COURSE MODULE

ON
ENGLISH
(2200HS01)
I Year B. Tech. ECE – I Semester

Dr. Anjaiah. M Dr. O. Kumara Swami Dr. Waliul Alam

Associate Professor Associate Professor Associate Professor

Dr. Swati B Mrs. V. Aruna K. Srilakshmi

Associate Professor Assistant Professor Assistant Professor

Ms. Sohini Sen Mrs. Saritha D

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SCIENCES

MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN
(Autonomous Institution-UGC, Govt. of India)
Accredited by NBA & NAAC with ‘A’ Grade
NIRF Indian Ranking, Accepted by MHRD, Govt. of India | Rank Band – Excellent by ARIIA, Accepted by MHRD, Govt. of India
Approved by AICTE, Permanently Affiliated to JNTUH, ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution
Platinum Rated by AICTE-CII Survey, AAAA+ Rated by Digital Learning Magazine, AAAA Rated by Careers 360,
National Ranking-Top 100 Rank band by Outlook Magazine, Ranked as Top Engineering Colleges of Eminence in India
– 2022 by CSR Rankings,
51st National Ranking & 5th Telangana State Ranking by Times of India News Magazine, 86 th National Ranking by the
Week Magazine of India
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally, Secunderabad, Kompally-500100.
2022-23
B.TECH. I YEAR SYLLABUS
2200HS01: ENGLISH

B.Tech. I Year ISem.(CSE-DS, CSE-IOT, IT, ECE, EEE) L T PC

B.Tech. I Year II Sem.(CSE, CSE-CS, CSE-AIML) 1 04 3

INTRODUCTION

In view of the growing importance of English as a tool for global communication and the
consequent emphasis on training students to acquire language skills, the syllabus of English has
been designed to develop linguistic, communicative and critical thinking competencies of
Engineering students.

In English classes, the focus should be on the skills development in the areas of vocabulary,
grammar, reading and writing. For this, the teachers should use the prescribed text for detailed
study. The students should be encouraged to read the texts leading to reading comprehension
and different passages may be given for practice in the class. The time should be utilized for
working out the exercises given after each excerpt, and also for supplementing the exercises
with authentic materials of a similar kind, for example, newspaper articles, advertisements,
promotional material etc. The focus in this syllabus is on skill development, fostering ideas and
practice of language skills in various contexts and cultures.

Course Objectives: The course will help to:

a. Improve the language proficiency of students in English with an emphasis on

Vocabulary, Grammar, Reading and Writing skills.
b. To enhance competencies in writing essays and gist of the passage in words.
c. Equip students to study academic subjects more effectively and critically using
the theoretical and practical components of English syllabus.
d. Develop study skills and communication skills in formal and informal situations.

Course Outcomes: Students should be able to:

1. Use English Language effectively in spoken and written forms.

2. Comprehend the given texts and respond appropriately.
3. Communicate confidently in various contexts and different cultures.
4. Acquire basic proficiency in English including reading and listening,
comprehension, writing and speaking skills.
CO-PO MAPPING:

CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 M H H
CO2 H
CO3 M H H

CO4 H H

H-HIGH(3), M-MEDIUM(2), L-LOW(1), EMPTY- NO CORRELATION

PROGRAM OUTCOMES

PO1 Engineering An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics (including

knowledge probability, statistics and discrete mathematics), science, and
engineering for solving Engineering problems and modeling
PO2 Problem An ability to design, simulate and conduct experiments, as well as
analysis to analyze and interpret data including hardware and software
components
PO3 Design / An ability to design a complex electronic system or process to meet
development of desired specifications and needs
solutions

PO4 Conduct An ability to identify, formulate, comprehend, analyze, design

investigations of synthesis of the information to solve complex engineering problems
complex and provide valid conclusions.
problems

PO5 Modern tool An ability to use the techniques, skills and modern engineering tools
usage necessary for engineering practice
PO6 The engineer An understanding of professional, health, safety, legal, cultural and
and society social responsibilities

PO7 Environment The broad education necessary to understand the impact of

and engineering solutions in a global, economic, environmental and
sustainability demonstrate the knowledge need for sustainable development.

PO8 Ethics Apply ethical principles, responsibility and norms of the

engineering practice
PO9 Individual and An ability to function on multi-disciplinary teams.
team work

PO10 Communication An ability to communicate and present effectively

PO11 Project An ability to use the modern engineering tools, techniques, skills
management and management principles to do work as a member and leader in a
and finance team, to manage projects in multi-disciplinary environments

PO12 Life-long A recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in, to resolve
learning contemporary issues and acquire lifelong learning
 Syllabus
UNIT –I

‘The Raman Effect’ from the prescribed textbook ‘English for Engineers’ published by
Cambridge University Press.
Vocabulary Building: The Concept of Word Formation --The Use of Prefixes and Suffixes.
Grammar: Identifying Common Errors in Writing with Reference to Articles and Prepositions.
Reading: Reading and Its Importance- Techniques for Effective Reading.
Basic Writing Skills: Sentence Structures - Use of Phrases and Clauses in Sentences-Importance
of Proper Punctuation- Techniques for writing precisely – Paragraph writing – Types, Structures
and Features of a Paragraph - Creating Coherence-Organizing Principles of Paragraphs in
documents.

UNIT –II

‘Ancient Architecture in India’ from the prescribed textbook ‘English for Engineers’
published by Cambridge University Press.
Vocabulary: Homonyms, Homophones and Homographs. Acquaintance with Prefixes and
Suffixes from Foreign Languages in English to form Derivatives-Words from Foreign
Languages and their Use in English.

Grammar: Identifying Common Errors in Writing with Reference to Noun-pronoun Agreement

and Subject- Verb Agreement.
Reading: Improving Comprehension Skills – Techniques for Good Comprehension.

Writing: Format of a Formal Letter-Writing Formal Letters - E.g.., Letter of Complaint, Letter
of Requisition, Job Application with Resume.

UNIT –III

‘Blue Jeans’ from the prescribed textbook ‘English for Engineers’ published by Cambridge
University Press.
Vocabulary: Synonyms and Antonyms
Grammar: Identifying Common Errors in Writing with Reference to Misplaced Modifiers and
Tenses and Question Tags.

Reading: Sub-skills of Reading- Skimming and Scanning.

Writing: Nature and Style of Sensible Writing- Defining- Describing Objects, Places and Events
– Classifying- Providing Examples or Evidence, E-mail writing and practices.
UNIT –IV

‘What Should You Be Eating’ from the prescribed textbook ‘English for Engineers’
published by Cambridge University Press.
Vocabulary: Idioms and phrases, Phrasal Verbs and One-word substitutions.

Grammar: Active voice and Passive voice- Redundancies and Clichés in Oral and Written
Communication.

Reading: Comprehension- Intensive Reading and Extensive Reading.

Writing: Writing Practices--Writing Introduction and Conclusion - Essay Writing-Précis

Writing.

UNIT –V

‘How a Chinese Billionaire Built Her Fortune’ from the prescribed textbook ‘English for
Engineers’ published by Cambridge University Press.
Vocabulary: Standard Abbreviations in English and Technical Vocabulary and their usage.

Grammar: Reported speech and Common Errors in English.

Reading: Reading Comprehension-Exercises for practice.

Writing: Report writing - Introduction – Characteristics of a Report – Categories of Reports,

Formats- Structure of Reports (Manuscript Format) -Types of Reports - Writing a
Report.
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UNIT 1

RAMAN EFFECT

Raman was born on November 7th, 1888 in Tiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu. His father was a
Physics teacher in a college. He was a brilliant student right from the start.

Science had already made an impression on him and he began to write research papers for
Science Journals. When he was only 19, he becomes a member of the Indian Association for
Cultivation of Science. Meanwhile, respecting his parents' wishes, he took up an administrative
job in Science, however, did not flag it. He used to spend his hours after office in the lab of the
Association working throughout the night.

He was mainly interested in acoustics, the science of sound. He studied how stringed instruments
like the violin and the sitar could produce harmonious music. He was elected to the Rama
Society of London in 1924 and the British Government made him a Knight of the British Empire
in 1929. It was a high honor for any great scientist.

Raman was the first Indian scholar who studied worthy in India and received the Noble prize. He
was the first Asian and the first non-White to win such a great award in science. He passed away
in 1970, on November 21. But his memories are with us. February 28, the day on which he
discovered the "Raman Effect", is celebrated as Natural science day to commemorate his
remarkable achievement in science.

For five years he had been doing research in optics, the science of height. No, sophisticated
equipment was available in his Laboratory, but Raman was confident that he could find, the
answer with some modification in his equipment.

On March 16, 1928, Raman announced his discovery of 'new radiation', (describing the behavior
of a beam of light passing through a liquid chemical) to an assembly of scientists at Bangalore.
The world hailed the discovery as the "Raman Effect".

For Scientific research in this country, it was red letter day this discovery caught the attention of
the world.

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Question and Answers:

1: Why was Raman awarded the Nobel Prize?

A: Chandrasekhar Venkat Raman was a born physics enthusiast. His inquisitive nature was ever
alive. He was always curious to know more and more. And he was very clear in his propositions
and explanations. He was forever ready to instigate, interrogate, investigate and propagate. Even
as a busy administrative officer, he always found time, patience, and, more importantly, interest
to conduct original scientific research at the Indian Association for the cultivation of sciences.
With such inherent scientific temper, Sir C.V. Raman watched the sea and its blue color as he
was voyaging to London in 1921. Sir C.V. Raman was not convinced by the earlier explanation
that the blue color was the reflection of the sky. Sir C.V. Raman speculated that it could be
because of the scattering of sunlight by water molecules. And his consequent experiments proved
this speculation. And the inevitable happened. And C.V. Raman's earlier bold declaration
became true. He won the Nobel Prize for physics for his original discovery – a molecular
scattering of light – in 1930!

2: According to Raman, why is the sea blue?

A: C.V. Raman was ever keen to learn. The questioning was his strength. The research was his
weapon. And discovery was his passion. And the reward was the Nobel Prize. C.V. Raman
participated in the Universities' Congress in London in 1921. As he was traveling by sea, he was
impressed by the 'blue' color of the sea. Many people noticed this blue color earlier. They all
thought it was the reflection of the sky. But C.V. Raman was, somehow, not impressed with this
belief. He guessed that sunlight is being scattered by the water molecules. He conducted
experiments in this direction. He proved beyond doubt that water molecules indeed scatter light.
So, the white sunlight, when scattered by the water molecules gives the sea its blue color. This
discovery, known as the Raman Effect, fetched him the Nobel Prize in 1930!

Common Prefixes:

Prefix Meaning Example

a-, an- Without Amoral

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ante- Before Antecedent

circum- Around Circumvent
co- With Copilot
com- With Companion
contra- Against Contradict
de- off, away from Devalue
dis- Not Disappear
en- put into Enclose
ex- out of, former extract, ex-president

extra- beyond, more than Extracurricular

hetero- Different Heterosexual
Homo Same, similar Homonym, homogeneous
hyper- over, more Hyperactive
illegal, immoral, inconsiderate,
il-, im-, in-, ir- not, without
irresponsible
inter- between Intersect
intra- Within Intravenous
macro- Large Macroeconomics
micro- Small Microscope
omni- all, every Omniscient
post- After Postmortem
pre- before Precede
sub- Under Submarine
trans- Across Transmit

Common Suffixes:

Noun Suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-acy state or quality Privacy

-ance, -ence state or quality of maintenance, eminence

-dom place or state of being freedom, kingdom

-er, -or one who trainer, protector
-ism doctrine, belief Communism
-ity, -ty quality of Veracity

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-ment condition of Argument

-ness state of being Heaviness
-sion, -tion state of being concession, transition

Verb Suffixes
-ate Become Eradicate
-en Become Enlighten
-ify, -fy make or become Terrify
-ize, -ise Become Civilize
Adjective Suffixes
-able, -ible capable of being Presentable, edible
-esque reminiscent of Picturesque
-ful notable for Fanciful
-ic, -ical pertaining to Mythic, musical
-ious, -ous characterized by nutritious, portentous
-ish having the quality of Fiendish
-ive having the nature of Creative

Grammar

Common errors in writing concerning Articles:

 A singular common noun (e.g. boy, girl, tree, country, teacher, village, etc.) must have an
article. A plural common noun can be used with or without an article.

 The definite article 'the' must be used with superlative adjectives.

 If the noun is proper, it will take no article.

 Articles are not used with material nouns. Examples are gold, silver, iron, wheat, rice,
etc.

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 'The' is used in measuring expressions beginning with by.

 Do use "the" before musical instruments.

 Don't use an article before common expressions of place such as "home", "work",
"school", "bed", "class", "jail", and "prison".

 Don't use "the" before the names of companies and holidays used as nouns.

 Don't use "the" before "breakfast", "lunch", or "dinner" when talking about everyday
meals.

 Don't use "the" with a non-count or plural count noun when you are generalizing.
For example:

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Common errors in writing concerning Prepositions

A preposition connects nouns and pronouns and serves to provide necessary details that tell the
reader when, where, or how something occurred.

For example, the most common prepositions are: of, in, to, for, with, and on. If you make an
error when using a preposition, it is very noticeable and can sound like broken English. It's
important to avoid common errors by researching the proper way to use prepositions.

Here are 15 examples of the most common mistakes when using English prepositions.

Mistake #1

It is considered poor grammar to end a sentence with a preposition. While this point has been
argued at length since it may sound better to end a sentence with a preposition in some cases, it is
still considered grammatically incorrect.

For example:

Incorrect: Where is my phone at?

Correct: Where is my phone?

Mistake #2

While prepositions help form a sentence, sometimes people go overboard and include too many.
This can make the sentence seem redundant and too wordy.

Incorrect: The expression of teacher was impatient.

Correct: The teacher's expression was impatient.

Mistake #3

You can never use the preposition "of" rather than "have." This is one of the most common
mistakes people make without even realizing it.

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Incorrect: I should of gone to the movie.

Correct: I should have gone to the movie.

Mistake #4

Using the phrase "like" liberally will make your writing sound sloppy. Instead, you should use
pronouns such as "as if" or "as though."

Incorrect: She looked like she was tired.

Correct: She looked as though she was tired

Mistake #5

When referring to motion, it is grammatically correct to say "into" rather than "in."

Incorrect: I jumped into the river.

Correct: I jumped into the river. Incorrect: He threw the ball in the basket. Correct: He threw the
ball into the basket.

Mistake #6

If you are comparing nouns by using the word differently, you must follow it with the word
from. People sometimes say "different than" instead of "different from." Although it is not
technically a grammatical error; it is a better grammatical form to use from.

Incorrect: Your family is different than mine.

Correct: Your family is different from mine.

Mistake #7

Infinitives are the basic forms of verbs. Whenever you use an infinitive in a sentence, it must be
accompanied by a helping verb.

Incorrect: He wants see the Alps in Switzerland.

Correct: He wants to see the Alps in Switzerland.

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Mistake #8

When discussing time, the two prepositions you use are "for" and "since." When using the word
"for" you are measuring time and when using the word "since" you are referring to a specific
time.

Incorrect: She had been driving since four hours.

Correct: She had been driving for four hours.

Incorrect: I haven't seen him for last year.

Correct: I haven't seen him since last year

Mistake #9

Quantifying an action calls for the use of the words "about", "around", and "Up to" to have a
different meaning—it means "as much as," not "approximately."

Incorrect (if you mean "approximately"): I used up to 3 cups of flour to make the cookies.
Correct: I used about/around 3 cups of flour to make the cookies.

Mistake #10

Misusing the word "at" and "to" is another prepositional error that happens frequently. "At"
refers to where things are, and "to" describes another location. Mixing these up can result in a
very confusing sentence.

Incorrect: They arrived to the school.

Correct: They arrived at the school.

Incorrect: We went at the mall.

Correct: We went to the mall.

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Reading

Reading Comprehension:

According to Webster's Dictionary, comprehension is "the capacity for understanding fully; the
act or action of grasping with the intellect." Reading is "to receive or take in the sense of, as
letters or symbols, by scanning; to understand the meaning of written or printed matter; to learn
from what one has seen or found in writing or printing.

Identifying words on a page does not make someone a successful

ader. When the words are understood and transcend the pages to become thoughts and ideas then
you are truly reading. Comprehension, therefore, is the capacity for understanding those thoughts
and ideas. Applying what you have read and understood becomes a successful conclusion.

SQ3R METHOD FOR THOROUGH STUDY

Step 1: Survey

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Skim through the book and read topical/sub-tropical headings and sentences. Read summaries at
the end of chapters and books. Try to anticipate what the author is going to say. Write these notes
on paper, then look it over to get an overall idea.

Step 2: Questions

Turn paragraph headings into questions (e.g. "Basic Concepts of Reading" to "What are the
Basic Concepts of Reading?"). Write these questions out.

Step 3: Read

Read with alertness to answer the questions you came up with. Write notes, in your own words,
under each question.

Step 4: Recall

Without looking at your books or notes, mentally visualize, in your own words, the high points
of the material immediately upon completing the reading

** More time should be spent on recall than reading Step 5: Review

Look at your questions, answers, notes, and book to see how well you recall. Finish up with a
mental picture of the WHOLE

Techniques for Effective Reading:

Analyze the time and place in which you are reading - If you've been reading or studying for
several hours, mental fatigue may be the source of the problem. If you are reading in a place with
distractions or interruptions, you may not be able to understand what you're reading.

Rephrase each paragraph in your own words - You might need to approach complicated material
sentence by sentence, expressing each in your own words.

Read aloud sentences or sections that are particularly difficult - Reading out loud sometimes
makes complicated material easier to understand.

Reread complicated sections - At times several readings are appropriate and necessary.

Slow down your reading rate - On occasion, simply reading more slowly and carefully will
provide you with the needed boost in comprehension.

Turn headings into questions - Refer to these questions frequently and jot down or underline
answers.

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Write a brief outline of major points - This will help you see the overall organization and
progression of ideas.

Highlight key ideas - After you've read a section, go back and think about and highlight what is
important. Highlighting forces you to sort out what is important, and this sorting process builds
comprehension and recall.

Write notes in the margins - Explain or rephrase complicated ideas or sections. Determine
whether you lack background knowledge - Comprehension is difficult, at times, and it is
impossible if you lack essential information that the writer assumes you have.

Basic Writing Skills

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Parts of Sentences: Subject, Predicate, Object, Indirect Object, Complement Every word in a
sentence serves a specific purpose within the structure of that particular sentence. According to
the rules of grammar, sentence structure can sometimes be quite complicated. For the sake of
simplicity, however, the basic parts of a sentence are discussed here.

The two most basic parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate.

SUBJECT

The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is acting in the sentence. The subject
represents what or whom the sentence is about. The simple subject usually contains a noun or
pronoun and can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses. The man . . .

PREDICATE

The predicate expresses action or being within the sentence. The simple predicate contains the
verb and can also contain modifying words, phrases, or clauses.

The man / builds a house.

The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any complete sentence. In
addition, there are other elements, contained within the subject or predicate, that add meaning or
detail. These elements include the direct object, indirect object, and subject complement. All of

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these elements can be expanded and further combined into simple, compound, complex, or
compound/complex sentences. (See TIP Sheet on "Sentence Type and Purpose.")

The direct object receives the action of the sentence. The direct object is usually a noun or
pronoun.

The man builds a house. The man builds it.

INDIRECT OBJECT

The indirect object indicates to whom or for whom the action of the sentence is being done. The
indirect object is usually a noun or pronoun.

The man builds his family a house. The man builds them a house.

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

A subject complement either renames or describes the subject, and therefore is usually a noun,
pronoun, or adjective. Subject complements occur when there is a linking verb within the
sentence (often a linking verb is a form of the verb to be).

The man is a good father. (Father = noun which renames the subject) The man seems kind. (Kind
= adjective which describes the subject)

Use of Phrases and Clauses:

Phrases and Clauses

There are many different types of phrases and clauses. The first step to identifying the different
types, though, is to understand the difference between a phrase and a clause.

A Phrase is a related group of words. The words work together as a "unit," but they do not have a
subject and a verb.

Examples of Phrases and Clauses:

Examples of Phrases

the boy on the bus (noun phrase)

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will be running (verb phrase)

in the kitchen (prepositional phrase)

very quickly (adverb phrase)

Martha and Jan (noun phrase)

A Clause is a group of words that does have both a subject and a verb. Some clauses are
independent, meaning that they express a complete thought. An independent clause is the same
as a complete sentence. Some clauses are dependent, meaning that they cannot stand alone. They
do have a subject and a verb, but they do not express a complete thought. Another word for
dependent is subordinate.

Examples of Clauses

When I get home (dependent or subordinate clause)

The lights are not on. (independent clause)

When you wake up (dependent or subordinate clause)

Put it on the shelf. (independent clause-understood subject "you)

Since it fell on the floor (dependent or subordinate clause)

Punctuation

Punctuation is the system of symbols that we use to separate written sentences and parts of
sentences and to make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a "punctuation mark"

Importance of Punctuation

Punctuation is essential and is used to convey and clarify the meaning of written language. It is
such simple marks as the full stop or the comma, and the more complex ones of semicolons and
hyphens. Getting punctuation wrong can change the entire meaning of a sentence.

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Punctuate the following sentences:

1. i need some butter garlic onions and milk (4 corrections needed)

2. he left his daughters library book james and the giant peach in the fruit shop (8 corrections
needed)

3. They filmed cleopatra in Egypt (3 corrections)

4. why wasnt she happy to get the job (3 corrections)

5. jasmin chloe and harvinder are missing (5 corrections)

6. boys will be boys he said (5 corrections)

7. On my last day they gave me some cards some presents and best wishes for the future (3
corrections) 8. betting on the lottery which is popular in britain brings riches to the few and some
say poverty to the many (5 corrections)

9. would you please think about this (2 corrections)

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10. She went to get a drink didnt she (3 corrections)

11. have you been to the dentist recently (2 corrections)

12. the womens cloakroom is on the right (3 corrections)

Answer Key

Techniques for Writing Precisely

Here are ten ways to produce more vivid, direct, concise prose by replacing wordy phrases with
fewer words and reorganizing sentences. It is not advisable to employ these strategies
indiscriminately, but prose will usually be improved by following the recommendations below.

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Use Active Voice

When a sentence includes be or any other copulative verb, such as is or are, recast the sentence to
omit the verb.

Before: "The meeting was seen by us as a ploy to delay the project." After: "We saw the meeting
as a ploy to delay the project."

Avoid Vague Nouns

Phrases formed around general nouns such as aspect, degree, and situation clutter sentences.

Before: "She is an expert in the area of international relations." After: "She is an expert in
international relations."

Use Words, Not Their Definitions

Replace explanatory phrases with a single word that encapsulates that explanation. Before: "The
crops also needed to be marketable so that families would be able to sell any yields that exceeded
what they personally required."

After: "The crops also needed to be marketable so that families would be able to sell any
surplus."

Avoid Noun Strings

Reorganize sentences to eliminate a series of nouns used as adjectives.

Before: "The lack of a secure transfer may hamper computer security incident response efforts."

After: "The lack of a secure transfer may hamper responses to computer-security incidents."

Convert Nouns to Verbs

When a sentence includes a noun ending in -tion, change the noun to a verb to simplify the
sentence.

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Before: "They will collaborate in the creation of new guidelines." After: "They will collaborate
to create new guidelines."

Reduce Verb Phrases to Simple Verbs

Identify the verb buried in a verb phrase and omit the rest of the phrase. Before: "The results are
suggestive of the fact that tampering has occurred." After: "The results suggest that tampering
has occurred."

Replace Complex Words with Simple Ones Choose simpler synonyms for multisyllabic words.

Before: "The department will disseminate the forms soon." After: "The department will pass out
the forms soon.

Avoid Expletives

Don't start sentences with "There is," "There are," or "It is." Before: "There are many factors in
the product's failure." After: "Many factors contributed to the product's failure."

Eliminate Prepositional Phrases

Replace "(noun1) of the (noun2)" phrasing with "(noun2)'s (noun1)" phrasing. Before: "The
decision of the committee is final."

After: "The committee's decision is final."

Reduce Wordy Phrases to Single Words

Replace phrases that signal a transition with simple conjunctions, verbs, or other linking words.

Before: Due to the fact that the project is behind schedule, today's meeting has been postponed.

After: Because the project is behind schedule, today's meeting has been postponed.

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What is Paragraph Writing?

As we all know, a paragraph is a group of sentences that are connected and make absolute sense.
While writing a long essay or letter, we break them into paragraphs for better understanding, and
to make a well-structured writing piece. Paragraph writing on any topic is not only about
expressing your thoughts on the given topic, but it is also about framing ideas about the topic and
making it convenient for the readers to follow it. In English paragraph writing, it is essential to
focus on the writing style, i.e., the flow and connection between the sentences.

Therefore, a paragraph must be written in simple language to avoid any interruption while
reading. To write a paragraph on any topic, you can refer to the samples given below, and write a
paragraph without any hindrance.

How to Write a Paragraph?

To determine how to write a paragraph, you will have to find a good topic and collect enough
information regarding the topic. Once you find the supporting details, you can start framing the
sentences, connect the sentences following a sequence, and find a perfect concluding sentence.
To understand it better, we have provided a few paragraphs of writing examples for your
reference.

Find a Topic Sentence: It is the first sentence that is an introduction to the given topic. It gives
the main idea of what the paragraph would be about.

Supporting details: These are the details that can be collected from various sources. It comprises
information related to the topic that gives strong support to the main topic.

Closing sentence: It is the last sentence that ends the paragraph, and restates the whole idea of
the paragraph. It is the concluding sentence that gives the basic idea of the whole topic.

Types of Paragraph Writing

It is essential to know the types of paragraph writing before you write about any given topic.
Therefore, check the below information to understand the various types of paragraph writing.

Majorly, there are four types of paragraph writing, i.e., narrative, descriptive, expository, and
persuasive.

Descriptive: These kinds of writing describe the topic, and are appealing to the five senses.

Narrative: These kinds of writing are a narration of a story or a situation that includes a
sequence.

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Expository: These kinds of writing are a definition of something. These paragraphs require a lot
of research.

Persuasive: These kinds of writing aim to make the audience admit a writer's point of view.
These are mostly used by the teachers to provide a strong argument.

Example:

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What is coherence?

The definition of coherence is something logical or consistent and something that makes sense as
a whole. An example of coherence is an argument that has no inconsistencies.

What is coherence in a sentence?

In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or controlling idea,
but there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent, each sentence flows smoothly
into the next without obvious shifts or jumps.

Why coherence is important in writing?

Coherence is an essential quality for good academic writing. In academic writing, the flow of
ideas from one sentence to the next should be smooth and logical. Without cohesion, the reader
will not understand the main points that you are trying to make. It also hampers readability.

What does cohesion mean in writing?

What is cohesion? Cohesion refers to the way we use vocabulary and grammatical structures to
make connections between the ideas within a text. It provides flow and sequence to your work
and helps make your paragraphs clear for the reader

What is the difference between cohesion and coherence?

Coherence is defined as the quality of being logical, consistent, and able to be understood.
Imagine coherence as a building (It's an analogy, go with it). Cohesion on the other hand refers
to the act of forming a whole unit. It is effectively a subset of coherence.

How do you write a cohesive sentence?

A cohesive sentence must flow with the sentences around it. A cohesive sentence must be
coherent and fit with other sentences around it. Pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they) must agree
in cohesive sentences. Cohesive sentences also use transition words, correlative conjunctions,
and conjunctive adverbs

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Cohesive Devices:

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Tutorial

1. Give a brief note on Raman Spectroscopy?

2. Construct a paragraph on “Save Trees, save life”.

3. Explain the importance of punctuation.

4. Elaborate in detail, why C.V. Raman awarded the noble prize.

5. Organize the principles of Paragraph writing.

6. Briefly write about the difference between articles A and An. English

7. State the reasons for the sky being blue in colour.

8. Elaborately describe where If- clause is being used ? State three applications.

Assignment

1. According to Raman, why is the sea blue in colour?

2. Explain dependent and independent clauses with examples

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UNIT-II

ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA

SUMMARY:-

Indian architecture's important phase began with the Mauryan period. Megasthenes, the Greek
ambassador of Seleucus Nicator who visited the Mauryan court, described Chandragupta
Maurya's palace as an excellent architectural achievement. Significant advancements in the field
of architecture were during Ashoka's reign (c.268- 232 BC). Mauryan art and architecture
imbibed the influence of the Persians and the Greeks. During Ashoka's reign, many monolithic
stone pillars were erected, on which teachings of 'Dhamma' were inscribed. The lion capital of
the Sarnath Pillar has been accepted as the emblem of the Indian Republic. Each pillar weighs
about 50 tonnes and is about 50 feet high. The stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath are symbols of the
achievement of Mauryan architecture. The gateway of Sanchi Stupa the beautiful sculptures
depicting scenes from the Jataka stories. Jataka stories bear testimony to the skill and aesthetic
sense of the artisans. The blending of Greek and Indian art subsequently led to the development
of Gandhara art.

A large number of statues of the Buddha were built by the artisans of Mathura and Amaravati
schools, especially after the first century AD, under the influence of the Kushanas. Rich
ornaments costumes and drapery were used to impart physical beauty. The sculptures were in
stone, terracotta, cement-like material, and clay. Mathura schools were made of spotted red
stone, and had a distinct spiritual look about them, and here along with the Buddha, we also find
sculptures of Jaina deities. The Amaravati School developed under the patronage of the
Satavahanas of the Andhra region. A great stupa was built at Amaravati in the Lower Godavari
region.

Nagarjunakonda is another place that is famous for its Buddhist architecture. The Gupta period
marks the beginning of the construction of free-standing Hindu temples. The Ajanta and Ellora
Caves of Maharashtra and the Udayagiri Caves of Odisha hold Buddhist viharas, chaityas as well
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as mandapas, and pillared temples of Hindu gods and goddesses. Temples hewn out of huge
rocks are rock-cut temples; they were built in the western Deccan in the early years of the
Christian era. The chaitya at the Karle Caves, the Kailash temple at Ellora built by the
Rashtrakutas, and the Ratha temples of Mahabalipuram built by the Pallavas are examples of
rock-cut temples.

The Pallavas built temples like the Kailasanathar temple and the Vaikunta Perumal temples at
Kanchipuram. The Cholas built many temples like the Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur. The
Cholas developed a typical style of temple architecture of South India called the Dravida style,
complete with vimana or shikhara, high walls, and a gateway topped by a gopuram. Odisha has
some of the most beautiful temples such as the Lingaraja Temple built by Somavamsi kings, with
addition by the Ganga rulers, the Mukteshvara Temple in Bhubaneshwar, and the Jagannath
Temple in Puri. The Sun Temple in Konark was built in the thirteenth century by the Eastern
Ganga ruler Narasimhadev 1. The temple is dedicated to Surya (the Sun God) and has been
designed as a twelve-wheeled chariot. Mount Abu in Rajasthan is known for the Dilwara temples
dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras. These were built in pure white marble and adorned with exquisite
sculptures.

Question and Answers:

1: 'The lion capital of the Sarnath Pillar' – what does 'capital' mean here?

A: 'Capital' here means the decorated top part of a pillar. 'Capital' in other contexts means a) the
administrative center (a city) of a state/country etc. b) investment to start some business, c)
important, main…..

2: What is a 'stupa'?

A: A stupa is a dome-like structure. Stupas picture scenes from Jataka tales.

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3: What is a Jataka story?

A: A Jataka story is a folk tale about the previous births of Gautama Buddha.

4: How did the Gandhara style emerge?

A: Gandhara style emerged from the blending of Greek and Indian art forms.

5: What are the characteristics of the Gandhara style?

A: Gandhara-style life-like statues of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas looked like Greek gods. They
used ornaments, costumes, and drapery to make them look beautiful. They used stones terracotta,
and cement material to make statues.

6: Name two other indigenous styles of architecture?

A: Mathura school and Amaravathi School are two native styles of architecture.

7: Name some places known for their cave architecture?

A: Ajanta, Ellora, and Udaygiri are some places famous for cave architecture.

8: What are rock-cut temples? Name some famous rock-cut temples.

A: Temples cut from huge rocks are called rock-cut temples. The Kailash temple at Ellora and
the Rath temple of Mahabalipuram are some examples of well-known rock-cut temples.

9: Name some of the major dynasties of South India.

A: The Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyans, Hoysalas, and Vijayanagar kings are some dynasties of
South India.

10: What are the differences between the Dravida style and the Nagara style? A: Dravida style
mainly consists of 'Vimana' or 'Shikhara', high walls, and the gateway topped by a 'gopuram'.

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Nagara styles, on the other hand, have the 'Sikhara' in the form of a spiral roof, the 'garbagriha'
(sanctum), and the 'mandapa' (pillared hall).

Vocabulary

What are synonyms and antonyms explain with examples.

Synonyms refer to words that have the same or similar meaning to another word. Antonyms are
words that mean the exact opposite of another word. For example, sadness is an antonym of
happiness.

What is the best way to find synonyms and antonyms?

Thesaurus.com is the world's largest and most trusted free online thesaurus brought to you by
Dictionary.com. For over 20 years, Thesaurus.com has been helping millions of people improve
their mastery of the English language and find the precise word with over 3 million synonyms
and antonyms.

Crossword puzzles

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Crossword Puzzle Answer

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MATCHING WORKSHEET

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Antonym Matching Worksheet

Match each word with its antonym (a word that means the opposite).

genuine spurious
abruptly gradually
inept skilful
accept reject
devious ingenuous
diligent slothful
specific general
gather scatter
rude courteous
cheerful melancholy

Idioms
An idiom is a phrase or expression that typically presents a figurative, non-literal meaning
attached to the phrase; but some phrases become figurative idioms while retaining the literal
meaning of the phrase. Categorized as formulaic language, an idiom's figurative meaning is
different from the literal meaning.

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Common idioms in English

1. 'The best of both worlds – means you can enjoy two different opportunities at the same time.

"By working part-time and looking after her kids two days a week she managed to get the best of
both worlds."

2. 'Speak of the devil' – this means that the person you're just talking about actually appears at
that moment.

"Hi Tom, speak of the devil, I was just telling Sara about your new car."

3. 'See eye to eye' – this means agreeing with someone.

"They finally saw eye to eye on the business deal."

4. 'Once in a blue moon' – an event that happens infrequently.

"I only go to the cinema once in a blue moon."

5. 'When pigs fly' – something that will never happen.

"When pigs fly she'll tidy up her room."

6. 'To cost an arm and a leg'– something is very expensive.

"Fuel these days costs and arm and a leg."

7. 'A piece of cake'– something is very easy.

"The English test was a piece of cake."

8. 'Let the cat out of the bag' – to accidentally reveal a secret.

"I let the cat out of the bag about their wedding plans."

9. 'To feel under the weather' – to not feel well.

"I'm really feeling under the weather today; I have a terrible cold."

10. 'To kill two birds with one stone' – to solve two problems at once.

"By taking my dad on holiday, I killed two birds with one stone. I got to go away but also spend
time with him."

11. 'To cut corners' – to do something badly or cheaply.

"They really cut corners when they built this bathroom; the shower is leaking."

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12. 'To add insult to injury' – to make a situation worse.

"To add insult to injury the car drove off without stopping after knocking me off my bike."

13. 'You can't judge a book by its cover' – to not judge someone or something based solely on
appearance.

"I thought this no-brand bread would be horrible; turns out you can't judge a book by its cover."

14. 'Break a leg' – means 'good luck' (often said to actors before they go on stage).

"Break a leg Sam, I'm sure your performance will be great."

15. 'To hit the nail on the head' – to describe exactly what is causing a situation or problem.

"He hit the nail on the head when he said this company needs more HR support."

16. 'A blessing in disguise' – An misfortune that eventually results in something good
happening later on.

17. 'Call it a day' – Stop working on something

18. 'Let someone off the hook' – To allow someone, who has been caught, to not be punished.

19. 'No pain no gain' – You have to work hard for something you want.

20. 'Bite the bullet' – Decide to do something unpleasant that you have avoided doing.

21. 'Getting a taste of your own medicine' – Being treated the same unpleasant way you have
treated others.

22. 'Giving someone the cold shoulder' – To ignore someone.

23. 'The last straw' – The final source of irritation for someone to finally lose patience.

24. 'The elephant in the room' – A matter or problem that is obvious of great importance but
that is not discussed openly.

25. 'Stealing someone's thunder' – Taking credit for someone else achievements.

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EXERCISE

Match the idioms in column A with their meanings in column B:

Column A Column B
1. aching heart a. a feeling of unhappiness or being weighed down
with sorrow
2. eat one`s heart out
b. to do something according to one’s feeling

3. follow one’s heart c. a feeling of sadness or pain that one has when
love has been lost or has faded

4. have a heart of stone d. to be cold and unfriendly; showing no sympathy

to others
5. heavy heart
e. feeling negative emotions like jealousy, anguish
or bitterness about something

Phrasal Verbs

What is a phrasal verb with an example?

A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and an adverb or preposition, for example, ' shut
up' or ' look after', which together have a particular meaning.

Why are phrasal verbs used?

Phrasal verbs are important because they are extremely common in informal English, and unless
you are familiar with their meanings, understanding informal language will be difficult. In
addition, learning to use phrasal verbs correctly will help you sound natural in casual
conversation.

How phrasal verbs are formed?

The Oxford dictionary defines phrasal verbs as a verb that is made up of the main verb
together with an adverb or a preposition or both. Typically, their meaning is not obvious
from the meanings of the individual words themselves. The adverb or preposition is called a
particle.

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Use the words in the box to complete the sentences with phrasal verbs!

ACROSS – AFTER AWAY BACK DOWN – INTO – OUT – OVER – UP

OFF – ON
1. We were lucky that the bomb didn’t blow _______________ .

2. He missed so much at school that he found it difficult to catch _______________ .

3. As a single mother, she brought _______________ her two sons on her own.

4. When I read the book I came _______________ a word I had never seen before.

5. Would you like to stay at home or eat _______________ tonight?

6. Could you turn the volume _______________ . - I’m trying to work.

7. The woman finally calmed _______________ and told everything to the police.

8. I’ll call you _______________ later when I’m not so busy.

9. Could you look _______________ the baby for a few hours ?

10. Burglars broke _______________ the new house on High Street.

11. Jerry hung _______________ without even saying goodbye.

12. I asked the author when her new book was coming _______________ .

13. I don’t think you can do something that’s wrong and get _______________ with it.

14. I was looking _______________ my briefcase, but I couldn’t find it.

15. We watched as the planes took _______________ from the airport. 1

6. I don’t feel well. I think I’ll lie _______________ for a while.

17. Cars should be kept _______________ of the city center. They don’t belong there.

18. You need to get _______________ the bus opposite the supermarket.

19. It can take weeks to get _______________ an illness like that.

20. Don’t get nervous. We’ll work _______________ a solution to the problem.

21. I trusted him but then he let me _______________ .

22. He pointed _______________ that there was no sense in playing if four of us were ill.

23. I had to look _______________ that word in the dictionary.

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24. Put your clothes and scarfs _______________ - it’s cold outside.

25. Many hospitals are running _______________ of money.

26. My dad is going to set _______________ a new taxi company next year.

27. Do you want to write _______________ my phone number?

28. The firefighters were able to put _______________ the fire.

29. Did you pay _______________ the money I gave you?

30. Please try _______________ these shoes to see if they’re the right size.

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READING

Improving Comprehension Skills – Techniques for Good Comprehension: Skills for being
an effective reader and for increasing comprehension are:

 Finding main ideas and supporting details/evidence

 Making inferences and drawing conclusions
 Recognizing a text's patterns of organization
 Perceiving conceptual relationships
 Testing your knowledge and understanding of the material through application

When comprehension fails, we can use a plan that includes:

 Using structural analysis and contextual clues to identify unknown
vocabulary words (e.g., look at roots, prefixes, suffixes). If this fails,
keep a dictionary close by and look up words you don't understand
 Reading more critically - ask questions while you read
 Summarizing or outlining main points and supporting details
 Rereading the material
 Try to explain what you've read to someone else

Read the Preface & Introduction:

Read the preface and introduction you'll get essential information for understanding the
author's perspective. The preface usually provides information about the author's objective,
the organizational plan, how it is different from others, and the author's background. Once
you know the author's objective or goal, it's easier to see relationships among the facts
presented. The introduction lays the foundation for the rest of the text in the form of
overview and background information that will make it easier to digest information.

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Make More Than One Pass:

Reading articles and textbooks often requires more than one pass. It usually takes two, three, or even
more readings to grasp difficult concepts. Skim the table of contents, preface, headings, and
conclusions. Stop and think about the author's intent as well the instructor's purpose in making the
assignment and purpose for reading.

Take Notes: In early readings, take the briefest of notes while reading by adding brackets in
margins or underlining minimally. Note pages where you might want to take formal notes. After
reading, take more extensive notes. When reading and note taking are complete, reread all of
your notes, think about what you've read, and add more notes based on your reflections. Your
goal is to have notes that are concise, capture the reading - and replace it so that you don't have
to go back and reread.

Don't Highlight:
If you underline text, do so minimally and stay focused on the important details. Avoid the
temptation to highlight every line. Heavy highlighting is a procrastination tool because usually
you're marking what you should learn instead of focusing on learning it.

Identifying Topics, Main Ideas and Supporting Details:

Understanding the topic, the gist, or the larger conceptual framework of a textbook chapter, an
article, a paragraph, a sentence or a passage is sophisticated reading task. Being able to draw
conclusions, evaluate, and critically interpret articles or chapters is important for overall
comprehension in college reading. Textbook chapters, articles, paragraphs, sentences, or
passages all have topics and main ideas. The topic is the broad, general theme or message. It is
what some call the subject. The main idea is the "key concept" being expressed. Details, major
and minor, support the main idea by telling how, what, when, where, why, how much, or how
many. Locating the topic, main idea, and supporting details helps you understand the point(s) the
writer is attempting to express. Identifying the relationship between these will increase your
comprehension.

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Grasping the Main Idea: A paragraph is a group of sentences related to a particular topic, or
central the theme. Every paragraph has a key concept or main idea. The main idea is the most
important piece of information the author wants you to know about the concept of that
paragraph. When authors write they have an idea in mind that they are trying to get across. This
is especially true as authors compose paragraphs. An author organizes each paragraph's main
idea and supporting details in support of the topic or central theme, and each paragraph supports
the paragraph preceding it. A writer will state his/her main idea explicitly somewhere in the
paragraph. That main idea may be stated at the beginning of the paragraph, in the middle, or at
the end. The sentence in which the main idea is stated is the topic sentence of that paragraph.

Identifying the Topic: The first thing you must be able to do to get at the main idea of a
paragraph is to identify the topic - the subject of the paragraph. Think of the paragraph as a
wheel with the topic being the hub - the central core around which the whole wheel (or
paragraph) spins. Your strategy for topic identification is simply to ask yourself the question,
"What is this about?" Keep asking yourself that question as you read a paragraph, until the
answer to your question becomes clear. Sometimes you can spot the topic by looking for a word
or two that repeat. Usually you can state the topic in a few words.

The bulk of an expository paragraph is made up of supporting sentences (major and minor
details), which help to explain or prove the main idea. These sentences present facts, reasons,
examples, definitions, comparison, contrasts, and other pertinent details. They are most important
because they sell the main idea. In writing, there are three types of paragraphs: introductory,
transitional, and summarizing.

Introductory paragraphs tell you, in advance, such things as (1) the main ideas of the chapter or
section; (2) the extent or limits of the coverage; (3) how the topic is developed; and (4) the
writer's attitude toward the topic. Transitional paragraphs are usually short; their sole function
is to tie together what you have read so far and what is to come - to set the stage for succeeding
ideas of the chapter or section. Summarizing paragraphs are used to restate briefly the main
ideas of the chapter or section. The writer may also draw some conclusion from these ideas, or

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speculate on some conclusion based on the evidence he/she has presented.

All three types should alert you: the introductory paragraph of things to come; the transitional
paragraph of a new topic; and the summarizing paragraph of main ideas that you should have
gotten.

Making Inferences and Drawing Conclusions

Read with purpose and meaning: Drawing conclusions refers to information that is implied or
inferred. This means that the information is never clearly stated. Writers often tell you more
than they say directly. They give you hints or clues that help you "read between the lines." Using
these clues to give you a deeper understanding of your reading is called inferring. When you
infer, you go beyond the surface details to see other meanings that the details suggest or imply
(not stated). When the meanings of words are not stated clearly in the context of the text, they
may be implied - that is, suggested or hinted at. When meanings are implied, you may infer
them.

Inference is just a big word that means a conclusion or judgment. Example: you are sitting in
your car stopped at a red signal light. You hear screeching tires, then a loud crash and breaking
glass. You see nothing, but you infer that there has been a car accident. We all know the sounds
of screeching tires and a crash. We know that these sounds almost always mean a car accident.
But there could be some other reason, and therefore another explanation, for the sounds.
Perhaps it was not an accident involving two moving vehicles.

Maybe an angry driver rammed a parked car. Or maybe someone played the sound of a car crash

from a recording. Making inferences means, choosing the most likely explanation from the facts

at hand. There are several ways to help you draw conclusions from what an author may be

implying.

The following are descriptions of the various ways to aid you in reaching a conclusion.

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Antonyms and Contrasts: When the meaning of a word is not implied by the general sense of
its context or by examples, it may be implied by an antonym or by a contrasting thought in a
context. Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings, such as happy and sad. For instance,
Ben is fearless, but his brother is timorous. You may infer the meaning of timorous by
answering the question "If Ben is fearless and Jim is very different from Ben with regard to fear,
then what word describes Jim?" Write your answer on the following line. If you wrote a word
such as timid, or afraid, or fearful, you inferred the meaning of timorous.

Homonyms, Homophones & Homegraphs

Definition

In English, a homonym is a word that sounds the same as another word but differs in meaning.

Homonyms can refer to both homophones and homographs.

 A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in
meaning and is spelled differently.

 Homographs are words with the same spelling but having more than one meaning.

The description of a homonym covers that of both a homograph and a homophone. For example,
‘bear’, ‘tear’ and ‘lead’ are all homographs, but they also satisfy the criteria of a homonym. They
simply need to look or sound the same. Likewise, while ‘sell’, ‘cell’, ‘by’, and ‘buy’ are all
homophones, they are also homonyms.

Words that sound the same but have different meaning and are spelled differently (homophones)

 Weak — Week
 Sun — Son
 See — Sea
 Plane — Plain
 Meet — Meat

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Words that sound the same but have different meaning and are spelled the same (homographs)

 Address – Address
 Band – Band
 Bat – Bat
 Match – Match
 Mean – Mean
 Right – Right
 Ring – Ring

Writing

Letter writing

Formal Letters, also called Business Letters or Professional Letters, are letters that are written in
a strict and specific format. Formal letters are naturally much more formal in style than
informal/friendly letters. Formal letters can be written for a number of reasons such as,

 to express your concerns in the professional setup

 to provide official information across your workspace

 to order goods, to apply for employment

 to the Editor of a newspaper addressing the problems faced by various groups of people
in different areas, etc.

Structure of a Formal Letter

In order to be able to write a formal letter, you have to first understand the reason behind the
letter. As far as formal letters are concerned, the structure of the letter changes depending on the
type of letter. There are certain rules to be followed to be able to draft a formal letter. Every

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sentence should be well thought out and laid down in such a way that the message you want to
convey should be precise and clear to the reader.

Types of Formal Letters

There are different types of formal letters, as discussed, and they can generally be labelled under
the following terms:

 Business Letters

 Letters of Application

 Letters to Newspapers

Business Letters

Business letters should be terse, clear and to the point. There is no room for any kind of stories in
a business letter. Before you start to write a business letter, there are a few things you should
keep in mind.

 Use simple, everyday language to convey the message clearly instead of using
flamboyant and overemphatic vocabulary.

 Never use jargon that is commonly used in business when you write a business letter.

 Avoid using abbreviations as much as possible.

 The modes of address vary according to the type of letter and the receiver.

 Clear and exact descriptions of the articles necessary with the expected quality and
quantity should be listed with utmost care when you write a letter to order goods.

 When replying to a business letter, always quote the date of the letter you are responding
to and the number of references (if any).

Formal/Business letters include letters from an employer to the employees and vice versa, letters
to order and replace goods, letters of serious concern to an officer of higher rank, letters of
complaint, etc.

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Letters of Application

Letters of Application usually consist of letters applying for employment. Before and after you
write a letter of application, make sure you check for the following:

 Always start with a short introduction stating whether the applicant is writing in response
to a reference from an advertisement found online or in the newspaper.

 State the age, education and experience of the applicant.

 Provide the employer with a genuine expression of the applicant’s earnestness in taking
up the job in the respective company.

 Also, furnish references so that the employer can gather an idea of the kind of employee
you would be.

Letters of Application should follow the format of formal/business letters.

Letters to Newspapers

Always address these letters to ‘The Editor’ and end with ‘Yours faithfully’. Letters to the Editor
are letters that express concerns that should be addressed to the higher authorities. These letters
should be professional and authentic. No newspaper would publish anonymous letters, so make
sure you are writing the letter for a cause and provide your name and address correctly.

Writing a Formal Letter – Parts of a Formal Letter

When writing a formal letter, always be respectful and conscious of your language, no matter
what the subject of the letter might be. To write a formal letter, there are some points to be
remembered.

1. Always start with the sender’s address

2. This is followed by the date.
3. The receiver’s address comes next. The receiver can be the name of the firm or the one
who represents the firm.

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4. The subject of the letter is very important. It is a statement of the purpose of the letter. It
should be written in a single line.
5. The salutation can be Dear Sir/Ma’am. If it is a person you know well, you can address
them by their name, ‘Dear Shrinath’.
6. The body of the letter can be written in 3 paragraphs.
 The first paragraph should be aimed at introducing yourself and stating the
purpose of your letter.

 The second paragraph should furnish all the information about the matter.

 The third paragraph can be a concluding paragraph where you lay out your
expectations regarding the matter.

To close the letter, you can use a complimentary closing like ‘Yours faithfully’, ‘Yours
sincerely’ etc.
Unlike informal letters, the signature should include your name (in block letters) and
designation below your signature.

Formal Letter Writing Samples

Formal Letter Sample 1 – Letter to the publisher ordering books for your store

Javed
Read More Book Store
24, Crosby Lane
Bangalore 600045

20th August 2019

The Manager
Zack Publishing House
Mumbai 400012
Subject: Requirement of new books for the store – reg.

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Dear Sir,

I have received the books that you had sent last week. The books are in perfect condition, and
they were delivered on time. Owing to the great service rendered, I would like to order more
books that would be a great addition to the wide range of books available at my store. Given
below is a list of books that I would like to purchase:

Title of the Book Author No. of Copies

Wuthering Heights Emily Bronte 3

Treasure Island R L Stevenson 2

A Brief History of Time Stephen Hawking 4

Surely You’re Joking, Richard Feynman 2

Mr. Feynman!
I shall be grateful if you could send me copies of these books as mentioned by VPP as early as
possible to the address given.
Thank you in advance.

Yours faithfully,

Signature

JAVED

Manager – Read More Book Store

Formal Letter Sample 2 – Letter to the Editor about a road that needs repair
Ganesh
25, SS Street
Chernan Nagar
Coimbatore 641023

8th September 2019

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The Editor
The Hindu
Coimbatore
Subject: Repair of the road in Cheran Nagar
Sir,
I would like to bring to your notice that the people in and around Cheran Nagar have been facing
difficulties in travelling back and forth because of the bad condition of the roads there. We have
appealed to the Municipality, but there has not been any development on the issue so far.

As private appeals to their office have had no effect, perhaps a little publicity will do no harm.
For the last month, the roads in Cheran Nagar have been almost impassable. The surface is badly
broken up by the heavy rains, and on a dark night it is positively dangerous for motors or
carriages to pass that way. Moreover, there are heaps of road metal on both sides of the road,
which leave very little room in the middle. The residents of the area have been inconvenienced in
this way for weeks.

The situation is becoming worse. There have been multiple accidents happening due to this
condition. I request you to highlight the seriousness of the matter in your newspaper so that the
road may be put in thorough repair without further delay.

Thanking You
Yours sincerely,
Signature
GANESH
Resident

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Complaint Letter Sample 1 – Poor Maintenance of the Garden and Improper

Waste Disposal
45 B, Rory Lane
Damsel Street
Mumbai – 400056

29th December, 2021

The Secretary
Residential Association
Mumbai – 400056

Subject: Complaint letter regarding the poor maintenance of the garden and improper waste
disposal

Sir,

I am Shawn Mendez, a resident of Rory Lane. I am writing to bring to your notice the poor
maintenance of the garden around our residential area and the improper disposal of waste. The
garden around the residential area was watered regularly, and grass shrubs were trimmed and
maintained neatly in the beginning. It has been more than a month now since any kind of
maintenance is done in the garden. We have tried contacting the person in charge, but every
effort has just been in vain.

Another growing issue is the problem of waste disposal. There were people from the corporation
collecting garbage for disposal every two days, but it has been more than a week now since they
have collected any garbage from our area. This has led to the accumulation of waste, and people
have started dumping it in the corner of the street as they have no other choice. Kindly look into
this and the maintenance of the garden as it would become a huge mess if this continues. It
would be highly appreciated if you could also inform the residents that all garbage would be
collected and not to throw them out around the street corners.

Thank you in advance.

Yours faithfully,
Signature
SHAWN MENDEZ

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Formal Letter of Job Application for the Position of Cryptographer

589/22, Srilakshmi Nagar Block 3
Subbanna Palya Extension
Banaswadi, Bangalore North
560023
January 7, 2022
The HR Manager
Anton Technologies
Electronic City
Bangalore – 560012
Subject: Job Application Letter for the Position of Cryptographer
Respected Sir,
This is with reference to the job posting on LinkedIn for the position of Cryptographer in your
esteemed organisation. I have carefully read the job description. I have also browsed through
your official website to understand the kind of work you do, and I am interested in working with
you.

I am an MSc Electronics graduate, and I have completed multiple diploma courses in Cyber
Security. I have hands-on experience of working in the field of Cyber Security for five years.
Planning and executing various security means, analysing and documenting security systems,
rebuilding and making arrangements for the safety of the security system, writing and developing
security codes are some of the areas I have good experience with. I believe that I will be a good
fit for the role of Cryptographer in your company and that I can do justice to the responsibilities I
will have to take up.

I have enclosed my resume and work samples for your kind review.
Thank you for your time and consideration. Hoping to hear from you.
Yours sincerely,
Signature
BIPIN DAS

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Resume Writing

What is resume writing?

A resume is a formal document that a job applicant creates to itemize their

qualifications for a position. A resume is usually accompanied by a customized cover
letter in which the applicant expresses an interest in a specific job or company and draws
attention to the most relevant specifics on the resume.

What is difference between resume and CV?

The CV presents a full history of your academic credentials, so the length of the document
is variable. In contrast, a resume presents a concise picture of your skills and qualifications
for a specific position, so length tends to be shorter and dictated by years of experience
(generally 1-2 pages).

What are the 4 main types of resumes?

With regards to getting a job, there are four basic resume types: chronological, functional,
combination and targeted.

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Sample Resume

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Tutorial

1. Explain how to improve comprehension skills?

2. Prepare a resume furnishing all your details.

3. Distinguish between Gandhara and Nagara style of architecture.

4. Mention the significant advancements in the field of architecture during Ashoka’s reign.

5. Elucidate why temples were the most important architectural achievements of various dynasties

6. Give two examples of reflexive, interrogative and possessive pronouns.

7. Discuss noun-pronoun agreement

8. Illustrate about Free standing temples.

Assignment

1. Justify how the Mouryan period marked an important phase in Ancient Indian
Architecture.

2. Distinguish between Gandhara and Nagara style of architecture.

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UNIT-III
BLUE JEANS

‘Blue jeans’ as we see them have a long and strange history Denim cloth has an unusual
history. The name comes from Serge de Nimes, a city in southern India. Denim cloth is
originally made from wool. But by 1700’s, it was made from wool and cotton.
Blue jeans, in the form that we know them today, did not come about until the middle of the
nineteenth century. Levis Strauss, an enterprising immigrant who happened to have a few
bolts of blue denim cloth on hand, recognized a need for strong work pants in the mining
communities of California. He first designed and marketed ‘Levis’ in 1850.

Jeans underwent many changes both in use and forms in the long history. First, the strong
fabric was used as sail for boats. Noticing the rugged quality, miners started using the cloth
for their pants. The stitching patterns, rivets, buttons, zippers, etc. altered as time passed and
now jeans assumed a form that is the symbol of fashion. The raw material cotton passes
through various stages before it takes the form of jeans.

The stages are:

1. Preparing the cotton yarn.

2. Dyeing the yarn.

3. Weaving the yarn.

4. Designing patterns.

5. Cutting the cloth.

6. Stitching and checking quality.

Each stage involves tools, skills, strategies, and plans. True blue jeans are made out
of 100% cotton, including the threads used for stitching them. The most common dye
used is synthetic indigo. Finally the ready-to-wear blue jeans greet prospective buyers
at retail outlets.

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Question and Answers:

1: What were the steps denim went through before being used as pants?
A: Denim was first used only to make sails. Later it was used to make pants for miners. Finally it
is now used to make blue jeans.

2: List out the evolution of blue jeans discussed in paragraphs 2 and 3.

A: Levi Strauss first used blue denim to stitch pants for miners. That was in 1850. Later, rivets
were added to jeans by a tailor, Jacob Devis. Later zipper joined jeans in the place of buttons.
Rivets changed their place on the jeans.

3: What are the steps in manufacturing the Denim fabric?

A: Manufacturing denim cloth involves three stages. In the first stage, ginned cotton is made into
cotton yarn. Secondly, the yarn is dyed in synthetic indigo several times. Finally, the yarn is
woven into denim fabric.

4: What is carding?

A: Carding is a process. Cotton is put through machines that have brushes with bent wire teeth.
These brushes clean, disentangle, straighten and gather together the cotton fibers. The brushes
are called cards. Hence the process is called as carding. Carded fibers are called slivers.

5: Denim is dyed ........................ (before being woven/After being woven).

A: Before being woven.

6: How is denim dyed?

A: Cotton yarn is made into large balls. They are called ball warps. They are dipped in indigo
mixture several times.

7: What is slashing? Why is it done?

A: Dyed yarn is coated with one of the many kinds of starchy substances. This process is called
slashing. Slashing makes the threads stronger and stiffer.

8: The yarn is woven on .................... (mechanized looms/ hand looms)?

A: Mechanized looms.

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9: What is sanforising? Why is it done?

A: Woven denim cloth is preshrunk (washed to allow contracting). This process of shrinking
before stitching is called sanforising. Sanforising ensures that stitched jeans don’t shrink beyond
tolerable levels.

10: How is sewing done?

A: First, desired design is selected. Patterns from the design are cut from heavy paper. Pieces of
denim are cut with high speed cutting machines. Then, the pieces are stitched in an assembly line
fashion. After that, buttons, rivets and zippers are fixed.

11: What is the difference between prewashing and stone washing?

A: Prewashing involves washing in industrial detergents for a short time. This is to soften the
denim. But stone washing involves adding pumice (a kind of stone) to the load. This is done to
give the faded shade to the jeans.

Vocabulary

 Synonyms refer to words that have the same or similar meaning to another word.

 Antonyms are words that mean the exact opposite of another word. For example,
sadness is an antonym of happiness.

Synonym examples:

 Artful – Crafty
 Ballot – Poll
 Chorus – Refrain
 Deceptive – Misleading
 Enormous – Immense

Antonym examples:

 Admire – Detest

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 Bravery – Cowardice
 Crooked – Straight
 Dainty – Clumsy
 Economise – Waste

Here are some tips to help you remember vocabulary:

 Keep an organised vocabulary notebook.

 Look at the words again after 24 hours, after one week and after one month.
 Read, read, read. The more times you ‘see’ a word the more easily you will remember it.
 Use the new words. You need to use a new word about ten times before you remember it!
 Do word puzzles and games like crosswords, anagrams and wordsearches.
 Make word cards and take them with you. Read them on the bus or when you are waiting for
your friends.
 Learn words with a friend. It can be more fun and easier to learn with someone else.
 Learn how to use a dictionary. What information is next to a word in the dictionary? Do you
know the different types of dictionary?
 Learn a few words but not too many. About eight new words a day is a good number.

Common Errors in English with reference to Misplace Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the word it
modifies / describes.

Because of the separation, sentences with this error often sound awkward, ridiculous, or
confusing. Furthermore, they can be downright illogical.

Example

The example above suggests that a gold man owns a watch.

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Misplaced modifiers can usually be corrected by moving the modifier to a more sensible place in
the sentence, generally next to the word it modifies.

Example

Now it is the watch that is gold.

There are several kinds of misplaced modifiers:

1. Misplaced adjectives are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and almost always
distort the intended meaning.

Example 1

Correct the error by placing the adjective next to the noun it modifies.

Corrected

Example 2

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Corrected

Sentences like these are common in everyday speech and ordinarily cause their listeners no
trouble. However, they are quite imprecise and, therefore, should have NO place in your writing.

2. Placement of adverbs can also change meaning in sentences.

For example, the sentences below illustrate how the placement of just can change the sentence's
meaning.

Just means only John was picked, no one else:

Just means that John was picked now:

Just means that John hosted only the program, nothing else:

Each of these sentences says something logical but quite different, and its correctness depends upon
what the writer has in mind.

Often, misplacing an adverb not only alters the intended meaning, but also creates a sentence
whose meaning is highly unlikely or completely ridiculous.

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This sentence, for example, suggests that we brought a lunch slowly:

To repair the meaning, move the adverb slowly so that it is near ate.

Watch out for adverbs such as only, just, nearly, merely, and almost. They are often misplaced and
cause an unintended meaning.

This sentence, for example, means that I only contributed the money:

Repaired, however, the sentence means that I contributed only $10.00.

Like adjectives, adverbs are commonly misplaced in everyday speech, and may not cause listeners
difficulty. However, such sentences are quite imprecise and, therefore, should have NO place in
your writing.

3. Misplaced phrases may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does
not make sense.

The problem sentences below contain misplaced phrases that modify the wrong nouns.

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To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the phrases next to the noun they are supposed to
modify.

Example 1 (a buyer with leather seats?)

Corrected

Example 2 (a corner smoking pipes?)

Corrected

Example 3 (a house made of barbed wire?)

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Corrected

4. Misplaced clauses may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does
not make sense.

The problem sentences below contain misplaced clauses that modify the wrong nouns.

To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the clauses next to the noun they are supposed to
modify.

Example 1 ( a buttered woman?)

Corrected

Example 2 (a hamper that Ralph wore?)

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Corrected

Be careful! In correcting a misplaced modifier, don't create a sentence with two possible meanings.

Example

Problem: Did the teacher say this on Monday or will she return the essays on Monday?)

Correction #1 (meaning the essays will be returned on Monday)

Correction #2 (meaning that the teacher spoke on Monday)

DANGLING MODIFIERS
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A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that is not clearly and logically related to the word or
words it modifies (i.e. is placed next to).

Two notes about dangling modifiers:

 Unlike a misplaced modifier, a dangling modifier cannot be corrected by simply moving it

to a different place in a sentence.
 In most cases, the dangling modifier appears at the beginning of the sentence, although it
can also come at the end.

Sometimes the dangling modifier error occurs because the sentence fails to specify anything to
which the modifier can refer.

Example 1

This sentence does not specify who is looking toward the west. In fact, there is nothing at all in the
sentence to which the modifying phrase looking toward the west can logically refer. Since the
modifier, looking toward the west, is sitting next to the funnel shaped cloud, the sentence suggests
that the cloud is doing the looking.

Example 2

This sentence means that my mother enrolled in medical when she was nine years old!

At other times the dangling modifier is placed next to the wrong noun or noun substitute.

Example 1

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Because of the placement of walking to the movies, this sentence suggests that
the cloudburst is walking to the movies even though a possible walker - Jim - is mentioned later.

Example 2

Since having been fixed the night before is placed next to Priscilla, the sentence means
that Priscilla was fixed the night before.

As the above examples show, dangling modifiers result in inaccurate and

sometimes ludicrous statements.

How to correct dangling modifiers

Dangling modifiers may be corrected in two general ways.

Correction Method #1

1. Leave the modifier as it is.

2. Change the main part of the sentence so that it begins with the term actually modified.
3. This change will put the modifier next to the term it modifies.

Thus, this dangling modifier

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may be corrected to

Now the sentence means that I was looking toward the west.

Using the same method, this dangling modifier

may be corrected to

Now the sentence means that Jim was drenched by the cloudburst.

Click on the link below to complete Exercise 4.

Correction Method #2

1. Change the dangling modifier phrase to a subordinate clause, creating a subject and verb.
2. Leave the rest of the sentence as it is.

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Thus, the dangling modifier

may be corrected to

Now the sentence means that I (not my mother!) was nine years old when my mother enrolled in
medical school.

Using the same method, the dangling modifier

may be corrected to

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Reading Skills
Reading skills are abilities that pertain to a person's capacity to read, comprehend, interpret
and decode written language and texts. Exceptional reading skills can be highly beneficial to
assimilating and responding to written communications like emails, messages, letters and other
written messages.

Sub-skills of Reading

1. Global Comprehension
In reading a text for meaning, it is desirable to go from the ‘whole’ to the ‘parts’, and not vice
versa, as unskilled readers tend to do. A poor reader will pick up information from the text in
small bits and pieces, as he/she reads from one word or one sentence to the next, and try to
assemble the bits together. An efficient reader, on the other hand, will first try to form an overall
‘picture’ of the entire text.

‘Global Comprehension’, or the ability to get ‘over-all’ meaning from a text, requires the sub-
skill of skimming i.e. reading through the text at high speed in order to identify and pick up the
main idea or ideas in the text while ‘filtering out’ the unnecessary details.

2. Understanding the Plan of the Text

A good reader usually reads a text more than once in order to understand it adequately. The first
reading is done at speed, with the intention of making a ‘general survey’ of the text. Then the
reader returns to the text as many times as needed in order to fill in the details.

Efficient readers are able to form a ‘plan’ of the text that is being read, which helps them to
recover meaning from it. Most texts – unless they are badly written – possess unity of thought.
There is generally one central idea or ‘theme’ in the text, which is most prominent. There may be
other ideas as well, but they are usually introduced in order to provide support for the main idea.

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The reader’s mental plan helps him/her to ‘navigate’ through the text confidently instead of
groping about blindly.

3. Making Predictions and Informed Guesses

An unskilled reader plods through a text laboriously, trying to get the meaning of every word.
The skilled reader, after reading a few sentences, paragraphs or pages, is able to form a fairly
accurate picture of what the author is trying to say, and is able to ‘hop’ and ‘skip’ through the
text, omitting quite substantial portions of it without missing important information. Most writers
have a tendency to repeat themselves in irder to ensure that their readers do not miss the
significance of what they are saying; good readers are aware of this and know that portions of the
text can be safely omitted.

Making reliable predictions about what is likely to be found in the text is an important sub-skill
of reading.

4. Local Comprehension
After reading through the text quickly to form an overall impression, one should focus on the
details of the information provided by the writer, which will generally be located in different
parts of the text.

A reader begins by gathering the ‘facts’ presented by the author in the text. The term ‘factual
comprehension’ refers to the ability to absorb and retrieve factual information contained in the
text – i.e., information which has been explicitly stated by the writer and is directly available in
the text. Factual comprehension must come before deeper and more thorough understanding of
the text; unless one understands the ‘plain sense’ of the text, one cannot reach the other levels of
comprehension.

Inferential comprehension refers to the reader’s ability to ‘read between the lines’. The reader
has to understand not just what the writer has said but also what he/she might have said but has
chosen to leave unsaid. This is done on the basis of clues provided in the text as well as the

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reader’s own background knowledge.

Evaluative comprehension requires the reader to make a considered judgment on the truth and
the value of what the writer is trying to say, and how far he/she has succeeded in saying it. This
is a more sophisticated skill than the two previously referred to since the author has to respond to
the text more critically to identify, among other things, the writer’s bias, force and accuracy of
argument and the effectiveness of what he/she is trying to say.

5. Guessing the meanings of Unfamiliar Words

Good readers tackle unknown words in a text by trying to guess their meanings from the context.
It is not possible to look up the meanings of all unknown words in the dictionary. If the reader
attempts to do that the flow of reading is interrupted. However, this is possible only when the
text does not have too many difficult words.

6. Skimming and Scanning

'Skimming' a text means going through it quickly to get an overall idea of the content. We are
not interested in details or any specific information while skimming.

'Scanning' on the other hand, involves searching the text for specific piece of information in
which the reader is interested.

7. Understanding Discourse Markers

Discourse markers are ‘signposts’ provided by the writer. These are used in a text to indicate
sequence of ideas and signal the writer’s point of view. Understanding the writer’s use of
discourse markers is an important sub-skill of reading. These signposts are helpful because they
indicate to the reader the relationship between two parts of the text.

8. Understanding the Organization of a Text

Every text contains a number of different ideas, which are presented in different parts of the text.
The manner in which different ideas are related to each other in a text is referred to as the
structure or organization of a text. This is controlled by the topic, the writer’s purpose and the

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audience that he/she has in mind. A good reader should be able to trace the organizational pattern
in the text.

Once readers understand how a text is organized, they are better able to get meaning from a
difficult text.

9. Note-Making
Note-making is a sub-skill of reading that is highly useful for study purposes. It involves
understanding the organization of the text and being able to identify the main points and the
supporting details, in skeleton or outline form.

Writing Skills

Writing skill is to express ideas, thoughts, and feelings to other people in written symbols
to make other people or readers understand the ideas conveyed.

Describing objects

How do you describe an object?

Describing object is widely used generally in daily life communication. Describing

object contain the description of what kind of objects or things that we would like to describe,
either in appearance, smell, sound, color, shape, purpose, or texture of those objects or things.

Example:

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OVEN:
Oven is a device for baking, grilling, heating, etc. It is
an electric device. It has a see-through glass door to
view the food being cooked. There are stainless steel
black heating elements at the top and the bottom of
the oven. They are controlled by a thermostat to
provide uniform temperature inside the oven. We
can see these through the glass door. There is a wire
grill inside the oven. The glass door is a drop-down
front door, which gives you easy access to the
interior of the oven. On the top right hand side,
there is a black knob for temperature control. Below
that there is a heater selection knob. There are
heater indication lights also. It is a very useful device
in the kitchen. We can use it for toasting bread. It
can grill the sandwiches for us. It can also be used to
fry groundnuts, etc.

Describing people

Twenty year old Sanjay Chavan is a milkman by profession. He works at a

small milk booth in a colony in South Mumbai. He is a very pleasant
looking young man of medium height and regular features. His bright
smile reveals his amicable and sunny disposition. Sanjay lives with his
mother and three younger siblings in a small room. He is a very
responsible and hardworking young man as he realizes that his family is
dependent on him. Sanjay does not really enjoy his work of delivering
milk and collecting money. He had to leave school after his 9 th class
when his father passed away. He has taken a small loan and joined a
computer class in the evenings. Sanjay hopes that he will get a good job
once he completes his computer course

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Describing an Event

Example:

Thirty six students from 18 colleges participated in the competition. There were four rounds of
debating and elimination round of impromptu speeches. For the latter round, students were
given a topic and fifteen minutes of preparation time. The teams were selected for the finals. The
topic was “Cell- Phone should be banned in schools and colleges.” It was a tough competition.
Both the teams won great applause from the audience. The result was declared after half an hour
and Vidya Vihar team won the trophy, but Sham muzumdar of National School won the first
price.

E-mail Writing

What is email writing and its types?

Email writing involves composing, sending, storing and receiving messages over an
electronic communication system. An email stands for an electronic mail. Email writing is
preferred over other forms of communication as it is cheaper and faster.

Why is email writing important?

Email writing skills help you express yourself through written words. This skill sets help
write effective emails that communicate your message more succinctly, intelligently and
accurately. It allows you to create professional messages that get a response from recipients .

10 Advantages of Email

1. It's free!

Once you’re online, there is no further expense.

2. Easy to reference

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Sent and received messages and attachments can be stored safely, logically and reliably. It's a lot
easier to organize emails than paper.

3. Easy to use

Once you’re set up, sending and receiving messages is simple. That goes for a host of other
email functions. Data storage and contacts can be accessed quickly and easily.

4. Easy to prioritize

Incoming messages have subject lines that mean you can delete without opening. How much
time does that save compared to ‘snail mail?’

5. Speed

Message to send? Done, under a second! Email is as fast a form of written communication as
any.

6. Global

Web based email means you can access your messages anywhere online.

Going overseas?

Before you go, mail yourself a copy of your passport number, travel insurance details or your
accommodation details.

7. Good for the planet

Actually the advantages and disadvantages of email are clear here. Computers themselves aren’t
'green', but email offsets some of the damage by reducing the environmental cost of contact.

8. Info at your fingertips

Storing data online means less large, space taking file cabinets, folders and shelves. You can
access information far quicker if you learn how to use email this way.

9. Leverage

Send the same message to any number of people. Adaptations are simple, too. If you have a
product or service to sell, email is an effective medium to get your message out.

10. Send reminders to yourself

Do you use more than one account?

Email yourself messages from work to home or vice versa.

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10 Disadvantages of Email

1. Emotional responses

Some emails cause upset or anger.

A reply in the heat of the moment can’t be easily retracted, but it can cause lasting damage.

2. Information overload

Too many people send too much information. They cover their backs citing ‘need to know’ as
the justification.

Learn how to use email effectively and you’ll reduce time wasted on this.

3. Lacking the Personal Touch

Some things are best left untyped.

Email will never beat a hand written card or letter when it comes to relationships.

4. Misunderstandings

Emails from people who don’t take the time to read what they write before clicking ‘send’. Time
is wasted, either to clarify or, worse, acting on a misinterpretation of the message.

5. No Respite

Your email inbox is like a garden; it needs to be constantly maintained. Leave it and will
continue to grow.

Ignore it at your peril!

6. Pressure to Reply

Once it’s in your inbox, you feel an ever increasing obligation to act on it.

Procrastinating doesn’t making it go away. Do it, dump it or delegate it.

7. Spam

Having to deal with spam and spoofs is one of the worst avoidable time wasters online. Use
anti-spam software.

8. Sucks up Your Time

Over checking messages is so common, but it is time wasted on a low value, passive activity.

Better to check once or twice a day.

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9. Too Long

How long is too long?

It’s hard to say exactly, but the longer it goes on, the harder it is to take in. Email is suited to
brevity - keep it short and sweet.

10. Viruses

A virus could seriously affect your computer. If you want to know how to use email effectively,
it's worth learning how to deal with these.

Sample E-Mail Writing:

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Tutorial Questions

1. Distinguish the procedures pre-washing and stone-washing?

2. Give five examples of suffixes and prefixes borrowed from foreign languages

3. Explain the techniques of sensible writing?

4. Describe the difference between pre-washing and stonewashing?

5. Define the carding?

6. Explain the reading skill Skimming?

7. Discuss the procedure of dyeing the denim?

8. Illustrate the difference between Scanning and Skimming?

Assignment Questions

1. List out the evolution of blue jeans discussed in Paragraphs 2 and 3.

2. Describe the difference between pre-washing and stonewashing?

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UNIT 4
WHAT SHOULD YOU BE EATING?

Summary

Weight loss industry is growing rapidly because of fast increasing obesity problem.
Changing lifestyles and fast food addiction contribute to obesity on a large scale.
Healthy food habits can solve this problem to a great extent. Consuming healthy
carbohydrates controls blood sugar levels. Whole wheat, brown rice, grains, oats, etc.
provide us with healthy carbohydrates. Healthy fats and oils are essential for good
health. Olives, nuts, seeds, fatty fish, etc. supply us healthy fats. Fruits and vegetables
should form a good part of our food. They give us innumerable benefits. Fish,
chicken and eggs are good source of protein. Milk is good but excessive intake is
harmful. Red meats, processed meats and butter are better avoided. Refined grain,
sugary drinks, sweets and salt are also bad for health. Quality of food is more
important than the quantity of food!.

Question and Answers:

1. What are the two main factors that change your body weight?

A. Obesity or excessive body weight is a serious and worldwide problem these

days. The two main factors that change one’s body weight are
A) Lifestyle

B) Type and quantity of food consumed.

2. What is the connection between whole grains and insulin?

A. Whole grains provide us with healthy carbohydrates. Wholegrain take longer
time for the body to digest. That helps blood sugar levels and insulin change
(rise/fall) gradually not suddenly.

3. How are potatoes different from other vegetables?

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4. Potatoes are vegetables but they effect on blood sugar is like that of sweets
hence they are different from other vegetables.

5. What do you know about omega-3?

A. Omega-3 fatty acids are good for health. They help prevent heart diseases. Fish
is a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids.

6. Why should dairy products be consumed in moderation?

A. Dairy products have more calcium than what human body requires. Hence

they should be taken moderately.

7. Do you know of other sources of vitamin-D than the ones listed here?
A. Early morning sun light is one source of vitamin-D other sources are:

 Salmon fish
 Herring fish
 Cod liver oil
 Canned tuna
 Oysters
 Shrimp
 Egg Yolk
 Mushrooms
8. What happens in the body when you consume sugary drinks?
A. Sugary drinks increase blood sugar levels rapidly that result in diabetes which
in turn leads to many diseases.
9. List foods that contain high amount of sodium.
A. White bread, rice, pasta, potatoes, chips, cheeses and sauces have high levels
of sodium.

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One Word Substitution

What is One Word Substitution in English Language?

One word substitution is the use of one word in place of a wordy phrase in order to make the
sentence structure clearer. The meaning, with the replacement of the phrase remains identical
while the sentence becomes shorter.

One Word Substitution Example:

My friend drives me in a car around town. Using one-word substitution in this sentence would
give something like this – My friend chauffeurs me around town.

One Word Substitutes Government/System

A state of disorder due to absence or non-recognition of authority or Anarchy

other controlling systems

A form of government in which power is held by the nobility Aristocracy

A system of government by one person with absolute power Autocracy

A self-governing country or region Autonomy

A system of government in which most of the important decisions are Bureaucracy

taken by state officials rather than by elected representatives

A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible Democracy

members of a state, typically through elected representatives

A state, society, or group governed by old people Gerontocracy

A state or country run by the worst, least qualified, or most Kakistocracy

unscrupulous citizens

Government by new or inexperienced hands Neocracy

Government by the populace Ochlocracy

A small group of people having control of a country or organization Oligarchy

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Government by the wealthy Plutocracy

Government not connected with religious or spiritual matters Secular

A form of government with a monarch at the head Monarchy

A political system based on the government of men by God Thearchy

Idioms and Phrases

1. Decked up – put on special clothes to appear particularly appealing and attractive

2. Doing the rounds – to be passed from one person to another
3. Between the cup and the lips – On the point of achievement
4. A damp squib – Complete failure
5. Put off – an evasive reply, to delay doing something, especially because you do not want to do it
6. A dime a dozen – Anything that is common and easy to get
7. Cast iron stomach– Someone who has no problems, complications or ill effects with eating anything
8. A mare’s nest– A false invention
9. Takes a beating – to be damaged because of performing badly or being criticized
10. A chip on your shoulder – Being upset for something that happened in the past
11. A toss-up – A result that is still unclear and can go either way
12. An iron hand – By force
13. A taste of your own medicine – When you are mistreated the same way you mistreat others
14. At the drop of a hat – Willing to do something immediately
15. A man of straw – A weak person
16. Bite your tongue – To avoid talking
17. An eyewash – A pretence
18. At sixes and seven– Persons who are having different opinions
19. Bite off more than you can chew – To take on a task that is way too big to handle
20. Can’t cut the mustard– Someone who isn’t adequate enough to compete or participate
21. Call a spade a spade– Straight talks
22. Don’t count your chickens before they hatch– Don’t rely on it until you sure of it
23. Dog days of summer– The hottest day of the summer season
24. Ever and anon– Now and then, occasionally
25. Field day– An enjoyable day or circumstance
26. Bits and Pieces– small things of different types
27. Kick the bucket– Die
28. Know the ropes– To understand the details
29. Latin and Greek– Unable to understand

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30. Like a chicken with its head cut off– To act in a frenzied manner, crazily

Redundancies and Clichés in Oral and Written Communication:

CLICHÉ

A cliché is a word or phrase that has been overused in writing. Clichés such as “leave no
stone unturned” have been used so much in writing that they have lost all their
effectiveness. These phrases have become weak and meaningless. They usually contribute
nothing to the message you are trying to convey and will be viewed, by the reader, simply
as padding.

Text full of clichés makes the writer appear lazy and uncreative and will, for many readers,
kill the significance of the writing.

If you want your writing to be fresh and interesting, you should avoid using clichés. Try
rephrasing your text to make it more concise and original. Ask somebody else to proof-
read your work to help ensure that you are not using clichés or other unnecessary padding
words and phrases.

Example Clichés to Avoid

The following list is by no means comprehensive but does highlight some common
clichés. Clichés are often different in different cultures and in different environments.

You may well be able to think of other examples of clichés and/or people who overuse
them both in writing and also in
verbal communication.

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REDUNDANCIES

Redundancy is when we use two or more words together that mean the same thing, for
example, 'adequate enough'. We also say something is redundant when a modifier's
meaning is contained in the word it modifies, for example, 'merge together'. When we
write, we should try to be as clear and concise as we can be.

ACTIVE VOICE & PASSIVE VOICE

Let us first understand the meaning of voice, and what is active voice and passive voice.
What is Voice of a verb?
The voice of a verb expresses whether the subject in the sentence has performed or received the
action.
Example:

 The watchman opens the door.

 The door is opened by the watchman.
Types of Voices of Verb
Verbs have two voices (i) Active Voice (ii) Passive Voice
Active Voice – When an action performed by the subject is expressed by the verb, it is an active
voice. Active voice is used when more straightforward relation and clarity is required between
the subject and the verb.

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Active Voice example:

 Hens lay eggs.

 Birds build nests.
Passive Voice – When the action expressed by the verb is received by the subject, it is passive
voice. Passive voice is used when the doer of the action is not known and the focus of the
sentence is on the action and not the subject.
Passive Voice Examples:

 Eggs are laid by hens.

 Nests are built by birds.
Candidates preparing for any Government exam can check other important topics for the English
language section.

Rules for Conversion of Sentence

Below are the active-passive voice rules to follow for changing an active sentence into a passive
voice. Before heading to the rules of active-passive voice, let’s check the examples of active and
passive voice sentences.
Conversion of Active and Passive voice examples

 Rita wrote a letter. (Subject + Verb + Object)

 A letter was written by Rita. (Object) + (auxiliary verb) + (past participle) + (by subject).
 She cooks food. (Subject + Verb + Object)
 The food is cooked by her. (Object) + (auxiliary verb) + (past participle) + (by subject)
Rules for Active – Passive Voice Conversions
Rule 1. Identify the (S+V+O) Subject, Verb and object in the active sentence to convert to
passive voice
Example:
He drives car. (Subject – He, verb – Drives, object – Car)
Rule 2. Interchange the object and subject with each other, i.e. object of the active sentence
become the subject of the passive sentence.
Example :
Active voice : She knits sweater. (Subject – She, Verb – Knits, Object – Sweater)
Passive Voice : The sweater is knitted by her. (Object sweater is interchanged with the subject
She).

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Rule 3. In passive voice sometimes the subject is not used, i.e. the subject in passive voice can be
omitted if the sentence without it gives enough meaning.
Example :
Milk is sold in litres
Rule 4. Change the base verb in the active sentence into the past participle ie. third form verb in
a passive sentence i.e. preceded by (By, With, to, etc). Base verbs are never used in passive voice
sentences.
Example:

 Active voice: She prepares dinner.

 Passive voice: The dinner is prepared by her.
 Active voice: She knows him.
 Passive voice: He is known to her.
 Active voice: Juice fills the jar.
 Passive voice: The jar is filled with juice.
Rule 5. While conversion of Active voice sentence to Passive voice sentence, the pronoun used
in the sentence also changes in the following manner.

Active Voice Pronoun Passive Voice Pronoun

I Me

We Us

He Him

She Her

They Them

You You

It It
Rule 6. Use the suitable helping or auxiliary verb (is/am/are/was, etc.). The rules for using
auxiliary verbs in passive voice sentences are different for each tense.
Example:

 The letter is written by her

 A book was not bought by her

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 Chocolates are being eaten by them.

READING COMPREHENSION
Intensive Reading:

Intensive reading is just what the name implies! reading where testing, evaluating and
increasing knowledge is the primary focus. Understanding the literal meaning of what’s
being read is vital. Reading intensively often includes note-taking and attention to
details.

In intensive reading, there’s an emphasis on deconstructing sentences to understand

grammar and syntax rules as well as to extricate the details of the topic. It can also
involve reading comprehension testing, such as finding answers to specific questions.

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Some possible examples of intensive reading material are reports, contracts, news
articles, blog posts and short pieces of text such as short stories.

Extensive Reading:

Extensive reading is a completely different sort of approach. Know how it feels when
you’re doing something simply for the joy of doing it? Like riding a bicycle or dancing,
when you know it won’t matter if you don’t get the gears shifted perfectly or your
dance steps don’t hit every downbeat?

Extensive reading is like that. It’s reading for fun. And it’s doing it as often as possible.
Fluency and total comprehension aren’t necessary for extensive reading. It’s great to read
at or, even better, below a comfortable level of understanding. Most of the time, an
unfamiliar word can be deciphered by the surrounding text and if not, that’s fine, too. It’s
not vital to understand every single word in order to get the general idea of a particular
passage.
It’s generally accepted that 90-95% of the words should be familiar in order to read
comfortably in a foreign language. And most of us can get along pretty well even without
having all that vocabulary in our toolboxes. Guessing, especially when reading extensively,
does work.

The idea behind extensive reading is that increased exposure leads to stronger language
skills. Think of the vocabulary you’re being exposed to when you read a lot. And seeing
the structure, idioms and cadence of a language leads to familiarity, which leads to
reading competence.

Think about dancing again. The more you dance, the better you get. Reading extensively
is just like that—but without the tight shoes!
Possible examples of extensive reading material are magazines, graded readers, novels
and, yes, even comic books!

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WRITING

WRITING INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION

Introductions and conclusions play a special role in the academic essay, and they frequently
demand much of your attention as a writer. A good introduction should identify your topic,
provide essential context, and indicate your particular focus in the essay. It also needs to engage
your readers’ interest. A strong conclusion will provide a sense of closure to the essay while
again placing your concepts in a somewhat wider context. It will also, in some instances, add a
stimulus to further thought. Since no two essays are the same, no single formula will
automatically generate an introduction and conclusion for you. But the following guidelines will
help you to construct a suitable beginning and end for your essay.

Some general advice about introductions

1. Some students cannot begin writing the body of the essay until they feel they have the
perfect introduction. Be aware of the dangers of sinking too much time into the
introduction. Some of that time can be more usefully channeled into planning and
writing.
2. You may be the kind of writer who writes an introduction first in order to explore your
own thinking on the topic. If so, remember that you may at a later stage need to compress
your introduction.
3. It can be fine to leave the writing of the introduction for a later stage in the essay-writing
process. Some people write their introduction only after they have completed the rest of
the essay. Others write the introduction first but rewrite it significantly in light of what
they end up saying in the body of their paper.
4. The introductions for most papers can be effectively written in one paragraph occupying
half to three-quarters of the first page. Your introduction may be longer than that, and it
may take more than one paragraph, but be sure you know why. The size of your
introduction should bear some relationship to the length and complexity of your paper. A
twenty page paper may call for a two-page introduction, but a five-page paper will not.

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5. Get to the point as soon as possible. Generally, you want to raise your topic in your very
first sentences. A common error is to begin too broadly or too far off topic. Avoid
sweeping generalizations.
6. If your essay has a thesis, your thesis statement will typically appear at the end of your
introduction, even though that is not a hard-and-fast rule. You may, for example, follow
your thesis with a brief road map to your essay that sketches the basic structure of your
argument. The longer the paper, the more useful a road map becomes.

How do I write an interesting, effective introduction?

Consider these strategies for capturing your readers’ attention and for fleshing out your
introduction:

1. Find a startling statistic that illustrates the seriousness of the problem you will address.
2. Quote an expert (but be sure to introduce him or her first).
3. Mention a common misperception that your thesis will argue against.
4. Give some background information necessary for understanding the essay.
5. Use a brief narrative or anecdote that exemplifies your reason for choosing the topic. In
an assignment that encourages personal reflection, you may draw on your own
experiences; in a research essay, the narrative may illustrate a common real-world
scenario.
6. In a science paper, explain key scientific concepts and refer to relevant literature. Lead up
to your own contribution or intervention.
7. In a more technical paper, define a term that is possibly unfamiliar to your audience but is
central to understanding the essay.

In fleshing out your introduction, you will want to avoid some common pitfalls:

1. Don’t provide dictionary definitions, especially of words your audience already knows.
2. Don’t repeat the assignment specifications using the professor’s wording.
3. Don’t give details and in-depth explanations that really belong in your body paragraphs.
You can usually postpone background material to the body of the essay.

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Some general advice about conclusions

1. A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your thesis. If

you wish to summarize—and often you must—do so in fresh language. Remind the
reader of how the evidence you’ve presented has contributed to your thesis.
2. The conclusion, like much of the rest of the paper, involves critical thinking. Reflect
upon the significance of what you’ve written. Try to convey some closing thoughts about
the larger implications of your argument.
3. Broaden your focus a bit at the end of the essay. A good last sentence leaves your reader
with something to think about, a concept in some way illuminated by what you’ve written
in the paper.
4. For most essays, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion. In some
cases, a two-or-three paragraph conclusion may be appropriate. As with introductions, the
length of the conclusion should reflect the length of the essay.

How do I write an interesting, effective conclusion?

The following strategies may help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your
essay:

1. If your essay deals with a contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible
consequences of not attending to the problem.
2. Recommend a specific course of action.
3. Use an apt quotation or expert opinion to lend authority to the conclusion you have
reached.
4. Give a startling statistic, fact, or visual image to drive home the ultimate point of your
paper.
5. If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point with a
relevant narrative drawn from your own life experiences.
6. Return to an anecdote, example, or quotation that you introduced in your introduction,
but add further insight that derives from the body of your essay.
7. In a science or social science paper, mention worthwhile avenues for future research on
your topic.

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How does genre affect my introduction or conclusion?

Most of the advice in this handout pertains to argumentative or exploratory academic essays. Be
aware, however, that different genres have their own special expectations about beginnings and
endings. Some academic genres may not even require an introduction or conclusion. An
annotated bibliography, for example, typically provides neither. A book review may begin with a
summary of the book and conclude with an overall assessment of it. A policy briefing usually
includes an introduction but may conclude with a series of recommendations. Check your
assignment carefully for any directions about what to include in your introduction or conclusion.

PRECIS WRITING

Precis Writing is a part of the descriptive paper conducted for various competitive
and Government exams under the English Language section.

In this article we shall discuss at length about what is precis writing, the important points that
need to be kept in mind while writing a precis, the Dos and Don’ts, followed by some sample
precis writing examples and questions.

Candidates can also check the General English for competitive exams page to know more about
the English language descriptive and objective type paper.

Before moving to other attributes related to the topic, let us first discuss what precis writing is
and what the candidates are supposed to do in a question based on this topic.

Rules of Precis Writing

To avoid making any errors in writing a precis, follow a set of rules as mentioned below:

1. Read the comprehension carefully

2. Note down the important points

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3. Make a rough draft of the precis

4. Make use of simple and precise language, as much as possible
5. Draft the final precis once all the points have been included

The topic of precis writing is not included in all exams, but the most common exams where this
topic is included in the syllabus are SSC exams, RRB exams, etc.

The links given below will help candidates work on their grammar and help them avoid making
any grammatical errors while writing a précis:

Important Features of a Good Precis

There are various components that make a good précis. For candidates who have just started their
preparation for the upcoming Government exams, knowing the features of a good precis is
extremely vital.

Discussed below are a few of the features which shall help you writing a good précis:

 Length of the Précis: Do not write a lengthy précis. In most cases, the number of words
must be almost one-third of the word count of the passage or comprehension.

 It should be convenient to read: Make sure that the précis you write does not have too
complex a vocabulary or is too complicated to understand.

 Cover all the essential points: While reading the passage, make a note of the important
points and ensure that no point is skipped.

 Must be coherent: The important terms with respect to the passage must be included in
the precis as well.

 Use an appropriate Title: The precis needs to have a title. So, the candidates must
ensure that the title is in sync with the comprehension.

 Details in precis must match the details in the passage: No other information apart
from the one given in the passage must be included in the precis and all the important
information mentioned in the passage must certainly be included.

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If a candidate keeps the above-mentioned points in consideration while writing the precis, he/she
shall be successful in writing a good précis.

Tutorial Questions

1. Create a healthy eating pyramid with the help of a diagram?

2. Show the difference between redundancies and clichés with example?

3. Describe the difference between analytical and descriptive essay.

4. List the food items which should be included in a healthy eating pyramid?

5. Distinguish the difference between extensive and intensive reading.

6. Differentiate between Abbreviation and Acronym with examples?

7. Justify how to improve critical thinking skills?

8. Explain the difference between Intensive and Extensive Reading?

Assignment Questions

1. List the food items which should be included in a healthy eating pyramid?

2. Differentiate between whole grains and insulin?

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UNIT-V
HOW A CHINESE BILLIONARE BUILT HER FORTUNE

Summary:

Ms zhou qunfei, the World’s richest self-made woman, was born as the youngest of three
children in a tiny village in china. Her mother died when she was just five. Her father a
skilled craftsman lost his eyesight and a finger in an industrial accident. That made young
qunfei help the family earn their livelihood .She stopped her education at 16 and joined a job
required her to work from 8am to 12 midnight, polishing glass. Unable to bear the stress and
boredom she resigned the job in just three months. Impressed by her good qualities her
employer promoted her later she established her own workshop that supplied lenses to
watch companies’ .She made her name as the quality lenses supplier. The advent of the
mobile phone changed her fortune. Beginning with Motorola’s, mobile giants like Nokia,
Samsung and Apple placed orders with zouh’s Lens Technology for glass screens. Billions
poured in. She invested more and more in expanding facilities, improving technologies and
recruiting skilled man power. She ran after quality never after name. Though she built up a
huge empire she feels at home on her factory floor running machines

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Who is the world’s richest self-made woman?

What is the name of the company she started?
A. Ms Zhou Qunfei is the world’s richest self-made woman. Born in a tiny village
of china as the youngest of three children, she started a company named “Lens
Technology”.

2. Where is the ‘most at home’? What does it mean to be ‘most at home’?

A. Zhou Qunfei is most at home on her floor of her factory, dipping her hand in a
tray of water, to see if it is of the right temperature. ‘Most at home’ means
‘feel very happy’ or ‘at ease’

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3. Where was she born? What was her childhood like?

A. Zhou Qunfei was born in a small village as youngest of three children. Her
childhood was not that happy. Her mother died when she was just five. Her
father lost his eye sight and a finger in an industrial accident. So, she had to
work even as a child.

4. What does lens technology produce? Who are its biggest customers?
A. ‘LENS TECHNOLOGY’ produces lenses for watches and glass screens for
mobile phones. Motorola, HTC, Nokia, Samsung and apple are its biggest
customers.

5. Why do you think Motorola approached lens

technology and not any other lens maker?
A. Motorola approached ‘lens technology’ as the company has a reputation for

making quality glass. Motorola also thought that glass screens for mobiles would
be much better than plastic screens. Hence Motorola approached lens technology
for glass mobile screens of good quality.

6. What are the processes that glass is put through in the factory?
A. In the factory, glass is first cut, and then it is ground down to size, later it is
bored and polished. After that the plates are strengthened in a potassium ion
bath, and then painted and cured. Finally, they are clean and coated with anti
smudge and anti- reflection films.

7. What are the factors that help make Ms Zhou successful?

A. Zhou‘s hard work. Obsession with quality, charm and humility help her
become successful.

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Vocabulary

Standard Abbreviations

abbreviation English

a.m. ante meridiem → before midday

American Broadcasting Company

ABC

a/c
account

acct.

air conditioning
a/c

AC alternating current

AD anna domini (latin) → in the Year of the Lord

approx. approximately

Ave. Avenue

Bachelor of Arts
BA
British Airways

Board of Trade
B.o.T.

B&B (B+B) Bed and Breakfast

British Broadcasting Corporation

BBC

BC Before Christ

BCE Before the Common/Current/Christian Era

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abbreviation English

BO body odour

BR British Rail

Bros. brothers

BST British Summer Time

BT British Telecom

BTA British Tourist Authority

c/o care of

CCTV closed-circuit television

CE Common/Current/Christian Era

CET Central European Time (GMT +1)

cf. confer (latin) → compare

Central Intelligence Agency

CIA

Criminal Investigation Department

CID

CIF cost, insurance, freight

CNN Cable News Network

COD cash/collection on delivery

Church of England
C of E

Central Standard Time

CST

CV curriculum vitae

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abbreviation English

district attorney
DA

DC direct current

DIY do-it-yourself

Doctor of Medical Ethics

DM

EC European Community

e.g. exempli gratia = for example

encl. enclosed

etc. et cetera

FAQ Frequently Asked Question

fig. figure

ft. feet (= 30,48 cm)

gallon (= 3,785 l)
gal.

gallon (= 4,564 l)

GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education

GMT Greenwich Mean Time

GPS Global Positioning System

HP horsepower

h&c hot and cold

hr hour

HRH Her/His Royal Highness

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abbreviation English

ht height

i.e. id est (latin) → that is

lb pound (= 453,59 g)

Ltd Limited

MA Master of Arts

mph miles per hour

Mr Mister

Mrs Missis

Ms Miss

National Broadcasting Company

NBC

no number

OAP old-age pensioner

OHP overhead projector

p.a. per annum

p.m. post meridiem → after midday

PE physical education

pp pages

PS postscript

part

pt pint

point

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abbreviation English

pto please turn over

RC Roman Catholic

Rd road

RE Religious Education

Sq. square

street

St. state

Saint

tbs/tbsp tablespooful

yd yard

Technical Vocabulary

Following are examples of technical terms with their meanings to help you become a better
engineer.

Technical
Terms Meaning

Analysis A detailed examination of something

Automation The use of automated equipment instead of manpower

Balance An equal distribution of something

Calculation A computing determination of an amount

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Consultation Seeking advice from an expert

Depth The measure of the deepness of something

Dimension An aspect or a point of view of a condition

A machine that converts a form of energy into its mechanical

Engine equivalent

Electronics The study of the design of circuits using its components

Fabrication The process of inventing and producing something

Friction The resistance of a surface when it moves over another surface

A machine that converts mechanical energy into its electric

Generator equivalent

Hydraulic A liquid moving in limited space under pressure

Intersection A point where two or more things cross each other

A device that uses power to put force and control its movement to
Machine perform an action

Manufacturing Similar to fabrication; refers to produce something on a large scale

Oscilloscope A device used to check oscillations, for a CRT

Precision A measure of accuracy and exactness of something

Propulsion Similar to thrust; the action of pushing forward

Refine The industrial process of removing impurities from something

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Regulation The process of controlling and sustaining something

Supporting a vehicle on its wheels with the help of shock absorbers

Suspension and springs

Technology When science and knowledge is put into use for practical purposes

Transmission The process of sending something

A device that controls the corridor of the flow of air through a duct
Valve or a pipe

Vibration The periodic motion of shaking of something

Weight The measure of heaviness or a body’s relative mass

The process of joining metallic parts by heating the surfaces to a

Weld very high level

Grammar
Reported Speech

What is Reported Speech?

Reported speech is the form in which one can convey a message said by oneself or someone else,
mostly in the past. It can also be said to be the third person view of what someone has said. In
this form of speech, you need not use quotation marks as you are not quoting the exact words
spoken by the speaker, but just conveying the message.

Now, take a look at the following dictionary definitions for a clearer idea of what it is.

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Definition of Reported Speech

Reported speech, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, is defined as “a report of what
somebody has said that does not use their exact words.” The Collins Dictionary defines reported
speech as “speech which tells you what someone said, but does not use the person’s actual
words.” According to the Cambridge Dictionary, reported speech is defined as “the act of
reporting something that was said, but not using exactly the same words.” The Macmillan
Dictionary defines reported speech as “the words that you use to report what someone else has
said.”

Rules to be Followed When Using Reported Speech

Reported speech is a little different from direct speech. As it has been discussed already, reported
speech is used to tell what someone said and does not use the exact words of the speaker. Take a
look at the following rules so that you can make use of the reported speech effectively.

 The first thing you have to keep in mind is that you need not use any quotation marks as
you are not using the exact words of the speaker.

 You can use the following formula to construct a sentence in the reported speech.

Subject said that (report whatever the speaker said)

 You can use verbs like said, asked, requested, ordered, complained, exclaimed, screamed,
told, etc. If you are just reporting a declarative sentence, you can use verbs like told, said,
etc. followed by ‘that’ and end the sentence with a full stop. When you are
reporting interrogative sentences, you can use the verbs – enquired, inquired, asked, etc.
and remove the question mark. In case you are reporting imperative sentences, you can
use verbs like requested, commanded, pleaded, ordered, etc. If you are
reporting exclamatory sentences, you can use the verb exclaimed and remove the
exclamation mark. Remember that the structure of the sentences also changes
accordingly.

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 Furthermore, keep in mind that the sentence structure, tense, pronouns, modal verbs,
some specific adverbs of place and adverbs of time change when a sentence is
transformed into indirect/reported speech.

Transforming Direct Speech into Reported Speech

As discussed earlier, when transforming a sentence from direct speech into reported speech, you
will have to change the pronouns, tense and adverbs of time and place used by the speaker. Let
us look at the following tables to see how they work.

Table 1 – Change of Pronouns

Direct Speech Reported Speech

I He, she

Me Him, her

We They

Us Them

You He, she, they

You Him, her, them

My His, her

Mine His, hers

Our Their

Ours Theirs

Your His, her, their

Yours His, hers, theirs

Table 2 – Change of Adverbs of Place and Adverbs of Time

Direct Speech Reported Speech

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This That

These Those

Adverbs of Place

Here There

Adverbs of Time

Now Then

Today That day

Tomorrow The next day / The following day

Yesterday The previous day

Tonight That night

Last week The week before

Next week The week after

Last month The previous month

Next month The following month

Last year The previous year

Next year The following year

Ago Before

Thus So

Table 3 – Change of Tense

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Simple Present Simple Past

Example: Preethi said, “I cook pasta.” Example: Preethi said that she cooked pasta.

Present Continuous Past Continuous

Example: Preethi said, “I am cooking pasta.” Example: Preethi said that she was cooking pasta.

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Present Perfect Past Perfect

Example: Preethi said, “I have cooked pasta.” Example: Preethi said that she had cooked pasta.

Present Perfect Past Perfect Continuous

Example: Preethi said, “I have been cooking pasta.” Example: Preethi said that she had been cooking pasta.

Simple Past Past Perfect

Example: Preethi said, “I cooked pasta.” Example: Preethi said that she had cooked pasta.

Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous

Example: Preethi said, “I was cooking pasta.” Example: Preethi said that she had been cooking pasta.

Past Perfect Past Perfect (No change)

Example: Preethi said, “I had cooked pasta.” Example: Preethi said that she had cooked pasta.

Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous (No change)

Example: Preethi said, “I had been cooking pasta.” Example: Preethi said that she had been cooking pasta.

Table 4 – Change of Modal Verbs

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Will Would

May Might

Can Could

Shall Should

Has/Have Had

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Common Errors

Wrong I have visited Niagara Falls last weekend.

Right I visited Niagara Falls last weekend.
2.

Wrong The woman which works here is from Japan.

Right The woman who works here is from Japan.
4.

Wrong She’s married with a dentist.

Right She’s married to a dentist.
6.

Wrong She was boring in the class.

Right She was bored in the class.
8.

Wrong I must to call him immediately.

Right I must call him immediately.
10.

Wrong Every students like the teacher.

Right Every student likes the teacher.
12.

Wrong Although it was raining, but we had the picnic.

Right Although it was raining, we had the picnic.
14.

Wrong I enjoyed from the movie.

Right I enjoyed the movie.

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16.

Wrong I look forward to meet you.

Right I look forward to meeting you.
18.

Wrong I like very much ice cream.

Right I like ice cream very much.
20.

Wrong She can to drive.

Right She can drive.
22.

Wrong Where I can find a bank?

Right Where can I find a bank?
24.

Wrong I live in United States.

Right I live in the United States.
26.

Wrong When I will arrive, I will call you.

Right When I arrive, I will call you.
28.

Wrong I’ve been here since three months.

Right I’ve been here for three months.
30.

Wrong My boyfriend has got a new work.

Right My boyfriend has got a new job. (or just "has a new job")
32.

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Wrong She doesn’t listen me.

Right She doesn’t listen to me.
34.

Wrong You speak English good.

Right You speak English well.
36.

Wrong The police is coming.

Right The police are coming.
38.

Wrong The house isn’t enough big.

Right The house isn’t big enough.
40.

Wrong You should not to smoke.

Right You should not smoke.
42.

Wrong Do you like a glass of wine?

Right Would you like a glass of wine?
44.

Wrong There is seven girls in the class.

Right There are seven girls in the class.
46.

Wrong I didn’t meet nobody.

Right I didn’t meet anybody.
48.

Wrong My flight departs in 5:00 am.

Right My flight departs at 5:00 am.

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50.

Wrong I promise I call you next week.

Right I promise I’ll call you next week.
52.

Wrong Where is post office?

Right Where is the post office?
54.

Wrong Please explain me how improve my English.

Right Please explain to me how to improve my English.
56.

Wrong We studied during four hours.

Right We studied for four hours.
58.

Wrong Is ready my passport?

Right Is my passport ready?
60.

Wrong You cannot buy all what you like!

Right You cannot buy all that you like!
62.

Wrong She is success.

Right She is successful.
64.

Wrong My mother wanted that I be doctor.

Right My mother wanted me to be a doctor.
66.

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Wrong The life is hard!

Right Life is hard.
68.

Wrong How many childrens you have?

Right How many children do you have?
70.

Wrong My brother has 10 years.

Right My brother is 10 (years old).
72.

Wrong I want eat now.

Right I want to eat now.
74.

Wrong You are very nice, as your mother.

Right You are very nice, like your mother.
76.

Wrong She said me that she liked you.

Right She told me that she liked you.
78.

Wrong My husband engineer.

Right My husband is an engineer.
80.

Wrong I came Australia to study English.

Right I came to Australia to study English.
82.

Wrong It is more hot now.

Right It’s hotter now.

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84.

Wrong You can give me an information?

Right Can you give me some information?
86.

Wrong They cooked the dinner themself.

Right They cooked the dinner themselves.
88.

Wrong Me and Johnny live here.

Right Johnny and I live here.
90.

Wrong I closed very quietly the door.

Right I closed the door very quietly.
92.

Wrong You like dance with me?

Right Would you like to dance with me?
94.

Wrong I go always to school by subway.

Right I always go to school by subway.
96.

Wrong If I will be in London, I will contact to you.

Right If I am in London, I will contact you.
98.

Wrong We drive usually to home.

Right We usually drive home.

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Report Writing

What is a Report?

A report is a document of the summary of an event, issue, or a topic. A report is never a fictional
story. Writing a report aims to let the unaware readers know about a particular topic or idea.
However, there is no particular definition of a report. Any discourse, written or verbal, covering
a particular topic is known as a report. A report can be a courtroom confession or a child’s book
report. But in general, when people talk about a report, it is more of an official document
describing the facts of a topic, which is typically written by experts. The information regarding
the event or topic must have enough evidence to support the statement. The data must be
factually correct as it reaches various readers. A report must be written in an informative tone
rather than opinionated.

What to Include in a Report?

A report is a document which covers all the information related to the event or topic and includes
all the factual information. Therefore, the one who writes a report must ensure that all the
information provided has proper evidence for the same.

The information that can be added to a report include,

 The brief details of the event

 Consequences and effects of the event

 Evaluation of statistical data and analytics

 Interpretations from the information

 How the information is relevant to other events

There is often a lot of confusion when it comes to report writing and essay writing, although
there are clear differences between them. Both essays and reports are written based on factual
information; essays include the personal opinion of the author; whereas, reports stick to the facts.

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However, reports also include the author’s interpretation of the topic in the conclusion of the
report. The only difference is that these interpretations are objective. A report is a more
systematic and organised way of writing which includes headings, subheadings, etc. and makes it
easier for the readers to read. Essays, on the other hand, are mostly written in a single flow
without subheadings or breaks.

Types of Reports

Reports are classified into three main types depending on the purpose or motive behind the
report. The common types of reports are

 Academic Reports: This report tests the child’s comprehension ability. It tests if the
student has understood the lesson and is able to comprehend the subject matter, such as
books, historical events, biographies, etc.

 Business Reports: It can be a marketing report, work report, etc., and the main purpose
of writing the business report is to identify different business strategies.

 Scientific Reports: Share research findings like case studies and journals.

Structure of Report Writing

The structure of a report depends on the type of report and the requirements of the report. The
basic template to write a report is mentioned below.

 Executive Summary: Like an abstract in any academic paper, an executive summary is a

standalone section of the report that summarises the whole of the report so that the
readers know what to expect. These are mostly used in official reports.

 Introduction: The introduction of the report plays a crucial role as it includes the main
idea of the report. The main argument is discussed in the introduction before you put your
points and the evidence is collected.

 Body: The body comes after the introduction of the report. It includes all the information
regarding the event or the topic. All the facts and evidence collected can be displayed in
the body of the report. The body covers the major part of a report.

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 Conclusion: It is the part of a report where all the information is gathered together, and
your personal opinion or judgement is explained in this paragraph.

How to Write a Report?

A report can be written easily if you have adequate information and you know how to categorise
your points. To learn how to write a report in English, you can refer to the tips provided below.

Find a Suitable Topic

Before you can start writing your report, it is crucial to find the topic you wish to write on. In
most cases, the topic is already given, and if not, you can find a suitable topic for the same. To
find the topic, you must keep in mind that you must be interested in the topic and must be able to
collect the required information.

Conducting a Research

Whatever the kind of report, academic, business, news, etc., healthy research must be conducted.
Research is essential to find adequate information regarding the topic. Since a report includes all
the factual data, extensive research is essential. It is essential to find the right evidence to prove
your topic.

Gathering all the Information

After you are done with your research, you can jot down all the points at a place and note down
all the facts collected. After collecting the information, you can decide on the subheadings and
divide them as per their categories.

Writing a Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is written to conceptualise the main theme of the report. Just like the first
sentence or the topic of the report, the thesis statement summarises the main points in brief.

Preparing the Outline

Preparing an outline of a report is essential for all the kids who are writing a report because you
can categorise your important points and it becomes easy for you to decide on the headings and

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subheadings. It is essential to prepare the outline so that you do not miss out on the important
points.

Start Writing the Final Report

After you have prepared the rough draft, you can start writing the final report. The final report
must be written in simple language and in short sentences. The sentences must be short but
convey the message clearly.

Review and Revise

After the final report is written, it is crucial to revise and recheck if all the information has been
added and you are not missing out on important information. Make sure to check if all the
information has been added under the right heading and subheading.

Editing and Proofreading

After the final revision of the report, you must check the report for any grammar, spelling, and
typographical errors. It is common that while writing, you might have overlooked a lot of
mistakes. Therefore, final proofreading is essential.

Characteristics of a Report

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Tutorial Questions

1. Estimate the factors that helped to make Ms. Zhou successful.

2. Draw the character sketch of Ms. Zhou.

3. Survey the college campus and submit a report on the infrastructure of the college.

4. Construct a paragraph on “Environment Conservation”.

5. Distinguish the procedures pre-washing and stone-washing?

6. Give five examples of suffixes and prefixes borrowed from foreign languages

7. Explain the techniques of sensible writing?

8. Assess the factors that helped to make Zhou successful.

Assignment Questions

1. Analyze the factors that helped Ms. Zhou to become world’s richest self-made woman.

2. Make a survey of the use of the TV channels viewed by different age groups and prepare
a report based on it.

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