Document 11

REVIEWER
EARTH SCIENCE
ROCK -is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals. The aggregate
minerals forming the rocks are held together by chemical bonds. Grains can be different
in color, texture, and sizes.
PETROLOGY - Petrology is the scientific study of rocks. Petrologists classify rocks based
on how they were formed.
Three types of Rocks
Igneous- formed from hardening and crystallization of magma or molten material

that originates deep within the earth.
Two types of igneous rock:
• Extrusive/Volcanic rock - forms when magma makes its way to Earth’s surface as lava
and then cools. The crystals are very small (fine-grained) since the cooling process is fast
• Intrusive/Plutonic - It cools slowly beneath the Earth surface and are created by
magma. The intrusive igneous rocks have very large crystals (coarse grained).
Igneous rocks are classified based on

1. Composition-it refers to rock’s mineral and chemicalmake-up.
Felsic – igneous rocks that are light in colors; feldspar and silicates
Mafic – dark-colored igneous rocks made up of magnesium, calcium and iron
Intermediate – refers to igneous rocks between mafic and felsic composition.
Ultramafic – denotes igneous rocks that composed chiefly of mafic minerals.
2. Texture - overall appearance of a rock based on the size, shape, and arrangement of
interlocking mineral crystals.
Aphanistic – fine-grained rocks with crystals seen by aid of microscope. Phaneritic -
coarse-grained rocks
Porphyritic – large crystals with small crystals
Glassy - a rock that looks like colored glass with no visible mineral crystal.
Pyroclastic- results from explosive fragmentation of volcanic material.
Metamorphic - forms from pre-existing rocks: either metamorphic, igneous,

sedimentary or other metamorphic rocks that have been altered by agents of
metamorphism.
Metamorphism - transformation of one rock type into another.

2 types of metamorphism
• Regional-due to changes in pressure and temperature over large region of the

crust. It may happen when rock is buried deep below the surface of the earth.
• Contact-the rock minerals and textures are changed mainly by heat due to
contact with magma.
Classification:
• Texture - refers to the size arrangement and grains within the rock.
Foliation - any planar arrangement of mineral grains or structural features within the
rock.
Foliated rocks – can be arranged in terms of increasing metamorphism, and
it appeared layered or banded with compressed mineral grains.
Non-foliated rocks – usually made up of only few minerals
Sedimentary rocks- provide information about surface conditions that existed in the
Earth’s past.
• Compaction-due to increase of pressure of layered sediments it bind together

to form the sedimentary rocks.
Three types of sedimentary rocks
Clastic Sedimentary rock - formed from accumulation of clasts: little pieces of broken
rocks and shells. Example: sandstone, shale
Chemical - formed when dissolved minerals precipitate from a solution.

Example: Halite - formed when a body of seawater becomes closed off and evaporates.
Organic - rocks formed from the accumulation of animal debris

Example: fossils, Coal-composed of organic matter in the form of plants fragments.
MINERALS
Minerals - are the building blocks of rocks.
Mineralogists - A mineralogist is a person who studies minerals.

Characteristics of Minerals
naturally occurring- term which identifies mineral as part of earth’s natural processes.
Example: Diamond - Diamonds are made entirely of carbon
inorganic- means a substance is not a product of an organism.
Homogeneous solid -minerals should have definite volume and rigid shape ( A mineral must be
chemically and physically uniform down to the atomic level )
definite chemical composition—represented by a chemical formula ( determines the physical

and chemical properties of the substance)
orderly crystalline structure -atoms of minerals are arranged in an orderly

and repeating pattern
Properties of Minerals
• Color - mineral’s color may change depending on the surface.

• Streak - color of mineral in powdered form.
• Hardness - minerals resistance to scratching
Mohs Scale of Hardness (Diamond is the Hardest with a scale of 10)

The Mohs Hardness Scale is used as a convenient way to help identify minerals .
10 - Diamond
9 - Corundum
8 - Topaz
7 - Quartz
6 - Orthoclase
5 - Apatite
4 - Fluorite
3 - Calcite
2 - Gypsum
1 – Talc
The Mohs scale (pronounced MOZE) was introduced in 1822. It originated when Friedrich Mohs
chose ten minerals and assigned numbers to them based on the relative ease or difficulty in
which stone can be scratched by another.
Cleavage - mineral’s resistance to being broken and fracture

Crystalline- structure or habit
Diaphaneity/amount of transparency - ability to allow light to pass
through it. This is affected by chemical makeup of the mineral sample.
Luster - how light is reflected off a surface
Tenacity- describes the minerals reaction to stress.
• Brittleness- a mineral turns into powder

• Malleability a mineral can be flattened by pounding with a hammer. Ductility- A mineral can
be stretched into wire.
• Flexible but inelastic-Minerals are bent but they remain in the new
position.
• Flexible and elastic- Minerals are bent, and they bring back to their
original position.
• Sectility- ability of minerals to be sliced by a knife.
The Earth’s Internal Heat
Heat energy plays a vital role in our planet. It is one of the extreme factors in what makes the
world liveable.

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REVIEWER

Three types of Rocks

Igneous- formed from hardening and crystallization of magma or molten material

Two types of igneous rock:

Igneous rocks are classified based on

Metamorphic - forms from pre-existing rocks: either metamorphic, igneous,

Metamorphism - transformation of one rock type into another.

• Regional-due to changes in pressure and temperature over large region of the

• Compaction-due to increase of pressure of layered sediments it bind together

Three types of sedimentary rocks

Chemical - formed when dissolved minerals precipitate from a solution.

Organic - rocks formed from the accumulation of animal debris

Minerals - are the building blocks of rocks.

Mineralogists - A mineralogist is a person who studies minerals.

inorganic- means a substance is not a product of an organism.

definite chemical composition—represented by a chemical formula ( determines the physical

orderly crystalline structure -atoms of minerals are arranged in an orderly

• Color - mineral’s color may change depending on the surface.

Mohs Scale of Hardness (Diamond is the Hardest with a scale of 10)

Cleavage - mineral’s resistance to being broken and fracture

• Brittleness- a mineral turns into powder

The Earth’s Internal Heat

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