| | Ground J | Studies 4 je For Pilots —Fifth edition © Estate of R. B. Undentown 1993 Blackwell Science Led Exitorial Offices: ‘Osey Mead, Oxford OX2 OBL 25 John Street, London WCIN 2BL. Ainslie Place, Edinburgh EH3 6AJ 350 Maia Street, Malden MA 02148 5018, USA 54 University Strect, Carlton Victoria 3053, Australia nie Casimir Delavigne 75006 Pars, France Other Editorial Offices: Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag GaibH Kurftrsendamm 57 10707 Bedtin, Germany Blackwell Science KK MG Kodenmacho Building 7-10 Kodenmacho Nihombashi Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104, Japan All rights reserved. No part of {his publication may be reproduced sored in a retrieval system, of transmitted in ay form or by any cans, electronic, mechanica, Photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permite by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission ‘af the publisher. First published in Great Britis by Crosby Lockwood & Son Lid 1970 Second edition 1974 ‘Thicd edition, in three volumes, 1979 Foutth edition published by Collins Professional and Technical Books 1986 [Fifth edition published by Blackwell Science 1993 Reprinted 1995, 1996, 1998 Sel by Bestset Typeseuer Lid, Hong Koog Printed aad bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Lid, Bodmin, Cornvall ‘The Blackwell Science logo is @ trade mask of Blackwell Seienct Lid, registered a the United Kingdom ‘Trade Marks Registry Marston Book Services Lid PO Box 269 Abingdoa ‘Oxon OX14 4YN (Orders: Tek: 01235 465500 Pax: 01235 465555) usa, Blackwell Seicace, Inc. Commerce Place 350 iain Suet Malden, MA 02148 5018 (Orders: Te: 800 759 6102 781 388 8250 Fox: 781 388 6255) Canada ‘Copp Clark Professional 200 Adelaide Stret, West, 3rd Floor ‘Toronto, Ontario MSH {WT (Orders: Tels 416 597 1616 800 815 9417 Fax: 416597 1617) Australia b ‘Blackwell Science Pty Lid $4 University Street Carton, Victoria 3053 (Orders: Tet: 03 93470300 Fax: 03 9347 5001), A catalogue record for this title {5 available from the British Library ISBN 0-632-03434.3 Library of Congress Ccsloguing-in-Pubticaion Data Underdown, RB. Ground studies for pilots Includes various editions of each volume Includes indexes Contents: v1, Reo aids — . 2. Ploting and flight planning — v.3 Navigation general and instruments. — 4. Meteooloy. |. Navigation (Aeronautics) 2. Abts 10 sicoavigation. {Tile TLSES.US8 1993 629,132"S1 92-4015 ISBN 0-632-03601-X (¥. 1) ISBN 0-632-03602-8 (v2) ISBN 0-632-03434-3 (0.3) ISBN 0-632-00951-10.Contents Preface Part 1 Part 3 24 22 23 a 25, 26 Part 4 Br MAPS AND CHARTS Mathematics Reminders Form of the Bart Convergency, Conversion Angle, Departure Projections General Mercator’s Projection Lambert's Conical Orthomosphic Projection Polar Steteographic Projection ‘Transverse and Oblique Mercator Projections Grid Technique AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS: Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Altimeters Vertical Speed Indicators (VSI and IVSI) Machmeter Gyroscope Direction Indicator (D1) Artificial Horizon ‘Tum and Slip (Balance) Indicator Air Temperature Measurement in Flight Inertial Navigation, Electronic Displays and Systems MAGNETISM AND COMPASSES Magnetism: General and Terrestrial Aircraft Magnetism { Aircraft Magnetism 2 Direct Reading (Standby) Compasses; P-type, E2-type ‘Turning and Acceleration Errors Remote Indicating Compass SOLAR SYSTEM Solar System: Time Answers to Multichoice Test Questions Glossary of Abbreviations Index vi 18 28 aL SL 6s 76 82 90 101 103 110 124 130 140 149 164 rt 178 183 194 215 27 23 2a 259 264 70 283, 285 307 308 30Preface Following the United Kingdom's signature of the Treaty of European Unity in February 1992 paving the way far a common European Market from January 1993, new syllabuses for pilots” licences have been introduced. ‘The European Civil Aviation Conference, through wide consultations within, and between its member states, has produced the harmonixed syllabuses setting the required standards. To meet these revised standards, the text of Ground Studies for Pilots, which is published in four volumes: Volume 1 Radio Aids Volume 2 Plotting and Flight Planning Volume 3 Navigation General and instrumenis Volume 4 Meteorology and their companion volume, Aviation Law for Pilots, has been completely revised. This volume includes aircraft instruments, magnetism and com- passes together with all of the subjects commonly referred to as ‘Navigation General’ ~ Form of the earth, maps and charts, the solar system and tine New material is included on air data computers and the electronic displays and systems (EFIS) of medern aircraft such as flight management systents and flight directors. Much-appreciated assistance, by- supplying technical data and illustrations for this edition, has been given by British Airways, Smiths Industries, RACAL Avionics Ltd, GEC Avionics, GEC Plessey, Collins Division of Rockwell International, Rosemount Inc. and British Aerospace. Particularly 1 would like to acknowledge the valuable help provided by my former colleagues Max Johnson and Tony Patmer for their most helpful suggestions and for reading the script Tam grateful (o HMSO for permission to reproduce the pages from the Air Almanac to forin the basis for examples and questions. Specimen examin- ation questions for pilots’ licence examinations are available by post from the Civil Aviation Authority, Printing and Publication Services, Greville House, 37 Gratton Road, Cheltenham, Glos, GLS0 2BN This second reprint ofthe fifth edition deals with the CAA examination policy not to permit the use of seientibc calculators, which will still be useful in ste this subject. ing Roy Underdown Tony Palme Qo@e 8 o @@eoe eee so oe or oe ee ®Part 1 MAPS AND CHARTSDOO CO OC COO Clete le dealChapter 2 FORM OF THE EARTH ‘The earth In maps and charts the cartographers atiempi to reproduce, as faithfully as possible, a part Gr a portion of the earth's surface. Therefore, before we study the individual projections, itis essential that we first take @ took at the form of the earth itself and see how a position fixing graticule of fatitude and longitude is created The earth is not a true sphere. It is flattened slightly at the poles and its shape is variously described as an ‘ellipsoid’, ‘oblate spheroid’ or in desper: ation simple a ‘geoid” whieh means ‘earthlike’, This flattening of the poles is kaown as compression and it is the ratio of the difference between the equatorial diameter and the polar diameter to the equatorial diameter It is expressed as equatorial diameter — polar diameter equatorial diameter compression = if we put the appropriate Figures in the forrnula we can soon find the value of this ratio. The equatorial diameter is 12748.6km and the polar diameter 12705,6km, the satio becomes: 12 748.6 — 12705.6 43 1 1 12748.6 17748 6 ~ 395°" 30 MMT MOU What all this means in practice is that if we built a model of the earth on a reduced scate (called the reduced earth) so that its equatorial diameter was 300mm, then the model’s polar diameter would be 299 mm, This shows that in producing maps and charts for normal usage a refine ment for the earth's shape is neither necessary nor profitable, As for navig- ation charts, no errors of any significance occur through lack of refinement, and therefore, the remainder of the discussion om maps and charts is based on the assumption that the carth is a perfect sphere On any plain sphere, in order to establish a reference systenr it is necessary to adopt a convention defining the directions and a locatiGn-fixing system of co-ordinates, ‘These are established as tullows, ‘The poles The poles are situated on the earth's suface at the ends of the rotational axis, The north pole is that end of the earth's rotational axis about whieh the earthMathematics Reminders V7 68Form of the Barth 19 Greanareh menaly Fig. 2.1 Latitude and fongitude rotates anti-clockwise when viewed irom above it. The south pole is the opposite end of the rotational axis to the north pole. Tite two poles focate the extreme north and south points, ‘The equator ‘The equator is a great circle (discussed later) with its plane perpendicular to the earth's axis, Since the earth's axis defines the north~south direction, a plane perpendicular to it must define the east-west direction. Thus, the plane of the equator lies in the east-west direction. All points on the equator are equidistant from the poles and it divides the earth into the northern and southern hemispheres. Latitude A latitude is defined as the are of the meridian (see Fig, 2.1) intercepted between the place and the equator. It is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds north or south of the equator. One degree (1°) equals 60 minutes (60) and one minute equals 60 seconds (60"). The choice of the equator as a distum of measurement is a natural one, on account of its having the circumference of all the parallels of latitude gest The planes of all other latitudes ie parallel to the plane of the equator. The are of the circle from the equator to either pole being a quarter of a circle, the maximum possible latitude is 9° north or south, (see Fig, 2.2) = The spacing of the parallels of latitudes slong the meridians is perfectly uniform This means tha! the are distance between, say, IN and 20°N is exactly equal to the are distance between 7)” and 80° os any other we parallels having a difference of 10°. This being so, the distance between any two parallels up a20 Navigation General and Instruments meridian may be calculated quite simply. A meridian together with its anti- meridian completes one full circle, that is, 360°, The circumference of any circle is given in the formula, circumference = 2nr, where r is the radius, For the earth, the arc distance between any two parallels may be given in the relationship difference in latitude 360 From the above, and taking the radius of the earth to be 3441nm, the distance between two latitudes one degree apart is x One Ly 2x 3.14 x 340mm = om — along a meridian Finally, all parallels of latitude indicate an east-west direction, ‘Thus, if you are flying along a paraltel of latitude, you are flying a 090° or 270° track. Longitude A longitude is defined as the shorter arc of me equator (see Fig. 2.1) intercepted betweeri the Greenwich meridian and the meridian of the place It is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds east or west of the Greenwich meridian, The anti-meridian of Greenwich is the maximum longitude possible, i.e. 180°E/W. The term meridian may be descrived as a semi great circle which runs north-south from pols to pole. Meridians, together with their anti-meridians complete the great circle, Every point on the casth has its own mesidian passing through it. All moridians incicate north-south direction, the true north reference datum being along any meridian towards the north pole It will be noticed that with regard 10 the meridians we have no natural datum to start the count with and consequently, the meridian of Greenwich is arbitrarily taken as the datum. It is also called the prime meridian, The meridians are also placed uniformly along the parallels, the distance between any two meridians along the equator being difference in longitude 360 ow For a one degree difference in longitude along the equator, the distance between the meridians is 1 Sap % 2X SEX SMT nm = 600m which. you will notice. is identical to the di ces between parallels along a However, unlike the distance between two latitudes along a meridian, the distance between two given meridians along a latitude away {vom the equator does not remain constant at GOnm for a ° change of longitude. This isForm of the Barth 21 Ne 1° = 30 nm; 30° = 900 nm Teridians parallels of latitude SP Fig. 22. Basic distances on the estth because, as can be seen in Fig. 2.2, the meridians conve They are ¢ maximum distance at the poles But taking another glance at Fig, 2.2 it will be noticed that the lengths of the parallels of latitude also reduc: (it reduces in proportion) once away from the equator. The circle of the equator, having the largest circumference gives the longest distance, whereas the latitude of SQ°NYS is a mere point Therefore, the distance between the meridians along any parallel depends on the length of the parallel itself. This quantity which varies from being maximum (that is, one uttit) at 0° (0 a value of 0 at 90° in fact varies as a cosine curve. Accordingly, the variation in the lengths of the latitude follows a cosine relationship, Let us examine t The length of the equator, that is, the circumference of the earth is 360 x 60m = 21600nm. At 30°N/S the circumference is (21600 X cos 30) min = 18706nm. Along this parallel, 360 meridians at one degree intervals are placed uniformly at a distance of towards the poles. Jerge into a po 1 at the equator and con 18706 300 am = 52am, Putting this another way. one degree at the equator contains 6Uum, and one degree ab JNIS contains (600s 30°) nm = 52am. Similarly, the circumference or the length at 60°N/S is22 Navigation General and Instruments (21600 x cos 60)nm = 108000m . nce between each meridian one degree apart is 10800. 360 ‘am = 30nm Or, (60cos 60°} nm = 30nm and this one fact, that the distances on the earth at 60°N/S are exactly one half of those al the equator, is worth remembering To summarise so far: (a) All paraiieis of latitude are parallel to the plane of the equator and indicate the east-west direction. (b) The spacing of the parallels along the meridian is given by difference of latitude (Lat) 360 xn (©) One degree difference of tatitude along a meridian measures. 60m anywhere between the equator and the poles (d) One degree difference of longitude (d tong) measures 60nm at the equator. Away front the equator this distance reduces at the rate of the cosine of the latitude and is found from the formula distance between two meridians one degree apart = 6cos lat (e) All meridians indicate north-south direction, Definitions A few more definitions. terminologies and the facts now Great circles If you draw the largest possible circle on tennis ball, the circle’s circum: ference will be the same as the circumference of the ball, its radius will be the same as the radius of the ball and in fact, it will divide the ball in two equal parts, What you have just drawa is a great circle A great circle is defined as a circle on the surface of a sphere whose centre and radis are those of the sphere itself, thus the plane of the great circle passes through the centre of the sphere, dividing it into two equal parts. Note these fundamentals arising from the concept of a great circle {a) Since it has the greatest radius possible, it has the least curvature andl neatly approaches being a straight line. (b) And, since a straight line between any two points is the shortest distance between those two points, we can say that the shorter are of a grcat circle passing through any two points on the earth's surf.ce represents the shortest distance between dhose two places (©) Galy one great circle can be drawn through any bv given paints wtess those two points are diametrically opposite in which ease an infinite aumber of great circles can be drawn, An example is he meridians. A meridian. together with its anti-metidian is a great circle and anyForm of the Earth 23 etuenb fine Tr, 120°W sor] ‘New Orleans, OSA Calcutta, India we Se 30°W ‘50% Gar Fig.23 Rhumb tine track umber of meridians can be drawn between the uve poles (which are diametrically opposite) (d) The equator is a great circle. (e) The meridians (semi great cizcles} cut the equator at a constant angle of , Elsewhere, a g cuts changing angie, ‘This can be visualised by drawing a straight place other than along the equator. To fly the shortest distance between the two places we must fly the grest circle track, but the changing angles makes such a flight quite difficult, unless flying due north/south along a meridian (Fig. 2.3) (0A radio wave detected by an aircratt’s receiver will have followed the shortest distance across the earth's surface. We must remember this siren plotting such # radio signal on a chart on which a straight line is not a great circle Small circles A senall citcle is any circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and radius are not those of the earth itself, Any parallel of latitude, other than the equator, is a small circle Rhund line A thimb line (R/L) is @ regularly curved line on the surface of the earth Which cuts all meridians at the same angle, Fig. 2.3. From this definition it24 Navigation General and Instruments will become apparent that an aircraft flying a constant track will be following a thumb line track, The other points to note are these. (a) Only one thumb line can be drawn through any two points. (b) A thumb Jine does not represent the shortest distance between two places, but it is convenient to follow. (©) The meridians and the equator are the only examples of great circles vwhich are also rhumb lines. (c) All latitudes and longitudes intersect each other at 90°, Therefore, all parallels of latitude are rhumnb lines, When flying along a latitude, you are flying a rhumb fine track, make no mistake about it Change of latitude (ch tat) This is the same as ‘difference of fatiwude ( lat)’ and the terms are inte changeable. It is defined as the arc of meridian intercepted between the parallels of the two places and is named north or south according to the direction of the change. Thus, a ilight from 5°N to 2G°N represents a ci iat (or d lat) of 15°N whereas # flight in the reverse direction changes its latitude by 15'S Change of longitude (ch long) This, again, is the same as ‘difference of longitude (d long)’ and is defined as the smaller atc of the equator intercepted between the meridians of the places. 1 is named east or west according to the direction of the change. A change from 178°W to 178°E is a change of 4#°W and the converse is true. If you can’t visualise the other side of the globe, look in an atlas and make yourself famili Distances Now that we have established a convention for ditections and a position, locating graticule we will turn our attention to the vatious units of distance measurement Nautical eaite Strictly, a nautical mile at any place is the length of an are of the meridan sublending an angle of one minute at the centre of curvature of that pkice (Fig. 2.4). ICAO'S definition of a nautical mile is that it is a measure of distance of 1852 metres. Any distance on the surface of the earth formed by an angle originating at the earth’s contre is the great circle distance, Now, it will be remembered that a latitude is also similarly defined, that is. ane minute of Liviide is the are stance on the surface subtemsied by an angle of one minute at the earth's contre. This fact makes it possible to calibrate the meridians in nautical miles ic. 1 of latitude is one nautical mile and 1° iy nm when measured along the meridians, 3Form of the Earth = 27 (6) What is the distance from Calcutta (30°N 90°E) to New Orleans, USA (BU'N9O"W) over the north pole? Answers Q) Route (b) is shorter in the ground distance on account of the eatth’s convergency. (2) _Allmeridians (constant 000/180° direction) are rhumb lines and semi-great circles. The equator (constant 090/270°) direction is a rhumb fine and a great circle. (2) See the text (4) The equator. (5) Any parallel of latitude. (©) 7200.nm.~ Chapter 3 : ' CONVERGENCY, ( CONVERSION ANGLE, a DEPARTURE ; In this chapter we continue our study of familiarisation with the earth Convergency We have already seen that a great circle cuts successive meridians at different angles because the meridians converge towards each other to the poles. This inclination between any two meridians is called convergency, and it equals the angular difference between the measurements of the great circle at each meridian, The inclination of the meridians or convergency between two meridians X and Y (in Fig. 3.1) may be found by various methods, as follows: (1) By transferring on the chart the meridian X to X" (or the other way round) to pass through position B, and measuring the angle formed by the — two meridians Y and X’ at B (marked convergency angle in the figure). (2). By measuring the angle that the straight line joining A and B makes at positions A and B and calculating the difference. In above figure, ZC = 118 ~ 062 = 056° (3) By mathematical calculation, using formula Approximate convergency = ch long X sine mean lat. The formula is derived from the reasoning that the meridians cut the Equator at 90° and therefore, they are parallel to each other and the angle of inclination between them is 0. At each pole every meridian on the tace of the Earth meets in a point. The convergency or inclination of any two meridians here therefore amounts to the change of longitude between them. For example, two meridians ° apart will make an angle of 1° at the Poles, Therefore, at any intermediate latitude, the convergency must equal change of longitude x sine of the latitude, This formule is correct only wher tye places A and Bare on the same latitude and when the change of longitude is not excessive. If A and Bare a different Latitudes. thy ot mid: b formula. giving sufficiently accurate results for our purpose. Convergency between places 181° longitude apart and at the same latitude is always 180°. them may be used in theConvergency, Conversion Angle, Departure 29 convergeney Fig. 3.1 Convergency Great circle - rhumb line relationship A straight line drawn on a conformal chart having correct convergency (that is, chart meridians inclining at the same-angle as the meridians at the same place on the Earth) will be a great circle. ‘The associated rhumb line will appear as a curve (Fig, 3.2). (An important point is illustrated here also: the thumb line, or to be precise the tangent to it, at the central meridian is parallel to the great circle; when using charts with converging meridians in practice, the Rhumb Line Track is the same as the mean Great Circle Track, measured at the central meridian between departure and destination meridians.) However, on a chart which projects meridians as straight lines parallel to each other, a straight line will be a rhumb line and not a great circle (since it will cut all the meridians at the same angle). ‘The example is the Mercator’s projection, and on such charts the great circles must appear as curves (Fig. 3.3) If you observe Figs 3.2 and 3.3 you will notice that in either hemisphere the rhumb line, as regards the great circle, always appears towards the equator, a point useful to remember when plotting radio position lines. The angular difference between the great circle and the rhumb line is called conversion angle (see Ground Studies for Pilots Volume 2, Plotting and Flight Planning) and its value is half the value cf the convergency To prove that Conversion Angle (CA) = $C (convergency) AB and CD are two meridians (Fig. 3.4) and the straight line EF is a great circle. ZFEG is Conversion Angle and = ZEFH APR Transfer AB to A,B, to pass through position EL Then Convergency angle. A thumb line makes the s e angle at each meridian30 Navigation General and Instruments 990 990 Southern hemisphere Fig. 3.2 Comparison between great circle and rhumb line on conformal chart with correct convergency ¥ ‘ se RL } oa e i 3 Northern hemisphere: Southern hemisphere: GC is a curve convex GC is a curve convex to the nearer pole to the nearer poie AL in each case cuts the meridians at 90° Fig. 3.3 Comparison between great citcle and rhumb line on Mercator chart ZAEF + LFEG = ZCFA, + ZA,FK ~ ZIFK But ZAEF = ZA,FK and transferring ZJFK to the left hand side of the equation, EEG + ZIFK = ZCFA, oF CA+CA=C (and assuming the CAs are equal) 2CA = Cor Conversion angle = half the convergency Great circle and rhumb line bearings Problems nf the following mature are solved by application of the above theory (UA bears 055° RL from B, What is the RE bearing of B from A? Since here we are only dealing with rhumb tine bearings, B's bearing from A must be reciprocal of A’s bearing from B. Therefore the ansiver is 235°; Convergency, Conversion Angle, Departure 31 / / \ e 8 ° Fig. 3.4 Convergency and conversion angle caRy cazt ‘Norther temisphere Southern hemisphere Fig. 3.5 Applying conversion angle (2) A bears 090° GC from B. Convergency = 4°, What is the GC bearing of B from A in the Northern and Southern hemispheres? Itis always advisable to draw up a simple sketch as shown in Fig. 3.5: Convesgency given is 4°; therefore CA = 2° A’s RL bearing from B = 092; and B’s RL bearing from A = 272° B's GC bearing from A = 274° Southern Hemisphere: CA = 2°; A’s RL bre = 088°; B’s RL brg. from A= 268° B's GC bearing from A = 266° 3) GC be of B from A is 0 (ay What is the CA? (b) In which hemisphere are we? (c) What is the GC bearing of A from B? 1S RE beating af A from Bis 232 Navigation General and Instruments RL 0ST RL 277 Northern hemisphere Southem hemisphere Fig. 3.6 Finding great circle bearing Solution (a) CA is the angular difference between GC and RL 2. CA = 095 + 180 = 275 - 273 =2 (b) In Fig. 3.6 above, for the Northern Hemisphere, the RL bearing of A from B = 095 +2 + 180 =7T : and therefore the aircraft cannot be in the Northern hemisphere. The sketch for the Southern hemisphere illustrates the facts as given. (©) Since the RL bearing of A from B is 273, the GC bearing 273 - 2 (CA) ame A further illustration (see Fig. 3.7): Calculate the convergency between A (48°30'N 28°12'E) and B (55'00'N 10°00'E). If the Rhumb line Track between A and B is 300°, what is the initial Great Circle Track? Solution Convergency = ch long sin mean lat 18°12" & sin 51°45" 18.2° x 0.7853, 143° ‘The GC and RL Tracks are the same at the mid-meridian, that is, in this problem, at 19°06'E, The total convergency between A and B is 14°, therefore the convergency between the mid-meridian and the meridian of A must be 7°; with the RL Track of 300°, the GC Track from A is 300° + 7° = 307°, and the simple sketch clarifies the solution. Jn our experience we have found that some students initially tind this topic «bit difticult to understand and apply. But you will soon get conversant With it; ample exercises are given here to help you. These exercises are grated so that they became progressively more involved from the simplest one until all principles are covered, When attempting the problems. know the differentConvergency, Conversion Angle, Departure 33 ere }300° Ge 007RL, }300°RL SS Fig. 3.7. Finding initial great circle track direction ways in which convergency/conversion angle may be found and keep the two formulae firmly in mind. Also remember that the convergency formula has three elements in it: convergency, longitude and latitude. Knowing any two of these the third one can be found. For example: convergence difference of longitude = sin mean fat Exercise 1 (1). Give ch long (change-of longitude) between (a) 10°E and 20°E (b) 10°B and 160° (©) 8°W and 8E (4) 160°W and 158° (©) VISE and 168°W. Answers: (a) 10°E; (b) 170°W; (c) 16°E; (4) 42°W; (e) 17°B (2) If the RL bearing of A from B is 070°, what is the RL bearing of B from A? Answer: 250°, (3) If the RL bearing of B from A is 300°, what is the RL bearing of A from B? Answer: 120° (4) GC bearing of Q from P is O60", CA = 4°; if the two places are in the northern hemisphere what is the fa) RE bearing of Q from P? (by) RL bearing of P trom Q? (c) GC bearing of P from Q? Answers: (a) (64°; (b) 244°: (¢) 248°@) (6) a ® (9) (10) Navigation General and Instruments The GC bearing of X from Y is 315°; CA the northern hemisphere what is the (a) RL bearing of X from Y? (b) RL bearing of ¥ from X? (©) GC bearing of Y from X? Answers: (a) 311°; (b) 131°; (6) 127°. X and Y are in the southern hemisphere. X bears 120° RL from Y. If the CA is 2° what is the (a) GC bearing of X from Y? (b) RL bearing of ¥ from X? (c) GC bearing of ¥ from X? 4 Answers: (a) 122°; (b) 300°; (c) 298°. ‘The GC bearing of M trom N is 040°; the RL bearing of M from Nis | 042°, _ (a) what is the conversion angle? (b) in which hemisphere are the two places? (c)_ what is the RL bearing of N from M? (@ what is the GC bearing of N from M? Answers: (a) 2°; (b) northern hemisphere; (c) 222°; (d) 224°. The GC bearing of A from B is 340°; the RL bearing of A from B is 345°; (a) what is the conversion angle? (b) in which hemisphere are the two places? - (c) what is the RL bearing of B from A? (@)_ what is the GC bearing of B from A? Answers: (a) 5°; (b) southern hemisphere; (c) 165°; (d) 170° ‘The GC bearing of B from A is 280”; the RL bearing of A from B is 096°; (a) what is the conversion angle? (b) in which hemisphere ate the two places? (c)_ what is the GC bearing of A from B? if the two places are in Answers: (a) 4°; (b) northern hemisphere; (c) 092°. The RL bearing of P from Q is 050°; the GC bearing of Q from P is 228°; (a) what is the conversion angle? (by in which hemisphere are the two places? for what is the GC hearing of P from Qt Answers: (i) 2°; (by southeen hemisphere; (e) 052Convergency, Conversion Angle, Departure 35 Exercise 2 q) (2) @) (4) 6) o (0) ‘The GC bearing of A from B is 160°; if the CA = 2°, what is the (@) GC bearing of B from A in the northern hemisphere? (0) GCbearing of B from A in the southern hemisphere? Answers: (a) 344°; (b) 336°, The GC bearing of P from Q is 130°, the GC bearing of Q from P is 318° (a) what is the conversion angle? (b) in which hemisphere are the two places? {© what is the RL bearing of Q from P? Answers: (a) 4°; (b) northern hemisphere; (c) 314° If the GC bearing of N from M is 280° and the GC bearing of M from N is 094, what is the RL beating of M from N? Answer: 097°, A and Bare on the parallel of 30°N and A is at 8°W. If the GC bearing of B from A is 087° what is B's longitude? Answer: 4°13, (Hint: all parallels of latitudes indicate E-W direction and all latitudes ate rhumb lines.) A's position is 41°26'S 175°W. The convergency between A and Bis 7°. If B is due west of A and sin of 41°26’ is 0.7, (a) what is the GC bearing of B from A? (b) what is B’s longitude? 164°; (b) 175°E. A’s position is 54°S 160°E; the convergency between A and B is 21°. If B is due east of A and the sin of 54 is 0.8, (a) what is the GC bearing of B from A? (b) what is B’s longitude? Answers: (a) 100}; (b) 174°W. X is at WN 2°E; Y is at 40°N O6E. If you are given that sin 40° = 0.64, (a) find the GC bearing of X from Y (b) find the GC bearing of Y from X. Answers: (a). 088°; (b) 272°. vers: (a) 2 The earth convergency between two positions on the same parallel §° of longitude apart, is 7.2°. Qn the same parallel, X is at 173°W and Y is at [76°F Gt) wha iy the GC hearing of X from Y in the northern hernisphere? (b) what is the GC bearing of ¥ from X in the southern hemisphere? Answers: (a) 085°; (b) 265°36 Navigation General and Instruments P ° (@) (b) Fig. 3.8 Departure (9) A and B ace both on the parallel of 30°. The longitude of A is 10°W. ‘The GC bearing of A from B is 266°(T). What is the longitude of B? Answer: 6°E. (10) A flight is made from VOR A (51°N 01°W), local variation 8°W, to VOR B (S1°N 06°W), local variation 9°W. The radials are maintained throughout the flight. If the drift is 7° starboard give (a) heading (M) immediately on departure sind (b) heading (M) immediately before atrival at B. Given, sin 51° = 0.8, Answers: (a) 273(M); (b) 270(M). (Hint: the aircraft is fying a great circle path.) Distance along a parallel or departure , Because the meridians converge, it is clear that change of longitude is only a measure of distance on the Equator, the only parallel which is a Great Circle. ‘The change of longitude on the Equator from 15°W to 20°W, say, is 300nm bout a similar change of longitude at 70°N is nothing like that distance. But there is a very definite relationship. In Fig. 3.8(a) AB is the arc of the Equator = change of longitude CD is the are of parallel, of which the distance is required (it will be noticed that the distance CD becomes progressively smaller nearer to the Pole, but the change wf ougitude does not her) Fis the centre of the Earth; PP the Earth's axis. ZAEC is the angle of the latitude CD Triangles ECD and ABF are parallel and equiangultr 9 )Convergency, Conversion Angle, Departure 37 1 cone @ AB AF In Fig. 3.8(b) Ee cos tatitud oe 7 605 latitude «CE = CF cos Lat (2) = AF Cos Lat (CF and AF being radii of the Earth) Substituting (2) in (1) CD _ AB cos lat AB ot, CD = AB cos lat ‘Thus, distance CD = change of longitude * cosine latitude The distance made‘good along a parallel (that is, in an East/West direetion) in nm is called Deparuure, If the distance and latitude are given, by rearranging the formula Departure = ch long X cos lat, we can find the change of longitude. Dep = ch long X cos lat Dep Dep X sec lat os lat ch long in minutes = although on a hand-held calculator, it will probably be easier to use ch long = Dep + cos lat Or, given dep and ch long, latitude: could be found: Dep ch long cos lat = ‘Above three variations of the formula are summarised below for convenience: w Departure = ch long X cos lat @ ch long = Dep ~ 00s lat D @) cos lat = “P ch long Examples (1) What is the rhumb ine distance between A (53°23'N 0P19'W) and B (S3°23'N OTST Wy38 Navigation General and Instruments Departurs ch long X cos lat 06°28" x cos 53°23! = 388" x 0.5964 = 231.4nm (2) An aircraft takes off from 40°20'N 178°38'E and flies an RL track of 090°. What is its longitude after it has travelled 219 nm? ch long = Dep x sec lat = 219 x 13119 287.3! 447" 17635'W “. new longitude (3) After flying 448nm aiong a parallel of latitude an aircraft changes its Jongitude @y 8°21’. What is the latitude? Dep pee cos lat = ch long (in minates) The following practice problems are graded to become progressively more involved. Students taking the CPL exam are normally given the appropriate trig. function values with the questions. The CAA will issue a basic solar- powered calculator at the examination, (For solutions using electronic cai culators see p i3 onwards). A reminder before you start: departure is in nm, therefore if you are solving for distance between two places, first convert ch long from degrees to nm by multiplying it by 60. Similarly, when you are looking for ch long, the departure formula will give you the answer in nm; therefore, divide the answer by 60 to get ch long Practice problems (1) Two places on the equator are & long apart. If the cosine of 0° is 1, what is the distance between the two places? Answer: 480 nm. (2) Two places on 30°S are 8° long apart. What is the distance between them? Given, cos 30° = 0.87. Answer: 417.6 nn (3) Two places on the parallel of 60°N are 8° long apart. What is the distance in nautical miles between them? (Cos 60° = 0.5.) Answer: 240.nm.(4) () © M (8) o (10) (uy (12) (13) (14) (15) Convergency, Conversion Angle, Departure 39 Two places are 360m apart on the equator. What is the difference of longitude (d long) between them? (Sec 0° = 1.) Answer: 6°. Two places, 360m apart are on 60°S. What is the d long between the two places? (Sec 60° = 2.) Answer: 12°. What is the departure between A G6°N 1¢°W) and B GEN 20°W)? (Cos 36° = 0.8.) Answer: 480m. Give the distance i 125°30'W). (Cos 41° Answer: 2474 nm. Give the RL distance between A (51°27'N 00°19’E) and B (51°27'N A3°07'W). (Cos 51°27" = 0.62.) Answer: 499.7 nm. An aircraft flying along the parallel of 81°24’ changes its longitude by 55°13'. What distance in nm has it flown? (Cos 81°24’ = 0.15.) Answer: 496.9 nm. om between A (41°S 120°W) and B (41°S 75.) If the departure is 230.61m along the parallel of 46°31’, what is the change of longitude? (Sec 46°31" = 1.45.) Ans 5° 35/ Ais at 35°S 140°W; B is on the parallel of A. What is B's longitude? (Sec 35° = 1.22.) Answer: 132°28}' (to the nearest 3 min). An aircraft takes off from 47°30'S 178°30'W and flies a thumb line track of 270° for 224nm. What is its new position? (Sec 47°30’ = 1.48.) *S and 370 nm due east of Answer: 47°30'S 175°59'E (to the nearest minute). How long vill it take to go round the earth along the parallel of 75°N at the ground speed of 540kt? (A computer may be used for GS/time conversion, cos 75 = 0.26.) Answer: 10h 24 min. A flight is planned from 40°S 110°E to 40°S 102°E, Give the distance in kilometres if the flight is taking place along the rhumb line track. (Cos 40° = 0.766.) Answer: 681.5 kav What is the thumb line distance from Caleutta (31°N 90°E) to New Orleans, USA (30°N 90°WY? (Cos 37 = 0.866.)40 Navigation General and Instruments Answer: 9352.8nm. (Compare this with the GC distance found in the exercise in chapter 2.) ‘The above problems are appropriate for both the CPL and the ATPL, syllabuses. The following additional problems may be attempted by the ATPL students. Additional problems (1) Departure = 243 nm; ch long = 4°45'; what is the fatitude? Answer: 31°30'N/S (2) At what latitude would a distance of 1066nm cause a change of longitude of 23°59"? Answer: 42°12'N/S (3) Two aircraft, A and B, leave position X (51°N 02°B) for ¥ (56°N 08°W) Aircraft A on the take-off travels due north until the 56°N parallel is intercepted and then foll,ws that parallel to 8°W longitude. Aircraft B on take-off travels a track of 270%(T) until the fongitude of 8°W is intercepted and then flies due north to 56°N. Which of the two aitcraft flies the shorter distance and by how many nautical miles? Answer: Aircraft A travels 42am (fo the nearest nm) less than aircraft B. (4) An aircraft takes off from 48°05'N O1°W and flies a track of 270°(T} for 2h iS min. it then alters its track to G00°(T). Later, it alters its track on fo 090°(T) and having fiown on this track for 1h 40min it recrosses the original meridian of O1°W. If its ground speed was constant at 440 kt throughout the flight what was the flight time on the second leg (Tr 000°(T))? Answer: 1h 40min. Hints: (a) find the ch long on 48°05'N leg; (b) wich this ch long find the latitude for the third leg; (c) you now have two latitudes to give the northing, (5) A flight of 2148kin is being made on a track of 270°%T) along the parallel of 69°N. If the LMT of arrival at the destination is the same as the LMT of departure, what is the flight time? Answer: 3h 36min, (Hint: first find the ch long, then refate this to the speed of the sun's travel which is 15%/hr.)Chapter 4 ' PROJECTIONS GENERA Now that we understand the various properties of the earth itself, we are ready to discuss the matter of projections. The object of making a map or a chart is to represent the spherical earth, or at, least @ part of it, on a flat surface, 80 that we can Tecord and jocate the positions on the earth. ‘The cartographer works from a model earth (the earth reduced in size to the required scale and called the reduced earth), marked out with the graticule, originally with a light source at some given point within the globe which projects the graticule on to a paper. The paper may be wrapped round the globe like a cylinder, or it may sit on the globe in the form of a cone or it might be just a plane surface, tangential to the globe at a given parallel Finally he enters the details of ground features as required, When a projection contains only a graticule of latitude and longitude with perhaps very few geographical features, it is called a chart. A map, on the other hand contains both the graticule and an abundance of ground features, Tine cartographer’s reduced earth contains all the properties present on the earth. Thus, it would possess the following features (a) The scale: it would be both correct and constant. It will be correct because the model earth is a reproduction of the earth on a given scale. It will also be constant, that is, anywhere on the reduced earth « one inch span of the dividers will measure the same distance. (b)_ The shapes will be correct. (c) Areas will be shown correctly. {@ ‘The beating measurements anywhere on the reduced easth will be identical to the measurements on the earth (e) Great circles will be straight lines, just as on the earth, (8) Meridians and parallels will intersect each other at 90°. (g) Adjacent sections fit perfectly together. Projections on flat surfaces Any attempt at reproducing a spherical shape on to a flat surface must vitable distortions. Thus, on a flat surface we must expect distor produce it tions of the ideal properties of the teduced earth as mentioned above. For example. over a Mkt surface area the seale can never he sinultsinenusd correct and constant, Further, the seale is only correct (that is, it remains at the selected value) at a point. e.g. polar stereographie projection. or along a line, Mercator or Lambert42 Navigation General and Instruments Similarly, correct shapes are never possible on any map: but this is only a technical distinction. In ‘practice, shapes very close to true shapes can be produced on certain projections in limited areas. Correct areas can be shown at the expense of the shapes. These are only some of the examples of the limitations. But in spite of them, by systematically arranging the graticule it is possible to control the distortions and produce a projection which meets the requirements very satisfactorily. Achieving a particular property is at the expense of other properties. Classifications of projections Projections are classified in a variety of ways and there is no need to get depressed if you do not recognise the title of a projection in your atlas, Here are some of the methods of classification. (1) According to the method of construction (a) Geometric or perspective. A fiat surface, cylinder or a cone is placed conveniently on the surface of the reduced earth and a light source, again conveniently placed (at the centre or at one of the poles of the reduced earth) projects the graticule. An example is the polar stereographic. (b) Geometric, modified. The basic geometric projections may be improved by modifying them mathematically. This is normally done to achieve a certain property. Mercator and transverse Mercator projections are examples. (c) Mathematical. Some projections are produced entirely by mathemati methods, although the basic concept might be drawn from the geometr projection. Lambert’s orthomorphic projection is an example here. ai (2) According to properties (a) Equal area projections. On these projections areas are shown in the correct proportions. As the spherical surface is flattened out tq give equal areas, the scale, shapes and bearings will all be distorted. A square on the reduced earth may appear as a rectangle or even a parallelogram: as long as the area shown is in the correct proportion, its shape does not matter. As aviators, however, we shall not be concerned with these, but it is useful to know that equal area and orthomorphism (correct bearings) cannot exist together. An example of an equal area is the Bonne's projection seen in any atlas (b) Orthomorphic or conformal projections. On these projections the bearings are represented correctly. It will be appreciated that for the bearings to be correct the shapes must be reasonably correct, and on projections of this type the shapes of small areas are practically correct. We will come back to orthomorphism pretty soon,we Projections General 43 (©) Equidistance projections. In this type of projection the cartographers strive to achieve a constant scale as it occurs on the earth measured from a point (eg, the pole) or a line (e.g, the equator). Again, we shall not be concerned with these projections. (3) According to the orientation of the paper The goometric projections desctibed in 1(a) above are also called True Projections and the sheet on which the graticule is to be projected is called the developable surface. (a) Cylindrical projections ~ Mercator. (b) Conical projections - Lambert. (©) Zenithal projections: the plane of the projection is tangential to the earth’s surface ~ polar stereographic. Projections used in aviation In aviation we generally use maps and charts for two purposes, that is, navigation plotting and map-reading (topographical maps). In each of these we look for the following. properties. Plotting charts (a) Orthomorphism (Conformality). This is perhaps the primary require- ment of a plotting chart. On this chart the bearings measured are correct (b) Rhumb lines. If the rhumb lines on the chart are straight lines, we would be able to fly a constant track. Although not a primary requirement, it would be very convenient. (©) Distances. On auy chart used for in-flight plotting, we should be able to measure the distances easily. (4) Lastly, the adjacent sheets should fit to give continuity, The charts in common use are Mercator’s, Lambert's and polar stereographic projections Topographical maps (a) Here we are primarily interested in the shapes which should be shown fairly correctly (b) Scale on the map should be fairly constant and any scale error dis- tributed evenly over the area (©) Adjacent sheets should fit accurately Transverse Mercator is used for producing topographical maps of regions having their greatest extent north-south, e.g UK, Malaysia. Lambert's pro- their greatest jection with two standard parallels is suitable for regions having east-west extent, e.g. USA. Regions roughly circular would advantageously employ oblique stereograpbic projections whereas in the equatorial regions Mercator’s projection is ideal44 Navigation General and Instruments tom tne tom 8 nm a tn fe) co) te) Fig. 4.1 Scale on a chart Orthomorphism The word orthomorphism is derived from the Greek words orthos which means right, or correct, and morphic meaning form at shape. The adoption of this title is rather unfortunate as it ig bound to confuse those of us who are products of the modern comprehensives and not therefore scholars of classical Greek. So, right from the start we would like to make it clear that on an orthomorphic projection, the bearings measured are correct. The shapes ‘ate inevitably tied up with bearings and we will talk about these when discussing individual projections. The American equivalent of the word orthomorphism is conformal. The following considerations go into the con- struction of an orthomorphic chart As we said earlier, as soon as we commence the process of flattening @ spherical surface, distortion of shapes takes place, accompanied by inherent distortion of the scale. On the reduced earth the scale is correct. On a flat chart, the distortion must cause variation of the scale. Accepting the limita- tion that the scale varies from point ta point, it is possible to adjust this variation so that on the resultant graticule the scale is the same (though not necessarily correct, that is, equivalent to the reduced earth) along the meridian and parallel through any given point. The scale will have varied at the point next to it, but here again, for a very short distance round it, it will be the same. In other words, the scale may vary from point to point, but the scale around 2 point remains the same for short distances. To achieve orthomorphism two requirements must be met. One is that if the chart is to be orthomorphic, the scale at any point measured over a very short distance is the same in all directions, although it may vary from point to point. The validity of this requirement is iflustrated in Fig. 4.1 Fig, 4.Ma) represents a square to the scale of 1" = Lam on the seduced earth. This means that [" on the reduced earth measures Emm on the etrih On this square the bearing af B fram A is (45° Suppose that on a certain projection this square appears as a sectangle as in ion is 1" = Lnm, This scale is Fig. 4.1(b). The east-west scale on this projeProjections General 45 Fig. 4.2 Meridians and parallels intersect at 90° the same as on the reduced earth and is therefore correct. But Lam in the north-south direction is represented by 2" on this projection and con- sequently the bearing of B from A is wrong. The scale through point A is not the same in all directions and therefore the chart is not orthomorphic. On yet another projection, Fig. 4.1(c}, the east-west scale is 2” to 1mm. This is not correct scale, but the scale north-south is also 2” to 1nm. Thus, the scale from point A is the same in all directions and the bearing of B as measured at A is again correct. ‘it mast be emphasised that the above illustcation is a very much exaggerated view; the points we are talking about are very close to each other. The second requirement of orthomorphism is that the meridians and parallels on the projection must intersect each other at right angles, just as they do on the earth. The meridians and parallels on the earth define the north/south and east/west directions and these directions must be reproduced on the chart for the correct measurements. Also, when the meridians and parallels are arranged to intersect at right angles, the shape of a small area about that point is correct which means that the bearings must be correct. It must be noted that the meridians and parallels need not be straight lines in order to intersect at right angles, see Fig. 4.2. To summarise the two requirements of orthomorphism {a) At any given point on the chart the scale must be the same in all directions, although it may vary from point to point. (b) The meridians and parallels on the chart must cut each other at right angles, Scales The scale is the ratio of a distance measured on the chart to the correspond- ing distance on the earth's surface. [tis given in the formul: seate = Sh E ene earth distance (ED) (both CL and nuust be expressed in the same units)46 Navigation General and Instruments On the reduced earth the scale is constant and correct everywhere. Thus, if the radius of the mode! globe was, say, 637.5mm compared with the actual earth radius of 6375 km, its scale as a representative fraction would be 637.5 6375 x 10° :10000000 This would mean that 1 unit on the model globe would be equal to 10 million units on the earth. For projections where the scale may be varying from point to point, it may not be possible to give a scale which is applicable to the whole coverage. You will find that on some projections (polar stereographic) the scale is given for a point, or a particular parallel (Mercator and Lambert). The maps and charts ‘on which the scale error is extremely small are commonly called constant scale maps/charts, On these charts distances may be measured directly with a graduated rule. The scale itself may be represented in a variety of ways, the representative fraction being the most commonly used method in aviation, Representative fraction This expresses the ratio of a unit of length on the map to its corresponding number of similar units on the earth, e.g. za54ma- This may also be written it another form, {: 1000000. In either case the scale tells us that a distance of 1 unit on the chart represents a distance of 1000000 units on the ground. It also tells us that 1mm on the chart equals 1000000mm (= 1km) on the ground. In other words, the scale expressed as above has no inherent unit of its own; you provide a convenient unit and the result will be the same provided the sare unit is used in both denominator and numerator. Another point we need to note is that since we are dealing with a fraction of 1, the larger the figure in the denominator the smaller the scale we will have. The scale 1:250 000 is larger than a scale of 1:5 000000. On large-scale charts comparatively less ground distance is covered and consequently more ground details can be inserted. Graduated scale line ‘These show the actual lengths on the map corresponding to various distances on the earth. A graduated scale line is found on charts which are considered to have a constant scale throughout the sheet. On some charts (Lambert's six million) more than one such line is found, For more accurate distance measurement a variable scale may be used, but this is beyond the scope of our present studies. It is worth noting that a ruler calibrated ia auillimetres enables distances to be read off directly in kilometres on a $:1000000 scale map Statement in words This method, generally used on Orduiance Survey maps gives the correspondProjections General 47 the earth, e.g. the OS motorist’s route planning map at 1:625000 revised every autumn is described as ‘about 1 inch to 10 miles’. The one in a quarter million scale (1:250000) Topographical Air Charts of the UK, which are based on the OS Routemaster series, are approximately 4 inch to the mile. ‘The 1:50000 Ordnance Survey maps which replace the former ‘one inch to the mile’ (1:63360) and have metrication of contours, are “2cm to 1 km’ In addition to the above it must be noted that the meridians, being semti great circles, provide a natural naitical mile scale. One degree change of latitude along a meridian areasures 60nm on the earth and therefore the meridians are usually graduated in nautical miles. These graduations are very useful for measuring distances. Scale factor We stated earlier that one of the steps in the construction of a projection is to reduce the earth to a chosen scale. It is this scale that is generally printed on the chart, We also stated that on any flat chart the scale is bound to depart from the chosen scale of the reduced earth. In detailed study of the scales, it is sometimes more convenient to calculate how much the scale differs from, the chosen scale at a given place, rsther than the actual scale there. This difference from the reduced earth (RE) scale is called the scale factor, and it is expressed as a ratio of the chart length to the reduced earth length chart length scale factor = reduced earth length It can be seen from the above relationship that the scale factor will be 1 wherever the scale on the chart is identical to the scale of the reduced earth. Thus, when the ratio is not exactly 1 the difference between it and 1 is the amount the scale differs from the reduced earth scale. For example, if the scale factor at a point has a value of 1.0123, this means that a measurement of 1 unit at this point will be in error by 0.0123 and the percentage error will be 1.23%. Alternatively, knowing the scale factor or percentage error at a point, we can work out the actual scale at that point. It must always be remembered that scale is correctly expressed as a representative fraction and not by just the denominator (i.e. not ‘half-million chart’ but ‘1 in half-million chart’) and the scale factor must be applied to the representative fraction. For example, if the reduced earth scale is 1:1000000 and the scale factor at point A is 1.2 then the scale at A is equal to 1 x 1 33333 000000 * h seatle note th:t the seale at paint is kirger tha the reduced Scale problems Problems involving eas are often set in the exams. We give you here # fon Award ovamnlae Fala Igo ateetes of an eo a48 Navigation General and Instruments following conversion factors (in addition to the ones given in an earlier chapter) useful in working out your scale problems. 1nm = 72960 inches (UK) 1 International am = 1852m = 72913 inches 1 sm = 63360 inches 1km = 39370 inches km = 100000 cm Linch = 2.54em_ 1 metre = 39.37 inches (or 3.28ft) Worked examples (1) How many km to a cm are represented by a scale of 1:2500000? 2500000 Jem represents 2500000¢m or Tog, km = 25km (2) You have:a chart, scale 4 inches to 1 statute mile. Express this as a representative fraction. CL ___4 inches ED 1 x 5280 x 12 = 1:15840 Scale (3) If 100nm are represented by a line 7.9 inches long on a chart, what is the length of a line representing 50km? 7.9in = 100m = 185.2km 50 x 7.9 185.2 = 2.13 inches (4) If the scale is 1:250000 what is the distance in millimetres on the chart between 32°L1'N 06°47'E and 30°33'N 06°47'E? Since both positions are situated on the same meridian the distance be- tween the two in nautical miles is the arc of the meridian in number of minutes (1° = 60 minutes) intercepted between the two, viz, change of latitude in minutes. Thus the distance innm = 32°11" =30°3: 1°38" or 98nm = 181.5 km (calculator) Now we proceed to solve the problem in the usual way ~ Imm on the chart represents 250000mmi on the earth 000000 mm 250000 181 5km will be represented by — = 726.8mm @@eeeeo0eneeo @ 2» @Projections General 49 Chart symbols, conventional signs and relief You learn all this from the maps and charts you come across in your flying , activities from the word go. Civil Aviation Authority Aeronautical Informa- tion Circular entitled Aeronautical Charts provides comprehensive information on various maps_and charts available and the ICAO approved symbols. On radio navigation charts, the legend is available. Many maps print the key on -~ the side of the map. The only word of warning is spot elevations: these are indicated by a dot with a figure by the side. Before using any chart, look -. around the margin to check if spot elevations are given in feet or metres. 123 metres, for example, is about 404 feet ~ quite a difference. Relief on the topographic charts is usually shown by contours with a spot elevation. The closer together are the contours, the steeper the hills, Layer tinting is another method of showing relief. The depth of the colour as keyed at the side of the map indicatcs the gradient, again with a spot elevation to show the highest spot in the area. High ground can be a killer and a knowledge of all conventional signs is important. Although map-reading may appear daunting at first when you * bear in mind that you will be fying the, aeroplane and keeping a good look- out, be reassured that it will come naturally provided you do your pre-flight ~/ preparation conscientiously. Practice problems (Answers to multichoice test questions are on p 307) (1) Which of the following two charts has 2 larger scale? (a) 1:1000000; (b) 1:250000 Answer: Chart (b). (2) Which is the larger scale, 1:1303000 or 17.8nm to one inch? Answer: 17.8nm to one inch. (3) If the scale is 1:500000, how many statute miles on the ground are represented by one inch on the map? (a) 6.85. (b) 7.89. (¢) 12.7 (4) A Mercator’s chart has a scale of 1:1461000 at S0°N. How many nautical miles are represented by one inch at 50°N on this chart? (a) 23.06 (b) 37.11 (c) 20.02 (5) If on a chart, 30 statute miles are represented by 30 centimetres, what is the scale of the chart? (a) 1:160934 (b) 1:159033 (c) 15185318 (6) Ona chart, scale 1:1.000.000, how many: inches does a ground distance of 286 kilometres measure’ fa) FL 260 (by ASAD (ep 20,87 (7) A tine 6 inches long drawn on a chart measures 105i. What is the scale of the chart? (a) 1:1275982(b) 1: 108800 (c) 1.688975(8) 2) (10) (i) (12) (3) (14) (15) Novigation General and Instruments On a chart having a scale of 1:2000000, how many kilometres are Tepresented by a line 3.7 inches long? {2) 116.29 (b) 101.42 (c) 187.96 On s chast having a scale of 1:250000, at what distance apart in inches Would two positions A (20°33'N 150°08'W) and B (21°37'N 150°08’W) appear? {a) 1622 (b) 30.35. (c) 18.67 On a chart, a line 8 inches long represents 200 statute mies. ‘What is the length of a line in centimetres representing 326 kilometres? (@) 1787 (b) 20.58 (6) 12.9 Att what distance apart in mm would two pinpoints taken at a 20 minute igcerval appeas on a chart, scale 1:1000.000 if the ground speed was 18044? (a) 96.5 (b) 111.1 (c) 108.2 KE the scale of a chart is 16000000, how many kilometres are tepresented by a line $.2 inches long? (a) 7.9248 . (b) 79.248 (c) 792.48 Position A on latitude 46°44'S is due north of position B which is on latitude 4939'S, If the distance between the {vo on a constant scale chart is 6.0Lem, what is the scale of the chart? (@) 1:3243072 (b) 1:1949087 (c) 1:5392679 An aiteraft takes 15min 12s to cover the distance 6.6cm between A and B on a chart having a scale of 1:2000000. Calculate the aircrait’s ground speed in knots (a) 281.3 (b) 132 (c) 244.7 ‘The distance flown by an aircraft in 40 seconds at a ground speed of 480 ict is shown on a chart by a straight linc, 1.4 inches long. Give the scale of the chart in centimetres to kilometres. (a) Lem to.2.78km (b) Lom to 3.89km (c) 1om to 38.9km. 9 2 IO oDChapter 5 d MERCATOR S PROJECTION Gerhard Kramer, a Flemish mathematician, was fifty-seven years old when he published his cylindrical orthomorphic projection in 1569. It was modish, to have a Latin surname to be distinguished from the unscholarly plebeians, hence Mercator, The copies of his chart still exist but he left no clue as to how he calculated the spacing of the graticule, Thirty years later Edward Wright of Cambridge published the tables for the construction of the pro- jection in his book Certaine Errors in Navigation. Accurate tables, called meridional parts tables did not become available until a hundred years later ‘when calculus opened up @ new dimension in mathematics. Perhaps the most ‘used projection in the world, Mercator was particularly popular in Britain because, they say, the then British Empire on this projection looked bigger than the rest of the world, We will now consider the three stages in its development. Geometric cylindrical ‘A soll of paper in the form of a cylinder is placed round the reduced earth, its axis being coincident with the axis of the generating globe. Thus, the cylinder ie Fig. 5.1 Cylindrigal projection52 — Navigation General and Instruments 4s tangential to the reduced earth at the equator, see Fig, 5.1. A light source placed at the centre of the generating globe casts shadows of the graticule on 40 the developable surface. The resultant graticule is rectangular in shape. The primary feature of all normal cylindricals is the property of straight and parallel meridians, equally spaced, at right angles to the equator. CNormal’ cylinder means a cylinder having its axis coincident with the axis of ‘the reduced earth.) Thus, the first step in drawing up any normal cylinder is 40 rule in the meridians against the equator or any other parallel. ‘The nest step is to inseit the rest of the parallels. The spacing of these arallels gives the individuality to the cylinder, However, note from Fig. 5.1 ‘that all parallels are of equal length, the length of any parallel on the cylinder ‘tpeing the same as the reduced earth, that is, 2nR. ‘The scale of such a geometrical projection must be worked out separately jp east-west and north—south directions, Baast-west scale cL Scale = = Scale Tength of any parallel @ on the projection ~ Jength of the same parallel @ on the RE © 2nR cos } ace cog OP North-south scale “The scale factor in the north-south direction on this projection can be calculated by calculus, and it is sec? 6. Properties “The great difference in the rate of change of the scale in the two directions as we saw above renders the distance measurement a highly complex business. Jn addition, the scale variation from a point being different in different directions, the chart is not orthomorphic. These two major disadvantages rule cout its use for plotting or as a topographical map mple (equidistant) cylindrical This is the second sta we in the development of a etlinder, Whereas the {to be fpoled by the geometric cylindrical, they Joved this one as it looked so earth-like. [twas widely used by the navigators pefore the arrival of the real science of map projection and Mereator, and in consequence discovered many remote islands. ancient mariners were @2e@eo03 i @eGBOs 9