PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def.

P - 3
Chapters P - 3
DEFINITIONS, THEOREMS, AND FORMULAS
Review Geometry Formulas
Note: Definitions and theorems marked with an * should be carefully memorized. You may be
asked to state the definition or theorem on a test or quiz.

1. Thm. Circumference
Circle: r C 2 =
2. Thm. Area of a Plane Figure
a. Rectangle: lw A = b. Parallelogram: bh A =
c. Triangle: bh A
2
1
= d. Trapezoid: ) (
2
1
b B h A + =
e. Circle:
2
r A =
3. Thm. Surface Area of a Solid Figure
a. Sphere:
2
4 r SA = b. Cylinder:
2
2 2 r rh SA + =
c. Rectangular solid: wh lh lw SA 2 2 2 + + =
4. Thm. Volume of a Solid Figure
a. Rectangular solid: lwh V =
b. Cylinder: h r V
2
=
c. Cone: h r V
2
3
1
= d. Sphere:
3
3
4
r V =

Review Measurement Equivalencies
5. Linear Measure:
12 inches = 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
5280 feet = 1 mile
100 meters = 1 kilometer
100 centimeters = 1 meter
1000 millimeters = 1 meter
6. Degree measure:
360 = 1 revolution 2 radians = 1 revolution
7. Weight:
16 ounces = 1 pound 2000 pounds = 1 ton

PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
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Chapter P Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
8. Def. Rational Exponents: ( )
m
n
n
m
a a = , provided
n
m
is a rational number, 1 > n and
n
a is a
real number.
9. Prop. Radicals of a Power:

=
odd is if
even is if
n a
n a
a
n n
.
10. Prop. Powers of a Radical: ( ) a a
n
n
= .
11. Prop. Product Property of Radicals:
n n n
b a ab = , provided 0 > a and 0 > b whenever n
is even.
12. Prop. Quotient Property of Radicals:
n
n
n
b
a
b
a
= , provided 0 > a and 0 > b whenever n is
even.
13. Prop. Reducing an Index:
n m mn
a a = , provided 0 > a whenever mn is even.
14. Thm. Quadratic Formula: If 0
2
= + + c bx ax , then
a
ac b b
x
2
4
2

= , provided 0 a .
15. Thm. Square Root Property: If d x =
2
, then d x = , provided 0 > d .
16. Def. Root of an Equation: A root of an equation is another name for a solution to the equation.
17. Def. And/Or: The word and means an intersection of two sets and may be written as ; the
word or means the union of two sets and may be written as .
18. Def. Imaginary Unit: The imaginary unit i is 1 .
19. Def. Principal Square Root of a Negative Real Number: The principal square root of b ,
where b is any positive real number, is defined to be b i b = .
20. Def. *Complex Numbers: The set of Complex Numbers is the set of numbers bi a + where a
and b are real numbers.
21. Def. *Discriminant: The expression ac b 4
2
is called the discriminant of a quadratic equation.
22. Thm. Nature of the Roots of a Quadratic Equation: The quadratic equation 0
2
= + + c bx ax
where a, b, and c are any real numbers has
a. two real roots if the discriminant is positive.
b. one real root if the discriminant is zero.
c. two complex roots if the discriminant is negative.
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
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23. Def. Interval Notation: Let a and b be any two numbers on the number line where b a < .
Intervals on a number line can be expressed as follows:
a. b x a is written [ ] b a, and is called a closed interval.
b. b x a < < is written ( ) b a, and is called an open interval.
c. b x a < is written ( ] b a, and is called a half-open interval. Similarly,
b x a < is written [ ) b a,
d. a x > is written ( ) , a . e. a x is written [ ) , a .
f. b x < is written ( ) b , . g. b x is written ( ] b , .
h. ( ) , is used to signify the set of all real numbers.
24. Alg Def. *Absolute Value:

<

=
0 if
0 if
a a
a a
a .
25. Geom Def. *Absolute Value: a represents the distance from a to 0 on the number line.
26. Thm. *Distance Between Two Points: The distance between two points a and b on the number
line is b a .
27. Thm. Product of Absolute Values: b a ab = .
Chapter 1A Functions and Their Graphs
28. Def. Relation: A relation is any set of ordered pairs. The set of all first components of the
ordered pairs is called the domain of the relation. The set of all second components of the
ordered pairs is called the range of the relation.
29. Def. *Function: A function is a set of ordered pairs such that no two ordered pairs have the same
first element. When we write a function as ) (x f y = , x is called the independent variable
and y the dependent variable in the function. (On a graph the independent variable is
usually graphed on the horizontal axis and the dependent on the vertical.)
30. Def. Domain: The domain of a function is the set of all allowable values for the independent
quantity in a functional relationship.
31. Def. Range: The range of a function is the set of all resultant dependent values.
32. Def. Argument of a Function: Any value of the independent variable is called an argument of
the function.
33. Def. Value of a Function: Any value of the dependent variable is called a value of the function.
34. Def. Zero (or Root) of a Function: A value x for which 0 ) ( = x f is called a zero (or root) of a
function. It corresponds to an x-intercept on the graph.
35. Thm. Vertical Line Test: A relation graphed in the xy-plane is a function if and only if a vertical
line intersects the graph in at most one point.
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
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36. Def. Line Symmetry: A graph has line symmetry if there is a line for which the points on one
side of the line are a mirror refection of the points on the other side of the line.
37. Thm. Line Symmetry: A curve is symmetric about the:
a. x-axis if for every point ) , ( y x on the curve, there is also a point ( ) y x , on the curve.
b. y-axis if for every point ) , ( y x on the curve, there is also a point ( ) y x, on the curve.
c. diagonal line x y = if for every point ) , ( y x on the curve, there is also a point ( ) x y,
on the curve.
38. Def. Point Symmetry: A graph has point symmetry if it is possible to pair the points on the graph
so that one single point is the midpoint of the segment joining every such pair of points.
39. Thm. Point Symmetry About the Origin: A curve is symmetric about the origin if for every point
) , ( y x on the curve, there is also a point ) , ( y x on the curve.
40. Skill. Toolbox functions: You should be able to name these functions and sketch each graph
immediately on sight:
a. Constant Function:
c y = .





b. Identity Function:
x y = .
c. Absolute Value
Function: x y = .
d. Square Function:
2
x y = .





e. Square Root Function:
x y = .
f.
Cube Function:
3
x y = .
g. Cube Root Function:
3
x y = .






h. Reciprocal Function:
x
y
1
= .
i.
Greatest Integer
Function: [ ] x y = .
41. Def. Greatest Integer Function: [ ] x y = , where y is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
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42. Def. *Increasing Function: A function is increasing on an open interval if for any pair of values
1
x and
2
x where
2 1
x x < , then ) ( ) (
2 1
x f x f < .
43. Def. *Decreasing Function: A function is decreasing on an open interval if for any pair of values
1
x and
2
x where
2 1
x x < , then ) ( ) (
2 1
x f x f > .
44. Def. Constant Function: A function is constant on an open interval if for any pair of values
1
x
and
2
x , ) ( ) (
2 1
x f x f = .
45. Def. Relative Maximum (or Local Maximum): ) (c f is a relative maximum of f if there exists
an open interval containing c for which ) ( ) ( x f c f for all x in the interval.
46. Def. Relative Minimum (or Local Minimum): ) (c f is a relative minimum of f if there exists
an open interval containing c for which ) ( ) ( x f c f for all x in the interval.
47. Def. *Even Function: A function f is an even function if ) ( ) ( x f x f = for all x in the
domain of f.
48. Def. *Odd Function: A function f is an odd function if ) ( ) ( x f x f = for all x in the
domain of f.
49. Thm. Even and Odd Functions: A function is even if and only if its graph is symmetric about the
y-axis. A function is odd if and only if its graph is symmetric about the origin.
50. Thm. *Graphing Transformations:
a. The graph of ) ( ) ( h x f x g = results from translating (or sliding) the graph of ) (x f h
units horizontally.
b. The graph of k x f x g + = ) ( ) ( results from translating (or sliding) the graph of ) (x f k
units vertically.
c. The graph of ) ( ) ( cx f x g = results from taking the graph of ) (x f and compressing or
stretching it horizontally by a factor of
c
1
.
d. The graph of ) ( ) ( x cf x g = results from taking the graph of ) (x f and compressing or
stretching it vertically by a factor of c.
e. The graph of ) ( ) ( x f x g = results from reflecting the graph of ) (x f about the y-
axis.
f. The graph of ) ( ) ( x f x g = results from reflecting the graph of ) (x f about the x-axis.
g. The graph of ) ( ) ( x f x g = results from the graph of ) (x f as follows: points in
quadrants I and IV are identical to the original. Points in quadrants II and III are a mirror
reflection of those in quadrants I and IV, respectively.
h. The graph of ) ( ) ( x f x g = results from the graph of ) (x f as follows: points above
the x-axis remain in place and points below the x-axis are reflected about the x-axis.
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
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Chapter 1B Function Operations and Coordinate Geometry
51. Def. Operations on Functions:
a. ) ( ) ( ) )( ( x g x f x g f + = + b. ) ( ) ( ) )( ( x g x f x g f =
c. ) ( ) ( ) )( ( x g x f x g f =
d.
) (
) (
) (
x g
x f
x
g
f
=
|
|

\
|
provided 0 ) ( x g
52. Def. Composite Function: Given two functions f and g, the composite function is written
( ) ) (x g f and is found by )) ( ( ) )( ( x g f x g f = . Its domain is the set of numbers in the
domain of g for which ) (x g is in the domain of f.
53. Skill. Finding the Domain of a Composite Function:
a. First find the domain of the inner function. I will refer to this as the preliminary domain
because the domain of the composite function will either be this set or a subset of it.
b. Next form the composite function. Simplify and examine this composite function to see
if there are any additional values that need to be excluded from the domain.
c. Exclude any additional values found in part b. from the preliminary domain. The
remaining set is then the domain of the composite function.
54. Def. Identity Function: ) (x I represents the function x y = .
55. Def. *Inverse of a Function: The inverse of a function ) (x f y = is the function ) (
1
x f

for
which x x I x f f x f f = = =

) ( )) ( ( )) ( (
1 1
.
56. Def. *One-To-One Function: A function is 1:1 if no two different ordered pairs have the same
second element.
57. Thm. Horizontal Line Test: A function graphed in the xy-plane is 1:1 if and only if a horizontal
line intersects the graph in at most one point.
58. Thm. Existence of an Inverse Function: A function f has an inverse that is also a function if and
only if f is one to one (or its graph passes a horizontal line test).
59. Thm. Properties of Inverse Functions:
a. If ( ) b a, is on the graph of a function ) (x f y = , then ( ) a b, is on the graph of
) (
1
x f y

= .
b. The domain of ) (x f y = is the range of ) (
1
x f y

= . The range of ) (x f y = is the
domain of ) (
1
x f y

= .
c. The graph of ) (
1
x f y

= is the mirror image of ) (x f y = about the line x y = .
60. Skill Finding the Equation of an Inverse Function: To find the inverse of a function, reverse the
x and y variables and solve for y.
61. Skill Finding the Range of a Function: To find the range of ) (x f , find ) (x f
1
and
determine its domain. The domain of ) (x f
1
is the range of ) (x f .
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62. Def. Slope-Intercept Form of a Line: The slope intercept form of a non-vertical line with slope
m and y-intercept b is b mx y + = .
63. Def. *Point-Slope Form of a Line: The point-slope form of a non-vertical line with slope m
that passes through point ( )
1 1
, y x is ( )
1 1
x x m y y = .
64. Def. Two Intercept Form of a Line: The two-intercept form of a non-vertical line with
intercepts ( ) 0 , a and ( ) b , 0 is 1 = +
b
y
a
x
.
65. Def. Step Function: A step function is a function whose graph consists of discontinuous
horizontal line segments whose endpoints are increasing or decreasing, forming the visual
pattern of steps. The two most common step functions are the floor and ceiling functions.
a. Floor Function (or Greatest Integer Function):

x y = or [ ] x y = or ) int(x y = ,
where y is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
b. Ceiling Function:
(
x y = , where y is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.
66. Skill Writing a Step Function:
a. Determine if fractional parts of the input values need to be rounded up or down. If up,
choose a ceiling function; if down, choose a floor function.
b. Find one pair of starting values to use as an ordered pair.
c. Since slope is change in y over change in x, determine the value of each
that corresponds to the steps of the function. Do not reduce this slope.
d. Write a linear equation using the Point-Slope Form of a Line.
e. Pull the denominator of the slope under the x factor and put that fraction in
the appropriate ceiling or floor bracket. Keep the numerator of the slope
outside the bracket.
f. Solve for y to obtain the equation in function form.
67. Thm. Distance Formula: The distance between points ) , (
1 1
y x and ) , (
2 2
y x is
( ) ( )
2
1 2
2
1 2
y y x x d + = .
68. Thm. Midpoint Formula: The midpoint between points ) , (
1 1
y x and ) , (
2 2
y x is the point
|
|

\
| + +
=
2
,
2
2 1 2 1
y y x x
M .
69. Def. Locus: A locus is the set of all points satisfying a given condition.
70. Geom Def Circle: A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point.
71. Alg Def. Circle: The set of points ) , ( y x such that
2 2 2
) ( ) ( k y h x r + = form a circle
whose center is at ) , ( k h and whose radius has value r.
72. Thm Distance From Point to Line: The distance from a point ( )
0 0
, y x to the line
0 = + + c by ax is
2 2
0 0
b a
c by ax
d
+
+ +
= .
1
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
) (
) , (
y
b
x x
a y
b
x x
a y y
x x
b
a
y y
b
a
m
y x
+
(

=
(

=
=
=
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
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Chapter 2A Modeling and Polynomial Functions
1. Def. Standard Form for a Quadratic Function: k h x a y + =
2
) ( .
2. Def. General Form for a Quadratic Function: c bx ax y + + =
2
, where 0 a .
3. Thm. General Form for a Quadratic Function: If c bx ax y + + =
2
, then:
a. The absolute value of a causes a vertical compression or stretch.
b. The sign of a determines whether or not the graph is reflected about the x-axis.
c. The x-coordinate of the vertex can be found by
a
b
x
2

= . The value corresponds to the

average of the x-intercepts (when they exist).
4. Def. *Power Function: A function of the form
n
ax y = , where n is a constant natural number,
is called a power function.
5. Thm. Graphing a Power Function: Given
n
x y = .
a. If n is even, the graph decreases in the second quadrant and increases in the first
quadrant.
b. If n is odd, the graph increases over all real numbers.
c. The graph always passes through the origin and the point ) 1 , 1 ( .
6. Def. *Polynomial Function: A polynomial function has the form
0 1
1
1
... a x a x a x a y
n
n
n
n
+ + + + =

, where n is a nonnegative integer and 0

n
a . (The
degree of the polynomial is the degree of its highest power term. The coefficient
n
a is
referred to as the leading coefficient.)
7. Def. Cubic Polynomial Function:
0 1
2
2
3
3
a x a x a x a y + + + = , where 0
n
a .
8. Def. Turning Points: A turning point of a polynomial function is a point at which the graph
changes from increasing to decreasing, or vice versa. If the function changes from increasing
to decreasing, the turning point is called a relative (or local) maximum. If the function
changes from decreasing to increasing, the turning point is called a relative (or local)
minimum.
9. Def. Multiplicity of Roots (or Zeros): The multiplicity of a root r for a polynomial function
( ) x f is the maximum number of times the factor r x occurs in ( ) x f .
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
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10. Thm. Graphing a Cubic Function: Given a cubic function
0 1
2
2
3
3
a x a x a x a y + + + = :
a. Its graph is a smooth continuous curve with either 2 turning points or no turning points.
b. Its domain is all real numbers; range is all real umbers.
c. For large absolute values of the variable x, the highest power term becomes dominant,
causing the graph of the cubic polynomial function to resemble the graph of the cubic
power function
3
3
x a y = .
d. If the cubic polynomial function has a root r of multiplicity two (or a double root) then
the shape of the graph near r x = will resemble the vertex of a quadratic function
(meaning the graph will be tangent to the x-axis at this point).
11. Def. Quartic Polynomial Function:
0 1
2
2
3
3
4
4
a x a x a x a x a y + + + + = , where 0
4
a .
12. Thm. Graphing a Polynomial Function: Given a polynomial function
0 1
1
1
... a x a x a x a y
n
n
n
n
+ + + + =

, where 0
n
a :
a. Its graph is a smooth continuous curve with a maximum of 1 n turning points.
b. Its domain is all real numbers. If n is odd, its range is also all real numbers.
c. For large absolute values of the variable x, the highest power term becomes dominant,
causing the graph of the polynomial to resemble the graph of the power function
n
n
x a y = .
d. If the polynomial function has a root r of multiplicity m, then the shape of the graph
near r x = will resemble the graph of the function
m
n
b x a y ) ( = .
Chapter 2B Rational Root Theorem and Rational Functions
13. Thm. Remainder Theorem: If a polynomial ) (x f is divided by c x , then the remainder is
) (c f .
14. Thm. Factor Theorem: c x is a factor of a polynomial ) (x f if and only if 0 ) ( = c f .
15. Thm. Rational Root (or Zero) Theorem: Let ) (x f be a simplified polynomial with integral
coefficients. If the equation 0 ) ( = x f has a rational root
q
p
that is in lowest terms, then p
must be an integral factor of the constant term, and q must be an integral factor of the
leading coefficient.
16. Thm. Real Roots (or Zeros) of a Polynomial Equation:
a. If a polynomial has degree n, then it has at most n real roots.
b. If a polynomial has degree n where n is odd, then it has at least one real root.
17. Def. Variation in Sign: If the terms of a polynomial ) (x f are written in decreasing order
according to the powers of x (ignoring missing terms), each pair of successive coefficients
with opposite signs is called a variation of sign.
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18. Thm. Descartes Rule of Signs: If ) (x f is a polynomial with real coefficients, then:
a. the number of positive real roots of 0 ) ( = x f is either equal to the number of variations
of sign of ) (x f or is less than this number by a positive even integer.
b. the number of negative real roots of 0 ) ( = x f is either equal to the number of variations
of sign of ) ( x f or is less than this number by a positive even integer.
19. Thm. Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: If ) (x f is a polynomial of degree n, where 1 n ,
then the equation 0 ) ( = x f has at least one root within the set of complex numbers.
(Remember that real numbers are part of the set of complex numbers.)
20. Thm. *Properties of Polynomial Equations:
a. If ) (x f is a polynomial of degree n, then (counting multiple roots separately) the
equation 0 ) ( = x f has n roots within the set of complex numbers.
b. If ) (x f is a polynomial with real coefficients and bi a + is root of the equation
0 ) ( = x f , then bi a is also a root.
c. If ) (x f is a polynomial with rational coefficients and b a + is root of the equation
0 ) ( = x f , then b a is also a root.
21. Thm. Sum and Product of the Roots of a Quadratic Function: If
1
r and
2
r are the roots of a
quadratic equation, then the equation can be written as 0 ) (
2 1 2 1
2
= + + r r x r r x .
22. Thm. Sum and Product of the Roots of a Cubic Equation: If
1
r ,
2
r , and
3
r are the roots of a
cubic equation, then the equation can be written as
0 ) ( ) (
3 2 1 1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3 2 1
3
= + + + + + r r r x r r r r r r x r r r x .
23. Def. *Rational Function: A rational function is a function that can be written as the quotient of
two polynomials (the denominator not zero).
24. Thm. Graphing the Reciprocal of Power Function: Given a function
n
x
y
1
= :
a. Its graph is a smooth curve with two separate parts.
b. If n is even the graph lies in quadrants I and II. If n is odd the graph lies in quadrants I
and III.
c. Its domain is all real numbers except zero. It always passes through the point ) 1 , 1 ( .
d. Its graph has a horizontal asymptote along the x-axis and a vertical asymptote along the
y-axis.
25. Def. *Vertical Asymptote: The line a x = is a vertical asymptote of a graph if the y values
approach infinity (positive or negative) as the x values approach a.
26. Def. *Horizontal Asymptote: The line L y = is a horizontal asymptote of a graph if the y
values approach L as the x values approach infinity (positive or negative).
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Chapter 3 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
27. Def. *Exponential Function:
x
b y = for 0 > b , and 1 b is called the exponential function.
(Note: More general functions of the form
x
ab y = are also referred to as exponential.)
28. Thm. Properties of the Exponential Function: Given
x
b y = .
a. The domain is all real numbers; the range is all positive real numbers.
b. The graph is a smooth curve that always goes through the point ) 1 , 0 ( .
c. It is a one-to-one function that increases when 1 > b and decreases when 1 0 < < b .
d. The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote to the graph.
29. Def. e:
n
n
n
e |

\
|
+ =

1
1 lim
30. Thm. Compound Interest: If P is the initial amount of money that is invested in an account that
earns interest rate r (in decimal form) compounded n times per year, then the amount of
money accumulated after t years can be expressed as
nt
n
r
P A |

\
|
+ = 1 .
31. Def. Present Value: If a sum of money A is needed at some future date, the amount of money P
that would need to be invested now to achieve that goal is called the present value of A. (In
other words, the present value is simply the principal that needs to be invested.)
32. Def. Continuous Compounding: Suppose that we let the number n of time periods in the
formula
nt
n
r
P A |

\
|
+ = 1 approach infinity. The value that A approaches under this process
is called the amount earned under continuous compounding.
33. Thm. Continuous Compounding: If P is the initial amount of money that is invested in an
account that earns interest rate r compounded continuously, then the amount of money
accumulated after t years can be expressed as
rt
Pe A = .
34. Def. *Annual Percentage Yield (APY): The annual percentage yield (also known as the
effective annual rate) is the rate of interest compounded annually that will yield the desired
amount of growth.
35. Def. *Logarithm Function: x y
b
log = is called the logarithm function and means that x b
y
=
for 0 > b , 1 b and 0 > x .
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36. Thm. Properties of the Logarithm Function: Given x y
b
log = .
a. The domain is all positive real numbers; the range is all real numbers.
b. The graph is a smooth curve that always goes through the point ) 0 , 1 ( .
c. It is a one-to-one function that increases when 1 > b and decreases when 1 0 < < b .
d. The y-axis is a vertical asymptote to the graph.
e. x y
b
log = is the inverse of
x
b y = and hence their graphs are mirror images about the
line x y = .
37. Def. Natural Logarithm: x y
e
log = is written x y ln = and is called the natural logarithm.
38. Def. Common Logarithm: x y
10
log = is written x y log = and is called the common
logarithm.
39. Thm. Logarithm of a Product: N M MN
b b b
log log log + = .
40. Thm. Logarithm of a Quotient: N M
N
M
b b b
log log log = .
41. Thm. Logarithm of a Power: M p M
b
p
b
log log = .
42. Thm. Logarithm Identity: x b
x
b
=
log
.
43. Thm. Change of Base Property:
b
x
x
a
a
b
log
log
log = .
44. Cor. Reciprocal Property:
b
a
a
b
log
1
log = .
45. Thm. One-to-One Property of Exponentials:
2 1
x x
b b = if and only if
2 1
x x = , provided
1 , 0 , 1 b .
46. Thm. One-to-One Property of Logarithms:
2 1
log log x x
b b
= if and only if
2 1
x x = .
47. Def. Rule of 70 (or 72): The time for a sum of money to double can be approximated by taking
the rate of interest and dividing it into 70 or 72 (whichever is more convenient).
48. Def. Half-Life: The half-life of a decaying substance is the length of time it takes until only half
of the original substance remains.
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. 4 10P
Chapters 4 10P
DEFINITIONS, FORMULAS, AND PROPERTIES
Chapter 4 Trigonometric Functions
Note: Definitions and theorems marked with an * should be carefully memorized. You may be
asked to state the definition or theorem on a test or quiz.
1. Def. Degree: A degree is a unit of measure which divides a full circular rotation into 360 parts.
2. Def. Radian: A radian is a unit of measure which divides a full circular rotation into 2 parts.
3. Thm. Arc length: Let s be the length of the arc and C the circumference of the circle.
a. In degrees: C s =
360

. b. In radians: C

s =
2
.
4. Def. Apparent Size: When an object is being observed, the angle which the object makes with
the eye is called the apparent size of the object.
5. Def. Linear Speed (Velocity): The linear speed of an object traveling around a circle is the
quotient of the arc length traveled and the time.
6. Def. Angular Speed (Velocity): The angular speed of an object traveling around a circle is the
quotient of the arc measure (or central angle measure) traveled and the time.
7. Def. Sine and Cosine Functions: Given a circle of radius r and a point ) , ( y x on the circle. If
is the angle formed by the positive x-axis and a ray with endpoint at the center of the circle
and passing through ) , ( y x , then
r
y
= sin and
r
x
= cos .
8. Def. Sine and Cosine Functions: On a unit circle, y = sin and x = cos .
9. Def. Sine and Cosine Functions: On a right triangle,
hypotenuse
opposite
sin = and
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos = .
10. Def. Secant and Cosecant Functions: On a circle,

cos
1
sec = (where 0 cos ) and

sin
1
csc = (where 0 sin ).
11. Def. Secant and Cosecant Functions: On a right triangle,
adjacent
hypotenuse
sec = and
opposite
hypotenuse
csc = .
12. Def. Periodic Function: A function f is periodic if there exists a positive number p such that
( ) ) (x f p x f = + for all x in the domain of the function. The smallest positive number p
for which f is periodic is called the period of f.
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. 4 10P
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13. Def. Tangent and Cotangent Functions: On a circle,

cos
sin
tan = (where 0 cos ) and

sin
cos
cot = (where 0 sin ).
14. Def. Tangent and Cotangent Functions: On a right triangle,
adjacent
opposite
tan = and
opposite
adjacent
cot = .
15. Thm. Reciprocal Relationships:
a.

csc
1
sin = b.

sec
1
cos = c.

cot
1
tan =
d.

sin
1
csc = e.

cos
1
sec = f.

tan
1
cot =
16. Thm. Even/Odd Relationships:
a. sin ) sin( = b. cos ) cos( = c. tan ) tan( =
d. csc ) csc( = e. sec ) sec( = f. cot ) cot( =
17. Thm. Periodic Relationships: (Note that k is an integer and is in radians.)
a. k sin ) 2 ( sin = + b. cos ) 2 ( cos = + k
c. sec ) 2 ( sec = + k d. k csc ) 2 csc( = +
e. tan ) ( tan = + k f. cot ) ( cot = + k
18. Def. Reference Angle: The reference angle is the number of degrees (always positive) from the
terminal ray to the x-axis.
19. Def. Amplitude: The amplitude of a function is half the difference between the maximum and
minimum values of the function (provided it has a maximum and minimum value.)
20. Thm. Amplitude and Period: If ) (x f has period p and amplitude A, then ) (cx f a has
period
c
p
and amplitude A a .
21. Def. Phase Shift: If ) (x f y = is a periodic function whose graph is transformed to
( ) ) ( h x c f y = , then the value h is called the phase shift.
Chapters 5A Trigonometric Graphs and Sum/Difference Formulas
22. Def. Inverse Sine Function: x y
1
sin

= (also written x y arcsin = ) means y x sin = , where

2 2

.
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. 4 10P
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23. Def. Inverse Cosine Function: x y
1
cos

= (also written x y arccos = ) means y x cos = ,

where y 0 .
24. Def. Inverse Tangent Function: x y
1
tan

= (also written x y arctan = ) means y x tan = ,

where
2 2

< < .
25. Thm. Cofunction Relationships:
a. ) 90 cos( sin = b. ) 90 sin( cos = c. ) 90 cot( tan =
d. ) 90 sec( csc = e. ) 90 csc( sec = f. ) 90 tan( cot =
26. Thm. Pythagorean Relationships:
a. 1 cos sin
2 2
= + b.
2 2
sec tan 1 = + c.
2 2
csc cot 1 = +
27. Skill To Prove a Trigonometric Identity:
a. First look for ways to use formulas, especially the Pythagorean formulas.
b. If the expression can be factored, do so.
c. If there are binomials, multiply them out.
d. If there are several fractions, get a common denominator and add them.
e. If there is a single fraction with a complicated numerator over a monomial denominator,
separate it into two or more fractions.
f. When all else fails, turn everything into sine and cosine expressions.
28. Thm. Addition Formulas:
a. sin cos cos sin ) ( sin =
b. sin sin cos cos ) ( cos =
c. ( )



tan tan 1
tan tan
tan

29. Def. Inclination of a Line: The inclination of a line is the measure of the angle from the x-axis
counterclockwise to the line.
30. Thm. Inclination of a Line: The slope of a line equals the tangent of its angle of inclination.
31. Thm. Angle Between Two Intersecting Lines: Given two lines L
1
and L
2
with slopes m
1
and
m
2
respectively, then
2 1
2 1
1
tan
m m
m m
+

= where is one of the two supplementary angles

between the lines.
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. 4 10P
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Chapter 5B Trigonometric Equations and Applications
32. Thm: Double Angle Formulas:
a. cos sin 2 2 sin = b.


c.

2
tan 1
tan 2
2 tan

=
33. Thm. Half Angle Formulas: (Do NOT Memorize.)
a.
2
cos 1
2
sin

= b.
2
cos 1
2
cos
+
=
c.

sin
cos 1
cos 1
sin
2
tan

=
+
=
34. Thm. Law of Sines: If A, B, and C are measures of the angles of a triangle, and a, b, and c
are the lengths of the sides opposite these angles, respectively, then
c
C
b
B
a
A sin sin sin
= = .
35. Thm. Area of a Triangle: If A, B, and C are measures of the angles of a triangle, and a, b,
and c are the lengths of the sides opposite these angles, then the area of the triangle can be
found by C ab area sin
2
1
= .
36. Thm. Herons Formula: If a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides of a triangle and s is one-
half of its perimeter, then the area of the triangle can be found by
) )( )( ( c s b s a s s area = .
37. Thm. Law of Cosines: If A, B, and C are measures of the angles of a triangle, and a, b, and c
are the lengths of the sides opposite these angles, then C ab b a c cos 2
2 2 2
+ = .
38. Def. Surveying Compass Readings: In surveying, a compass reading is given as an acute angle
from the north-south line toward the east or west.
39. Def. Navigational Compass Readings: The course of a ship or plane is described as an angle,
measured clockwise, from the north direction to the direction of the ship or plane. This angle
is referred to as the bearing of the ship or plane and is written with three digits to the left of
the decimal point.
Chapter 6A Polar Equations and Complex Numbers
40. Def. Polar Coordinate System: A polar coordinate system is defined by a fixed point (called the
pole) and a ray (called the polar axis) with its vertex at the pole and extending horizontally to
the right. Each point is designated by an ordered pair ) , ( r where r is the distance of the
point from the pole and is the angle formed by the polar axis and a ray from the pole
through the point.
1 cos 2
sin 2 1
sin cos 2 cos
2
2
2 2
=
=
=

PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. 4 10P
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41. Thm. Polar Circles:
a. a r sin = defines a circle passing through the pole with a vertical diameter of length a.
b. a r cos = defines a circle passing through the pole with a horizontal diameter of length
a.
c. a r = defines a circle centered at the origin with radius a.
42. Thm. Polar Lines:
a. a = defines a line through the pole that forms an angle of measure a with the polar
axis.
b. a r sec = or r a cos = defines a vertical line a units from the pole.
c. a r csc = or r a sin = defines a horizontal line a units from the pole.
43. Thm. Polar Spirals:
a. a r = , called the Archimedes Spiral, defines a spiral about the pole for which the
distance between the windings is always equal.
b.
b
ae r = , called the Logarithmic Spiral, defines a spiral about the pole for which the
angle between the tangent and the radius is constant.
44. Thm. Polar Roses:
a. b a r sin = defines a polar rose centered at the origin with petals of length a. The
petals are evenly spaced around a circle with the tip of the first petal lying at an angle of
b
90
. If b is even there are b 2 petals. If b is odd there are b petals.
b. b a r cos = defines a polar rose centered at the origin with petals of length a. The
petals are evenly spaced around a circle with the tip of the first petal lying at an angle of
0. If b is even there are b 2 petals. If b is odd there are b petals.
45. Thm. Polar Cardioids and Limaons (do not memorize):
a. sin b a r = , where 0 > a and 0 > b , defines a limaon symmetric about the y-axis,
with a maximum extension of b a + . If b a < the limaon has an inner loop. If b a = ,
the limaon is heart shaped and is called a cardioid. If b a > , the limaon is shaped like
a lima bean and does not reach the pole.
b. b a r cos = where 0 > a and 0 > b , defines a limaon symmetric about the x-axis
with the same features as described above.
46. Thm. Converting Between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates:
a.
r
x
= cos
b.
r
y
= sin
c.
x
y
= tan
d.
2 2
y x r + =

x

r
y
( ) y x,
( ) r,
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. 4 10P
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47. Def. Rectangular Form for a Complex Number: bi a z + = , where a and b are real numbers
and i is the imaginary unit, is called the rectangular form for a complex number.
48. Def. Complex Number Plane: A coordinate system where the horizontal axis is the real axis and
the vertical axis is the imaginary axis is called a complex number plane. A complex number
bi a + is graphed as a point with coordinates ) , ( b a .
49. Def. Polar Form for a Complex Number: ( ) sin cos i r z + = , where r is a radius length and
is a polar angle, is called the polar form for a complex number. ( ) sin cos i r + ,
sometimes abbreviated as rcis .
50. Def. Conjugate of a Complex Number: The conjugate of a complex number bi a + is the
number bi a . Notation: z represents the conjugate of z.
51. Thm. Conjugate of a Complex Number in Polar Form: If ( ) sin cos i r z + = , then
( ) ) sin( ) cos( + = i r z .
52. Def. Magnitude (or Absolute Value) of a Complex Number: The magnitude of a complex
number is its distance from the origin. The distance is designated as z .
53. Thm. Magnitude of a Complex Number: r b a z = + =
2 2
.
54. Thm. Product of Complex Numbers in Polar Form: If ( )
1 1 1 1
sin cos i r z + = and
( )
2 2 2 2
sin cos i r z + = , then ( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
sin cos + + + = i r r z z .
55. Thm. Quotient of Complex Numbers in Polar Form: If ( )
1 1 1 1
sin cos i r z + = and
( )
2 2 2 2
sin cos i r z + = , then ( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
2
1
2
1
sin cos + = i
r
r
z
z
.
56. Thm. De Moivre's Theorem: If ( ) sin cos i r z + = , then ( ) ( ) ( ) n i n r z
n n
sin cos + = .
Chapter 6B Vectors and Conic Sections
57. Def. Vector: A vector is a quantity which is described by a direction and a magnitude. It is
represented by a ray

AB , where A is called the initial point (or tail of the vector) and B is
called the terminal point (or head of the vector).
58. Def. Equal Vectors: Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same
direction.
59. Def. Zero Vector: The zero vector is a vector of magnitude zero, i.e. a point. (It is assigned no
direction.)
60. Def. Sum of Two Vectors: If

AB and

BC represent two vectors, then

= + AC BC AB .
Vector

AC is called the resultant vector for the two given vectors.

PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. 4 10P
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61. Def. Magnitude (or Absolute Value) of a Vector:

v is called the magnitude or absolute value

of the vector. Its value corresponds to the length of the ray, with no regard for direction.
62. Def. Scalar: A scalar is any real number which is used in a system of vectors.
63. Def. Scalar Multiple of a Vector:

v k (where 0 > k ) represents a vector with the same

direction as

v , but whose magnitude is k times as large.

64. Def. Opposite of a Vector:

AB means

BA.
65. Def. Difference of Two Vectors:

w v means

+

w v .
66. Def. Component Form of a Vector: Let the tail of a vector be at ( )
1 1
, y x and its head be at
( )
2 2
, y x . Then the vector

v can be expressed as b a v , =

where
1 2
x x a = and
1 2
y y b = .
67. Def. Position Vector: Any vector whose initial point is at the origin is called a position vector.
68. Def. Unit Vector: Any vector with a magnitude of one is called a unit vector.
69. Def. Unit Vectors

i and

j : 0 , 1 =

i and 1 , 0 =

j .
70. Thm. Converting Component Form to Unit Vector Form: Any vector b a v , =

can be
expressed as

+ = j b i a v .
71. Thm. Vector Operations in Components and Unit Vectors: For b a v , =

, d c w , =

and
scalar k:
a.
2 2
b a v + =

b.

+ = = j kb i ka kb ka v k ,
c.

= v k v k
d.

+ + + = + + = + j d b i c a d b c a w v ) ( ) ( ,

e.

+ = = j d b i c a d b c a w v ) ( ) ( ,
72. Thm. Properties of Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication:
a.

+ = + v w w v b.

+ + = +

+

u w v u w v
c. ( )

=

v kj v j k d.

+ =

+ w k v k w v k
e.

+ = + v j v k v j k ) (
73. Def. Parallel Vectors: Two vectors are parallel if they have the same or opposite direction.
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. 4 10P
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74. Thm. Parallel Vectors:

v and

w are parallel if and only if

= v k w .
75. Def. Orthogonal Vectors: Two vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular) if the angle between them
is 90.
76. Def. Dot Product: The dot product of two vectors b a v , =

and d c w , =

is
bd ac w v + =

.
77. Thm. Orthogonal Vectors:

v and

w are orthogonal if and only if 0 =

w v .
78. Thm. Properties of the Dot Product:
a.

v u is a
scalar.
b.

= u v v u
c.
2

= u u u
79. Thm. Angle Between Two Vectors: If

u and

v are any two non-zero vectors, then the angle

( 0 ) between

u and

v is determined by the formula

=
v u
v u
cos .
80. Thm. Area of a Triangle: If
1 1 1
, b a v =

and
2 2 2
, b a v =

are two vectors which form the

sides of a triangle in the xy-plane, then the area of the triangle is:

=
2 2
1 1
2
1
b a
b a
abs A .
81. Thm. Displacement Formula: Displacement equals velocity times time: t v d

= .
82. Def. *Ellipse: An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane the sum of whose distances from two
fixed points (called the foci) is constant. (The midpoint of the segment connecting the foci is
called the center of the ellipse. The longer axis of the ellipse is called the major axis, the
shorter is the minor axis. The endpoints of the major axis are the vertices; the endpoints of
the minor axis are the covertices.)
83. Thm. Standard Form of an Ellipse: 1
2
2
2
2
= +
b
y
a
x
is the standard form for an ellipse with center
at the origin. The major axis is vertical if b a < , and horizontal if b a > . Intercepts are
) 0 , (a , ) 0 , ( a , ) , 0 ( b , and ) , 0 ( b .
84. Def. *Eccentricity: The eccentricity of an ellipse or hyperbola is a numerical value that
corresponds to the shape of the curve. Its value e is found by
vertex center to from distance
focus center to from distance
= e .
85. Def. *Hyperbola: A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane the difference of whose distances
from two fixed points (called the foci) is constant. (A line through the foci intersects the
hyperbola in two points called the vertices. The line segment connecting the vertices is called
the transverse axis. The midpoint of the transverse axis is the center of the hyperbola.)
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. 4 10P
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86. Thm. Standard Form of a Hyperbola: 1
2
2
2
2
=
b
y
a
x
is the standard form for a hyperbola with
center at the origin that opens horizontally. It has vertices ) 0 , (a and ) 0 , ( a .
1
2
2
2
2
=
a
x
b
y
is the standard form for a hyperbola with center at the origin that opens
vertically. It has vertices ) , 0 ( b and ) , 0 ( b . Both types of hyperbolas have asymptotes
x
a
b
y = .
87. Def. *Parabola: A parabola is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed
point (called the focus) and a fixed line (called the directrix).
88. Thm. Focus of a Parabola: Given ( ) k h x a y + =
2
. If p is the directed distance from the
vertex to the focus, then
a
p
4
1
= .
89. Def. Latus Rectum: The latus rectum of a parabola is a chord that passes through the focus and is
parallel to the directrix.
90. Thm. Latus Rectum Theorem: The length of the latus rectum of a parabola is p 4 , where p is
the directed distance from the vertex to the focus.
91. Def. Conic Section: A conic section is a curve generated by the intersection of a circular conical
surface with a plane. It can be expressed in the general form:
0
2 2
= + + + + + F Ey Dx Cy Bxy Ax . (Note: We have only considered conic sections where
0 = B .)
92. Thm. Identifying a Conic Section: For a quadratic equation of the form
0
2 2
= + + + + F Ey Dx Cy Ax , the graph is a(n):
a. circle if C A = .
b. ellipse if C A and both have the same sign.
c. parabola if 0 = A or 0 = C , but not both.
d. hyperbola if A and C have opposite signs.
93. Def. Eccentricity of a Conic: Given a fixed point F not on a fixed line D. The set of all points
P in a plane such that
PD
PF
e = is:
a. an ellipse if 1 0 < < e .
b. a parabola if 1 = e .
c. a hyperbola if 1 > e .
94. Thm. Linear Position Formula: ( ) ( ) t v y x y x

+ =
0 0
, , is a vector equation that describes the
position of an object ( ) y x, moving with constant velocity

v from a given starting point

( )
0 0
, y x .
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. 4 10P
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95. Def. Parametric Equations: Parametric equations express the x and y components of a vector
equation in separate equations, using a third variable called the parameter.
Chapter 10 Sequences and Series
96. Def. Sequence: A sequence is a function whose domain is a set of consecutive (generally
positive) integers. (The terms of a sequence can be represented by: ,... ,... , , ,
4 3 2 1 n
a a a a a
Note that
1
a is often written as a.)
97. Def. Explicitly Defined Sequence: An explicitly defined sequence is one in which each term is
defined in terms of its number n.
98. Def. Recursively Defined Sequence: A recursively (or implicitly) defined sequence is one in
which each new term is defined in terms of the preceding term.
99. Def. Factorial Notation: n! is defined to have the value: 1 2 3 )... 3 )( 2 )( 1 ( ! = n n n n n .
100. Def. Zero Factorial: 1 ! 0 = .
101. Def. Series: A series is the indicated sum of the terms of a sequence.
102. Def. Summation (or Sigma) Notation: The symbol

=
n
m i
i
a represents the sum of the series
n m m m
a a a a ...
2 1
+ + +
+ +
, where m and n are integers and n m . (The is the
capitalized form of the Greek letter sigma and stands for a sum in mathematics.)
103. Thm. Properties of Summations:
a. cn c
n
i
=

=1

b.

= =
=
n
i
i
n
i
i
a c a c
1 1

c. [ ]

= = =
=
n
i
n
i
n
i
i i i i
b a b a
1 1 1

104. Def. Arithmetic Sequence: An arithmetic sequence is a sequence in which each term after the
first is obtained by adding a fixed number, called the common difference, to the preceding
term.
105. Thm. N
th
Term of an Arithmetic Sequence: For any arithmetic sequence whose first term is a
and whose common difference is d, the n
th
term can be found by d n a a
n
) 1 ( + = .
106. Thm. Arithmetic Sequence Interpreted as a Function: An arithmetic sequence is a linear
function whose domain is the set of natural numbers and whose slope is the common
difference of the terms.
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. 4 10P
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107. Def. Arithmetic Means: The terms between two given terms of an arithmetic sequence are called
arithmetic means. (A single arithmetic mean of two given numbers is called the arithmetic
mean of the given numbers.
108. Thm. The Arithmetic Mean: The arithmetic mean between two numbers is the average of the
numbers.
109. Def. Arithmetic Series: An arithmetic series is the sum of an arithmetic sequence.
110. Thm. Sum of an Arithmetic Series: The sum of n terms of an arithmetic series is:
2
) (
n
n
a a n
S
+
= .
111. Def. Geometric Sequence: A geometric sequence is a sequence in which each term after the first
is obtained by multiplying the preceding term by a fixed nonzero constant, called the common
ratio.
112. Thm. N
th
Term of a Geometric Sequence: For any geometric sequence whose first term is a and
whose common ratio is r, the n
th
term can be found by
1
=
n
n
ar a .
113. Def. Geometric Means: The terms between two given terms of a geometric sequence are called
geometric means. (A single geometric mean of the same sign as the two given numbers is
called the geometric mean or the mean proportional of the given numbers.)
114. Thm. Geometric Sequence Interpreted as a Function: A geometric sequence with a positive
common ratio (other than 1) is an exponential function whose domain is the set of natural
numbers. The base of the exponent is the common ratio of the terms.
115. Thm. The Geometric Mean: The geometric mean between a and b is ab .
116. Def. Geometric Series: A geometric series is the indicated sum of a geometric sequence.
117. Thm. Sum of a Geometric Series: The sum of the first n terms of a geometric series is found by:
r
r a
S
n
n

=
1
) 1 (
where 1 r .
118. Def. *Infinite Sequence: An infinite sequence is a sequence whose number of terms is infinite.
119. Def. *Limit of an Infinite Sequence: The limit of an infinite sequence is a single real number to
which the terms of the sequence get progressively closer.
120. Def. Limit Notation: The symbol L a
n
n
=

lim means that L is the limit (as n gets infinitely
large) of the sequence whose terms are defined by
n
a .
121. Def. *Converge: An infinite sequence is said to converge if it has a limit.
122. Def. *Diverge: An infinite sequence is said to diverge if it does not have a limit.
123. Thm. Convergent Sequences: An arithmetic sequence is never convergent (unless the common
difference is zero). A geometric sequence converges if the common ratio has an absolute
value less than or equal to 1.
124. Def. *Sum of an Infinite Series: The sum S of an infinite series is the limit of the sequence of
partial sums
n
S , if it exists. Notation:
n
n
S S

= lim .
125. Def. *Convergent Series: A series is said to converge if its sequence of partial sums has a limit.
PreCalculus - Ahlborn Def. 4 10P
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126. Thm. Sum of an Infinite Geometric Series: If
n
a is a geometric sequence for which 1 < r ,
then
r
a
S

=
1
.
Chapter 10P Mathematical Proof
127. Skill Summary of Methods Used in Coordinate Geometry Proofs
a. To prove line segments equal, use the distance formula to show that they have the same
length.
b. To prove lines parallel, show that they have the same slope.
c. To prove lines perpendicular, show that the product of their slopes is negative one.
d. To prove two line segments bisect each other, use the midpoint formula to show that each
segment has the same midpoint.
128. Thm. Principle of Mathematical Induction: Suppose the following two conditions are satisfied
with regard to a statement about natural numbers:
a. Condition I: The statement is true for the natural number 1.
b. Condition II: If the statement is true for some natural number k, then it is also true for
the next natural number 1 + k .
Then the statement is true for all natural numbers.

Honors Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 4
Chapters P - 4
DEFINITIONS, THEOREMS, AND FORMULAS
Chapter P&1 Preview of Calculus and Limits
Indicates that the item should be memorized in exact detail. You may be asked to quote it on a quiz
or test.
1. Def. Even Function: ) (x f is even if ) ( ) ( x f x f = .
2. Def. Odd Function: ) (x f is odd if ) ( ) ( x f x f = .
3. Def. Limit: L x f
c x
=

) ( lim means that ) (x f becomes increasingly close to L as x gets closer

to c. (Note that L must be a single real number.)
4. Def. Right Hand Limit: L x f
c x
=
+

) ( lim means that ) (x f becomes increasingly close to L as

x gets closer to c from the right.
5. Def. Left Hand Limit: L x f
c x
=

) ( lim means that ) (x f becomes increasingly close to L as x

gets closer to c from the left.
6. Thm. Limit Existence: If ) (x f is a function and c and L are real numbers, then
L x f
c x
=

) ( lim if and only if L x f

c x
=

) ( lim and L x f
c x
=
+

) ( lim .
7. Thm. Properties of Limits: Let b and c be real numbers; let n be a positive integer; and let f
and g be functions whose limit at c exists. Then
a. Constant Function: b b
c x
=

lim .
b. Scalar Multiple: [ ] ) ( lim ) ( lim x f b x f b
c x c x
= .
c. Sum or Difference: [ ] ) ( lim ) ( lim ) ( ) ( lim x g x f x g x f
c x c x c x
= .
d. Product: [ ] ) ( lim ) ( lim ) ( ) ( lim x g x f x g x f
c x c x c x
= .
e. Quotient: 0 ) ( lim provided
) ( lim
) ( lim
) (
) (
lim =
(

x g
x g
x f
x g
x f
c x
c x
c x
c x
.
f. Power: [ ]
n
c x
n
c x
x f x f
(

=

) ( lim ) ( lim .
8. Thm. Squeeze Law: If ) ( ) ( ) ( x g x f x h for all x in an open interval containing c, except
possibly at c itself, and if ) ( lim ) ( lim x g L x h
c x c x
= = , then L x f
c x
=

) ( lim .
9. Thm. Trig Limit for the Sine: 1
sin
lim
0
=
x
x
x
for x measured in radians.
Honors Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 4
2
10. Thm. Trig Limit for the Cosine: 0
cos 1
lim
0
=

x
x
x
.
11. Def. Continuity at a Point: A function ( ) x f is continuous at c if ) ( ) ( lim c f x f
c x
=

. (Note
that this statement requires that both ( ) c f and ) ( lim x f
c x
exist.)
12. Def. Continuity on an Open Interval: A function is continuous on an open interval ( ) b a, if it
is continuous at each point in the interval.
13. Def. Continuity on a Closed Interval: A function is continuous on a closed interval [ ] b a, if it
is continuous on ( ) b a, , ) ( ) ( lim a f x f
a x
=
+

, and ) ( ) ( lim b f x f
b x
=

.
14. Def. Discontinuity: A function f has a discontinuity at c if f is defined on an open interval
containing c (except possibly at c) and f is not continuous at c.
15. Def. Removable Discontinuity: A discontinuity at c x = is called removable if f can be made
continuous by appropriately defining (or redefining) only ( ) c f .
----------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 1 Quiz-----------------------------------------------
16. Thm. Properties of Continuity: If b is a real number and ( ) x f and ( ) x g are continuous at
c x = , then each of the following functions are also continuous at c:
a. Scalar Multiple: ) (x f b
b. Sum or Difference: ) ( ) ( x g x f
c. Product: ) ( ) ( x g x f
d. Quotient: 0 ) ( provided
) (
) (
c g
x g
x f

17. Thm. Continuity for Polynomial and Rational Functions: Polynomial functions are everywhere
continuous. Rational functions are continuous on their domain.
18. Thm. Continuity for Composite Functions: If ( ) x g is continuous at c and ( ) x f is continuous
at ( ) c g , then the composite function given by ( ) ( ) x g f is continuous at x c = .
19. Thm. Limit of a Composite Function: If ( ) L x g
c x
=

lim and ( ) x f is continuous at L, then

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) L f x g f x g f
c x c x
=
|

\
|
=

lim lim .
20. Thm. Intermediate Value Theorem: If ( ) x f is continuous on [ ] b a, and k is any number
between ( ) a f and ( ) b f , then there is at least one number c between a and b such that
k c f = ) ( .
Geometric Application: Under the given conditions, if ( ) a f and ( ) b f have opposite
signs, then there is a point in the open interval where the graph crosses the x-axis.
21. Def. Infinite Limit: =

) ( lim x f
c x
(or ) means that ) (x f increases (or decreases) without
bound as x approaches c.
Honors Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 4
3
22. Def. Vertical Asymptote: A vertical asymptote is a line c x = such that =

) ( lim x f
c x
.
23. Def. Limit at Infinity: L x f
x
=

) ( lim means that f x ( ) approaches L as x increases without
bound.
24. Def. Horizontal Asymptote: A horizontal asymptote is a line L y = such that L x f
x
=

) ( lim or
L x f
x
=

) ( lim .
----------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 1 Test-----------------------------------------------
Chapter 2 Differentiation
25. Def. Average Velocity: The average velocity of an object over an interval of time is the net
change in position during the interval divided by the change in time. For a function ( ) t s ,
that is
1 2
1 2
t t
t s t s
v

=
) ( ) (
.
26. Def. Instantaneous Velocity: The instantaneous velocity of an object at time
1
t is given by the
limit of the average velocity as
2
t approaches
1
t . For the function ( ) t s , that is
1 2
1 2
1
1 2
t t
t s t s
t v
t t

) ( ) (
lim ) ( (provided the limit exists).
27. Def. Difference Quotient: The expression
1 2
1 2
x x
x f x f

) ( ) (
is called a difference quotient and
represents the average rate of change of ( ) x f over the interval [ ]
2 1
x x , .
28. Def. Difference Quotient, Alternate Forms:
h
x f h x f ) ( ) ( +
or
x
x f x x f

) ( ) ( +

29. Def. Derivative:
1 2
1 2
1
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
1 2
x x
x f x f
x f
x x

(provided the limit exists) is called the

derivative of ( ) x f at x
1
and represents the instantaneous rate of change of ( ) x f at the
point x
1
.
30. Def. Derivative, Alternate Forms:
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

(provided the limit exists)

or
x
x f x x f
x f
x

) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

(provided the limit exists)

31. Def. Tangent Line: If ) (x f is defined on an open interval containing c, and if the derivative
) ( ' c f exists, then the line passing through ( ) ) ( , c f c with slope ) ( ' c f is the tangent line
to the graph of ) (x f at the point ( ) ) ( , c f c .
32. Def. Normal Line: A normal line to a curve at a point is a line perpendicular to the tangent line at
the point.
Honors Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 4
4
33. Def. Local Linearity: A curve is called locally linear over an interval when zooming in on the
curve causes it to look like a straight line.
34. Def. Slope of a Curve: The slope of a curve at a point is the slope of the tangent line at the point.
35. Def. Differentiable: A function is said to be differentiable at a point if it has a derivative at the
point.
36. Def. Vertical Tangent Line: If ) (x f is continuous at c x = and + =
+
h
x f h x f
h
) ( ) (
lim
0

(or ), then the line c x = is called the vertical tangent to the curve at ( ) ) ( , c f c .
37. Thm. Local Linearity and Differentiability: If a curve is locally linear at a point c x = and the
tangent line is not vertical there, then the function is differentiable at c x = .
38. Thm. Continuity and Differentiability: If a curve is differentiable at a point c x = , then it is
continuous at c x = .
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 2 Quiz------------------------------------------------------
39. Thm. Properties of Derivatives:
a. If c y = , then 0 = ' y .
b. If ) (x f c y = , then ) ( ' ' x f c y = .
c. If ) ( ) ( x g x f y = , then ) ( ' ) ( ' ' x g x f y = .
d. If
n
x y = , then
1
=
n
nx y' .
40. Thm. Derivative of the Sine: If x y sin = , then x y cos ' = .
41. Thm. Derivative of the Cosine: If x y cos = , then x y sin ' = .
42. Def. Right-Hand Derivative: The right-hand derivative of ) (x f is
h
x f h x f
h
) ( ) (
lim
+
+
0
,
provided the limit exists.
43. Def. Left-Hand Derivative: The left-hand derivative of ) (x f is
h
x f h x f
h
) ( ) (
lim
+

0
,
provided the limit exists.
44. Def. Speed: Speed is the absolute value of the velocity of a moving object.
45. Thm. Changing Speed: If the velocity and acceleration of a moving object have the same sign,
then the speed of the object is increasing. If the velocity and acceleration have opposite
signs, then the speed is decreasing.
46. Thm. Product Rule: If ( ) x f and ( ) x g are differentiable functions at x, then
[ ] ) ( ' ) ( ) ( ) ( ' ) ( ) ( x g x f x g x f x g x f
dx
d
+ = .
47. Thm. Extended Product Rule: ' ' ' )' ( fgh h fg gh f fgh + + = .
Honors Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 4
5
48. Thm. Quotient Rule: If ( ) x f and ( ) x g are differentiable functions at x, and 0 ) ( x g , then
[ ]
2
) (
) ( ' ) ( ) ( ) ( '
) (
) (
x g
x g x f x g x f
x g
x f
dx
d
=
(

.
49. Thm. Chain Rule: If ( ) ) (x g f y = is a differentiable function of ) (x g , and ) (x g is a
differentiable function of x, then ( ) [ ] ( ) ) ( ' ) ( ' ) ( x g x g f x g f
dx
d
= .
50. Thm. Alternate Form of Chain Rule: If ) (u f y = is a differentiable function of u, and
) (x g u = is a differentiable function of x, then
dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
= .
51. Thm. Derivative of the Tangent: If x y tan = , then x y
2
sec ' = .
52. Thm. Derivative of the Cotangent: If x y cot = , then x y
2
csc ' = .
53. Thm. Derivative of the Secant: If x y sec = , then x x y tan sec ' = .
54. Thm. Derivative of the Cosecant: If x y csc = , then x x y cot csc ' = .
55. Thm. Absolute Value Rule: If x y = , then
x
x
y = ' .
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 2 Test------------------------------------------------------
Chapter 3A Applications of Differentiation
56. Skill: Procedure for Solving Related Rate Problems:
a. Draw and label an appropriate figure.
b. Write each rate (that is given or asked for) as a derivative.
c. Write an equation that relates all of the variables involved in the above derivatives.
d. Differentiate the equation with respect to time.
e. Substitute each given rate and given quantity into the equation.
f. Solve for the remaining rate.
57. Def. Maximum (or Absolute Maximum or Global Maximum): ) (c f is a maximum of f if
) ( ) ( x f c f for every x in the domain of f.
58. Def. Minimum (or Absolute Minimum or Global Minimum): ) (c f is a minimum of f if
) ( ) ( x f c f for every x in the domain of f.
59. Def. Relative Maximum (or Local Maximum): ) (c f is a relative maximum of f if there exists
an open interval containing c for which ) ( ) ( x f c f for all x in the interval.
60. Def. Relative Minimum (or Local Minimum): ) (c f is a relative minimum of f if there exists
an open interval containing c for which ) ( ) ( x f c f for all x in the interval.
61. Thm. Extreme Value Theorem: If ) (x f is continuous on a closed interval, then f has both a
maximum and minimum value on the interval.
Honors Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 4
6
62. Def. Critical Point: A point in the domain of a function f at which 0 ' = f or ' f does not
exist is called a critical point of f.
63. Thm. Finding Relative Extrema: If f has a relative maximum or minimum at c x = , then c is
a critical point of f.
64. Thm. Finding Absolute Extrema: If f is a continuous function on a closed interval and ( ) c f is
an absolute maximum or minimum on that interval, then c is either a critical point or one of
the endpoints.
65. Skill: Procedure for Finding Absolute Extrema:
a. Identify any points of discontinuity. Divide the domain of the function up into intervals
on which the function is continuous. Consider each interval separately.
b. Find all critical points and calculate the functional value at each.
c. If there are endpoints on the domain interval(s), calculate the functional value at each
endpoint. If there are no endpoints, find the limit of the y values as x approaches the
left or right end of the domain interval(s).
d. Select the largest y-coordinate as the maximum and the smallest y-coordinate as the
minimum. (Remember that a limit value does NOT represent a point and can therefore
never represent a maximum or minimum value. However, it can rule out the presence of
an absolute maximum or absolute minimum.)
66. Thm. Rolle's Theorem: If f is continuous on [ ] b a, , differentiable on ( ) b a, , and
) ( ) ( b f a f = , then there is at least one number c in ( ) b a, such that 0 ) ( ' = c f .
67. Thm. Mean Value Theorem: If f is continuous on [ ] b a, and differentiable on ( ) b a, , then
there exists a number c in ( ) b a, such that
a b
a f b f
c f

=
) ( ) (
) ( ' .
Geometric Interpretation: Under the given conditions, there is a point in the open interval
where the tangent to the curve is the same as the slope of the line joining the endpoints.
Application: Under the given conditions, there is a point in the open interval where the
instantaneous rate of change is the same as the average rate of change on the interval. If the
function is a position function, then there is a point in the open interval where the
instantaneous velocity is the same as the average velocity on the interval.
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 3A Quiz----------------------------------------------------
68. Def. Increasing Function: A function f x ( ) is increasing on an interval if for any two numbers
x
1
and x
2
in the interval,
2 1
x x < implies ) ( ) (
2 1
x f x f < .
69. Def. Decreasing Function: A function f x ( ) is decreasing on an interval if for any two numbers
x
1
and x
2
in the interval,
2 1
x x < implies ) ( ) (
2 1
x f x f > .
70. Def. Strictly Monotonic: A function is called strictly monotonic on an interval if it is either
increasing on the entire interval or decreasing on the entire interval.
Honors Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 4
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71. Thm. Interpreting the Derivative: Let f x ( ) be a function that is differentiable on the open
interval ) , ( b a . Then:
a. If 0 ) ( ' > x f for all x in ) , ( b a , then ) (x f is increasing on ) , ( b a .
b. If 0 ) ( ' < x f for all x in ) , ( b a , then ) (x f is decreasing on ) , ( b a .
c. If 0 ) ( ' = x f for all x in ) , ( b a , then ) (x f is constant on ) , ( b a .
72. Thm. First Derivative Test for Local Extrema: Let c be a critical number of the function f that
is continuous on an open interval. If f is differentiable on the interval, except possibly at c,
then ) (c f can be classified as follows.
a. If ' f changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a relative minimum at c.
b. If ' f changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a relative maximum at c.
c. If ' f does not change signs at c, then f has neither a relative maximum nor a relative
minimum at c.
73. Def. Concave Upward: The graph of a differentiable function f is concave upward on an
interval if ' f is increasing on the interval.
74. Def. Concave Downward: The graph of a differentiable function f is concave downward on an
interval is ' f is decreasing on the interval.
75. Thm. Test for Concavity: Let ) (x f be a function whose second derivative exists on an open
interval ) , ( b a . Then:
a. If 0 ) ( ' ' > x f for all x in ) , ( b a , then the graph of ) (x f is concave upward.
b. If 0 ) ( ' ' < x f for all x in ( ) b a, then the graph of ) (x f is concave downward.
76. Def. Inflection Point: If ) (x f is continuous on an open interval containing the point c, the
graph of f changes concavity at c, and there exists a tangent line to the curve at c, then c
is called an inflection point of f.
77. Thm. Finding Inflection Points with the Second Derivative: If c is a point of inflection of the
graph of f, then either 0 ) ( " = c f or f " is undefined at c x = .
78. Thm. Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema: Let f be a function such that 0 ) ( ' = c f
and the second derivative of f exists on some open interval containing c.
a. If 0 ) ( " > c f , then ) (c f is a relative minimum.
b. If 0 ) ( " < c f , then ) (c f is a relative maximum.
c. If 0 ) ( " = c f or does not exist, the test fails.
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 3A Test-----------------------------------------------------
Honors Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 4
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Chapter 3B More Applications of Differentiation
79. Def. Differential of y: Let ) (x f y = represent a differentiable function and let dx be any
nonzero change in x. Then the differential of y, written dy is given by dx x f dy ) ( ' = .
80. Def. Linear Approximation of y : dy is called the linear approximation of the actual
increment, y .
81. Def. Linear Approximation of f(x): The expression ) ( ) )( ( ' ) ( a f a x a f x f + is called the
linear approximation to ( ) x f near a x = .
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 3B Quiz----------------------------------------------------
82. Def. Cost Function: The cost function ( ) x C represents the total cost of producing x number of
units of some item.
83. Def. Revenue Function: The revenue function ( ) x R represents the total money taken in when
selling x number of units of some item.
84. Def. Profit Function: The profit function ( ) x P is the difference between the revenue function
and the cost function.
85. Def. Marginal Cost: The derivative of the cost function is called the marginal cost and represents
the additional cost of producing 1 more item.
86. Def. Marginal Revenue: The derivative of the revenue function is called the marginal revenue
and represents the additional money taken in upon selling 1 more item.
Chapter 4 Integration
87. Thm. Area Existence: If f is a continuous function on [ ] b a, , then the limits as n of both
the lower and upper sums exist and are equal to each other. That is
( ) ( )
(
(

=
(
(

=

=

x M f x m f
n
i
i
n
n
i
i
n
1 1
lim lim where
n
a b
x

= and ( )
i
m f and ( )
i
M f
represent the minimum and maximum values, respectively, of f on the interval.
88. Def. Area Under a Curve: Let f be a continuous function on the interval [ ] b a, . The area of the
region bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x a = and x b = is:
(
(

=

n
i
i
n
x c f area
1
) ( lim where
n
a b
x

= and
i i i
x c x
1
.
Honors Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 4
9
89. Thm. Properties of Summations:
a. cn c
n
i
=

=1

b.

= =
=
n
i
n
i
i f c i f c
1 1
) ( ) (
c. [ ]

= = =
=
n
i
n
i
n
i
i g i f i g i f
1 1 1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
90. Def. Riemann Sum: Let f be defined on the closed interval [ ] b a, which is partitioned by the
set } , , , , {
2 1 0
b x x x x a
n
= = . If ] , [
1 i i i
x x c

and x x x
i i i
=
1
, then the sum

n
i
i i
x c f
1
) ( is called a Riemann sum of f for the given partition.
91. Def. Norm of the Partition: The length of the largest subinterval of a partition is called the norm
of the partition and is denoted by .
92. Def. Regular Partition: If every subinterval in a partition is of equal length, the partition is called
regular.
93. Def. Definite Integral: If f is defined on the interval [ ] b a, and the limit of the Riemann sum
(
(

=

n
i
i i
x c f
1
0
) ( lim exists, then this limit is called the definite integral of f on [ ] b a, and
is denoted by ( )
(
(

=

n
i
i i
b
a
x c f dx x f
1
0
) ( lim . (The values a and b are called the lower
and upper limits of the integral, respectively.)
94. Def. Integrable Function: A function is said to be integrable on an interval if it has a definite
integral on the interval.
95. Thm. Continuity and Integrability: If a function f is continuous on the closed interval [ ] b a, ,
then f is integrable on [ ] b a, .
96. Thm. Area Under a Curve: Let f be a continuous, function on the interval [ ] b a, . The area of
the region bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines a x = and b x = is
found by:
( )

=
b
a
dx x f area .
97. Def. Definite Integral at a Point: ( ) 0 =

a
a
dx x f .
Honors Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 4
10
98. Def. Definite Integral over a Reverse Interval: If f is an integrable function on [ ] b a, , then
( ) ( )

=
b
a
a
b
dx x f dx x f .
99. Thm. Definite Integral over Two Adjacent Intervals: If f is an integrable function on the three
intervals indicated, then ( ) ( ) ( )

= +
b
a
b
c
c
a
dx x f dx x f dx x f
100. Thm. Definite Integral of a Constant Times a Function: If f is an integrable function on [ ] b a,
and k is a constant, then ( ) ( )

=
b
a
b
a
dx x f k dx x f k .
101. Thm. Definite Integral of a Sum or Difference of Functions: If f and g are both integrable
functions on [ ] b a, , then ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( )

=
b
a
b
a
b
a
dx x g dx x f dx x g x f .
102. Thm. Comparing Definite Integrals: If f and g are both integrable functions on [ ] b a, and
) ( ) ( x g x f for b x a , then ( ) ( )


b
a
b
a
dx x g dx x f .
103. Thm. Integration of an Odd Function: If f is an odd function which is integrable on [ ] a a, ,
then ( ) 0 =

a
a
dx x f .
104. Thm. Integration of an Even Function: If f is an even function which is integrable on [ ] a a, ,
then ( ) ( )

=

a a
a
dx x f dx x f
0
2 .
105. Thm. Distance versus Displacement: If the continuous function v(t) represents the velocity of a
function over an interval of time [ ] b a, , then:
Displacement (or change in position) = ( )

b
a
dt t v .
Total Distance Traveled = ( )

b
a
dt t v .
106. Thm. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: If a function f has a continuous derivative on the
interval [ ] b a, , then ( )

=
b
a
dx x f a f b f ' ) ( ) ( .
Restatement: The total change in a function is the definite integral of its rate of change.
Honors Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 4
11
107. Def. Average Value of a Function: If f is a continuous function on [ ] b a, , then the average
value of f on [ ] b a, is found by ( )

=
b
a
dx x f
a b
y
1
.
108. Thm. Mean Value Theorem for Integrals: If ) (x f is continuous on [ ] b a, , then there exists
a number c in ( ) b a, (a, b) such that ( )

=
b
a
dx x f
a b
c f
1
) ( .
109. Thm. Trapezoidal Rule: If f is continuous on [a, b], then
( ) [ ] ) ( ) ( 2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 ) (
2
1 3 1 0 n n
b
a
x f x f x f x f x f
n
a b
dx x f + + + + +

.
110. Thm. Simpson's Rule: If f is continuous on [a, b] and T represents the approximation of
( )

b
a
dx x f using the Trapezoidal Rule and M represents the same integral approximated
with the same number of subdivisions using the Midpoint Rule, then the value
3
2 T M
S
+
=
is the Simpson's Rule approximation for the integral.

Introduction to Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
Chapters P - 3
DEFINITIONS, THEOREMS, AND FORMULAS - Review
Chapter P&1 Preview of Calculus and Limits
Indicates that the item should be memorized in exact detail. You may be asked to quote it on a quiz
or test.
1. Def. Even Function: ) (x f is even if ) ( ) ( x f x f = .
2. Def. Odd Function: ) (x f is odd if ) ( ) ( x f x f = .
3. Def. Limit: L x f
c x
=

) ( lim means that ) (x f becomes increasingly close to L as x gets closer

to c. (Note that L must be a single real number.)
4. Def. Right Hand Limit: L x f
c x
=
+

) ( lim means that ) (x f becomes increasingly close to L as

x gets closer to c from the right.
5. Def. Left Hand Limit: L x f
c x
=

) ( lim means that ) (x f becomes increasingly close to L as x

gets closer to c from the left.
6. Thm. Limit Existence: If ) (x f is a function and c and L are real numbers, then
L x f
c x
=

) ( lim if and only if L x f

c x
=

) ( lim and L x f
c x
=
+

) ( lim .
7. Thm. Properties of Limits: Let b and c be real numbers; let n be a positive integer; and let f
and g be functions whose limit at c exists. Then
a. Constant Function: b b
c x
=

lim .
b. Scalar Multiple: [ ] ) ( lim ) ( lim x f b x f b
c x c x
= .
c. Sum or Difference: [ ] ) ( lim ) ( lim ) ( ) ( lim x g x f x g x f
c x c x c x
= .
d. Product: [ ] ) ( lim ) ( lim ) ( ) ( lim x g x f x g x f
c x c x c x
= .
e. Quotient: 0 ) ( lim provided
) ( lim
) ( lim
) (
) (
lim =
(

x g
x g
x f
x g
x f
c x
c x
c x
c x
.
f. Power: [ ]
n
c x
n
c x
x f x f
(

=

) ( lim ) ( lim .
8. Thm. Squeeze Law: If ) ( ) ( ) ( x g x f x h for all x in an open interval containing c, except
possibly at c itself, and if ) ( lim ) ( lim x g L x h
c x c x
= = , then L x f
c x
=

) ( lim .
9. Thm. Trig Limit for the Sine: 1
sin
lim
0
=
x
x
x
for x measured in radians.
Introduction to Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
2
10. Thm. Trig Limit for the Cosine: 0
cos 1
lim
0
=

x
x
x
.
11. Def. Continuity at a Point: A function ( ) x f is continuous at c if ) ( ) ( lim c f x f
c x
=

. (Note
that this statement requires that both ( ) c f and ) ( lim x f
c x
exist.)
12. Def. Continuity on an Open Interval: A function is continuous on an open interval ( ) b a, if it
is continuous at each point in the interval.
13. Def. Continuity on a Closed Interval: A function is continuous on a closed interval [ ] b a, if it
is continuous on ( ) b a, , ) ( ) ( lim a f x f
a x
=
+

, and ) ( ) ( lim b f x f
b x
=

.
14. Def. Discontinuity: A function f has a discontinuity at c if f is defined on an open interval
containing c (except possibly at c) and f is not continuous at c.
15. Def. Removable Discontinuity: A discontinuity at c x = is called removable if f can be made
continuous by appropriately defining (or redefining) only ( ) c f .
----------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 1 Quiz-----------------------------------------------
16. Thm. Properties of Continuity: If b is a real number and ( ) x f and ( ) x g are continuous at
c x = , then each of the following functions are also continuous at c:
a. Scalar Multiple: ) (x f b
b. Sum or Difference: ) ( ) ( x g x f
c. Product: ) ( ) ( x g x f
d. Quotient: 0 ) ( provided
) (
) (
c g
x g
x f

17. Thm. Continuity for Polynomial and Rational Functions: Polynomial functions are everywhere
continuous. Rational functions are continuous on their domain.
18. Thm. Continuity for Composite Functions: If ( ) x g is continuous at c and ( ) x f is continuous
at ( ) c g , then the composite function given by ( ) ( ) x g f is continuous at x c = .
19. Thm. Limit of a Composite Function: If ( ) L x g
c x
=

lim and ( ) x f is continuous at L, then

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) L f x g f x g f
c x c x
=
|

\
|
=

lim lim .
20. Thm. Intermediate Value Theorem: If ( ) x f is continuous on [ ] b a, and k is any number
between ( ) a f and ( ) b f , then there is at least one number c between a and b such that
k c f = ) ( .
Geometric Application: Under the given conditions, if ( ) a f and ( ) b f have opposite
signs, then there is a point in the open interval where the graph crosses the x-axis.
21. Def. Infinite Limit: =

) ( lim x f
c x
(or ) means that ) (x f increases (or decreases) without
bound as x approaches c.
Introduction to Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
3
22. Def. Vertical Asymptote: A vertical asymptote is a line c x = such that =

) ( lim x f
c x
.
23. Def. Limit at Infinity: L x f
x
=

) ( lim means that f x ( ) approaches L as x increases without
bound.
24. Def. Horizontal Asymptote: A horizontal asymptote is a line L y = such that L x f
x
=

) ( lim or
L x f
x
=

) ( lim .
----------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 1 Test-----------------------------------------------
Chapter 2 Differentiation
25. Def. Average Velocity: The average velocity of an object over an interval of time is the net
change in position during the interval divided by the change in time. For a function ( ) t s ,
that is
1 2
1 2
t t
t s t s
v

=
) ( ) (
.
26. Def. Instantaneous Velocity: The instantaneous velocity of an object at time
1
t is given by the
limit of the average velocity as
2
t approaches
1
t . For the function ( ) t s , that is
1 2
1 2
1
1 2
t t
t s t s
t v
t t

) ( ) (
lim ) ( (provided the limit exists).
27. Def. Difference Quotient: The expression
1 2
1 2
x x
x f x f

) ( ) (
is called a difference quotient and
represents the average rate of change of ( ) x f over the interval [ ]
2 1
x x , .
28. Def. Difference Quotient, Alternate Forms:
h
x f h x f ) ( ) ( +
or
x
x f x x f

) ( ) ( +

29. Def. Derivative:
1 2
1 2
1
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
1 2
x x
x f x f
x f
x x

(provided the limit exists) is called the

derivative of ( ) x f at x
1
and represents the instantaneous rate of change of ( ) x f at the
point x
1
.
30. Def. Derivative, Alternate Forms:
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

(provided the limit exists)

or
x
x f x x f
x f
x

) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

(provided the limit exists)

31. Def. Tangent Line: If ) (x f is defined on an open interval containing c, and if the derivative
) ( ' c f exists, then the line passing through ( ) ) ( , c f c with slope ) ( ' c f is the tangent line
to the graph of ) (x f at the point ( ) ) ( , c f c .
32. Def. Normal Line: A normal line to a curve at a point is a line perpendicular to the tangent line at
the point.
Introduction to Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
4
33. Def. Local Linearity: A curve is called locally linear over an interval when zooming in on the
curve causes it to look like a straight line.
34. Def. Slope of a Curve: The slope of a curve at a point is the slope of the tangent line at the point.
35. Def. Differentiable: A function is said to be differentiable at a point if it has a derivative at the
point.
36. Def. Vertical Tangent Line: If ) (x f is continuous at c x = and + =
+
h
x f h x f
h
) ( ) (
lim
0

(or ), then the line c x = is called the vertical tangent to the curve at ( ) ) ( , c f c .
37. Thm. Local Linearity and Differentiability: If a curve is locally linear at a point c x = and the
tangent line is not vertical there, then the function is differentiable at c x = .
38. Thm. Continuity and Differentiability: If a curve is differentiable at a point c x = , then it is
continuous at c x = .
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 2 Quiz------------------------------------------------------
39. Thm. Properties of Derivatives:
a. If c y = , then 0 = ' y .
b. If ) (x f c y = , then ) ( ' ' x f c y = .
c. If ) ( ) ( x g x f y = , then ) ( ' ) ( ' ' x g x f y = .
d. If
n
x y = , then
1
=
n
nx y' .
40. Thm. Derivative of the Sine: If x y sin = , then x y cos ' = .
41. Thm. Derivative of the Cosine: If x y cos = , then x y sin ' = .
42. Def. Right-Hand Derivative: The right-hand derivative of ) (x f is
h
x f h x f
h
) ( ) (
lim
+
+
0
,
provided the limit exists.
43. Def. Left-Hand Derivative: The left-hand derivative of ) (x f is
h
x f h x f
h
) ( ) (
lim
+

0
,
provided the limit exists.
44. Def. Speed: Speed is the absolute value of the velocity of a moving object.
45. Thm. Changing Speed: If the velocity and acceleration of a moving object have the same sign,
then the speed of the object is increasing. If the velocity and acceleration have opposite
signs, then the speed is decreasing.
46. Thm. Product Rule: If ( ) x f and ( ) x g are differentiable functions at x, then
[ ] ) ( ' ) ( ) ( ) ( ' ) ( ) ( x g x f x g x f x g x f
dx
d
+ = .
47. Thm. Extended Product Rule: ' ' ' )' ( fgh h fg gh f fgh + + = .
Introduction to Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
5
48. Thm. Quotient Rule: If ( ) x f and ( ) x g are differentiable functions at x, and 0 ) ( x g , then
[ ]
2
) (
) ( ' ) ( ) ( ) ( '
) (
) (
x g
x g x f x g x f
x g
x f
dx
d
=
(

.
49. Thm. Chain Rule: If ( ) ) (x g f y = is a differentiable function of ) (x g , and ) (x g is a
differentiable function of x, then ( ) [ ] ( ) ) ( ' ) ( ' ) ( x g x g f x g f
dx
d
= .
50. Thm. Alternate Form of Chain Rule: If ) (u f y = is a differentiable function of u, and
) (x g u = is a differentiable function of x, then
dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
= .
51. Thm. Derivative of the Tangent: If x y tan = , then x y
2
sec ' = .
52. Thm. Derivative of the Cotangent: If x y cot = , then x y
2
csc ' = .
53. Thm. Derivative of the Secant: If x y sec = , then x x y tan sec ' = .
54. Thm. Derivative of the Cosecant: If x y csc = , then x x y cot csc ' = .
55. Thm. Absolute Value Rule: If x y = , then
x
x
y = ' .
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 2 Test------------------------------------------------------
Chapter 3A Applications of Differentiation
56. Skill: Procedure for Solving Related Rate Problems:
a. Draw and label an appropriate figure.
b. Write each rate (that is given or asked for) as a derivative.
c. Write an equation that relates all of the variables involved in the above derivatives.
d. Differentiate the equation with respect to time.
e. Substitute each given rate and given quantity into the equation.
f. Solve for the remaining rate.
57. Def. Maximum (or Absolute Maximum or Global Maximum): ) (c f is a maximum of f if
) ( ) ( x f c f for every x in the domain of f.
58. Def. Minimum (or Absolute Minimum or Global Minimum): ) (c f is a minimum of f if
) ( ) ( x f c f for every x in the domain of f.
59. Def. Relative Maximum (or Local Maximum): ) (c f is a relative maximum of f if there exists
an open interval containing c for which ) ( ) ( x f c f for all x in the interval.
60. Def. Relative Minimum (or Local Minimum): ) (c f is a relative minimum of f if there exists
an open interval containing c for which ) ( ) ( x f c f for all x in the interval.
61. Thm. Extreme Value Theorem: If ) (x f is continuous on a closed interval, then f has both a
maximum and minimum value on the interval.
Introduction to Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
6
62. Def. Critical Point: A point in the domain of a function f at which 0 ' = f or ' f does not
exist is called a critical point of f.
63. Thm. Finding Relative Extrema: If f has a relative maximum or minimum at c x = , then c is
a critical point of f.
64. Thm. Finding Absolute Extrema: If f is a continuous function on a closed interval and ( ) c f is
an absolute maximum or minimum on that interval, then c is either a critical point or one of
the endpoints.
65. Skill: Procedure for Finding Absolute Extrema:
a. Identify any points of discontinuity. Divide the domain of the function up into intervals
on which the function is continuous. Consider each interval separately.
b. Find all critical points and calculate the functional value at each.
c. If there are endpoints on the domain interval(s), calculate the functional value at each
endpoint. If there are no endpoints, find the limit of the y values as x approaches the
left or right end of the domain interval(s).
d. Select the largest y-coordinate as the maximum and the smallest y-coordinate as the
minimum. (Remember that a limit value does NOT represent a point and can therefore
never represent a maximum or minimum value. However, it can rule out the presence of
an absolute maximum or absolute minimum.)
66. Thm. Rolle's Theorem: If f is continuous on [ ] b a, , differentiable on ( ) b a, , and
) ( ) ( b f a f = , then there is at least one number c in ( ) b a, such that 0 ) ( ' = c f .
67. Thm. Mean Value Theorem: If f is continuous on [ ] b a, and differentiable on ( ) b a, , then
there exists a number c in ( ) b a, such that
a b
a f b f
c f

=
) ( ) (
) ( ' .
Geometric Interpretation: Under the given conditions, there is a point in the open interval
where the tangent to the curve is the same as the slope of the line joining the endpoints.
Application: Under the given conditions, there is a point in the open interval where the
instantaneous rate of change is the same as the average rate of change on the interval. If the
function is a position function, then there is a point in the open interval where the
instantaneous velocity is the same as the average velocity on the interval.
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 3A Quiz----------------------------------------------------
68. Def. Increasing Function: A function f x ( ) is increasing on an interval if for any two numbers
x
1
and x
2
in the interval,
2 1
x x < implies ) ( ) (
2 1
x f x f < .
69. Def. Decreasing Function: A function f x ( ) is decreasing on an interval if for any two numbers
x
1
and x
2
in the interval,
2 1
x x < implies ) ( ) (
2 1
x f x f > .
70. Def. Strictly Monotonic: A function is called strictly monotonic on an interval if it is either
increasing on the entire interval or decreasing on the entire interval.
Introduction to Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
7
71. Thm. Interpreting the Derivative: Let f x ( ) be a function that is differentiable on the open
interval ) , ( b a . Then:
a. If 0 ) ( ' > x f for all x in ) , ( b a , then ) (x f is increasing on ) , ( b a .
b. If 0 ) ( ' < x f for all x in ) , ( b a , then ) (x f is decreasing on ) , ( b a .
c. If 0 ) ( ' = x f for all x in ) , ( b a , then ) (x f is constant on ) , ( b a .
72. Thm. First Derivative Test for Local Extrema: Let c be a critical number of the function f that
is continuous on an open interval. If f is differentiable on the interval, except possibly at c,
then ) (c f can be classified as follows.
a. If ' f changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a relative minimum at c.
b. If ' f changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a relative maximum at c.
c. If ' f does not change signs at c, then f has neither a relative maximum nor a relative
minimum at c.
73. Def. Concave Upward: The graph of a differentiable function f is concave upward on an
interval if ' f is increasing on the interval.
74. Def. Concave Downward: The graph of a differentiable function f is concave downward on an
interval is ' f is decreasing on the interval.
75. Thm. Test for Concavity: Let ) (x f be a function whose second derivative exists on an open
interval ) , ( b a . Then:
a. If 0 ) ( ' ' > x f for all x in ) , ( b a , then the graph of ) (x f is concave upward.
b. If 0 ) ( ' ' < x f for all x in ( ) b a, then the graph of ) (x f is concave downward.
76. Def. Inflection Point: If ) (x f is continuous on an open interval containing the point c, the
graph of f changes concavity at c, and there exists a tangent line to the curve at c, then c
is called an inflection point of f.
77. Thm. Finding Inflection Points with the Second Derivative: If c is a point of inflection of the
graph of f, then either 0 ) ( " = c f or f " is undefined at c x = .
78. Thm. Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema: Let f be a function such that 0 ) ( ' = c f
and the second derivative of f exists on some open interval containing c.
a. If 0 ) ( " > c f , then ) (c f is a relative minimum.
b. If 0 ) ( " < c f , then ) (c f is a relative maximum.
c. If 0 ) ( " = c f or does not exist, the test fails.
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 3A Test-----------------------------------------------------
Introduction to Calculus - Ahlborn Def. P - 3
8
Chapter 3B More Applications of Differentiation
79. Def. Differential of y: Let ) (x f y = represent a differentiable function and let dx be any
nonzero change in x. Then the differential of y, written dy is given by dx x f dy ) ( ' = .
80. Def. Linear Approximation of y : dy is called the linear approximation of the actual
increment, y .
81. Def. Linear Approximation of f(x): The expression ) ( ) )( ( ' ) ( a f a x a f x f + is called the
linear approximation to ( ) x f near a x = .
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 3B Quiz----------------------------------------------------
82. Def. Cost Function: The cost function ( ) x C represents the total cost of producing x number of
units of some item.
83. Def. Revenue Function: The revenue function ( ) x R represents the total money taken in when
selling x number of units of some item.
84. Def. Profit Function: The profit function ( ) x P is the difference between the revenue function
and the cost function.
85. Def. Marginal Cost: The derivative of the cost function is called the marginal cost and represents
the additional cost of producing 1 more item.
86. Def. Marginal Revenue: The derivative of the revenue function is called the marginal revenue
and represents the additional money taken in upon selling 1 more item.
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 4 - 7
Chapters 4 - 7
DEFINITIONS, THEOREMS, AND FORMULAS Semester 1
Chapter 4 Integration
Indicates that the item should be memorized in exact detail. You may be asked to quote it on a quiz
or test.
1. Thm. Area Existence: If f is a continuous function on [ ] b a, , then the limits as n of both
the lower and upper sums exist and are equal to each other. That is
( ) ( )
(
(

=
(
(

=

=

x M f x m f
n
i
i
n
n
i
i
n
1 1
lim lim where
n
a b
x

= and ( )
i
m f and ( )
i
M f
represent the minimum and maximum values, respectively, of f on the interval.
2. Def. Area Under a Curve: Let f be a continuous function on the interval [ ] b a, . The area of the
region bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x a = and x b = is:
(
(

=

n
i
i
n
x c f area
1
) ( lim where
n
a b
x

= and
i i i
x c x
1
.
3. Thm. Properties of Summations:
a. cn c
n
i
=

=1

b.

= =
=
n
i
n
i
i f c i f c
1 1
) ( ) (
c. [ ]

= = =
=
n
i
n
i
n
i
i g i f i g i f
1 1 1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
4. Def. Riemann Sum: Let f be defined on the closed interval [ ] b a, which is partitioned by the
set } , , , , {
2 1 0
b x x x x a
n
= = . If c x x
i i i

[ , ]
1
and x x x
i i i
=
1
, then the sum

n
i
i i
x c f
1
) ( is called a Riemann sum of f for the given partition.
5. Def. Norm of the Partition: The length of the largest subinterval of a partition is called the norm
of the partition and is denoted by .
6. Def. Regular Partition: If every subinterval in a partition is of equal length, the partition is called
regular.
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 4 - 7
2
7. Def. Definite Integral: If f is defined on the interval [ ] b a, and the limit of the Riemann sum
(
(

=

n
i
i i
x c f
1
0
) ( lim exists, then this limit is called the definite integral of f on [ ] b a, and
is denoted by ( )
(
(

=

n
i
i i
b
a
x c f dx x f
1
0
) ( lim . (The values a and b are called the lower
and upper limits of the integral, respectively.)
8. Def. Integrable Function: A function is said to be integrable on an interval if it has a definite
integral on the interval.
9. Thm. Continuity and Integrability: If a function f is continuous on the closed interval [ ] b a, ,
then f is integrable on [ ] b a, .
10. Thm. Area Under a Curve: Let f be a continuous, function on the interval [ ] b a, . The area of
the region bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines a x = and b x = is
found by:
( )

=
b
a
dx x f area .
11. Def. Definite Integral at a Point: ( ) 0 =

a
a
dx x f .
12. Def. Definite Integral over a Reverse Interval: If f is an integrable function on [ ] b a, , then
( ) ( )

=
b
a
a
b
dx x f dx x f .
13. Thm. Definite Integral over Two Adjacent Intervals: If f is an integrable function on the three
intervals indicated, then ( ) ( ) ( )

= +
b
a
b
c
c
a
dx x f dx x f dx x f
14. Thm. Definite Integral of a Constant Times a Function: If f is an integrable function on [ ] b a,
and k is a constant, then ( ) ( )

=
b
a
b
a
dx x f k dx x f k .
15. Thm. Definite Integral of a Sum or Difference of Functions: If f and g are both integrable
functions on [ ] b a, , then ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( )

=
b
a
b
a
b
a
dx x g dx x f dx x g x f .
16. Thm. Comparing Definite Integrals: If f and g are both integrable functions on [ ] b a, and
) ( ) ( x g x f for b x a , then ( ) ( )


b
a
b
a
dx x g dx x f .
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 4 - 7
3
17. Thm. Integration of an Odd Function: If f is an odd function which is integrable on [ ] a a, ,
then ( ) 0 =

a
a
dx x f .
18. Thm. Integration of an Even Function: If f is an even function which is integrable on [ ] a a, ,
then ( ) ( )

=

a a
a
dx x f dx x f
0
2 .
19. Thm. Distance versus Displacement: If the continuous function ( ) t v represents the velocity of a
function over an interval of time [ ] b a, , then:
Displacement (or change in position) = ( )

b
a
dt t v .
Total Distance Traveled = ( )

b
a
dt t v .
20. Thm. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: If a function f has a continuous derivative on the
interval [ ] b a, , then ( )

=
b
a
dx x f a f b f ' ) ( ) ( .
Restatement: The total change in a function is the definite integral of its rate of change.
21. Def. Average Value of a Function: If f is a continuous function on [ ] b a, , then the average
value of f on [ ] b a, is found by ( )

=
b
a
dx x f
a b
y
1
.
22. Thm. Mean Value Theorem for Integrals: If ) (x f is continuous on [ ] b a, , then there exists
a number c in ( ) b a, such that ( )

=
b
a
dx x f
a b
c f
1
) ( .
Restatement: Under the given conditions, there is a point in the open interval where the
value of the function is equal to the average value of the function over the interval.
Geometric Interpretation: Under the given conditions, there is a point in the open interval
where the value of the function corresponds to the height of a rectangle, with base ) ( a b ,
whose area is the same as the area under the curve between the two endpoints.
23. Def. Antiderivative: If ( ) x f ' is the derivative of ( ) x f , then ( ) x f is called an antiderivative
of ( ) x f ' .
24. Thm. Relationship Between Antiderivatives: If F and G are both antiderivatives of a function
f, then C x G x F + = ) ( ) ( for some constant C.
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 4 - 7
4
25. Def. Accumulation Function: Let f be continuous on [a, b] and ] , [ b a x . The function
( )

=
x
a
dt t f x A ) ( is called the accumulation function.
26. Thm. Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: If f is continuous on an open interval
containing a, then for every x in the interval where ( )

=
x
a
dt t f x F ) ( , ( ) x F is an
antiderivative of ( ) x f .
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 4 Quiz------------------------------------------------------
27. Def. Indefinite Integral: The expression

dx x f ) ( is called the indefinite integral and is used

to represent the family of all antiderivatives of ) (x f .
28. Thm. Properties of the Indefinite Integral:
a. C x dx + =

.
b.

= dx x f k dx x f k ) ( ) ( .
c. [ ]

= dx x g dx x f dx x g x f ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( .
29. Thm. Trapezoidal Rule: If f is continuous on [a, b], then
( ) [ ] ) ( ) ( 2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 ) (
2
1 3 1 0 n n
b
a
x f x f x f x f x f
n
a b
dx x f + + + + +

.
30. Thm. Simpson's Rule: If f is continuous on [a, b] and T represents the approximation of
( )

b
a
dx x f using the Trapezoidal Rule and M represents the same integral approximated
with the same number of subdivisions using the Midpoint Rule, then the value
3
2 T M
S
+
=
is the Simpson's Rule approximation for the integral.
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 4 Test------------------------------------------------------
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 4 - 7
5
Chapter 5 Transcendental Functions
31. Def. e:
n
n n
e |

\
|
+ =

1
1 lim or
n
n
n e
1
0
) 1 ( lim + =

.
32. Def. Exponential Function:
x
a y = where 0 > a and 1 a is called the exponential function.
33. Def. Logarithm Function: If x y
a
log = , then x a
y
= , where 0 > a , 1 a , and 0 > x .
Notation: x x
e
log ln = and x x
10
log log = .
34. Thm. Properties of Logarithms:
a. 0 1 log =
b
.
b. q p pq
b b b
log log log + = .
c. q p
q
p
b b b
log log log = .
d. p n p
b
n
b
log log = .
e.
a
x
x
b
b
a
log
log
log = .
f. x b
x
b
=
log
.
g. x b
x
b
= log .
35. Thm. Properties of the Natural Logarithm.
a. The domain of x y ln = is ) , 0 ( and the range is ) , ( .
b. The function is continuous, increasing, one-to-one.
c. The graph is concave downward on its entire domain.
d. =

x
x
ln lim and =
+

x
x
ln lim
0
.
36. Thm. Derivative of the Natural Logarithm. If x y ln = , then
x
y
1
' = .
37. Thm. Derivative of the Natural Logarithm with Absolute Value: If x y ln = , then
x
y
1
' = .
38. Thm. Integration of
x
1
:

+ = C x dx
x
ln
1
for 0 x .
39. Thm. Integral of the Sine Function: C x dx x + =

cos sin .
40. Thm. Integral of the Cosine Function: C x dx x + =

sin cos .
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 4 - 7
6
41. Thm. Integral of the Tangent Function: C x dx
x
x
dx x + = =

cos ln
cos
sin
tan .
42. Thm. Integral of the Cotangent Function: C x dx
x
x
dx x + = =

sin ln
sin
cos
cot .
43. Thm. Integral of the Secant Function: C x x dx x + + =

tan sec ln sec .

44. Thm. Integral of the Cosecant Function: C x x dx x + + =

cot csc ln csc .

45. Def. Inverse Function: A function g is the inverse of the function f if x x g f = )) ( ( for each x
in the domain of g and x x f g = )) ( ( for each x in the domain of f. Notation:
) ( ) (
1
x g x f =

.
46. Thm. Basic Properties of Inverse Functions:
a. If ) , ( b a is a point on ) (x f , then ) , ( a b is a point on ) (
1
x f

.
b. The domain of f is the range of
1
f and the range of f is the domain of
1
f .
c. The graphs of f and
1
f are mirror reflections about the diagonal line x y = .
47. Def. One-to-One: A function is called one to one if no two ordered pairs have the same first or
second member.
48. Thm. Existence of an Inverse: A function possess an inverse if and only if it is one-to-one.
49. Def. Strictly Monotonic: A function is strictly monotonic if it is either increasing on its entire
domain or decreasing on its entire domain.
50. Thm. Monotonic Implies 1:1: If a function is strictly monotonic on an interval, then it is one-to-
one on the interval and has an inverse.
51. Thm. Advanced Properties of Inverse Functions:
a. If f is continuous, then
1
f is continuous.
b. If f is increasing, then
1
f is increasing.
c. If f is decreasing, then
1
f is decreasing.
d. If f is differentiable at c x = and 0 ) ( ' c f , then
1
f is differentiable at ) (c f .
52. Thm. Derivative of an Inverse Function: If f is a differentiable function that possesses an
inverse function g, then
( ) ) ( '
1
) ( '
x g f
x g = .
53. Restatement: If f and g are inverse functions, and (a, b) is a point on the function g, then
) ( '
1
) ( '
b f
a g = .
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 4 - 7
7
54. Thm. Properties of the Natural Exponential Function:
a. The domain of
x
e y = is ) , ( and the range is ) , 0 ( .
b. The function is continuous, increasing, one-to-one.
c. The graph is concave upward on its entire domain.
d. 0 lim =

x
x
e and =
+
x
x
e lim .
55. Thm. Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function: If
x
e y = , then
x
e y = ' .
56. Thm. Integration of the Natural Exponential Function:

+ = C e dx e
x x
.
57. Thm. Derivative of the General Exponential Function: If
x
a y = , then a a y
x
ln ' = .
58. Thm. Integration of the General Exponential Function:

+ = C a
a
dx a
x x
ln
1
.
59. Thm. Derivative of the General Logarithm Function: If x y
a
log = , then
a x
y
ln
1
' = .
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 5 Quiz------------------------------------------------------
60. Def. Inverse Sine: x y arcsin = means y x sin = where
2 2

y .
61. Def. Inverse Cosine: x y arccos = means y x cos = where y 0 .
62. Def. Inverse Tangent: x y arctan = means y x tan = where
2 2

< <

y .
63. Def. Inverse Cotangent: x y arccot = means y x cot = where < < y 0 .
64. Def. Inverse Secant: x y arcsec = means y x sec = where 0 y and
2

y .
65. Def. Inverse Cosecant: x y arccsc = means y x csc = where
2 2

y and 0 y .
66. Thm. Derivative of the Inverse Sine: If x y arcsin = , then
2
1
1
'
x
y

= .
67. Thm. Derivative of the Inverse Cosine: If x y arccos = , then
2
1
1
'
x
y

.
68. Thm. Derivative of the Inverse Tangent: If x y arctan = , then
2
1
1
'
x
y
+
= .
69. Thm. Derivative of the Inverse Cotangent: If x y arccot = , then
2
1
1
'
x
y
+

= .
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 4 - 7
8
70. Thm. Derivative of the Inverse Secant: If x y arcsec = , then
1
1
'
2

=
x x
y .
71. Thm. Derivative of the Inverse Cosecant: If x y arccsc = , then
1
1
'
2

=
x x
y .
72. Thm. Integration with the Inverse Sine Function: C x dx
x
+ =

arcsin
1
1
2
.
73. Thm. Integration with the Inverse Tangent Function: C x dx
x
+ =
+

arctan
1
1
2
.
74. Thm. Integration with the Inverse Secant Function:

+ =

C x dx
x x
sec arc
1
1
2
.
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 5 Test---------- --------------------------------------------
Chapter 6 Differential Equations
75. Def. Differential Equation: A differential equation in x and y is an equation that involves x,
y, and derivatives of y.
76. Def. Solution of a Differential Equation: A solution of a differential equation is a function or
relation in x and y that is defined on an open interval and makes the differential equation
true.
77. Thm. Euler's Method: For a differentiable relation in y and x where y' is known and
0
y is
known, then any value of y can be approximated by the iterative procedure
i i i i
x x y y y + =
+
) ( '
1
.
78. Def. Stable Equilibrium: A relationship where the dependent variable, regardless of its initial
value, tends toward a constant state as the independent variable tends to infinity, is called a
stable equilibrium.
79. Def. Equilibrium Solution: The constant value to which the dependent variable approaches in a
stable equilibrium is called the equilibrium solution.
80. Thm. Stable Equilibriums: Differential equations of the form ) ( E y k
dt
dy
= , where 0 > k ,
are stable equilibriums.
81. Thm. Equilibrium Solution: The value for y which makes the derivative zero is the equilibrium
solution.
82. Thm. Newton's Law of Cooling: The rate at which a body cools is proportional to the difference
between its temperature and that of the surrounding air.
83. Thm. Removal of Pollutants: (You are not required to learn this theorem.) If a lake of volume V
with water flow r contains an amount Q of pollutants, then the rate of change of the
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 4 - 7
9
pollutants with respect to time t can be described as Q
V
r
dt
dQ
= , presuming no additional
pollutants enter the lake.
84. Def. Cooling Curve: A cooling curve is a curve whose differential equation is of the form
) ( E y k
dt
dy
= , where k is positive and E y >
0
.
85. Thm. Characteristics of the Cooling Curve: The cooling curve:
a. Has a growth rate that is always negative.
b. Decreases rapidly at the start and more slowly as time passes.
c. Is a stable equilibrium, with equilibrium solution E y = .
86. Def. Learning Curve: A learning curve is a curve whose differential equation is of the form
) ( E y k
dt
dy
= , where k is positive and E y <
0
.
87. Thm. Characteristics of the Learning Curve: The learning curve:
a. Has a rate of growth that is always positive.
b. Increases rapidly at the start and more slowly as time passes.
c. Is a stable equilibrium, with equilibrium solution E y = .
88. Def. Logistic Curve: A logistic curve is a curve whose differential equation is of the form
|

\
|
=
L
y
ky
dt
dy
1 where 0 > k . L is called the carrying capacity of the environment, or the
limiting value of the population.
89. Thm. Logistic Curve: For values of y where L y < < 0 , the logistic curve:
a. Has a growth rate that is always positive.
b. Increases slowly at the start, rapidly later on, and slowly again as the limiting value L is
reached.
c. Has its fastest rate of growth when
2
L
y = .
d. Has a stable equilibrium solution of L y = .
e. Has a relative growth rate (growth rate as a percent of the whole population) that is a
linearly decreasing function of y.)
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 6 Quiz------------------------------------------------------
90. Thm. Partial Fractions with Non-Repeated Linear Factors: A fraction of the form
( )( ) d cx b ax
x P
+ +
) (
where ) (x P is a polynomial of degree less than the denominator can
always be rewritten in the form
( )( ) ( ) ( ) d cx
B
b ax
A
d cx b ax
x P
+
+
+
=
+ +
) (
where A and B are
constants. This statement can be generalized for a fraction with n linear factors in the
denominator.
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 4 - 7
10
91. Thm. Partial Fractions with Repeated Linear Factors: A fraction of the form
( )
3
) (
b ax
x P
+
where
) (x P is a polynomial of degree less than the denominator can always be rewritten in the
form
( )
( )
( ) ( )
3 2 3
) (
b ax
C
b ax
B
b ax
A
b ax
x P
+
+
+
+
+
=
+
where A, B, and C are fractions. This
statement can be generalized for a fraction with n repeated linear factors in the denominator.
Chapter 7 Applications of Integration
92. Thm. Area Between Two Curves: If f and g are continuous on [a, b] and ) ( ) ( x f x g for all
x in [a, b], then the area of the region bounded by the graphs of f and g and the vertical
lines a x = and b x = is ( ) ( )

b
a
dx x g x f .
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 6 Test------------------------------------------------------
93. Def. Lorenz Curve: The Lorenz curve indicates the total income which is received by the bottom
t proportion ) 1 0 ( t of the population.
94. Def. Gini Index: The Gini Index is twice the area between the Lorenz curve and the Egalitarian
Line.
95. Thm. Gini Index: Let L(x) represent the Lorenz curve. Then ( ) [ ]dx x L x

=
1
0
2 Index Gini .
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 7 Quiz------------------------------------------------------
96. Def. Smooth Curve: A curve defined by ) (x f y = on the interval ] , [ b a is called smooth if
) ( ' x f is continuous on ] , [ b a .
97. Def. Arc Length: Let ) (x f y = be a smooth curve on the interval [a, b] then the arc length of
f between a and b is given by ( ) [ ] dx x f s
b
a

+ =
2
' 1 . Similarly, for a smooth curve given
by x g y = ( ) , the arc length of g between c and d is ( ) [ ]

+ =
d
c
dy y g s
2
' 1 .
98. Def. Work: If a constant force F acts over a fixed distance D, then the work done is FD W = .
99. Def. Pressure: Pressure is the force per unit area on the surface of a body.
100. Thm. Fluid Pressure: Fluid Pressure P on an object is the density D of the fluid times the depth
h of the object in the liquid. Dh P = .
101. Thm. Fluid Force: The fluid force FF on a submerged horizontal surface of area A is the
pressure on the surface times the area of the surface. PA FF = .
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 7 Test------------------------------------------------------
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 8 - 10
Chapters 8 - 10
DEFINITIONS, THEOREMS, AND FORMULAS Semester 2
Chapter 8 Integration Techniques
Indicates that the item should be memorized in exact detail. You may be asked to quote it on a quiz
or test.
1. Thm. Integration by Parts:

= du v uv dv u .
2. Thm. L'Hpital's Rule: If
(

) (
) (
lim
x g
x f
results in the indeterminate form
0
0
or

, then
(

=
(

) ( '
) ( '
lim
) (
) (
lim
x g
x f
x g
x f
provided the latter limit is of a determinate form.
3. Def. Improper Integral with Infinite Integration Limit:
a. If f is continuous on the interval ) , [ a , then

=
b
a a
b
dx x f dx x f ) ( lim ) (
b. If f is continuous on the interval ] , ( b , then



=
b
a
b
a
dx x f dx x f ) ( lim ) (
c. If f is continuous on the interval ) , ( , then

+ =
c
c
dx x f dx x f dx x f ) ( ) ( ) ( ,
where c is any real number.
Note that for the first two cases, the improper integral converges if the limit exists; otherwise,
the improper integral diverges. In the third case, the improper integral on the left diverges if
either of the improper integrals on the right diverges.
4. Def. The Factorial Function:

=
0
! dt e t x
t x
.
5. Def. Improper Integral with Infinite Discontinuity (or Vertical Asymptote):
a. If f is continuous on the interval ) , [ b a and has an infinite discontinuity (or vertical
asymptote) at b, then

=
c
a
b
a
b c
dx x f dx x f ) ( lim ) ( .
b. If f is continuous on the interval ] , ( b a and has an infinite discontinuity (or vertical
asymptote) at a, then
+

=
b
c
b
a
a c
dx x f dx x f ) ( lim ) ( .
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 8 - 10
2
c. If f is continuous on the interval ] , [ b a except for some point ) , ( b a c at which f
has an infinite discontinuity (or vertical asymptote), then

+ =
b
c
c
a
b
a
dx x f dx x f dx x f ) ( ) ( ) ( .
Note that for the first two cases, the improper integral converges if the limit exists; otherwise,
the improper integral diverges. In the third case, the improper integral on the left diverges if
either of the improper integrals on the right diverges.
6. Def. Piecewise Continuity: Function f is piecewise-continuous on the interval [ ] b a, if and
only if there is a finite number of values of x in [ ] b a, at which ( ) x f is discontinuous,
the discontinuities are either removable or step discontinuities, and f is continuous elsewhere
on [ ] b a, .
7. Thm. Integrability of a Piecewise Continuous Function: If function f is piecewise-continuous
on the interval [ ] b a, , then f is integrable on [ ] b a, .
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 8 Test------------------------------------------------------
Chapter 10 Parametric Functions
8. Def. Parametric Equations: If f and g are continuous functions of t on an interval I, then the
equations ) (t f x = and ) (t g y = are called parametric equations and t is called the
parameter.
9. Def. Orientation: When a parametric curve is plotted in order of increasing values of the
parameter, the curve is traced out in a specific direction, called the orientation of the curve.
Orientation is also referred to as the direction of motion.
10. Def. Intersection Point: Given two parametrized curves, an intersection point is any point that
lies on both curves. If this intersection point corresponds to the same value of t for both
curves, it is called a collision point.
11. Def. Vector: A vector is a quantity which is described by a direction and a magnitude. It is
represented by a ray

AB , where A is called the initial point (or tail of the vector) and B is
called the terminal point (or head of the vector).
12. Def. Magnitude (or Absolute Value) of a Vector:

v is called the magnitude or absolute value

of the vector. Its value corresponds to the length of the arrow, with no regard for direction.
13. Def. Zero Vector: The zero vector is a vector of magnitude zero, i.e. a point. (It is assigned no
direction.)
14. Def. Scalar Multiple of a Vector:

v k (where 0 > k ) represents a vector with the same

direction as

v , but whose magnitude is k times as large.

AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 8 - 10
3
15. Def. Component Form of a Vector: Let the tail of a vector be at ( )
1 1
, y x and its head be at
( )
2 2
, y x . Then the vector

v can be expressed as b a v , =

where
1 2
x x a = and
1 2
y y b = .
16. Def. Opposite of a Vector:
|
|

\
|

AB means

BA.
17. Thm. Vector Operations in Components and Unit Vectors: For

+ = = j b i a b a v , ,

+ = = j b i c d c w , and scalar k:
a.
2 2
b a v + =

b.

+ = = j kb i ka kb ka v k ,
c.

+ + + = + + = + j d b i c a d b c a w v ) ( ) ( ,
d.

+ = = j d b i c a d b c a w v ) ( ) ( ,
18. Thm. Parallel Vectors:

v and

w are parallel if and only if

= v k w .
19. Def. Dot Product: The dot product of two vectors b a v , =

and d c w , =

is
bd ac w v + =

. (Note that the dot product of two vectors is always a scalar.)
20. Thm. Orthogonal Vectors:

v and

w are orthogonal if and only if 0 =

w v .
21. Thm. Displacement Formula: Displacement equals velocity times time: t v d

= .
22. Thm. Position Formula: ( ) ( ) t v y x y x

+ =
0 0
, , describes the position of object moving with given
velocity

v from a given starting point ( )

0 0
, y x . Note: The Position Formula
( ) ( ) b a t y x y x , , ,
0 0
+ = can be expressed as a pair of parametric equations: ta x x + =
0

and tb y y + =
0
, where t is the parameter.
23. Def. Velocity Vector: If the position of an object is determined by two parametric functions ( ) t x
and ( ) t y , or a vector function ( ) ( ) t y t x , , the vector ( ) ( ) t y t x ' , ' is called the velocity
vector of the object at any time t. Individually, ( ) t x' is called the instantaneous velocity in
the x-direction; and ( ) t y' is called the instantaneous velocity in the y-direction.
24. Def. Instantaneous Speed: If the position of an object is determined by two parametric functions
( ) t x and ( ) t y , or a vector function ( ) ( ) t y t x , , the instantaneous speed of the object is
defined to be the magnitude of the velocity vector. That is, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
' ' t y t x speed + = .
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 8 - 10
4
25. Def. Acceleration Vector: If the position of an object is determined by two parametric functions
( ) t x and ( ) t y , or a vector function ( ) ( ) t y t x , , the vector ( ) ( ) t y t x " , " is called the
acceleration vector of the object at any time t.
26. Thm. Parametric Motion: Given two parametric functions ( ) t x and ( ) t y , or a vector function
( ) ( ) t y t x , , that describe the motion of an object. At any point t for which:
a. ( ) 0 ' = t y and ( ) 0 ' t x , the motion will be parallel to the x-axis and the curve will have
a horizontal tangent.
b. ( ) 0 ' t y and ( ) 0 ' = t x , the motion will be parallel to the y-axis and the curve will have
a vertical tangent.
c. ( ) 0 ' = t y and ( ) 0 ' = t x , the motion is stopped. If neither ( ) t x' nor ( ) t y' change sign
at the point, the curve will have a tangent line. Otherwise there will be no tangent line.
27. Def. Smooth Curve in Parametric Form: A curve represented by parametric functions ( ) t x
and ( ) t y on an interval I is called smooth if ( ) t x' and ( ) t y' are continuous on I and are
not simultaneously zero, except possibly at the endpoints of I.
28. Thm. Parametric Form of the Derivative: If a smooth curve is given by the parametric
functions ( ) t x and ( ) t y , then the slope of the curve at ) , ( y x is
dt dx
dt dy
dx
dy
/
/
= , provided
that 0
dt
dx
.
29. Thm. Second Derivative: If a smooth curve is given by the parametric functions ( ) t x and
( ) t y , then
dt dx
dx
dy
dt
d
dx
y d
/
2
2
(

= , provided that 0
dt
dx
.
30. Def. Length of a Parametrically Defined Path: If an object travels along a smooth curve
given by the parametric functions ( ) t x and ( ) t y , or a vector-valued function ( ) ( ) t y t x ,
then the length of the path traveled by the object during the time interval b t a is given
by ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) dt t y t x s
b
a

+ =
2 2
' ' .
31. Thm. Arc Length of a Parametrically Defined Curve: If a curve that is defined by the
parametric functions ( ) t x and ( ) t y , or a vector-valued function ( ) ( ) t y t x , , does not
intersect itself on the interval b t a (except possibly at the endpoints), then the arc
length of the curve from ( ) ( ) ( ) a y a x , to ( ) ( ) ( ) b y b x , is given by
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) dt t y t x s
b
a

+ =
2 2
' ' .
32. Def. Vector-Valued Functions: A function of the form

+ = j t g i t f t r ) ( ) ( ) ( is called a
vector-valued function, where the component functions f and g are real-valued functions of
the parameter t. Unless otherwise stated, the domain of a vector-valued function

r is
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 8 - 10
5
considered to be the intersection of the domains of the component functions f and g. (Note
that vector-valued functions are also expressed in the form ) ( ), ( ) ( t g t f t r =

or
( ) ) ( ), ( ) ( t g t f t r =

.)
33. Def. Limit of a Vector-Valued Function: If

r is a vector-valued function such that

+ = j t g i t f t r ) ( ) ( ) ( , then

+
(

= j t g i t f t r
a t a t a t
) ( lim ) ( lim ) ( lim , provided that f and g
both have limits as t approaches a.
34. Thm. Continuity of a Vector-Valued Function: A vector-valued function

r is continuous at
the point determined by a t = if and only if each of its component functions is continuous at
the point determined by a t = .
35. Thm. Differentiation of a Vector-Valued Function: If a vector-valued function is defined by

+ = j t g i t f t r ) ( ) ( ) ( , where f and g are differentiable functions of t, then

+ = j t g i t f t r ) ( ' ) ( ' ) ( ' .
36. Thm. Tangent Vector: Let ( ) ( ) ( )

+ = j t y i t x t r be a vector-valued function where ) (t x and
) (t y represent the rectangular coordinates of a curve C. Then ( ) t r

' represents a vector

that will be tangent to the curve C at the point ( ) ) ( ), ( t y t x . Application: For a particle
moving along a curve, the velocity vector of the particles motion will be tangent to the path
of the particle at each point.
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 10 Quiz----------------------------------------------------
37. Thm. Converting Polar to Cartesian (Rectangular): The polar coordinates ) , ( r of a point are
related to the rectangular coordinates ) , ( y x of the point as follows:
a. sin r y = b. cos r x =
c.
2 2
y x r + =
d.
x
y
= tan
38. Thm. Classification of Conics: If P is any point on the curve, F is a focus and D is the related
directrix, then a conic is a(n)
a. Ellipse if 1 0 < <
PD
PF
b. Parabola if 1 =
PD
PF

c. Hyperbola if 1 >
PD
PF

39. Def. Eccentricity: If P is any point on the curve of a conic with center C, one focus F, and its
directrix D, then the eccentricity e of a conic section is given by
PD
PF
CV
CF
= = e .
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 8 - 10
6
40. Thm. Polar Equations of Conics: The graph of a polar equation of the form
cos 1 e
ed
r

= or
sin 1 e
ed
r

= is a conic, where 0 > e is the eccentricity and d is the distance between

the focus (which is at the pole) and its corresponding directrix.
41. Thm. Slope in Polar Form: If f is a differentiable function of , then the slope of the tangent
line to the graph of ) ( f r = at the point ) , ( r is

sin ) ( cos ) ( '

cos ) ( sin ) ( '
/
/
r r
r r
d dx
d dy
dx
dy

+
= = ,
provided that 0
d
dx
at ) , ( r .
(This derivative formula can be derived from the polar equations cos r x = and
sin r y = using the parametric derivative formula

d dx
d dy
dx
dy
/
/
= . Remember to use the
Product Rule and Chain Rule when differentiating the functions for x and y because r is a
function of .)
42. Thm. Vertical and Horizontal Tangent Lines to a Polar Curve: Given a polar curve ) ( f r = .
If at a point on the curve ) , ( r :
a. 0 =
d
dy
and 0
d
dx
, then the tangent line to the curve at the point is horizontal.
b. 0 =
d
dx
and 0
d
dy
, then the tangent line to the curve at the point is vertical.
c. 0 =
d
dx
and 0 =
d
dy
, then no conclusion can be drawn.
43. Thm. Tangents at the Pole: Given a polar curve ) ( f r = that passes through the pole at point
( ) , 0 . The tangent line to the curve at ( ) , 0 is x y ) (tan = or = , provided that
( ) 0 ' r .
44. Thm. Sector of a Circle: The area of a sector of a circle of radius r with central angle (in
radians) is defined by
2 2
2
1
2
r r A

= = .
45. Thm. Area in Polar Coordinates: If ) ( f r = is continuous and non-negative on the interval
[ ] , , then the area of the region bounded by the graph of ) ( f r = between the radial
lines = and = is given by [ ]

d f A
2
) (
2
1

----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 10 Test-----------------------------------------------------
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 8 - 10
7
Chapter 9 Infinite Series
46. Def. Sequence: A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers.
47. Def. Limit of an Infinite Sequence: The sequence { }
n
a has a limit L, written L a
n
n
=

lim ,
means that the terms of { }
n
a become increasingly close to the real number L as n
increases without bound. If a limit L exists, the sequence is said to converge. If no limit
exists, the sequence is said to diverge.
48. Thm. Limit of an Infinite Sequence: If L x f
x
=

) ( lim for a real number L, and ) (n f a
n
= for
every natural number n, then ( ) L x f a
x
n
n
= =

lim lim .
49. Def. Monotonic Sequence: A sequence { }
n
a is monotonic if its terms are nondecreasing,

n
a a a a
3 2 1
, or nonincreasing
n
a a a a
3 2 1
.
50. Def. Bounded Sequence: A sequence { }
n
a is
a. bounded from above if there exists a real number M such that M a
n
for all n.
b. bounded from below if there exists a real number m such that
n
a m for all n.
c. bounded if it is both bounded from above and below.
51. Thm. Convergent Implies Bounded: Every convergent sequence is bounded.
52. Thm. Bounded and Monotonic Implies Convergent: Every bounded monotonic sequence is
convergent.
53. Def. Infinite Series: An infinite series is the sum of the terms of an infinite sequence. It is
denoted

=1 n
n
a . Sometimes, it is simply written as

n
a where the starting value is
assumed to be 1 unless indicated otherwise in the text.
54. Def. N
th
Partial Sum: The n
th
partial sum of a series

n
a is given by
n n
a a a a S + + + + = ...
3 2 1
.
55. Def. Sum of an Infinite Series: If the sequence of partial sums { }
n
S converges to S, then the
series

n
a converges, and the limit S is called the sum of the series. If { }
n
S diverges,
then the series diverges.
56. Def. Geometric Series:

=
+ + + + + =
0
3 2
... ...
n
n n
ar ar ar ar a ar , where 0 a , is called a
geometric series.
57. Thm. Convergence of a Geometric Series:

=
0
1
n
n
r
a
ar whenever 1 < r . If 1 r , the
series diverges.
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 8 - 10
8
58. Def. Telescoping Series: A telescoping series is one in which the n
th
term can be expressed as
1 +
=
n n n
b b a .
59. Thm. Convergence of a Telescoping Series: If

n
a is a telescoping series with
1 +
=
n n n
b b a , then

n
a converges if and only if { }
n
b converges. Furthermore, if { }
n
b
converges to L, then L b a
n
=

1
.
60. Thm. Properties of Convergent Series: If A a
n
=

and B b
n
=

, and c is a real number,

then the following series converge to the indicated sums.
a. A c a c ca
n n

= = .
b. ( ) B A b a b a
n n n n
= =

.
c. CHANGING (altering the value of, deleting, or adding in) a FINITE number of terms in
a series does NOT change whether it converges or diverges, although it may change the
value of its sum if it does converge.
d. REGROUPING the values in a series can CHANGE whether it converges or diverges.
61. Thm. N
th
Term Test for Divergence: If 0 lim

n
n
a , then

n
a diverges.
Restatement: If the n
th
term of a series does not go to zero, the series diverges.
62. Thm. Convergence of P-Series: The p-series

=
+ + + =
1
...
3
1
2
1
1
1 1
n
p p p p
n

a. converges whenever 1 > p .
b. diverges whenever 1 0 < p .
63. Def. Harmonic Series: The p-series for which 1 = p is called the harmonic series.
64. Thm. Integral Test: If f is positive, continuous, and decreasing for 1 x and ) (n f a
n
= ,
then

1
n
a and

1
) ( dx x f either both converge or both diverge.
65. Thm. Direct Comparison Test: Let

n
a and

n
b be two series of positive terms for
which
n n
b a < 0 . Then:
a. If

n
b converges,

n
a converges.
b. If

n
a diverges,

n
b diverges.
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 8 - 10
9
66. Def. Order of Magnitude of a Series: Let

n
a and

n
b be two series of positive terms.
Then:
a.

n
a has the same order of magnitude as

n
b if L
b
a
n
n
n
=

lim , where 0 > L .
b.

n
a has a lesser order of magnitude as

n
b if 0 lim =

n
n
n b
a
.
c.

n
a has a greater order of magnitude as

n
b if =

n
n
n b
a
lim .
67. Thm. Limit Comparison Test: Let

n
a and

n
b be two series of positive terms.
a. If

n
a and

n
b are of the same order of magnitude, then either both series
converge, or both diverge.
b. If

n
a is of a lesser order of magnitude than

n
b and

n
b converges, then

n
a converges.
c. If

n
a is of a greater order of magnitude than

n
b and

n
b diverges, then

n
a diverges.
68. Def. Alternating Series: A series for which the terms are alternately positive and negative is
called an alternating series.
69. Def. Alternating Harmonic Series: The series ...
6
1
5
1
4
1
3
1
2
1
1 + + + is called the alternating
harmonic series.
70. Thm. Alternating Series Test for Convergence: Let 0 >
n
a . The alternating series

1
1
) 1 (
n
n
a converges if both of the following two conditions are met:
a.
n n
a a
+1
and
b. 0 lim =

n
n
a .
71. Thm. Error Bound for Summing an Alternating Series: Let

1
1
) 1 (
n
n
a be a convergent
alternating series for which
1 +

n n
a a . Then the absolute value of the error
n
R in
approximating the sum S with the n
th
partial sum
n
S , is
1 +
=
n n n
a S S R .
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 8 - 10
10
72. Def. Absolutely Convergent Series: The series

n
a is called absolutely convergent if both

n
a and

n
a converge.
73. Def. Conditionally Convergent Series: The series

n
a is called conditionally convergent if

n
a converges and

n
a diverges.
WARNING: Rearranging the terms of a conditionally convergent series can change the
sum of the series. It could also cause it to diverge.
74. Thm. The Absolute Convergence Theorem: If

n
a converges, then

n
a converges.
Note that the contrapositive of this statement must therefore be true: If

n
a diverges,
then

n
a diverges.
75. Thm. Ratio Test: Let

n
a be a series of nonzero terms.
a. If 1 lim
1
<
+

n
n
n a
a
, the series converges absolutely.
b. If 1 lim
1
>
+

n
n
n a
a
(or infinite), the series diverges.
c. If 1 lim
1
=
+

n
n
n a
a
, the test is inconclusive.
76. Process Analyzing an Infinite Series: To determine if a given series diverges or converges:
a. Determine whether or not the limit of the n
th
term is zero.
b. Determine if the series is a special type: p-series, geometric series, telescoping series, or
alternating series.
c. Determine if the Ratio Test or Integral Test can be applied successfully.
d. Determine if a Direct or Limit Comparison Test can be applied successfully.
----------------------------------------------------------End for Chapter 9 Quiz----------------------------------------------------
77. Thm. Taylor Polynomial of Degree n Approximating ) ( x f for x near c: If ) (x f is a
differentiable function through order n in an interval containing c, then ) (x f can be
approximated by the polynomial
n
n
n
c x
n
c f
c x
c f
c x
c f
c x c f c f x P ) (
!
) (
... ) (
! 3
) ( ' ' '
) (
! 2
) ( ' '
) )( ( ' ) ( ) (
) (
3 2
+ + + + + = . We call
) (x P
n
the Taylor polynomial of degree n centered at c x = . It is called the n
th
degree
Maclaurin polynomial for f when 0 = c .
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 8 - 10
11
78. Thm. Taylors Theorem: If ) (x f is a differentiable function through order 1 + n on an interval
I containing c, then for each x in I there exists a value z between x and c such that
) (x f can be expressed as
n n
R x P x f + = ) ( ) ( where
1
) 1 (
) (
)! 1 (
) (
+
+

+
=
n
n
n
c x
n
z f
R .
79. Cor. Lagrange Error Bound for ) ( x P
n
: The maximum error
n
R in approximating a
function ) (x f with a Taylor polynomial of degree n can be calculated by
1
)! 1 (
+

n
n
c x
n
M
R where M is the maximum value of
) 1 ( + n
f on the interval between
x and c.
80. Def. Power Series: For a variable x and a constant c, a series of the form

=
+ + + + + =
0
2
2 1 0
... ) ( ... ) ( ) ( ) (
n
n
n
n
n
c x a c x a c x a a c x a is called a power series
centered at c. (Note that on the left side when c x = , we have a factor of
0
0 in the first
term, which is normally considered undefined. In this context we agree that the first term of
the series is always
0
a , even if c x = .)
81. Thm. Convergence of a Power Series: For a power series centered at c, precisely one of the
following is true:
a. The series converges only at the point c.
b. There exists a real number 0 > R such that the series converges absolutely for
R c x < , and diverges for R c x > .
c. The series converges absolutely for all real numbers x.
82. Def. Radius of Convergence: The number R in the above theorem is called the radius of
convergence. If the series converges at only one point, we define R to be 0. If the series
converges absolutely for all real numbers, we consider R to be .
83. Def. Domain of a Power Series (or Interval of Convergence): If

=
=
0
) ( ) (
n
n
n
c x a x f , then
the domain of the function is the set of all values of x for which the series converges. The
domain of the power series is also called the interval of convergence.
84. Thm. Properties of Functions Defined by Power Series: For a powers series given by

=
=
0
) ( ) (
n
n
n
c x a x f with a radius of convergence 0 > R , then on the interval
( ) R c R c + , , f is differentiable (and therefore continuous and integrable). Moreover,
a.

=
0
1
) ( ) ( '
n
n
n
c x a n x f and R is its radius of convergence.
b.

=
+

+
+ =
0
1
) (
1
) (
n
n n
c x
n
a
C dx x f and R is its radius of convergence.
AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. 8 - 10
12
NOTE: Though the radius of convergence is unaltered by differentiation or integration, the
endpoints on the interval of convergence may change. In particular, differentiation may
result in the loss (never gain) of an endpoint and integration may result in the gain (never
loss) of an endpoint.
85. Def. Geometric Power Series: A function of the form
x
a
x f

=
1
) ( can be expressed as a
power series centered at 0 = c with radius of convergence 1 = R using a geometric series
of the form ...
1
) (
3 2
+ + + + =

= ax ax ax a
x
a
x f .
86. Def. Taylor and Maclaurin Series: If ) (x f has derivatives of all orders at c x = , then the
series
... ) (
!
) (
... ) (
! 3
) ( ' ' '
) (
! 2
) ( ' '
) )( ( ' ) ( ) (
!
) (
) (
3 2
0
) (
+ + + + + + =

=
n
n
n
n
n
c x
n
c f
c x
c f
c x
c f
c x c f c f c x
n
c f
is called the Taylor series for ) (x f at c. In addition, if 0 = c , then the series is called the
Maclaurin series for f.
87. Thm. Convergence of a Taylor Series: If 0 lim =

n
n
R (where
n
R is the error expression
defined in Taylors Theorem) for all x in the interval I, then the Taylor series for f
converges and equals ) (x f . That is
n
n
n
c x
n
c f
x f ) (
!
) (
) (
0
) (
=

=
.
88. Thm. Uniqueness of the Power Series: The power series representation of a function ) (x f
about c x = is unique.
89. Thm. Power Series for Elementary Functions:
a. ...
!
...
! 3 ! 2
1
3 2
+ + + + + + =
n
x x x
x e
n
x
where ) , ( = I
b. ...
)! 1 2 (
) 1 (
...
! 7 ! 5 ! 3
sin
1 2 7 5 3
+
+

+ + + =
+
n
x x x x
x x
n n
where ) , ( = I
c. ...
)! 2 (
) 1 (
...
! 6 ! 4 ! 2
1 cos
2 6 4 2
+

+ + + =
n
x x x x
x
n n
where ) , ( = I
d. ... ... 1
1
1
3 2
+ + + + + + =

n
x x x x
x
where ) 1 , 1 ( = I
-----------------------------------------------End for Chapter 9 Test-----------------------------------------------------

AP Calculus BC - Ahlborn Def. E
Chapter E
DEFINITIONS, THEOREMS, AND FORMULAS Beyond AP
Chapters e7 and e8 Integration Applications and Techniques
Indicates that the item should be memorized in exact detail. You may be asked to quote it on a quiz
or test.
1. Def. Area of a Surface of Revolution: If ) (x f y = is a smooth curve on the interval [ ] b a, ,
then the area of the surface of revolution formed by revolving the graph of f about a
horizontal or vertical axis is [ ]

+
b
a
dx x f x r
2
) ( ' 1 ) ( 2 where ) (x r is the distance between
the graph of f and the axis of revolution.
2. Process Trigonometric Substitutions: To integrate a radical expression of the form:
a.
2 2
x a , substitute a x sin = .
b.
2 2
a x + , substitute a x tan = .
c.
2 2
a x , substitute a x sec = .
Chapter L Definition of a Limit
3. Def: Two-sided limit at a point: Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing a
(except possibly at a) and let L be a real number. L x f
a x
=

) ( lim means that for every

0 > there exists a 0 > such that whenever a x < < 0 , then L x f < ) ( .
4. Def: Limit of positive infinity: + =

) ( lim x f
a x
means that for every 0 > N there exists a
0 > such that whenever a x < < 0 , then N x f > ) ( .
5. Def: Limit of negative infinity: =

) ( lim x f
a x
means that for every 0 < N there exists a
0 > such that whenever a x < < 0 , then N x f < ) ( .
6. Def: Limit at positive infinity: L x f
x
=
+
) ( lim means that for every 0 > there exists an
0 > M such that whenever M x > , then L x f < ) ( .
7. Def: Limit at negative infinity: L x f
x
=

) ( lim means that for every 0 > there exists an
0 < M such that whenever M x < , then L x f < ) ( .