the requirements of software and hardware we need to bring both together to
work our system. For this we need to burn our source code into microcontroller, after burning our source
code to microcontroller then connect all input and output modules as per our requirement.
 LITERATURE SURVEY

R. S. Rakul has proposed “Implementation of Vehicle Mishap Averting System Using Arduino
Microcontroller”. The Unit has been designed to prevent an accident by collision. The ‘heart' of
the Unit is Arduino microcontroller which performs all the vital tasks of the system. And it will
be discussed in the following subsequent sections. This system will receive information from the
Ultrasonic transceiver, and accordingly transmit the data via the Wi-Fi router to the controller.
Through the buzzer indication, light emitting display, and liquid crystal display, the vehicle
information will be shown to the vehicle users. The primary purpose of the system is to prevent
collision between two or more vehicles when they take a turn on U-bends.

Lorate Shiny1, A. Rajakumaran2, S. Vijay are proposed “Vehicle Control System with
Accident Prevention by Using IR Transceiver” Drivers go at very high speed usually near school
zone or indulge in speeding causing inconvenience to the other vehicle users and pedestrians.
Even though these are meant for the safety of the vehicles traveling and for the general public, it
is not usually practiced and ignored by the vehicle drivers. The main objective of this paper is to
design a Vehicle controller meant for vehicles speed control and monitors the zones, which can
run on an embedded system. Vehicle Controller can be custom designed to fit into a vehicle
dashboard and displays information on the vehicle.

P. Aravind, V. Kishore are proposed “E-Vehicle- Automatic Speed Control Using Android
Mobile Application”: In the rapidly changing world, the speed has become an important factor in
humans’ life. Everyone wants to get fast as much as possible. In the fast speed world, there are
two perspectives, one is maintaining the speed and the other is to maintain the safety medium as
well. In the smart speed world, the technologies play a major role. Smart phones are the key part
of the growing technologies in the globe. Android application is a one which is ruling almost
75% of the crowd. So, our objective is to ensure maximum safety to the person who is driving
the vehicle and to the people on the road in all parameters through a mobile app.

K. P. Sreevishakh et al has proposed an automatic accident prediction and the notification

system using AMR and Sonar sensor. The Unit has been designed to prevent an accident by
collision. The ‘heart' of the Unit is Arduino microcontroller which performs all the vital tasks of
the system. And it will be discussed in the following subsequent sections. This system will
receive information from the Ultrasonic transceiver, and accordingly transmit the data via the
Wi-Fi router to the controller.

Aravinda B, Chaithralakshmi C, Deeksha, Ashutha K from their report, it is concluded Accident

prevention in U-turn, S-turn, hilly Ghats and mountain roads using modern sensor technology,
Which uses Aurdino UNO, Ultrasonic sensor, RF module LED etc. It is the one having
possibilities to reduce the accidents in U-turn, S-turn, hilly Ghats and mountain roads as the
system is outside the vehicle. Moreover this technology covers all kind of vehicles New version
and Old version cars.

R.Saranya, R.Arun Kumar we come to know that, Accidents may takes place in various factors
drunk and driving, Texting while driving, Speeding, Distractions, Sleeping while driving.
Among Drowsiness is reason for most of the accidents. While driving at the speed of 100km/hr.
driver falls sleepy within 4 seconds the buzzer will enables. But its Drawback is this technology
is not there in all vehicles Ex: Old version vehicles, so which is not effective in reducing
accidents. Even face detection is not accurate and is comlex task.

Ranga Sreedhar Galla has studied the basic aim of their paper is to reduce accidents on hilly and
slippery roads. In curve roads the other road end of vehicle cannot seen by driver. At night time
accidents may happens by intensity of head light from opposite side of vehicles. Also, the light
intensity problem occurs both curved roads and mountain roads; Thousands of people lose their
lives. The solution for this problem is alerting the driver about the vehicle coming from opposite
side. This is done by keeping an ultrasonic sensor in one side of the road before the curve and
keeping a LED light after the curve, so that if vehicle comes from one end of the curve sensor
senses and LED light glows at the opposite side.

Kartik Venkata Mutya, Sandeep Rudra has studied that road traffic accidents are being
recognized as a major public health problem in numerous countries with alarmingly increasing
fatalities in developing countries. Careless driving as a result of excessive waiting and blind
corners is attributed as one of the most important factor for all road accidents. An estimated 1.2
million people lose their lives in road traffic crashes every year, and another 20 to 50 million are
injured. A docile, economical mechanism to prevent these road accidents is the need of the hour.
It is hoped that the mechanism presented in this article would help in alleviating this concern
especially in correspondence with large vehicle accidents on highways by being easily
implemented in low and middle income countries.

R. Meena, R.Lavanya and K.Suresh Kumar by this paper got that Accidents are commonly
occurring in hilly regions. They are caused because of curve roads and speed breakers placed in
mountain roads. Many mountain climbing roads are having tight curves. The vehicles from
opposite side cannot be visible to the driver. Millions of peoples are losing their life because of
the accidents. And by arising these situations an idea is proposed to avoid those types of
accidents by implementing the crash sensing and warning system. It will sense the vehicle from
the opposite side detect the vehicles and gives the warning alarm. Here voice command starting
the condition of the tyre is used, if air pressure is decreased. Visible mirror of the vehicles
observes the high intensity of opposite vehicles that will automatically reduce intensity of light in
our vehicle by using dim and dip sensor.

EXISTING SYSTEM

Driving is one of the very difficult tasks in hills. Drivers have to be alerted all the time while
driving in these regions. Researchers for hilly regions have proposed several accident prevention
systems. Among the causes for accidents in hilly regions, the driver does not know the vehicle
coming from the opposite side in curves and hairpin bends is the major cause. To avoid these
problems in curves or hairpin bends a piezoelectric sensor-based system is implemented

DISADVANTAGES:

 High cost

PROPOSED SYSTEM

In this system we are using IR sensors for detecting vehicles and alerting the opposite side
vehicles by indicating Red LED and Green LED and by giving buzzer alerts.

Block Diagram:
 HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

Arduino:

Arduino Uno is a very valuable addition in the electronics that consists of USB interface, 14
digital I/O pins, 6 analog pins, and Atmega328 microcontroller. It also supports serial
communication using Tx and Rx pins.
There are many versions of Arduino boards introduced in the market like Arduino Uno, Arduino
Due, Arduino Leonardo, Arduino Mega, however, most common versions are Arduino Uno and
Arduino Mega. If you are planning to create a project relating to digital electronics, embedded
system, robotics, or IoT, then using Arduino Uno would be the best, easy and most economical
option.
It is an open-source platform, means the boards and software are readily available and anyone
can modify and optimize the boards for better functionality.

The software used for Arduino devices is called IDE (Integrated Development Environment)
which is free to use and required some basic skills to learn it. It can be programmed using C and
C++ language.

Some people get confused between Microcontroller and Arduino. While former is just an on
system 40 pin chip that comes with a built-in microprocessor and later is a board that comes with
the microcontroller in the base of the board, bootloader and allows easy access to input-output
pins and makes uploading or burning of the program very easy.
While learning microcontroller requires some expertise and skills.

Nevertheless, we can say every Arduino is basically a microcontroller but not every
microcontroller is an Arduino.

Introduction to Arduino

 Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board developed by Arduino.cc which is an open-source

electronics platform mainly based on AVR microcontroller Atmega328.

 First Arduino project was started in Interaction Design Institute Ivrea in 2003 by David
Cuartielles and Massimo Banzi with the intention of providing a cheap and flexible way to
students and professional for controlling a number of devices in the real world.

 The current version of Arduino Uno comes with USB interface, 6 analog input pins, 14 I/O
digital ports that are used to connect with external electronic circuits. Out of 14 I/O ports, 6
pins can be used for PWM output.

 It allows the designers to control and sense the external electronic devices in the real world
 This board comes with all the features required to run the controller and can be directly
connected to the computer through USB cable that is used to transfer the code to the
controller using IDE (Integrated Development Environment) software, mainly developed to
program Arduino. IDE is equally compatible with Windows, MAC or Linux Systems,
however, Windows is preferable to use. Programming languages like C and C++ are used in
IDE.

 Apart from USB, battery or AC to DC adopter can also be used to power the board.

 Arduino Uno boards are quite similar to other boards in Arduino family in terms of use and
functionality, however, Uno boards don’t come with FTDI USB to Serial driver chip.

 There are many versions of Uno boards available, however, Arduino Nano V3 and Arduino
Uno are the most official versions that come with Atmega328 8-bit AVR Atmel
microcontroller where RAM memory is 32KB.

 When nature and functionality of the task go complex, Mirco SD card can be added in the
boards to make them store more information.

Features of Arduino

 Arduino Uno comes with USB interface i.e. USB port is added on the board to develop
serial communication with the computer.
  Atmega328 microcontroller is placed on the board that comes with a number of features
like timers, counters, interrupts, PWM, CPU, I/O pins and based on a 16MHz clock that
helps in producing more frequency and number of instructions per cycle.

 It is an open source platform where anyone can modify and optimize the board based on the
number of instructions and task they want to achieve.

 This board comes with a built-in regulation feature which keeps the voltage under control
when the device is connected to the external device.

 Reset pin is added in the board that reset the whole board and takes the running program in
the initial stage. This pin is useful when board hangs up in the middle of the running program;
pushing this pin will clear everything up in the program and starts the program right from the
beginning.

 There are 14 I/O digital and 6 analog pins incorporated in the board that allows the external
connection with any circuit with the board. These pins provide the flexibility and ease of use
to the external devices that can be connected through these pins. There is no hard and fast
interface required to connect the devices to the board. Simply plug the external device into the
pins of the board that are laid out on the board in the form of the header.
 The 6 analog pins are marked as A0 to A5 and come with a resolution of 10bits. These pins
measure from 0 to 5V, however, they can be configured to the high range
using analogReference() function and AREF pin.

 13KB of flash memory is used to store the number of instructions in the form of code.

 Only 5 V is required to turn the board on, which can be achieved directly using USB port or
external adopter, however, it can support external power source up to 12 V which can be
regulated and limit to 5 V or 3.3 V based on the requirement of the project.

Arduino Pinout

 Arduino Uno is based on AVR microcontroller called Atmega328. This controller comes
with 2KB SRAM, 32KB of flash memory, 1KB of EEPROM. Arduino Board comes with
14 digital pins and 6 analog pins. ON-chip ADC is used to sample these pins. A 16 MHz
frequency crystal oscillator is equipped on the board. Following figure shows the pinout
of the Arduino Uno Board

Pin Description:

There are several I/O digital and analog pins placed on the board which operates at 5V. These
pins come with standard operating ratings ranging between 20mA to 40mA. Internal pull-up
resistors are used in the board that limits the current exceeding from the given operating
conditions. However, too much increase in current makes these resisters useless and damages the
device.

LED. Arduino Uno comes with built-in LED which is connected through pin 13. Providing
HIGH value to the pin will turn it ON and LOW will turn it OFF.
Vin. It is the input voltage provided to the Arduino Board. It is different than 5 V supplied
through a USB port. This pin is used to supply voltage. If a voltage is provided through power
jack, it can be accessed through this pin.
5V. This board comes with the ability to provide voltage regulation. 5V pin is used to provide
output regulated voltage. The board is powered up using three ways i.e. USB, Vin pin of the
board or DC power jack.
USB supports voltage around 5V while Vin and Power Jack support a voltage ranges between
7V to 20V. It is recommended to operate the board on 5V. It is important to note that, if a
voltage is supplied through 5V or 3.3V pins, they result in bypassing the voltage regulation that
can damage the board if voltage surpasses from its limit.

GND. These are ground pins. More than one ground pins are provided on the board which can be
used as per requirement.
Reset. This pin is incorporated on the board which resets the program running on the board.
Instead of physical reset on the board, IDE comes with a feature of resetting the board through
programming.
IOREF. This pin is very useful for providing voltage reference to the board. A shield is used to
read the voltage across this pin which then select the proper power source.
PWM. PWM is provided by 3, 5, 6,9,10, 11pins. These pins are configured to provide 8-bit
output PWM.
SPI. It is known as Serial Peripheral Interface. Four pins 10(SS), 11(MOSI), 12(MISO),
13(SCK) provide SPI communication with the help of SPI library.
AREF. It is called Analog Reference. This pin is used for providing a reference voltage to the
analog inputs.
TWI. It is called Two-wire Interface. TWI communication is accessed through Wire Library. A4
and A5 pins are used for this purpose.
Serial Communication. Serial communication is carried out through two pins called Pin 0 (Rx)
and Pin 1 (Tx).
Rx pin is used to receive data while Tx pin is used to transmit data.

External Interrupts. Pin 2 and 3 are used for providing external interrupts. An interrupt is
called by providing LOW or changing value.

Arduino Uno Technical Specifications

Microcontroller ATmega328P – 8 bit AVR family microcontroller

Operating Voltage 5V

Recommended Input Voltage 7-12V

Input Voltage Limits 6-20V

Analog Input Pins 6 (A0 – A5)

Digital I/O Pins 14 (Out of which 6 provide PWM output)

DC Current on I/O Pins 40 mA

DC Current on 3.3V Pin 50 mA

Flash Memory 32 KB (0.5 KB is used for Bootloader)

SRAM 2 KB

EEPROM 1 KB

Frequency (Clock Speed) 16 MHz

Communication and Programming:

Arduino Uno comes with an ability of interfacing with other other Arduino boards,
microcontrollers and computer. The Atmega328 placed on the board provides serial
communication using pins like Rx and Tx.

The Atmega16U2 incorporated on the board provides a pathway for serial communication using
USB com drivers. Serial monitor is provided on the IDE software which is used to send or
receive text data from the board. If LEDs placed on the Rx and Tx pins will flash, they indicate
the transmission of data.

Arduino Uno is programmed using Arduino Software which a cross-platform application called
IDE is written in Java. The AVR microcontroller Atmega328 laid out on the base comes with
built-in boot loader that sets you free from using a separate burner to upload the program on the
board.

Applications:

Arduino Uno comes with a wide range of applications. A larger number of people are using
Arduino boards for developing sensors and instruments that are used in scientific
research. Following are some main applications of the board.

 Embedded System

 Security and Defense System

 Digital Electronics and Robotics

 Parking Lot Counter

 Weighing Machines

 Traffic Light Count Down Timer

 Medical Instrument

 Emergency Light for Railways

 Home Automation

 Industrial Automation

There are a lot of other microcontrollers available in the market that are more powerful and
cheap as compared to Arduino board. So, why you prefer Arduino Uno?

Actually, Arduino comes with a big community that is developing and sharing the knowledge
with a wide range of audience. Quick support is available pertaining to technical aspects of any
electronic project. When you decide Arduino board over other controllers, you don’t need to
arrange extra peripherals and devices as most of the functions are readily available on the board
that makes your project economical in nature and free from a lot of technical expertise.

Power supply:
A power supply is a component that provides at least one electrical charge with power. It
typically converts one type of electrical power to another, but it can also convert a different
Energy form in electrical energy, such as solar, mechanical, or chemical.

A power supply provides electrical power to components. Usually the term refers to devices built
into the powered component. Computer power supplies, for example, convert AC current to DC
current and are generally located along with at least one fan at the back of the computer case.

Most computer power supplies also have an input voltage switch that, depending on the
geographic location, can be set to 110v/115v or 220v/240v. Due to the different power voltages
supplied by power outlets in different countries, this switch position is crucial.
Some basic components used in the supply of power:

Transformer:

A transformer is a static electrical gadget that exchanges control between at least two circuits. A
fluctuating current creates a changing attractive motion in one transformer curl, which thus
actuates a differing electromotive power over a second loop twisted around a similar center.

Without a metallic association between the two circuits, electrical vitality can be exchanged
between the two loops. The enlistment law of Faraday found in 1831 portrayed the impact of
prompted voltage in any curl because of the changing attractive flux surrounded by the coil.

Circuit of transformer
 Transformer

Rectifier:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction of current.

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found to serve as components of DC power supplies and
direct power transmission systems with high voltage. Rectification can be used in roles other
than direct current generation for use as a power source.

Circuit of rectifier

Rectifier
Capacitors:

Capacitors are used to attain from the connector the immaculate and smoothest DC voltage in
which the rectifier is used to obtain throbbing DC voltage which is used as part of the light of the
present identity. Capacitors are used to acquire square DC from the current AC experience of the
current channels so that they can be used as a touch of parallel yield.

Capacitor

Voltage regulators:
The 78XX voltage controller is mainly used for voltage controllers as a whole. The XX speaks to
the voltage delivered to the specific gadget by the voltage controller as the yield. 7805 will
supply and control 5v yield voltage and 12v yield voltage will be created by 7812.

The voltage controllers are that their yield voltage as information requires no less than 2 volts.
For example, 7805 as sources of information will require no less than 7V, and 7812, no less than
14 volts. This voltage is called Dropout Voltage, which should be given to voltage controllers.
 7805 voltage regulator with pinout

7812 voltage regulator with pinout

IR sensor:

An infrared sensor is an electronic device, which emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion.
These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is called as
a passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some form of
thermal radiations. These types of radiations are invisible to our eyes, which can be detected by
an infrared sensor. The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is
simply an IR photodiode which is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that emitted by
the IR LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, the resistances and these output voltages,
change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.
 Different Types of IR Sensors and Their Applications

IR sensors are classified into different types depending on the applications. Some of the typical
applications of different types of sensors are
The speed sensor is used for synchronizing the speed of multiple motors.

The temperature sensor is used for industrial temperature control.

PIR sensor is used for automatic door opening system and

Ultrasonic sensor are used for distance measurement.

Working Principle of Infrared Sensor

Infrared Sensors works on three fundamental Physics laws:
 Planck’s Radiation Law: Any object whose temperature is not equal to absolute Zero (0
Kelvin) emits radiation.
 Stephan Boltzmann Law: The total energy emitted at all wavelengths by a black body is related
to the absolute temperature.
 Wein’s Displacement Law: Objects of different temperature emit spectra that peak at different
wavelengths that is inversely proportional to Temperature.
Key Elements of Infrared Detection System
The key elements of Infrared Detection System are:
 IR Transmitter
IR Transmitter acts as source for IR radiation. According to Plank’s Radiation Law, every object
is a source of IR radiation at temp T above 0 Kelvin. In most cases black body radiators, tungsten
lamps, silicon carbide, infrared lasers, LEDs of infrared wavelength are used as sources.

Transmission Medium
As the name suggests, Transmission Medium provides passage for the radiation to reach from IR
Transmitter to IR Receiver. Vacuum, atmosphere and optical fibers are used as medium.

IR receiver
Generally IR receivers are photo diode and photo transistors. They are capable of detecting
infrared radiation. Hence IR receiver is also called as IR detector. Variety of receivers are
available based on wavelength, voltage and package.

IR Transmitter and Receivers are selected with matching parameters. Some of deciding
specifications of receivers are photosensitivity or responsivity, noise equivalent power and
detectivity.

How Infrared Sensor Works

An Infrared Sensor works in the following sequence:

 IR source (transmitter) is used to emit radiation of required wavelength.

 This radiation reaches the object and is reflected back.

 The reflected radiation is detected by the IR receiver.

 The IR Receiver detected radiation is then further processed based on its intensity. Generally, IR
Receiver output is small and amplifiers are used to amplify the detected signal.

Typical working of IR sensor detection system can be understood by Figure 2 below.

 Fig: How Infrared Sensor Works
Incidence in an IR Detection System may be direct or indirect. In case of Direct Incidence, there
is no hindrance in between transmitter and receiver. Whereas, in Indirect Incidence IR
Transmitter and Receiver are kept side by side and the object is in front of them.

Types of Infrared Sensor

IR sensors can be classified in two types based on presence of IR source:

 Active Infrared Sensor

 Passive Infrared Sensor

Fig: Applications of Infrared Sensor

Relay:

What is a relay?

A relay is an electromagnetic switch that is used to turn on and turn off a circuit by a low power signal, or
where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.

Most of the high end industrial application devices have relays for their effective working.
Relays are simple switches which are operated both electrically and mechanically. Relays consist
of an electromagnet and also a set of contacts. The switching mechanism is carried out with the
help of the electromagnet. There are also other operating principles for its working. But they
differ according to their applications. Most of the devices have the application of relays.

Pin Diagram:

Why is a relay used?

The main operation of a relay comes in places where only a low-power signal can be used to
control a circuit. It is also used in places where only one signal can be used to control a lot of
circuits. The application of relays started during the invention of telephones. They played an
important role in switching calls in telephone exchanges. They were also used in long distance
telegraphy. They were used to switch the signal coming from one source to another destination.
After the invention of computers they were also used to perform Boolean and other logical
operations. The high end applications of relays require high power to be driven by electric
motors and so on. Such relays are called contactors.

Relay Design

 There are only four main parts in a relay. They are

 Electromagnet

 Movable Armature

 Switch point contacts

 Spring

The figures given below show the actual design of a simple relay.

Relay Construction
It is an electro-magnetic relay with a wire coil, surrounded by an iron core. A path of very low
reluctance for the magnetic flux is provided for the movable armature and also the switch point
contacts.

The movable armature is connected to the yoke which is mechanically connected to the switch
point contacts. These parts are safely held with the help of a spring. The spring is used so as to
produce an air gap in the circuit when the relay becomes de-energized.

How relay works?

The relay function can be better understood by explaining the following diagram given below.

Relay Design

The diagram shows an inner section diagram of a relay. An iron core is surrounded by a control
coil. As shown, the power source is given to the electromagnet through a control switch and
through contacts to the load. When current starts flowing through the control coil, the
electromagnet starts energizing and thus intensifies the magnetic field. Thus the upper contact
arm starts to be attracted to the lower fixed arm and thus closes the contacts causing a short
circuit for the power to the load. On the other hand, if the relay was already de-energized when
the contacts were closed, then the contact move oppositely and make an open circuit.

As soon as the coil current is off, the movable armature will be returned by a force back to its
initial position. This force will be almost equal to half the strength of the magnetic force. This
force is mainly provided by two factors. They are the spring and also gravity.
 Relays are mainly made for two basic operations. One is low voltage application and the other is
high voltage. For low voltage applications, more preference will be given to reduce the noise of
the whole circuit. For high voltage applications, they are mainly designed to reduce a
phenomenon called arcing.

Relay Basics

The basics for all the relays are the same. Take a look at a 4 pin relay shown below. There are
two colors shown. The green color represents the control circuit and the red color represents the
load circuit. A small control coil is connected onto the control circuit. A switch is connected to
the load. This switch is controlled by the coil in the control circuit. Now let us take the different
steps that occur in a relay.

Relay operation
 Energized Relay (ON)

As shown in the circuit, the current flowing through the coils represented by pins 1 and 3 causes
a magnetic field to be aroused. This magnetic field causes the closing of the pins 2 and 4. Thus
the switch plays an important role in the relay working. As it is a part of the load circuit, it is
 used to control an electrical circuit that is connected to it. Thus, when the electrical relay in
energized the current flow will be through the pins 2 and 4.

Energized Relay (ON)

 De – Energized Relay (OFF)

As soon as the current flow stops through pins 1 and 3, the relay switch opens and thus the open
circuit prevents the current flow through pins 2 and 4. Thus the relay becomes de-energized and
thus in off position.
 De-Energized Relay (OFF)

In simple, when a voltage is applied to pin 1, the electromagnet activates, causing a

magnetic field to be developed, which goes on to close the pins 2 and 4 causing a closed
circuit. When there is no voltage on pin 1, there will be no electromagnetic force and thus
no magnetic field. Thus the switches remain open.

Pole and Throw

Relays have the exact working of a switch. So, the same concept is also applied. A relay is said
to switch one or more poles. Each pole has contacts that can be thrown in mainly three ways.
They are

 Normally Open Contact (NO): NO contact is also called a make contact. It closes the circuit
when the relay is activated. It disconnects the circuit when the relay is inactive.
 Normally Closed Contact (NC): NC contact is also known as break contact. This is opposite to
the NO contact. When the relay is activated, the circuit disconnects. When the relay is
deactivated, the circuit connects.
 Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) Contacts: This type of contacts are used to control
two types of circuits. They are used to control a NO contact and also a NC contact with a
 common terminal. According to their type they are called by the names break before
make and make before break contacts.

Relays can be used to control several circuits by just one signal. A relay switches one or more
poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil.

Relays are also named with designations like

 Single Pole Single Throw (SPST): The SPST relay has a total of four terminals. Out of these
two terminals can be connected or disconnected. The other two terminals are needed for the coil
to be connected.
 Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT): The SPDT relay has a total of five terminals. Out of these
two are the coil terminals. A common terminal is also included which connects to either of two
others.
 Double Pole Single Throw (DPST): The DPST relay has a total of six terminals. These
terminals are further divided into two pairs. Thus they can act as two SPST which are actuated
by a single coil. Out of the six terminals two of them are coil terminals.
 Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT): The DPDT relay is the biggest of all. It has mainly eight
relay terminals. Out of these two rows are designed to be change over terminals. They are
designed to act as two SPDT relays which are actuated by a single coil.

Relay Applications

 A relay circuit is used to realize logic functions. They play a very important role in providing
safety critical logic.
 Relays are used to provide time delay functions. They are used to time the delay open and delay
close of contacts.
 Relays are used to control high voltage circuits with the help of low voltage signals. Similarly
they are used to control high current circuits with the help of low current signals.
 They are also used as protective relays. By this function all the faults during transmission and
reception can be detected and isolated.
 Application of Overload Relay

Overload relay is an electro-mechanical device that is used to safeguard motors from overloads
and power failures. Overload relays are installed in motors to safeguard against sudden current
spikes that may damage the motor. An overload relay switch works in characteristics with
current over time and is different from circuit breakers and fuses, where a sudden trip is made to
turn off the motor. The most widely used overload relay is the thermal overload relay where a
bimetallic strip is used to turn off the motor. This strip is set to make contact with a contactor by
bending itself with rising temperatures due to excess current flow. The contact between the strip
and the contactor causes the contactor to de-energize and restricts the power to the motor, and
thus turns it off.

Another type of overload motor is the electronic type which continuously watches the motor
current, whereas the thermal overload relay shuts off the motor depending on the rise of
temperature/heat of the strip.

All overload relays available to buy comes in different specifications, the most important of them
being the current ranges and response time. Most of them are designed to automatically reset to
work after the motor is turned back on.

Relay Selection

You must note some factors while selecting a particular relay. They are

 Protection Different protections like contact protection and coil protection must be noted.
Contact protection helps in reducing arcing in circuits using inductors. Â Coil protection helps in
reducing surge voltage produced during switching.
 Look for a standard relay with all regulatory approvals.
 Switching time Ask for high speed switching relays if you want one.
 Ratings There are current as well as voltage ratings. The current ratings vary from a few amperes
to about 3000 amperes. Â In case of voltage ratings, they vary from 300 Volt AC to 600 Volt
AC. There are also high voltage relays of about 15,000 Volts.
 Type of contact used whether it is a NC or NO or closed contact.
 Select Make before Break or Break before Make contacts wisely.
 Isolation between coil circuit and contacts

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

The Light emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. In 1962, Nick Holonyak has
come up with an idea of light emitting diode, and he was working for the general electric
company. The LED is a special type of diode and they have similar electrical characteristics of a
PN junction diode. Hence the LED allows the flow of current in the forward direction and blocks
the current in the reverse direction. The LED occupies the small area which is less than
the 1 mm2. The applications of LEDs used to make various electrical and electronic projects. In
this article, we will discuss the working principle of the LED and its applications.
What is a Light Emitting Diode?

The lighting emitting diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a specially doped diode and made up of a
special type of semiconductors. When the light emits in the forward biased, then it is called as a
light emitting diode.

How does the Light Emitting Diode work?

The light emitting diode simply, we know as a diode. When the diode is forward biased, then the
electrons & holes are moving fast across the junction and they are combining constantly,
removing one another out. Soon after the electrons are moving from the n-type to the p-type
silicon, it combines with the holes, then it disappears. Hence it makes the complete atom & more
stable and it gives the little burst of energy in the form of a tiny packet or photon of light.

Schematic:

 A Light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a pn junction diode. When carriers are injected
across a forward-biased junction, it emits incoherent light.

 Most of the commercial LEDs are realized using a highly doped n and a p Junction.

LED Materials:
A critical class of business LEDs that cover the unmistakable range. Ternary composites in view
of alloying GaAs and GaP which are signified by GaAs1-yPy. InGaAlP is a case of a quarternary
(four component) III-V compound with an immediate band crevice. The LEDs acknowledged
utilizing two diversely doped semiconductors that are the same material is known as a
homojunction. When they are acknowledged utilizing diverse bandgap materials they are known
as a heterostructure gadget heterostructure LED is brighter than a homoJunction LED.

LED Structure:

The LED structure assumes a vital part in radiating light from the LED surface. The LEDs are
organized to guarantee the majority of the recombinations happens at first glance by the
accompanying two ways. • By expanding the doping grouping of the substrate, so that extra free
minority charge transporters electrons move to the top, recombine and emanate light at the
surface. • By expanding the dissemination length L = √ Dτ, where D is the dispersion coefficient
and τ is the bearer life time. In any case, when expanded past a basic length there is a possibility
of re-retention of the photons into the gadget. The LED must be organized so that the photons
produced from the gadget are transmitted without being reabsorbed. One arrangement is to make
the p layer on the top, sufficiently flimsy to make an exhaustion layer. Taking after picture
demonstrates the layered structure. There are diverse approaches to structure the vault for
proficient transmitting.

LEDs are normally based on a n-sort substrate, with a terminal joined to the p-sort layer saved on
its surface. P-sort substrates, while less basic, happen too. Numerous business LEDs, particularly
GaN/InGaN, likewise utilize sapphire substrate. Driven productivity: A vital metric of a LED is
the outside quantum proficiency next. It measures the efficiency of the transformation of
electrical vitality into transmitted optical vitality. It is characterized as the light yield isolated by
the electrical information power.

It is likewise characterized as the result of Internal radiative proficiency and Extraction

productivity. ηext = Pout(optical)/IV For backhanded band gap semiconductors ηext is for the
most part under 1%, where concerning an immediate band hole material it could be generous.
ηint = rate of radiation recombination/Total recombination The interior effectiveness is an
element of the nature of the material and the structure and arrangement of the layer.

Applications:

LED have a lot of applications. Following are few examples.

• Devices, medical applications, clothing, toys

• Remote Controls (TVs, VCRs)

• Lighting

• Indicators and signs

• Optoisolators and optocouplers

• Swimming pool lighting

Advantages of using LEDs

• LEDs deliver more light per watt than radiant knobs; this is valuable in battery fueled or vitality
sparing gadgets.

• LEDs can radiate light of a planned shading without the utilization of shading channels that
customary lighting techniques require. This is more effective and can bring down introductory
expenses.

• The strong bundle of the LED can be intended to center its light. Glowing and fluorescent
sources frequently require an outside reflector to gather light and direct it in a usable way.

• When utilized as a part of utilizations where darkening is required, LEDs don't change their
shading tint as the present going through them is brought down, not at all like radiant lights,
which turn yellow.

• LEDs are perfect for use in applications that are liable to visit on-off cycling, not at all like
fluorescent lights that copy out all the more immediately when cycled much of the time, or High
Intensity Discharge (HID) lights that require quite a while before restarting.

• LEDs, being strong state segments, are hard to harm with outer stun. Fluorescent and radiant
globules are effectively broken if dropped on the ground.

• LEDs can have a moderately long valuable life. A Philips LUXEON k2 LED has an existence
time of around 50,000 hours, though Fluorescent tubes commonly are appraised at around 30,000
hours, and brilliant lights at 1,000–2,000 hours.

• LEDs generally fall flat by darkening after some time, as opposed to the unexpected wear out
of brilliant globules.

• LEDs illuminate rapidly. A run of the mill red marker LED will accomplish full brilliance in
microseconds; Philips Lumileds specialized datasheet DS23 for the Luxeon Star states "under
100ns." LEDs utilized as a part of specialized gadgets can have significantly quicker reaction
times.

• LEDs can be little and are effortlessly populated onto printed circuit sheets.

• LEDs don't contain mercury, not at all like conservative fluorescent lights.
Buzzer:

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical,

or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers and
confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke. Buzzer is an integrated structure
of electronic transducers, DC power supply, widely used in computers, printers, copiers, alarms,
electronic toys, automotive electronic equipment, telephones, timers and other electronic
products for sound devices. Active buzzer 5V Rated power can be directly connected to a
continuous sound, this section dedicated sensor expansion module and the board in combination,
can complete a simple circuit design, to "plug and play.

Buzzer Pin Configuration

Pin Pin Description

Number Name

1 Positive Identified by (+) symbol or longer terminal

lead. Can be powered by 5V DC

2 Negative Identified by short terminal lead. Typically

connected to the ground of the circuit
Buzzer Features and Specifications

 Rated Voltage: 6V DC
 Operating Voltage: 4-8V DC
 Rated current: <30mA
 Sound Type: Continuous Beep
 Resonant Frequency: ~2300 Hz
 Small and neat sealed package
 Breadboard and Perf board friendly

How to use a Buzzer

A buzzer is a small yet efficient component to add sound features to our project/system. It is
very small and compact 2-pin structure hence can be easily used on breadboard, Perf Board and
even on PCBs which makes this a widely used component in most electronic applications.

There are two types are buzzers that are commonly available. The one shown here is a simple
buzzer which when powered will make a Continuous Beeeeeeppp.... sound, the other type is
called a readymade buzzer which will look bulkier than this and will produce a Beep. Beep.
Beep. Sound due to the internal oscillating circuit present inside it. But, the one shown here is
most widely used because it can be customized with help of other circuits to fit easily in our
application.

This buzzer can be used by simply powering it using a DC power supply ranging from 4V to 9V.
A simple 9V battery can also be used, but it is recommended to use a regulated +5V or +6V DC
supply. The buzzer is normally associated with a switching circuit to turn ON or turn OFF the
buzzer at required time and require interval.

Applications of Buzzer

 Alarming Circuits, where the user has to be alarmed about something

 Communication equipment’s
 Automobile electronics
 Portable equipment’s, due to its compact size
 ADVANTAGES

 Avoid accidents in curve roads mountains roads and hill roads.

 Saves thousands of lives.

 Easily implementable to the existing roads.

 Fully automated (No person is required to operate).

 Installation cost is very less.

 Vehicle monitoring systems can be implemented easily.

APPLICATIONS

 Useful for drivers

 Curve Roads

 U-Turns

CONCLUSION

The accident prevention system was developed and tested. The system was able to alert the
vehicle approaching in the opposite direction of curve, hairpin bend or a blind spot to reduce the
accident rate in hilly regions. This system will decrease the rate of accidents in hilly regions and
helps in analyzing the traffic pattern in the region.
 REFERENCES

[1] R.S. Rakul, S. Ravia and K.N. Thirukkuralkani proposed a paper on “Implementation Of
Vehicle Mishap Averting System Using Arduino Microcontroller”.

[2] Jessen Joseph Leo and R. Monishaz proposed a paper in International Conference on
Electronics and Communication System JCECS -2014 on “Vehicle Movement Control and
Accident Avoidance in Hilly Track”.

[3] D. Haripriya, M. Puthanial and Dr. P. C. Kishore Raja published a paper on “Accident
Prevention System and Security for Vehicles’’ in International Journal of Computer Trends and
Technology in 2014.

[4] S.P. Bhumkar, V.V. Deotare and R.V. Babar published a paper on “Accident Avoidance and
Detection on Highways” in 2012.

[5] S. Uvaraja and V. Raghav Prashanth, “Advanced Pre-Warning System (Railways),” IACSIT
International Journal of Engineering and Technology, vol. 4, no. 2, April 2012.

[6] K.P. Sreevishakh, Prof.S.P. Dhanure, “Automotive Crash Insight using AMR Sensor
System,” International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer and Communication
Engineering, vol. 4, Issue 5, May 2015.

[7]Aravinda B, Chaithralakshmi C, Deeksha, Ashutha K “Sensor Based Accident Prevention

System” International Journal of Innovative Research in Electrical, Electronics, Instrumentation
And Control Engineering Vol. 4, Issue 6, June 2016.

[8]Kartik Venkata Mutya, Sandeep Rudra “Road Safety Mechanism to Prevent Overtaking
Accidents” International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume 28
Number 5 - October 2015.

[9] Ranga Sreedhar Galla “Diminishing Road Accidents on Sharp Curves Using Arduino” ISSN:
2456-9992
[10] R. Meena, R.Lavanya and K.Suresh Kumar “Pre-Crash Sensing and Warning System in
Hilly Region” Asian Journal of Applied Science and Technology (AJAST) Volume 1, Issue 3,
Pages 08-10, April 2017.

[11] Stephen Eduku, Mohammed Okoe Alhassan, Joseph Sekyi “Design of Vehicle Accident
Prevention System Using Wireless Technology” International Journal of Scientific and Research
Publications, Volume 7, Issue 10, October 2017 ISSN 2250-3153