Chapter: Metals & Alloys, Polymers,

Ceramics & Glasses and Composites

• In this section we will have a brief introduction of the four basic
classes of materials:
1. Metals and Alloys
2. Polymers
3. Ceramics and Glasses
4. Composites

• We will discuss:
a. How to define these materials,
b. their types,
c. specific materials belonging to each class of material,
d. their distinguishing properties,
e. and their applications
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 Metals and Alloys
• Metals and Alloys are the combination of metallic elements on the periodic table
• Metallic ELEMENTS occupy the left hand side of the periodic table, because
they can easily give up electrons to become +vely charged
• Have large number of delocalized electrons, i.e., electrons not bound to
particular atoms. Unique set of properties due to presence of these electrons
• Not all metallic elements are categorized as Engineering Metals

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 Properties of Metals (which make them classified as
Engineering Metals and Alloys):
• Good conductor of electricity and heat
• High strength (strong) and modulus (stiffness)
• Ductile ⇒ Can be deformed to different shapes
• Not transparent; A polished metal surface had shiny appearance
• Because of the above properties metals are commonly used in
structural applications

Examples of Metals and Alloys:

Iron (Fe) Steels
Aluminum (Al) and its Alloys Nickel (Ni) and its Alloys
Copper (Cu) Brasses (Cu+Zn) Bronzes
Magnesium (Mg) Titanium (Ti) Zinc (Zn)

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 Metals and Alloys
• Alloy: A metallic substance that is composed of two or more
elements
• Metal alloys have two classes: FERROUS and NON-FERROUS:
– Ferrous alloys :
• The alloys with iron as the principal constituent
• Includes plain-carbon steels, alloy and tool steels, stainless steels and
cast irons

– Nonferrous alloys:
• All the alloys that are not iron based
• Include Al, Mg, Ti and others

• The Ferrous Alloys are more common:

– Ferrous alloys are cheap, and are the most used materials in Automotive and
Construction industry
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 TAXONOMY OF METALS
Metal Alloys

Ferrous Nonferrous

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons
Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4wt%C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5wt%C
3-4.5wt%C

T(°C) microstructure:
1600 ferrite, graphite
δ
cementite
1400 L
γ+L
1200 γ 1148°C L+Fe3C
austenite Eutectic:
1000 4.30

γ+Fe3C
α+

α800 727°C Fe3C

γ

ferrite Eutectoid: cementite

600 0.77 α+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co, wt% C
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 Steels and Cast Iron
• Steels:
– Iron-carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other
alloying elements. Carbon content is normally less than 1.0 wt%
– Plain carbon steels contain only carbon with some impurities
• Classified according to carbon concentration into low-, medium-, and
high carbon steels.
– Alloy steels having more elements intentionally added in specific
concentrations.
– Sub-classes exist within each group according to the concentration of
other elements
– Mechanical properties of a steel are sensitive to the content of carbon and
other elements.

• Cast irons: Ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14 wt%
(usually 3.0-4.5 wt% C)
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Classification for Various Ferrous Alloys

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 STEELS
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon med carbon high carbon
<0.25wt%C 0.25-0.6wt%C 0.6-1.4wt%C

heat austentitic
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
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 Nomenclature for Steel Alloys
• The AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute)/SAE (Society of
Automotive Engineering) designation for steels:
– Code consists of a four- or five-digit number.
– The first two digits refer to the major alloying elements present
– The last two or three numbers refer to the weight percentage of carbon
multiplied by 100.
– For plain carbon steels, the first two digits are 10
– Alloy steels are designated by other initial two-digit combinations (e.g.
13, 41, 43).

• For example:
– An AISI 1060 steel is a plain-carbon steel containing 0.60 wt% C.
– A SAE 10120 steel is a plain-carbon steel with 1.20 wt% C.
– An AISI 4340 steel is an alloy steel containing 0.40 wt% C.
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10
 NONFERROUS ALLOYS
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is added to Cu -lower ρ: 2.7g/cm3
(costume jewellery, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) - Used in aircrafts and
Bronze: Sn, Al, Si, Ni are packaging
added to Cu
(bushings, landing
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
: -very low ρ: 1.7g/cm3
Cu-Be Alloys -ignites easily
-aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-lower ρ: 4.5g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-Used in Aerospace -oxidation/corrosion resistant
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 Polymers
• A polymer is a very large molecule containing hundreds to
thousands of molecular units or mers, linked in a chainlike or
network structure
• Polymer: Poly (many) mer (units)
• Mainly: Hydro-carbons (organic), but sometimes contains other
non-metallic elements like: O, Cl, F, N and Si

H H H H H H H

C C C C C C C

H H H H H H H

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13
• Intramolecular bonds within a polymer chains are covalent (e.g:C-C and C-H)

• Intermolecular bonds betweens two polymer chains are weak hydrogen and
van der Waals 14
 Properties of Polymers:

• Low Densities
• Insulator to heat and electricity
• Cannot be used at high temperatures
• Corrosive resistant
• Flexible but weak

Examples of Metals and Alloys:

Polyethylene (PE) Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

Polypropylene(PP) Polystyrene (PS)
Nylon 6,6 Polycarbonate
Teflon Polyester
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 Polymer Examples

mer mer mer

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H Cl H Cl H Cl H CH3 H CH3 H CH3
Polyethylene (PE) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polypropylene (PP)

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 Repeat Units of Some Common Polymers (1)

• Polyethylene (PE)

• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

• Polypropylene (PP)

• Polystyrene (PS)

• Nylon 6,6
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 Repeat Units of Some Common Polymers (2)
• Poly-methylmethacrylate (PMMA)

• Phenol-formaldehdye (Bakelite)

• Poly-tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Teflon

• Polyethylene terephthalate
(Polyester, PET)

• Polycarbonate (PC)
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 Classification of Polymers
• Thermoplastics:
– Once formed it can be heated and reformed repeatedly
– Majority of polymer used
– Easily processable and Recycleable
– Can be amorphous or semi-crystalline
• Thermosets:
– Once formed cannot be melted and reformed
– Start with viscous liquids (monomers) and through chemical
reaction solidify as final product
– Non-Recycleable
• Elastomers or Rubbers:
– Flexible; can be extended up to 10 times original length
– Recover back immediately 19
 Structure
• Amorphous Thermoplastics:
– No long range order or form

• Semi-crystalline Thermoplastics:
– Part of chain arrange in patterns

• Thermosets:
– Highly cross-linked network

• Elastomers:
– Lightly cross-linked network

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Polymers
ADVANTAGES:
• Thermal and Electrical Insulators
• Resistant to Chemicals
• Light Weight with Varying Degree of Strength
• Easily Processed: Thin fibers to very intricate shapes can be produced
• Cheap: Not in terms of raw materials but overall due to ease of fabrication
and light weight
• Can be Designed or Engineered; Using Additives or Chemistry for any
Specific Application

DISADVANTAGES:
• Low strength and stiffness
• Low operating temperature
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 Synthesis/Polymerization
• Synthesis require:
• Monomer: Oil and natural gas products
• Initiator/Catalyst
• Reactor

• Polymerized resin is then mixed

with colorants and other additives,
extruded and chopped to form pellets

• The four most commonly used polymers are:

– Polyethylene (High density and Low Density)
– Polypropylene
– Polyvinyl chloride
– Polystyrene
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 Applications
• Packaging:
– Bags, wraps and packing foam
• Building:
– Pipes, conduits and fittings. Siding, flooring and sanitary ware
• Electrical:
– Wire and cable covering. Home appliances, tape and records
• Transportation:
– Automobiles and small boats
• Furnishing:
– Furniture and Lamps. Carpets, Rugs and Blinds
• Clothing:
– Nylon and Polyester (resist stains and wrinkling)
• Sports:
– Helmets and Roller skates. Light weight camping and Scuba diving gear
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 Ceramics and Glasses
• Ceramics materials are inorganic and nonmetallic substances
• They are generally compounds between metallic and non-
metallic elements
• They are most frequently OXIDES, NITRIDES and
CARBIDES
• The interatomic bonds are either totally ionic, or mostly ionic
with some covalent character
• The chemical compositions of ceramics vary considerably from
simple compounds to mixture of many complex
phases/compounds bonded together

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 Properties and Types of Ceramics
• Properties:
– Generally hard and brittle (low toughness and ductility)
– Good electrical and thermal insulators due to absence of conduction
electrons
– Resistant to high temperature and chemical attack in many hostile
environment due to stability of their strong bonds
– Strong in compression but weak in tension

• Types:
– Traditional Ceramics
– Engineering Ceramics
– Glasses

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 Types of Ceramics
• Traditional Ceramics:
– Used from centuries
– Primary raw material is “clay”
– Include China (household application), Cement, Porcelain (used as electrical
porcelain in electrical industry), Bricks and Tiles (used in construction industry)
• Engineering Ceramics:
– Typically pure or near pure compounds, such as: Aluminum oxide or Alumina
(Al2O3), Silicon Carbide (SiC), Magnesia (MgO), and Silicon Nitride (Si3N4)
– Applications include gas turbine engines, electronics industry, and many
advanced engineering applications (body of spark plug)
• Glasses:
– Glasses are amorphous, and are different from other ceramics which are
crystalline
– They are often based on Silica (SiO2) and other metal oxides. They are also brittle
and are weak in tension
– They are normally grouped with ceramics as: “Ceramics and Glasses”
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 Composites
Definition:
• Two or more materials combined together on a macroscopic (large) scale
• Combination of the three basic types of materials (Metals, Ceramics and
Polymers)
• The combination of materials can produce properties which are superior than
the properties of individual components.
For example in Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics (GFRP); Glass Fibers provide
strength and Polymer provides flexibility, combining the best of both materials

Properties of Composites:
• High Strength to Weight Ratio
Light Weight
• High Stiffness to Weight Ratio
• Corrosion Resistance
• High operating temperatures than polymers
• High toughness
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Composite Materials

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 Composite Materials
• A simple model:
Reinforcement

Matrix

• Constituents Materials for Composites:

• Reinforcement: the strengthening agent

Can be in the form of Fibers or Particles

• Matrix: the main body

Can be polymer, metal or ceramic
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 Classification of Composites
• Natural:

– Wood (cellulose and lignin)

– Bones

• Synthetic:

– Traditional/Old Examples: Brick of Mud and Straw

– Fiber Glass/GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
– CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
– Kevlar Composites
– MMCs (Metal Matrix Reinforced Composites)
– Cermets (Combination of ceramics and metals)

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 Applications of Composites
• Aero-space:
– Air- and space-crafts parts
• Transport:
– Automotive body panels and boat hulls
• Sports:
– Fishing Poles, tennis rackets handles, and golf club sticks
• Chemical Industry (corrosive environment):
– Tanks, containers and pipes
• Medical:
– Prosthetic devices, light weight mechanical supports and equipment for disabled

• Ballistic:
– Bullet proof jackets
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