Materials Science

TEGS 3591

Materials for Engineering

Prof. O. T. Johnson
(Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering,
University of Namibia)
 History of Materials Science
& Engineering
• materials closely connected our culture
• the development and advancement of societies are dependent on the
available materials and their use
• early civilizations designated by level of materials development

• initially natural materials

• develop techniques to produce materials with superior qualities
(heat treatments and addition of other substances)
July 24, 2007 Models & Materials 2
MATERIALS SELECTION!
Materials “Drive” our Society
• Ages of “Man” we survive based on the materials we control
• Stone Age – naturally occurring materials
• Special rocks, skins, wood
• Bronze Age
• Casting and forging

• Iron Age
• High Temperature furnaces

• Steel Age
• High Strength Alloys

• Non-Ferrous and Polymer Age

• Aluminum, Titanium and Nickel (superalloys) – aerospace
• Silicon – Information
• Plastics and Composites – food preservation, housing, aerospace and higher speeds

• Exotic Materials Age?

• Nano-Material and bio-Materials – they are coming and then …

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 Materials in Dispensation
• Every segment and needs of our everyday lives is influenced
to one degree or another by materials:
– Food, shelter, mobility, communication, etc

• Human needs evolve from ages to ages and this necessitates

manipulations and development of new materials to meeting
dispensational demands

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 The Stone Age
(600,000 – 5000 B.C.)

Using stones to producing fire

Using rocks as tools.

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 The Bronze Age
(5000 – 000 B.C.)

Stone Age 5000-2000 B.C.

Mixing different kinds of metals and
shaping them as better tools
Development of a system of symbols
for written communications

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 The Iron Age
(1200 B.C. – 5000 A.D.)

Iron Age 1200 B.C. – 1850 AD

Hard, tough, ductile and cheap
metals to make sophisticated tools,
bridges, ships etc. Iron mask from Africa
.
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 Development in Engineering
Materials
• Earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of
materials that occur naturally: stone, wood, clay etc.

• With time the techniques for producing materials were

discovered:
• Different materials that meet the needs of our modern and
complex society: metals, plastics, ceramics, composites
• Unending human needs necessitate development of newer
technologies
• Most often, harsh environments
• Improving materials property is never ending process to meet
human’s need.

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Materials Science & Engineering
• Materials Science
• The discipline of investigating the relationships that exist
between the structures and properties of materials.

• Materials Engineering
• The discipline of designing or engineering the structure of a
material to produce a predetermined set of properties based
on established structure-property correlation.

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 Materials Science & Engineering
structure • arrangement of internal components
• subatomic
Four Major Components • atomic
• microscopic
• macroscopic (bulk)

characterization
processing properties
• material characteristic
• method of preparing
• response to external
material
stimulus
• mechanical, electrical,
performance thermal, magnetic,
• behavior in a optical, deteriorative
particular application

July 24, 2007 Models & Materials 10

The Materials Tetrahedron
❑ A materials scientist has to consider four ‘intertwined’ concepts, which are schematically shown as
the ‘Materials Tetrahedron’.
❑  When a certain performance is expected from a component (and hence the material constituting the
same), the ‘expectation’ is put forth as a set of properties.
 The material is synthesized and further made into a component by a set of processing methods
(casting, forming, welding, powder metallurgy etc.).
 The structure (at various lengthscales*) is determined by this processing.
 The structure in turn determines the properties, which will dictate the performance of the
component.
❑ Hence each of these aspects is dependent on the others.

The broad goal of Materials Science is to

understand and ‘engineer’ this tetrahedron

The Materials Tetrahedron

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 Why study Materials?
• applied scientists or engineers must make material choices
• materials selection
• in-service performance
• deterioration
• economics
BUT…really, everyone makes material choices!
aluminum glass plastic

July 24, 2007 Models & Materials 12

The Materials Selection Process
1. Pick Application Determine required Properties
Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical, deteriorative.

2. Properties Identify candidate Material(s)

Material: structure, composition.

3. Material Identify required Processing

Processing: changes structure and overall shape
ex: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping
forming, joining, annealing.

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 Doing Materials !

• Engineered Materials are a function of:

• Raw Materials Elemental Control
• Processing History
• Our Role in Engineering Materials then is to understand the
application and specify the appropriate material to do the job
as a function of:
• Strength: yield and ultimate * Economic and Environmental
• Ductility, flexibility Factors often are the most
• Weight/density important when making the final
decision!
• Working Environment
• Cost: Lifecycle expenses, Environmental impact*

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Types of Engineering Materials

• Metals • Polymers
• Steel, Cast Iron, • Plastics, Wood, Cotton
Aluminum, Copper, (rayon, nylon), “glue”
Titanium, many others

• Ceramics • Composites
• Glass, Concrete, Brick, • Glass Fiber-reinforced
Alumina, Zirconia, SiN, SiC polymers, Carbon Fiber-
reinforced polymers,
Metal Matrix
Composites, etc.

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 Metals
Metallic Bond
+ + + + “sea of electrons”
• one, two, or three valence electrons
• valence electrons free to drift through the + + + +
entire material forming a “sea of electrons”
surrounding net positive ionic cores + + + + ionic
• non-directional bond cores
+ + + +

Properties
• good conductors of
electricity and heat
• lustrous appearance
• susceptible to
corrosion
• strong, but
deformable

July 24, 2007 Models & Materials 16

 Ceramics and Glasses
Coulombic bonding force
Ionic Bond
• composed of metallic and non-metallic elements + +
• metallic elements give up valence electrons to
non-metallic elements + +
• all atoms have filled “inert gas” configuration + +
• ionic solid
• non-directional bond + +

Ceramics & Glasses

• thermally and
electrically insulating
• resistant to high
temperatures and
harsh environments
• hard, but brittle

July 24, 2007 Models & Materials 17

 Polymers
shared electron H
Covalent Bond shared electron
from hydrogen
• electrons are shared between adjacent from carbon
atoms, each contributing at least one
electron H C H
• shared electrons belong to both atoms
• directional bond

H methane (CH4)

Polymers
• very large molecules
• low density, light
weight materials
• maybe extremely
flexible

July 24, 2007 Models & Materials 18

 Thoughts about these
“fundamental” Materials
• Metals:
• Strong, ductile
• high thermal & electrical conductivity
• opaque, reflective.
• Polymers/plastics: Covalent bonding → sharing of e’s
• Soft, ductile, low strength, low density
• thermal & electrical insulators
• Optically translucent or transparent.
• Ceramics: ionic bonding (refractory) – compounds of metallic & non-
metallic elements (oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides)
• Brittle, glassy, elastic
• non-conducting (insulators)

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 Classification of Materials
Metals Ceramics & Glasses Polymers
• good conductors of • thermally and • very large molecules
electricity and heat electrically insulating • low density, low weight
• lustrous appearance • resistant to high • maybe extremely
• susceptible to temperatures and flexible
corrosion harsh environments
• strong, but • hard, but brittle
deformable

July 24, 2007 Models & Materials 20

 Classification of Materials: A
Few Additional Categories
Semiconductors Composites
Biomaterials • electrical properties • consist of more than
• implanted in human between conductors one material type
body and insulators • designed to display
• compatible with • electrical properties a combination of
body tissues can be precisely properties of each
controlled component

Intel Pentium 4 fiberglass surfboards

hip replacement

July 24, 2007 Models & Materials 21

 Examples of Materials
Engineering Work
Hip Implant

• With age or certain illnesses joints deteriorate.

Particularly those with large loads (such as hip).
Adapted from Fig. 22.25, Callister 7e.

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 Examples of Materials
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Engineering Work
Hip Implant
• Requirements
• mechanical strength
(many cycles)
• good lubricity
• biocompatibility

Adapted from Fig. 22.24, Callister 7e.

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 Examples of Materials
Engineering Work
Hip Implant Adapted from Fig. 22.24, Callister 7e.

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 Examples of Materials
Engineering Work
Hip Implant Acetabular
• Key Problems to Cup and
Liner
overcome:
• fixation agent to hold Ball
acetabular cup
• cup lubrication material
• femoral stem – fixing agent
(“glue”)
• must avoid any debris in
cup Femora
• Must hold up in body l
Stem
chemistry
• Must be strong yet flexible

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 But :

Properties depend on Structure (d)

(strength or hardness)
600
Hardness (BHN)

30 mm
500 (c)
400 (b)
(a)
4 mm
300
30 mm
200 30 mm

100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Cooling Rate (ºC/s)

And: Processing can change structure! (see

above structure vs Cooling Rate)
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The Eyeborn® orbital implant
Richter & Thomas, 2000-2004
• Interconnected macropores
allow tissue in-growth,
neo-vascularisation,
nutrient & waste transfer

• Micropores give high

surface area necessary
for adsorption of proteins
that enable cell adhesion,
proliferation & differentiation

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 Examples of Materials
Engineering Work
Rolling of Steel

◼ At h1, L1 ◼ At h2, L2
◼ low UTS ◼ high UTS
◼ low YS ◼ high YS
◼ high ductility ◼ low ductility
◼ round grains ◼ elongated grains

Structure determines Properties but Processing determines

Structure!
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Examples of Materials Engineering
Work - Optical Properties
• Transmittance:
-- Aluminum oxide may be transparent, translucent, or opaque
depending on the material’s structure (i.e., single crystal vs. polycrystal,
and degree of porosity).
polycrystal: polycrystal:
single crystal no porosity some porosity

Adapted from Fig. 1.2,

Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
(Specimen preparation,
P.A. Lessing; photo by S.
Tanner.)

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Grain Structure is a function of
“Solidification” processing!
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 Examples of Materials
Engineering Work
Electrical Properties of Copper
6 Electrical Resistivity of
Copper is affected by:
5
• Contaminate level
Resistivity, r
(10-8 Ohm-m)

4 • Degree of deformation
3 • Operating temperature

2
1
Adapted from Fig. 18.8, Callister 7e.
0 (Fig. 18.8 adapted from: J.O. Linde,
-200 -100 0 T Ann Physik 5, 219 (1932); and
C.A. Wert and R.M. Thomson,
(°C) Physics of Solids, 2nd edition,
McGraw-Hill Company, New York,
1970.)

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 Examples of Materials
Engineering Work
Thermal properties • Thermal Conductivity
of Copper: --It decreases when
• Space Shuttle Tiles:
you add zinc!
--Silica fiber insulation
offers low heat
conduction. 400

Thermal Conductivity
300

(W/m-K)
200
Adapted from
Fig. 19.4W, Callister 100
6e. (Courtesy of
Lockheed Aerospace
Ceramics Systems, 0
Sunnyvale, CA) 0 10 20 30 40
(Note: "W" denotes fig. Composition (wt% Zinc)
is on CD-ROM.)

100 mm
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 Examples of Materials
Engineering Work
Magnetic properties
• Magnetic Storage: • Magnetic Permeability
--Recording medium vs. Composition:
is magnetized by --Adding 3 atomic % Si makes Fe a
recording head. better recording medium!

Magnetization
Fe+3%Si

Fe

Magnetic Field
Fig. 20.23, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 20.23 is from J.U. Lemke, MRS Bulletin,
Vol. XV, No. 3, p. 31, 1990.)

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 Examples of Materials
Engineering Work
Deteriorative properties • Heat treatment: slows
• Stress & Saltwater... crack speed in salt water!
--causes cracks! 10-8 “as-is”
“held at

crack speed (m/s)

160ºC for 1 hr
before testing”
10-10 Alloy 7178 tested in
saturated aqueous NaCl
solution at 23ºC

increasing load
Adapted from Fig. 11.20(b), R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials" (4th ed.), p. 505, John Wiley and Sons, 1996. (Original source:
Markus O. Speidel, Brown Boveri Co.)

4 mm
--material:
7150-T651 Al "alloy"
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph,
(Zn,Cu,Mg,Zr)
Chapter 17, Callister 7e.
(from Marine Corrosion, Causes, and
Prevention, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1975.) Adapted from Fig. 11.26,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.26 provided courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.) 34
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Current and Future Challenges
• Mining and minerals processing

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Current and Future Challenges
• Oil and gas

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 Course Goal
Course Goal is to make you aware of the
importance of Material Selection by:
• Using the right material for the job.
one that is most economical and
“Greenest” when life usage is considered

• Understanding the relation between

properties, structure, and processing.
• Recognizing new design opportunities offered
by materials selection.
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 Summary
 The search for new materials goes on continuously:
 Mechanical Engineers search for higher-temperature
materials so that jet engines can operate more efficiently.
 Electrical engineers search for new materials so that
electronic devices can operate faster and higher
temperatures.
 Aerospace engineers search for materials with higher
strength-to-weight ratios for aircraft and space vehicles.
 Chemical engineers look fore more highly corrosion-resistant
materials.
 In many cases what was impossible yesterday is a reality
today!
July 24, 2007 Models & Materials 38
 Summary

metal ceramic polymer wood pastels

structure

processing properties

performance
July 24, 2007 Models & Materials 39